Name: HYLENLY SARMIENTO BALISA

Major: MaEd. Physical Science

Topics: Chapter I

1. Introduction;

A. Discussion: (What it is?)

Introduction is the important road map of the paper. It help readers to navigate the paper,
establishing the context of the research by overviewing the current understanding and the
background information that stratifies the goal or purpose of the study. It emphasizes into three
parts; the rationale that explain how worthy is the topic understudy and the significance of
addressing the research question.; the purpose or the objective of the study; the clear and specific
questions that revolves around the objectives, focusing on the potential outcome of the study.
Ideally, the introduction conveys all the information the readers. It simply answers essential
question such as what was the subject of the study? Why is important to study? What lead you to
take the subject? How the study helps future studies?
First impression last, there are no second chances to make a good impression that will keep
the reader read the paper you created. Hence, a concise, engaging and well written introduction
will start the readers think analytically and openly understanding the urgency of the study.

B. Structure and Writing Approaches: (How to write? )

The introduction is the staple of the paper to the readers. It should answer the following
significant questions of the reader:
 What is this?
 Why am I reading it?
 What do you want me to think about/ consider doing/ react to?

In crafting the introduction, the presentation of the background information and the
general information should be organize from a broad prospective to a more specific topical
information. That will bridge the context of the study from its purpose, rationale and its possible
outcomes.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction:

1. Establish an area to research by:
o Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
o Making general statements about the topic, and/or
o Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.
2. Identify a research niche by:
o Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
o Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
o Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
o Continuing a disciplinary tradition.
3. Place your research within the research niche by:
o Stating the intent of your study,
o Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
o Describing important results, and

In doing the narrative flow of the introduction, these are few points to consider.
 Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction:
 Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest. A simple
strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the
introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level
and ensures that you get to the primary subject matter quickly without losing focus or
discussing information that is too general.
 Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent
published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the
reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis.
This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review but
consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature (with
 citations) that lays a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem.
See the drop-down tab for "Background Information" for types of contexts.
 Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated. When you are first learning to write
in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The
purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to
explain the...."
 Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement
of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your
statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.
o Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.
Style:
 Use past tense except when referring to established facts.
 Organize the ideas, making one major point with each paragraph.
 Present background information only needs in order to support a position.
 State the hypothesis/ objective precisely – do not oversimplify.
 Pay attention to spelling, clarity and appropriateness of the sentences or phrases.

2. Statement of the Problem

A. Discussion:
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved,
a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory,
or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.
Hence, a statement of the problem is used as a claim outlines and the problem addressed by a
study posed as a question. Even though the world can create a lot of question and unresolved
problems. we should be guided accordingly, here are the list of characteristics of a good research
problem (ReadingCraze.com,2017):

1     The problem can be stated clearly and concisely.

2     The problem generates research questions.
3     It is grounded in theory.
4     It relates to one or more academic fields of study.
5     It has a base in the research literature.
6     It has potential significance/importance.
7     It is do-able within the time frame, budget.
8     Sufficient data are available or can be obtained.
9     The researcher’s methodological strengths can be applied to the problem.
10   The problem is new; it is not already answered sufficiently

A research problem from one’s interest can be broad or has wide issues this should be
trimmed to specific selection of problems that draws simple question. the simple question will
then be the starting point in identifying the type of research to undertake. But sometimes
problems are difficult or even impossible to solve without breaking them down into smaller
problems, we call as sub problems. this delineate the scope of work and taken together, should
define the entire problem to be tackled as summarized in the main problem.

According to Booth et al (1995, p40) as Bhaskar (2014) cite it on his book, we can
organize the questions to define the subproblems, by checking on topics from four perspective:
a. What are the parts of your topic and what larger whole is it a part of?
b. What is its history and what is the larger history is it part of?
c. What kind of categories can you find in it, and to what larger categories of things
does it belongs?
d. What good is it? What can you use it for?

This can make your research problem on track, but still there common mistakes in choosing
research problems. These are common mistakes done cause the research project’s failure in the
interpretation of data. Here are some of it:
a. Making the choice of a problem an excuse to fill in gaps in your own knowledge.
b. Formulating a problem which involves merely comparison of two or more sets of data.
c. Setting a problem in terms of finding the degree of correlation between two sets of data.
d. Devising a problem to which the answer can be only yes or no.
 B. Structuring (how to write?):

We narrowed the general-purpose statement to a specific question that will be address by

direct answer, a prediction based on the hypothesis to be tested. We are now designing and
scripting the research question, guided by the objectives and to state the hypothesis. Generally,
the goal of the statement of the problem is to:

1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied . The reader is
oriented to the significance of the study.
2. Anchors the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to follow . It offers a
concise statement about the purpose of your paper.
3. Place the topic into a context that defines the parameters of what is to be
investigated.
4. Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably
necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this
information.

Qualitative research

In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for
the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical tests). These
research questions assume two forms: a central question and associated sub questions ( sub-
problem). The central question is a broad question that asks for an exploration of the central
phenomenon or concept in a study.
 Ask one or two central questions followed by no more than five to seven sub-questions.
 Relate the central question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry
 Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open and
emerging design
 Focus on a single phenomenon or concept
 Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design. These verbs tell the
reader that the study will
- Discover (e.g., grounded theory)
- Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
- Explore a process (e.g., case study)
- Describe the experiences (e.g., phenomenology)
- Report the stories (e.g., narrative research)
 Use these more exploratory verbs that are nondirectional rather than directional words
that suggest quantitative research, such as “affect,” “influence,” “impact,” “determine,”
“cause,” and “relate.”
 Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study in a manner
consistent with the assumptions of an emerging design. Often in qualitative studies, the
questions are under continual review and reformulation (as in a grounded theory study).
This approach may be problematic for individuals accustomed to quantitative designs, in
which the research questions remain fixed throughout the study.
 Use open-ended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless otherwise
indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry.
 Specify the participants and the research site for the study, if the information has not yet
been given

Quantitative research

Quantitative research questions inquire about the relationships among variables that the
investigator seeks to know. They are used frequently in social science research and especially in
survey studies.

Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses include the
following.

● The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic
approaches.
 ● The most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test of a theory (see
Chapter 3) and the specification of research questions or hypotheses that are included in the
theory.

● The independent and dependent variables must be measured separately. This procedure
reinforces the cause-and-effect logic of quantitative research.

● To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypotheses, not both, unless the
hypotheses build on the research questions (discussion follows). Choose the form based on
tradition, recommendations from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether past research
indicates a prediction about outcomes.

C. Activity:

Here is a script for a qualitative central question: _________ (How or what) is the
_________ (“story for” for narrative research; “meaning of ” the phenomenon for
phenomenology; “theory that explains the process of” for grounded theory; “culture-sharing
pattern” for ethnography; “issue” in the “case” for case study) of _________ (central
phenomenon) for _________ (participants) at _________ (research site).

Example: A Qualitative Central Question From an Ethnography Finders (1996) used

ethnographic procedures to document the reading of teen magazines by middle-class European
American seventh-grade girls. By examining the reading of teen zines (magazines), the
researcher explored how the girls perceive and construct their social roles and relationships as
they enter junior high school. She asked one guiding central question in her study

Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent
variable) and _________ (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of _________ (control
variable)?

3. Hypothesis/ hypotheses

A. Discussion:
Research usually starts with a problem. Questions, objectives and hypotheses provide a
specific restatement and clarification of the problem statement/research question. Hypothesis
is a tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts and can be tested by further
investigation. Hypothesis should be statements expressing the relation between two or more
measurable variables. It should carry clear implications for testing the stated relations.
 A hypothesis may be precisely defined as a tentative proposition suggested as a
solution to a problem or as an explanation of some phenomenon. (Ary, Jacobs and
Razavieh, 1984)
 A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more
variables. (Kerlinger, 1956)
 Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between
an independent and dependent variable. (Creswell, 1994)
 Hypothesis relates theory to observation and observation to theory. (Ary, Jacobs
and Razavieh, 1984)
 Hypotheses are relational propositions. (Kerlinger, 1956)

Purpose and Importance of Hypotheses in a Scientific Research

It provides a tentative explanation of phenomena and facilitates the extension of knowledge in
an area.
 It provides the investigator with a relational statement that is directly testable in a
research study.
 It provides direction to the research.
 It provides a framework for reporting conclusions of the study.
 It could be considered as the working instrument of theory. Hypotheses can be deduced
from theory and from other hypotheses.
 It could be tested and shown to be probably supported or not supported, apart from man’s
own values and opinions.
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

A good hypothesis must be based on a good research question.

 Hypothesis should be simple, specific and stated in advance.
 It must have explanatory power.
 It must state the expected relationship between variables
 It must be testable.
 It should be consistent with the existing body of knowledge.
 It should be stated as simply and concisely as possible.

Types of Hypotheses

For the purpose of testing statistical significance, hypotheses are classified into two types:
(a) Null Hypotheses
A null hypothesis is a statement that there is no actual relationship between variables.
(Ho or HN). A null hypothesis may read, “There is no difference between…..”. a denial
of an attribute, an existence a difference or an effect or relationship expressed in negative
statement.

(b) Alternate Hypotheses

An alternative hypothesis is a statement that suggests a potential outcome that the
researcher may expect. (H1 or HA). It is established only when a null hypothesis is
rejected. Often an alternative Hypothesis is the desired conclusion of the investigator. It
affirms the existence of a phenomenon, acceptance of the attribute of relationship effects
and difference. “there is a significant difference between…”

The two types of alternative hypothesis are: (a) Directional Hypothesis and (b)
Non-directional Hypothesis.
 Directional Hypothesis: It is a type of alternative hypothesis that specifies the direction of
expected findings. Sometimes directional hypothesis is created to examine the
relationship among variables rather than to compare groups. Directional hypothesis may
read,” …is more than...”, “…will be lesser...” Example can be “Children with high IQ
will exhibit more anxiety than children with low IQ”
 Non-directional Hypothesis: It is a type of alternative hypothesis in which no definite
direction of the expected findings is specified. The researcher may not know what can be
predicted from the past literature. It may read, “...there is a difference between..”
Example can be “There is a difference in the anxiety level of the children of high IQ and
those of low IQ.

B. Structuring:
o Hypothesis is stated in declarative form
o Be consistent with known facts, previous md theories.
o Statement should follow from the statement of the research problem
o The level of significance must ne indicated stating the null hypothesis
o The following hypothesis were tested at 0.05 level of significance

Research variables:
These are qualities, properties or characteristics of person, things or situations that change
or vary. Variable are measurable and usually focus.

Different Classification of variables

1. According to possible number of values

- Dichotomous - nature of work, gender
- polychotomous variable – nationality, religion
2. Independent and dependent variable
- Independent variable is known as the presumed cause. It is
the antecedent and the variable predicted from
-
“An experimenter might compare the effectiveness of 4 types of antidepressants.”
 What is the variable?
 What is the independent variable?
 What is the dependent variable?
Can blue berries slow down aging? A study indicates that antioxidants found in blue
berries may slow down the process of aging. In this study, 19-motn old rats were fed
either standard diet or a diet supplemented by other blue berry, strawberry, or spinach
powder. After 8 weeks, the arts were given memory and motor tests. Although all
supplemented with blueberry powder showed the most notable improvement.

 What is the variable?

 What is the independent variable?
 What is the dependent variable?

3. Quantitative or qualitative variables

a. Qualitative variable express characteristics or properties
b. Quantitative variable express amount and those numerical in nature.

 What is the variable?

 What is the independent variable?
 What is the dependent variable?
 What is the quantitative variable?
 What is the Qualitative variable?

4. Continuous or categorical variable

a. Categorical variable are discrete variables. It is qualitative in nature and
with no infinite set of value within the category
Example: number of children in a household
b. Continuous variable is infinite in nature. It can take ordered set of values
within a certain range.
Example: teatime

5. Extraneous or exogenous variable

a. Extraneous are variable other than independent that may bear any effect
on the behavior of the subject being studied. The variable should be kept
the same or in a balance to keep it controlled.
Example:
“An experiment, in which a salesperson sells clothing on a door-to-door basis
 What is the variable?
 What is the independent variable?
 What is the dependent variable?
 What is the extraneous variable?

b. Exogenous variable
a factor whose value is determined by factors or variables outside the
causal system under study.
For example, rainfall is exogenous to the causal system
constituting the process of farming and crop output. There are causal
factors that determine the level of rainfall—so rainfall is endogenous to a
weather model—but these factors are not themselves part of the causal
model we use to explain the level of crop output.

As with endogenous variables, the status of the variable is relative

to the specification of a particular model and causal relations among the
independent variables. A
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