PA 201-RESEARCH

Dr. Corazon B. Floresca

Second Trimester AY 22-23

OBJECTIVES:

1. Define, identity, explain and discuss the

concepts and importance of RESEARCH and
RESEARCH METHOD.
2. Come up with a Research Problem, title, and a
concept paper related to Public Administration.
3. Present a complete dummy research group
output.
 What is RESEARCH? its
importance? its Characteristics?
and its Classifications?
Research
 Describes, explains, or predicts phenomena.
 A process of looking for a specific answer to a
specific question in an organized, objective
and reliable.

 A process of finding a solution to a given

problem that can be used as the basis for:
> policy formulation
> policy enhancement or improvements
 Systematic, formal rigorous and precise
process employed to gain solutions to problem
and to discover interpret new facts and
relationship.
 Scientific investigation of phenomena which
includes COLLECTION, PRESENTATION,
ANALYSIS, and INTERPRETATION of facts linking
speculation with reality.
CHARACTERISTICS:

 Research is systematic. It follows an

orderly and sequential procedure that leads
to the discovery of truth, solution of a
problem, or whatever is aimed to be
discovered.
 Research is replicable. The research
design and procedures can be replicated to
enable the researcher to validate results.
The more replications of researches, the
more valid and conclusive the results would
be.
 Research is cyclical. Research starts with
a problem and ends with a problem
recommended for further research.

 Research is critical. A high level of

confidence must be established which means
the researcher is confidently precise on
whether to accept or reject the hypotheses he
made based on gathered data.
 Research is controlled. All variables except those
that are tested or being experimented upon are
kept constant (not allowed to change or vary) so
that the changes made on the subject s of the study
can be attributed only to the experimental variable.
This is especially true in an experimental research.
 Research is empirical. All the procedures
employed and the data gathered are perceived in
the same manner by all observers. For instance, one
says that there are five persons in the room, all
agree to the existence of the five persons.
However, if one says that there are five ghosts in
the room, one or none at all mat believe it because
not all people believe in ghosts. Ghosts are example
of Data that are not empirical.
 Research is analytical. There is critical analysis of all
the data used so that there is no error in their
interpretation.
 Research is objective, unbiased, and logical. All the
findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical
data and no effort is made to alter the results of the
research.
 Research is done by an expert. The researcher uses
valid and carefully designed procedures, valid data-
gathering instruments, and valid data. He subjects his
data to expert scrutiny.
 Research is accurate investigation, observation and
description. In fact, every research activity must be
done accurately so that the findings will lead to the
formulation of scientific generalizations. All conclusions
are based on actual evidence.
 Research requires an effort-making
capacity. No research can be conducted
without the exertion of much effort. No one
without any effort-making capacity can
conduct a research because research involves
much work and time.

 Research requires courage. Research

requires courage because the researcher
oftentimes undergoes hazards, discomforts
and the like. At times the researcher
encounters public and social disapproval. Also,
disagreements with colleagues may arise.
IMPORTANCE:

 Research is a vehicle for mobility.

 Itis because of research that society does not
remain stagnant.
 Itis major contributor towards the attainment of
national development goals. The attempt of
emerging nations to use research for their
development and modernization is assumed the
role of shaping the nation’s future.
 Then, too, research has brought about progress
and a much better life for all.
BENEFITS OF RESEARCH TO MAN

1. Improves quality of life. Products of research

have made life easier for man.
2. Improves instruction. Research has
discovered improved ways of teaching and has
introduced innovative strategies and approaches.
3.  Reduces burden of work and satisfies man’s
needs. Advances in technology, communication,
travel, and education are all products of research
that have satisfied man’s needs and aspirations.
 
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH:

Man is always confronted with problems that demand

research. Basically, man needs to research to reduce his
burden of work, relieve suffering, and increase satisfaction in
fulfilling aspirations. Examples of man’s problems that has
answered:
1. Traffic problem in the metropolis. Research led to the invention
of flyovers, light rail transit, skyways, and underground pedestrian
links.
2. Communication problem. Research led to the invention of the
internet where e-mailing reduced the length of passing
communication to seconds.
3. Handling customer complaints. Research has discovered the
efficiency and effectiveness of using call centers and their agents.
4. Health Interventions. Like the discovery of preventive measures,
like the covid 19 vaccinations and the like.
CLASSIFICATIONS:

Research according to purpose/use

1. Fundamental or Basic Research –

 search for new knowledge to discover some generalizations
that serve as baseline information for future research.
 It aims to discover basic truths and principles.
 Provides a foundation for knowledge and foundations that
are generalizable to many policy areas, problems or area of
study
 Source of the tools – methods, theories, ideas

 
 Research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest
in a scientific question. The main motivation is to
expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent
something.
 There is no obvious commercial value to the
discoveries
that result from basic research.
For example, basic science investigations probe for
answers to questions such as:
 How did the universe begin?
 What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed
of?
 How do slime molds reproduce?
 What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
2. Applied Research –
 tries to probe further the theoretical concepts advanced by basic
research under actual conditions.
For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:
 Improve agricultural crop production
 Treat or cure a specific disease
 Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of
transportation
 Effectiveness of different contraceptives in family planning or
population control
 Public administration and crisis preparedness in the Pandemic
3. Action Research –
 Advances the aims of basic and applied research to the point of
utilization.
 Its primary is the production of results for immediate application or
utilization.
Research according to Methods
A. Descriptive Method/Design
 Involves the description of a situation or the situation
as they exist at the time of the study.
 Does not explain cause-effect relationships but is able
to provide clues to such relationships.
 Describes and interpret what is currently prevailing.
 
Types of Descriptive Research:
 Case study
 Survey Research
  Developmental Studies
 Assessment/Evaluation Studies
 Comparative and Correlational Studies

B. Experimental Research Method/Design

 Is the most rigid and scientific of all research
methods.
 Presence of control randomization and measurement
of effect
 Can provide conclusions that are beyond questions
and which will be definitive for a specific subject.
C. Analytical Research Method/Design
 Research concerning non-empirical relationships
concerns the question “what was “.
 Qualitative descriptive research
 Researchers will go back to the past for better analysis
of the present and guide us to go for the future.

Types of Analytical Research Methods/Design

 Historical Research
 Ethnographic/Anthropological Research
 Phenomelogical

 
COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

Theory

Method

Epistemology
Research Design
This involves:
 Defining the problem/research question
 Review of related literature
 Planning the research
• What methodology will you use?
• What data do you want to use/produce?
• How feasible is your research approach?
 Ethical considerations.
What is Research Design?
 A research design provides the framework for the
collection and analysis of data.
 A choice of research design reflects decisions
about the priority being given to a range of
dimensions of the research process.
 Involves research method.
 Research method is simply a technique for
collecting data. It can involve a specific
instrument such as a self-completion
questionnaire or a structured interview etc.
Tools of Research
• The library and its resources
• The computer and its software
• Techniques of measurement
• Statistics
• Facility with language

 Tools are not research methods – e.g. library

research and statistical research are meaningless
terms. Tools help your research methods.

How familiar are you with these

tools?
What do you need to think about
when Designing Research?

 What is the purpose of the research?

 What are your units of analysis?
 What are your points of focus?
 What is the time dimension?
 Designing a research project:
 conceptualization
 operationalization.
 Reliability, replication and validity.
Different Purposes of Research (1)
Exploratory
 The goal is to generate many ideas.
 Develop tentative theories and conjectures.
 Become familiar with the basic facts, people and
concerns involved.
 Formulate questions and refine issues for future
research.
 Used when little is written on an issue.
 It is the initial research.
 Usually qualitative research.
Different Purposes of Research (2)
Descriptive research
 Presents a profile of a group or describes a process,
mechanism or relationship or presents basic background
information or a context.
 Used very often in applied research.
 E.g.:General Household survey – describes demographic
characteristics, economic factors and social trends.
 Can be used to monitor changes in family structure and
household composition.
 Can also be used to gain an insight into the changing
social and economic circumstances of population groups.
 Often survey research.
Different Purposes of Research (3)
Analytical (or explanatory)
 goes beyond simple description to
model empirically the social phenomena
under investigation.
 Itinvolves theory testing or elaboration
of a theory.
 Used mostly in basic research.
Different Purposes of Research (4)

Evaluation
characterised by the focus on collecting data to
ascertain the effects of some form of planned
change.
Used in applied research to evaluate a policy
initiative or social programme to determine if it
is working.
Can be small or large scale, e.g.: effectiveness
of a crime prevention programme in a local
housing estate.
Units of Analysis
Can be
• individuals,
• groups,
• organizations,
• social artifacts
(ie. products of social beings, for example, books, poems,
paintings, automobiles, buildings, songs, pottery, jokes, and scientific
discoveries).
• behaviors
(eg: social interactions, such as friendship choices, court cases,
and traffic accidents.
Weddings (as a unit of analysis) –
might be characterized as being religious or secular or ethnically or
religiously mixed resulting in divorce or not or they could be
characterized by descriptions of one or both of the marriage
partners.
Points of Focus
1. Characteristics
2. Orientations
(attitudes, beliefs, prejudices, personality traits)
3. Organizations
(would be in terms of policy, procedures, etc
4. Social interactions, actions.
Other things to Note
 Time dimension – cross-sectional or longitudinal
 Conceptualization – i.e. you must specify the
meanings of the concepts and variables to be studied.
 Operationalization – how will we actually measure the
variables under study?
 Reliability – are the results repeatable? – relevant to
quantitative social research.
 Replication - can others replicate the results?
 Validity – will examine later but are the results a true
reflection of the world? Internal (are they measuring
the underlying phenomenon)/external (generalize to
the population)
Steps in Research Design
1. Choose a Topic

2. Focus research question

3. Design the study

4. Collect the data

5. Analyse the data

6. Interpret the data

7. Present the results

Defining the Research Problem
 State your research problem.
 Are there any sub-problems?
 What is the background (literature review) on this
problem?
 What is good about tackling this problem? Why should
we be interested in answering the research question?
 Discuss your problem with peers and experts.
 Have you looked at this problem from all sides to
minimize unwanted surprises?
 Think through the process. Are you capable of
addressing the issue? Can you foresee any pitfalls in
data collection and analysis? What tools are available for
you to use?
 What research procedure will you follow?
Research Proposal
(More formal than Research)
 Title
 Statement of research question
 Remember to stress why the problem is important!
 Background/information
 Aims and objectives of the study
 Methods
 Timetable
 Data analysis
 Ethical issues
 In Funding applications, add
 Resources/Budget
 Dissemination
Concept Paper (Research Title)
IMRad Format:
A. 1. INTRODUCTION
The Problem and its background
 What is the broad context of the problem?
 What are the specific problems in the area of your study?
Point out specific issues, concerns, and gaps in knowledge.
 What problems will be addressed and resolved in this study?
 What is the significance of the problem? State in one or two
sentences. (Be clear. This is a leading statement that will be
further developed in the next subsection, Significance of the
Problem) What is the significance of the problem? State in
one or two sentences.
Research Objective/s
 What is the main objective of the study?
 What are the specific questions to the problem?
Brief Literature of the Study
2. Conceptual Framework
B. METHODS
 Brief Description of your research
( research design, respondents, locale, data
gathering procedure, instruments and measure/s
to be used.)

 References
Qualitative Research Proposal
 A qualitative Research Proposal is more difficult to write
as it is less structured and pre-planned.
1. Demonstrate ability to complete a proposed
qualitative project – use an extensive discussion of
the literature and the significance of the problem and
sources. (This shows reviewers that you are familiar
with qualitative research and the appropriateness of
the method for studying the problem).
2. Also, describe a qualitative pilot study you have
conducted. (This demonstrates your motivation,
familiarity with research techniques, and ability to
complete a report about unstructured research).
Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research
 Given that research is the scientific approach to
solve a problem when the answer is not known,
a researcher can undertake different approaches
in this endeavor. The process of seeking truth is
defined as epistemology.

 Thisphilosophy of science described how

researchers acquire knowledge. Basically, the
two methods of epistemology are called
quantitative and qualitative.
 Quantitative research is a type of scientific
inquiry that is very objective in which the
researcher attempts to be detached from the
actual subjects of the study. Quantitative
researchers are characteristics of the classical
medical scientists who study and independently
make observations about the cause and effect of
variables.
 Qualitative researchers, on the other hand, are
much more personally involved with their study.
Qualitative research is more naturalistic,
emergent, and case oriented. A typical qualitative
researcher might be a person who actually goes
into the natural setting and makes observations
 Different methods of research can be categorized as being
more quantitative than qualitative. Four popular types of
quantitative research are: experimental, casual
comparative, correlational, and descriptive.
Experimental research is concerned with the cause and
effect of variables. The purpose of correlational research
is to determine the relationship between variables, which
can also be used for prediction. Causal comparative
research is very similar to experimental research, but it is
research that is conducted after the data has been
collected (expost facto). An example would be the study of
the cause and effect of cigarette smoking and cancer after
people have died. Descriptive (survey) research is
research that attempts to describe the present status of
phenomena, such as administering a survey to acquire
people’s feelings about the school environment.
 Four popular types of qualitative research are:
historical, ethnography, phenomelogical and
cultural, and the case study. Historical
research is concerned with answering questions
regarding the past, such as conducting a
autobiography. Ethnography generally describes
people within social environments.
Phenomelogical and cultural research tends to
study various phenomena and cultures of people
within an environment. Case studies generally
are used to study deviant group or information-
rich subjects, such as gifted students, in their
natural setting.
 
Ethical Issues
 Informed Consent.
 Respect for privacy.
 Confidentiality and anonymity of data.
 What is permissible to ask?
 No harm to researchers or subjects.
 No deceit or lying in the course of research.
 Consequences of publication.
www.the-sra.org.uk
www.britsoc.org.uk/about/ethics.htm
THE VARIABLE

A variable is defined as a “characteristic” that has

two or more mutually exclusive values of properties.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
a. Independent variable. The stimulus variable is
chosen by the researcher to determine its relationship
to an observed phenomenon.
Ex.
Effect of Manager’s Leadership Styles on Work Satisfaction of Employees
Independent Variable Dependent Variable

b. Dependent variable. The response variable is

observed and measured to determine the effect of
the independent variable.
c. Moderate variable. This is the secondary or special type
of independent variable chosen to ascertain if it modifies
the results between independent and dependent
variables.
Ex. Effect of Manager’s Leadership Styles on Work
Satisfaction of Female and Male Employees.
 
d. Control variable. A variable controlled by the research
in which the effects can be neutralized by removing the
variable.
e. Intervening variable. A variable that interferes with the
independent and dependent variables by either
strengthening or weakening them.
Ex. Sex; Age; Civil Status and etcs.
What is a RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 

 Will the answer to the problem be useful to a

large group of individuals/ organizations (utility
test)
 Will the answer to the problem contribute to the
advancement of knowledge? (break through test)
 Interest and capacity of the researcher.
 Does the problem the universal rather than
parochial? (universality test)
 Does the problem appear tenable and solvable?
(solvability test)
HOW and WHERE do we look RESEARCH PROBLEM?
   Graduate School
 The Workplace and the Community
 Attendance of Lectures, Scientific Fora, and Seminars

What is SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH?

  A method of science describes as objective, accurate,
systematic, analytical and determinate.
 Involveslogical steps so arranged to enhance the generation
of knowledge in a manner that minimizes or eliminates
error and is directed to gather facts of empirical events.
 Involvesbasic steps such as observation, identification of
the problem, information of hypothesis, testing of
hypothesis, formulation of designs, and data interpretation
and drawing of conclusions.
COMPONENTS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
The basic Components of the research process are:
1. It starts with a RESEARCH PROBLEM. Based on the
major researchable problem, specific problems or
objectives are formulated.
2. Construction of a THEORICAL/CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK as basis for describing properly the
relationships of variables to be used in the study.
3. ASSUMPTIONS are stated clearly to provide foundation
of the study.
4.  Using the specific problems/objectives, hypotheses
are made and tests the hypotheses as either null or
alternative.
5. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE and studies related to
the identified research problem to determine the
similarities and differences of the findings of the past
studies and gain insights into other aspects of the problem
that can be used in the research.
6. The most appropriate RESEARCH DESIGN is chosen based
on the readings of past researches.
7. Research instrument for DATA COLLECTION can be
determined from the research design which would also help
the researcher in deciding how data will be processed and
what STATISTICAL TREATMENT to apply.
8. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA can be done after
the right statistical too has been applied.
9. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS are
done after having tested the hypotheses, recommendations
should dovetail with the conclusion.
 A PROBLEM IS RESEARCHABLE WHEN:

1. There is no known solution to the problem

2. The solution can be answered by using statistical methods
and techniques
3. There are probable solutions but they are not yet tested
4. The occurrence of phenomena requires scientific
investigation to arrive at a precise solution.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM:
SMART
S – Specifically stated
M – Measurable using research instruments like questionnaires,
tests, etc. in collecting data.
 
 
A – Achievable. The data are achievable using
correct statistical techniques to arrive at precise
results. 
R – Realistic. Results are not manipulated.
T – Time bounded. The shorter completion of the
activity, the better.
 
 
What are the MAJOR PILLARS OF RESEARCH?

 Theory (interrelated ideas, concepts,

prepositions and addresses questions what, how
and why)
 Research (Systematic process)
 Statistics ( collection, analysis and interpretation
of data)
What are the relationship between THEORY and
RESEARCH?
The relationship between theory and research is
DIALECTIC.
a. THEORY specifies the boundaries of the phenomena
being studied, its dimensions, and the data to be
collected. While RESEARCH findings provide challenges
to accepting theories.
b. THEORY is a building block for the research while,
RESEARCH is a vehicle for theory development.
c. THEORY gives meaning to the data while RESEARCH is
the method used to gather the data needed for a theory.
Writing a PROPOSAL:
  4 Ps in Writing A Research Proposal
- Plan
- Prepare
- Polish
- Persevere
TITLE OF THE STUDY:
 Suitable for public dissemination
 Brief

 Includes key words

 State goals accurately
 Should have universal appeal
Criteria in choosing one’s Topic for Research:
 Interest
 Originality
 Size
 Significance of the Study
 The researcher’s capability and limitations
 Cost
 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This is the section of the research that
presents related reading, literature, and studies
that have a direct bearing or relation to the
present study. This section is divided into 3
parts namely:
1. Related Readings. Laws and department
directives such as circulars, orders, memoranda,
and others serve as legal bases for the paradigm
of the study.
2. Related Literature. Written works such as books,
journals, magazines, novel, poetry, yearbook, and
encyclopedia. They are presented chronologically
or by topic order. Other universities allow
alphabetically arrangement.
3. Related Studies. Published and unpublished
research studies either foreign or local studies.
Presentation is made chronologically.
The researcher should justify in this section the
bearing of the related studies upon the present
study. The researcher should also justify the
differences of the present study with the past
studies.
 
 The main body of the thesis research is made up of the
thesis Chapters.
 IMRaD-(APA) FORMAT

CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION
>The Problem and Its Background
>The Problem and Its Background
> Significance of the Study
> Statement of the Problem
Hypothesis
> Review of Related Literature (Topical)
> Conceptual Framework
> Operational Definition
 
CHAPTER II: METHODS
> Research Design
> Locale of the Study
> Respondents of the Study
> Instrumentation and Measure
> Data Gathering Procedure
CHAPTER III: RESULT
>The presentation of data and analyses of data
> Presented by tables
CHAPTER IV: DISCUSSION 
> Major Findings
> Conclusion of the Study
> Recommendation/s
> Recommendations for Further Study
( Evaluate and, interpret the implications of the result
The implications of the result must be supported by RRL)
 Title Proposal Presentation
> Title
> Background of the Study
> Significance of the Study
> Statement of the Problem
> Conceptual Framework
> A little of RRL
> References
THANK YOU and GOOD
DAY!