RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Meaning
• The research methodology is a way to study the
various steps that are generally adopted by a
researcher in studying the research problems
systematically, along with the logic, assumptions,
justification, and rationale behind them.
• Research is the systematic process of collecting and
analyzing information (data) in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon about which we
are concerned or interested
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND
RESEARCH METHODS
Research methods and research methodology are the two
terms that are often confused as the same but they show
differences between them
The word ‘methodology,’ refers to ‘method’+’ology.’
‘Ology’ = Study. Thus technically speaking, the
methodology is the study of methods.
Methodology is a strategy or a plan of action that links
methods to outcomes (e.g. experimental research, survey
research, ethnography, etc.)
Research methods mean the research techniques or tools
(e.g. questionnaire, interview, focus group, etc.) to be
used for conducting research
 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
• Research is a logical and systematic search for
new and useful information on a particular
topic.
• The information provided could be the result of
a careful analysis of data gathered first hand or
of data that are already available
 KNOWLEDGE CREATION IN
RESEARCH
• Knowledge creation refers to the continuous
combination, transfer, and conversion of
different kinds of knowledge.
• Knowledge is created through practice,
collaboration, interaction, and education, as
the different knowledge types are shared and
converted
 Objectives of Research
• The purpose of research is to discover answers through the
application of scientific procedures.

• The objectives are:

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it – Exploratory or Formulative Research.
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group – Descriptive Research.
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else – Diagnostic
Research.
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables –
Hypothesis-Testing Research.
 Characteristics of Research
• Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
• Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
• Research demands accurate observation and description.
• Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
• Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.
• Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation,
search the related literature and to understand and analyze the data
gathered.
• Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to validate
the data collected and conclusions reached.
• Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
• Research requires courage.
• Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
• Research is carefully recorded and reported.
 Criteria of a Good Research
• Purpose clearly defined.
• Research process detailed.
• Research design thoroughly planned.
• High ethical standards applied.
• Limitations frankly revealed.
• Adequate analysis.
• Findings presented unambiguously.
• Recommendations stated clearly
• Conclusions justified.
 Qualities of a Good Research
• Systematic
• Logical
• Empirical
• Replicable
• Creative
• Use of multiple methods
 Need for Research
• Exploration
• Describe
• Diagnose
• Hypothesis testing/objectives
• Inductions (making an inference based on
widely accepted facts or premises) and
deductions (making an inference based on
an observation, often of a sample)
 Problems in Research
• Uncontrollable variables
• Problem in maintaining objectivity
• Lack of confidence
• Lack of code of conduct/ethics
• Lack of funds and facilities
• Lack of computerization
• Lack of skilled researchers
• Insufficient interaction between university research
departments and business establishments
• Poor library management and functioning
• Difficulty of timely availability of published
data.
• Ignorance
• Research for the sake of research-limited
practical utility though they may use high
sounding business jargon
 Types of Research
According to Nature of the Study
• Descriptive Research aims to accurately and systematically
describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It is a fact
finding investigation which is aimed at describing the
characteristics of individual, situation or a group (or)
describing the state of affairs as it exists at present.

• Analytical Research focuses on cause and effect. It is

primarily concerned with taking those facts, quotes,
paraphrases, details, etc., and then tells readers why any of that
information matters.
 According to its Purpose
• Theoretical research which is also known as
fundamental , basic or pure research is
undertaken for the sake of knowledge without
any intention to apply it in practice. It is
undertaken out of intellectual curiosity and is
not necessarily problem-oriented.
• Applied Research or Action Research is
carried out to find solution to a real life
problem requiring an action or policy decision.
 Applied Research
This type of research is subdivided into two types:
•Technological applied research: looks towards
improving efficiency in a particular productive sector
through the improvement of processes or machinery
related to said productive processes.
•Scientific applied research: has predictive purposes.
Through this type of research design, we can measure
certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the
goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns
and viability of commercial projects.
 According to Research Design
• Exploratory- The objective of exploratory is
the development of hypothesis rather than
their testing studies only aim to explore the
research area and they do not attempt to offer
final and conclusive answers to research
questions.
• Conclusive- Conclusive on the contrary, aim
to provide final and conclusive answers to
research questions.
 According to the Type of Data Used:
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
• Quantitative research is defined as a systematic
investigation of phenomena by gathering
quantifiable data and performing statistical,
mathematical, or computational techniques.
Quantitative research collects information from
existing and potential customers using sampling
methods and sending out online surveys, online
polls, questionnaires (with open ended or closed
ended questions), etc., the results of which can
be depicted in the form of numerical.
• Qualitative Research
• Qualitative methods are often used to collect,
compare and interpret information in
techniques such as discourse analysis,
interviews, surveys, records and participant
observations.
• In order to use statistical methods to validate
their results, the observations collected must
be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research,
however, tends to be subjective, since not all
data can be fully controlled.
 Conceptual vs Empirical Research
• Conceptual Research: It is related to some
abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used
by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
• Empirical Research: It relies on experience
or observation alone. It is data based research
which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. It is aimed at
coming up with conclusions without due
regard for system and theory.
 According to the Depth of Scope
• Descriptive Research: defines the characteristics of a
particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the
causes that produce it.
• Explanatory Research: is the most common type of research
method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect
relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to
similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research,
although it provides additional information about the observed
object and its interactions with the environment.
• Correlational Research: identifies the relationship between
two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine
whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of
the observed system change
According to the Degree of Manipulation
of Variables
• Experimental Research: It is about designing or replicating a
phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly
controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect
on another independent variable or object.
• Non-Experimental Research or observational study:
focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context.
• Quasi-Experimental Research: It controls only some
variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is
therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and
the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen
from existing groups or populations.
 According to the Type of Inference
• Deductive Investigation: the reality is explained by general
laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are
expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and
considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive
method is applied correctly.
• Inductive Research: knowledge is generated from an
observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the
collection of specific data to develop new theories.
• Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation: It is based on
observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to
obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through
experience.
According to the Time in Which it is
Carried Out
• Longitudinal Study (also referred to as Diachronic
Research): It is the monitoring of the same event,
individual or group over a defined period of time. It
aims to track changes in a number of variables and
see how they evolve over time. It is often used
in medical, psychological and social areas.
• Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as
Synchronous Research): it is used to observe
phenomena, an individual or a group of research
subjects at a given time.
 According to The Sources of Information
• Primary Research: This fundamental
research type is defined by the fact that the
data is collected directly from the source, that
is, it consists of primary, first-hand
information.
• Secondary research: Unlike primary
research, secondary research is developed with
information from secondary sources, which
are generally based on scientific literature and
other documents compiled by another
researcher.
 According to How the Data is Obtained
• Documentary (cabinet) or secondary sources, is based on a
systematic review of existing sources of information on a
particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly
used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case
study.
• Field: involves the direct collection of information at the location
where the observed phenomenon occurs.
• Laboratory Research: is carried out in a controlled environment
in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its
relationship with other variables through scientific methods.
• Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory: Mixed
research methodologies combine results from both secondary
(documentary) sources and primary sources through field or
laboratory research.
 Research Process
FF Review the literature
Choose a Topic/Title
FF

Review
Concepts Analyse
Design
and Define Collect Data
Research Interpret
Define theories Objectives/ Data (Test
(Including and
Research Formulate (Execution) Hypothesis
Sample report
Problem Hypothesis / if any)
Review Design)
Questions F F
Previous
I Research III IV V
findings VI VII

II
F

F Feed Back
FF Feed Forward
 Choosing a Topic

Choosing the topic is the first step in the

research process. The topic should have to be
clear so that others can easily understand the
nature of your research. The research topic
should have a single interpretation so that people
cannot get distracted. The topic should have to
be very clear in your mind so that you can
properly undertake it.
Qualities of a Good Research Topic
• Research problem oriented- practical situation
• Coherence with objectives and problem
• Be informative/descriptive, as brief as possible
• Titling should follow the rules (either sentence case or a
title case)
• Clarity
• Well defined
• Current importance (No obsolete topic)
• Be precise as possible using simple language
• Project the scope of the problem for
investigation
• Length: not too long; max. 15-20 words
• Bear originality- own invention
• Deliver message of what to be investigated
• Thematic Relevance
 Tips for Choosing a Topic
• Choose a topic that you are interested in. The
research process is more relevant if you care
about your topic.
• Narrow your topic to something manageable.
– If your topic is too broad, you will find too much
information and not be able to focus.
– Background reading can help you choose and limit
the scope of your topic.
• Review the guidelines on topic selection
outlined in your assignment.
• Refer to lecture notes and required texts to
refresh your knowledge of the course and
assignment.
• Talk about research ideas with a friend. They
may be able to help focus your topic
by discussing issues that didn't occur to you at
first.
• Think of the who, what, when, where and why
questions:
– WHY did you choose the topic? What interests you about
it? Do you have an opinion about the issues involved?
– WHO are the information providers on this topic? Who
might publish information about it? Who is affected by the
topic? Do you know of organizations or institutions
affiliated with the topic?
– WHAT are the major questions for this topic? Is there a
debate about the topic? Are there a range of issues and
viewpoints to consider?
– WHERE is your topic important: at the local, national or
international level? Are there specific places affected by
the topic?
– WHEN is/was your topic important? Is it a current event
or an historical issue? Do you want to compare your topic
by time periods?
 RESEARCH TITLE
• The title summarizes the main idea or ideas of
your study. A good title contains the fewest
possible words that adequately describe the
contents and/or purpose of your research
paper.
• The title is without doubt the part of the
research that is read the most, and it is
usually read first.
Aspects when deciding a suitable
title
The following aspects can be kept in mind when
deciding a suitable title for the research:
•The purpose of the research
•The scope of research
•The narrative tone or the type of research the
paper aims to describe
•The methods used
 Tips for Writing an Effective
Research Paper Title
• Make sure your research title describes (a) the
topic, (b) the method, (c) the sample, and (d) the
results of your study. You can use the following
formula:
[Result]: A [method] study of [topic] among
[sample]
Example:
1. Assessing the effect of architectural design on real
estate values in Tanzania: A qualitative approach
2. Evaluation of Customer satisfaction and service quality in
Tanzanian financial services: The case study of the banking
sector
 Difference between a title and a
topic
A title is a “name” for a book, dissertation, paper
and other written items. The topic is specifically
what the item is about.
•To understand the difference between the two,
let’s first understand the “Niche Area”
•“Niche area” refers to an area of
expertise/focus. Many disciplines have their own
niche areas which relate to a discipline of study.
 Niche Area
For example: In Accounting Sciences some of the niche area(s)
read as follows:
•The effective management of Small Medium and Micro
Enterprises (SMMEs) and Medium and Large
Enterprises(MLEs).
– Effective: Measured in terms of financial
performance(economic sustainability, etc.) and/or non-
financial performance (environmental sustainability and
social sustainability)
– Management: The tasks of those charged with governance
in relation to planning , organising, directing and
controlling business components.
– SMMEs / MLEs: Actual business entities which operate in
the country
A research topic falls within the perimeter of a
niche area. For example from the niche area of
“The effective management of Small Medium
and Micro Enterprises (SMMEs) ” , a
suitable research topics can read: “Effective
Management in Small and Medium Sized
Enterprises (SMEs)” as it relates to “effective”,
“management and SMMEs”
• The Research Title: A research title expands
on the research topic and also falls within the
perimeter of a niche area. For example, in the
topic of Effective Management in Small and
Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs) , a
suitable research title can read: “The
influence of compliance auditing on the
economic sustainability of SMEs in the
financial services industry” as it relates to
the topic and the niche area
 Effective Titles in Academic
Researches have Several
Characteristics.

• Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study.

• Avoid using abbreviations.
• Use words that create a positive impression and
stimulate reader interest.
• Use current nomenclature from the field of study.
• Identify key variables, both dependent and
independent.
• May reveal how the paper will be organized.
• Suggest a relationship between variables
which supports the major hypothesis.
• Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words.
• Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or
similar constructions.
• Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but
can also be in the form of a question.
• Use correct grammar and capitalization with
all first words and last words capitalized,
including the first word of a subtitle. All
nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs that appear between the first and last
words of the title are also capitalized.
• In academic papers, rarely is a title followed
by an exclamation mark. However, a title or
subtitle can be in the form of a question.
 ORGANIZING THE
RESEARCH: INTRODUCTION
• The introduction serves the purpose of leading the
reader from a general subject area to a particular field
of research. It establishes the context of the research
being conducted by summarizing current
understanding and background information about the
topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the
hypothesis, objectives, question, or research problem,
briefly explaining your rationale, methodological
approach, highlighting the potential outcomes your
study can reveal, and describing the remaining
structure of the report.
Major Sections of a Research Report
• Abstract—summary of study in few words
• Acknowledgement- thanking all those who have helped in carrying out
the research
• Introduction—general introduction, background to the study, statement of
the problem, objectives/research questions/hypotheses, significance,
justification, scope/limitations/delimitations, nature of the study, and
definition of terms
• Literature Review and Conceptual/Theoretical framework
• Research methodology (methods: Research design, Population/Sample
and/or Setting, Instrumentation & Data Description, Validity, Reliability,
Data Collection Procedures, Data Analysis procedures and visualization,
Ethical consideration)
• Data Analysis and Results: Descriptive findings, Results and Summary
• Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation—Summary of findings,
Implications (theoretical, practical and future) , Strengths and Weaknesses
of the study, recommendations, conclusions
• Reference list—all sources cited
• Appendices
 Tips to Writing an Introduction
Think of the introduction as a mental road map
that must answer for the reader these four
questions:
– What was I studying?
– Why was this topic important to investigate?
– What did we know about this topic before I did
this study?
– How will this study advance our knowledge?
A well-written introduction is important because,
quite simply, you never get a second chance to
make a good first impression.
The opening sentence/paragraph
of the Introduction
• The first sentence is the first chance a writer
has to capture the attention of the reader.
• The opening paragraphs of the research will
provide the readers with their initial
impressions about the logic of your argument,
your writing style, the overall quality of your
research, and, ultimately, the validity of your
findings and conclusions.
Remember: First Impressions Matter a lot.
 Background to the study
• The background discusses in depth about the
topic and emphasises the main aims of the
study. It summarises the interpretation of the
previous research or historical development in
the literature revolving around the topic.
• The background therefore it guides the
construction of the literature review. Indeed
there is a strong link between the background
and the literature review.
 Purpose of the Study
• The purpose of the Study illustrates what the
study will do, which should reflect the
statement of the problem. The purpose also
discusses how you will conduct your study and
the kinds of comparisons you will make. The
most essential component to the purpose of the
study is introducing the Research Questions
and Hypotheses (if applicable) of your study.
 Defining the problem
A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty,
contradiction, or gap in knowledge that you will
aim to address through your research. It
identifies a difficulty, doubt, or an area of
concern, in theory or in practice, that requires
thought and investigation. Defining the problem
is necessarily the first step of the research
process. Defining a problem helps frame a
question to be addressed in the research process
 Formulation of the Research Problem

• Formulation is the process of refining the research ideas

into research questions and objectives.
• Formulation means translating and transforming the
selected research problem/topic/idea into a scientifically
researchable question. It is concerned with specifying
exactly what the research problem is.
• There are two ways of stating a problem:
o Posting question / questions
o Making declarative statement / statements
 Process Involved in Defining the
Problem

• Understanding the nature of problem

• Surveying the available literature
• Developing ideas through discussions
• Rephrasing the research problem
 How Do We Know We Have a Research
Problem?
• Citizen complaints
• Conversation with people
• Observation of inappropriate behaviour or
conditions in the society
• Deviation from regulations/laws
• Regular demonstrations/ boycotts/ protests/
confrontations/ violences and threats
• Relevant reading of published material,
books, journals, newspapers, magazines
The first step in the research process – definition
of the problem involves two activities:

•Identification / Selection of the Problem

•Formulation of the Problem
 Identification / Selection of the Research
Problem

This step involves identification of a few problems

and selection of one out of them, after evaluating
the alternatives against certain selection criteria.
 Sources of Problems

• Reading
• Academic Experience
• Daily Experience
• Exposure to Field Situations
• Consultations
• Brainstorming
• Research
• Intuition
 Criteria of Selection of a Problem

The selection of one appropriate researchable

problem out of the identified problems requires
evaluation of those alternatives against certain
criteria. They are:
•Internal / Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest,
Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own Resource:
finance and time.
•External Criteria or Factors – Researchability of the
problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social
Relevance, Research Personnel.
 Criteria of a Good Research Problem

• Clear and Unambiguous

• Empirical
• Verifiable
• Interesting
• Novel and Original
• Availability of Guidance
 Characteristics of a Good Research
Problem
• Stated clearly and concisely.
• Able to generate research questions/objectives.
• Grounded in theory.
• Relates to one or more academic fields of
study.
• Has a base in the research literature.
• Has potential significance/importance.
 FORMULATION OF RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES/QUESTIONS/HYPOTHESIS
Research objectives are clear statements of what
you aim to achieve through your research. A
research question is the question around which
you center your research. It is derived from your
research problem but is based on your study
design. After the problem and research question is
defined, researchers generally gather information
and other observations, form hypotheses, test
hypotheses by collecting data in a reproducible
manner, analyze and interpret that data, and draw
conclusions.
 Research objectives
Writing your research objectives clearly helps to:
• Define the focus of your study
• Clearly identify variables to be measured
• Indicate the various steps to be involved
• Establish the limits of the study
• Avoid collection of any data that is not
strictly necessary.
Establishment of research objectives

Research Objectives are the specific components of the

research problem, that you’ll be working to answer or
complete, in order to answer the overall research
problem.

The objectives refers to the questions to be answered

through the study. They indicate what we are trying to
get from the study or the expected results / outcome of
the study.
 Establishment of research objectives
• Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, as
they directly assist in answering the research problem.
• The objectives may be specified in the form of either
statements or questions.
• Generally, your objectives should be stated using action
verbs that are specific enough to be measured, for
example: to compare, to calculate, to assess, to
determine, to verify, to calculate, to describe, to explain,
to identify etc. Avoid the use of vague non-active verbs
such as: to appreciate, to understand, to believe, to study,
etc., because it is difficult to evaluate whether they have
been achieved.
Using action verbs that are
specific enough to be evaluated..
The list of action verbs are as follows:
• KNOWLEDGE DOMAIN: Count, Define.
Describe, Draw, Identify, Label, List, Match, Name,
Outline, Point out, Quote, Read, Recite, Recognize.
Record, Repeat, Reproduce, Select, State
• APPLICATION DOMAIN: Add, Apply, Calculate,
Change, Complete, Compute, Demonstrate, Discover,
Examine, Graph, Interpolate, Manipulate, Operate,
Prepare, Produce, Show, Subtract, Translate, Use,
Solve, Classify, Divide, Modify
• COMPREHENSION: Associate, Compute, Convert, Defend,
Discuss, Distinguish, Estimate, Explain, Extend, Extrapolate,
Generalize, Give example, Infer, Paraphrase, Predict, Rewrite,
Summarize
• ANALYSIS DOMAIN: Analyze, Arrange, Breakdown,
Combine, Design, Detect, Develop, Diagram, Differentiate,
Discriminate, Illustrate, Infer, Outline, Relate, Select,
Separate, Subdivide, Utilize
• SYNTHESIS DOMAIN: Categorize, Combine, Compile,
Compose, Create, Drive, Design, Devise, Explain, Generate,
Integrate, Modify, Order, Organize, Plan, Prescribe, Propose,
Rearrange, Reconstruct, Revise, Summarize, Specify
• EVALUATION DOMAIN: Appraise, Assess, Compare,
Conclude, Contrast, Criticize, Critique, Determine, Grade,
Interpret, Judge, Justify, Measure, Rank, Support, Test
 Types of research objectives
• Objectives can be general or specific.
The general/main objective of your study
states what you expect to achieve in general
terms. Specific objectives break down the
general objective into smaller, logically
connected parts that systematically address the
various aspects of the problem. Your specific
objectives should specify exactly what you will
do in each phase of your study, how, where,
when and for what purpose.
• A research study designed to assess the
redevelopment plan approach for inner city
areas of Dar es Salaam city at Magomeni area
had the following general and specific
objectives:
• General objective: To examine and analyze
the issues addressed in the inner city
redevelopment plan with respect to Magomeni
area and their physical, social and economic
implications.
 Specific objectives:
• To analyze the issues addressed in the
redevelopment plan of Magomeni area,
• To identify the physical, social and economic
implications of the redevelopment plan for
Magomeni area.
• To examine the current physical
redevelopment in relation to the
redevelopment plan.
Characteristics of Good Objectives
Remember, every objective must start with the
word , "To." An easy way to remember the
characteristics of a good objective, is the
acronym, "SMART." It stands for "Specific,
Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-
Bound.“
S pecific
M easurable
A chievable
R ealistic
T ime-Bound
 Importance of Objectives of the
Research

• To find out the real facts

• To achieve the new thoughts
• To evaluate the information
• To help in formation of hypothesis/research
questions
• To design or implement the research
 Research questions
• A research question is the specific concern that
you will answer through your research. It is
derived from your research problem but is
based on your study design. Thus, to frame
your research questions, you will also need to
have a clear idea of what you aim to achieve
through the study. Therefore, research
questions are based on the research problem
and the research objectives
The Qualities of a Good Research
Question
• It is grounded in a theoretical framework.
• It builds on, but also offers something new to previous
research.
• It has the potential to suggest directions for future research.
• It is a purpose or question that the researcher is sincerely
interested and/or invested in.
• It addresses directly or indirectly some real problem in the
world.
• It takes ethical issues into consideration.
• It clearly states the variables or constructs to be examined.
• It is not biased in terminology or position.
• It has multiple possible answers. It is simple, or at least
manageable.
Difference between Research
Objectives and Research Questions
•Objectives: Identify the goals associated with
each of the research questions.
•Research Questions: Identify
the questions whose answers will guide solving
the problem.
•Research objectives are higher level than
research questions but they are linked.
•Generally, research questions are derived from
research objectives
Using the study on Teacher and Parental Factors
Affecting Students’ Academic Performance in
Private Secondary Schools in Arusha Municipality as
an example, you may state your research specific
research objectives as follows:
•To find out the teacher factors influencing the students’ academic
performance in private secondary schools in Arusha Municipality?
•To find out the parental factors influencing the students’ academic
performance in private secondary schools in Arusha Municipality?
•To determine the extent to which teacher/parental factors affect the
students’ academic performance in private secondary schools in
Arusha Municipality
•To find out what measures can be put in place to improve the
students’ academic performance in private secondary schools in
Arusha Municipality
From the aforementioned research objectives, the
following research questions can be stated:
•What are the teachers factors influencing the students’
academic performance in private secondary schools in
Arusha Municipality?
•What are the parental factors influencing the students’
academic performance in private secondary Schools in
Arusha Municipality?
•To what extent do teacher/parental factors affect the
students’ academic performance in private secondary Schools
in Arusha Municipality?
•What measures can be put in place to improve students’
academic performance in private secondary schools in
Arusha Municipality?
 Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is an assumption about relations
between variables (an independent variable to a
dependant variable). It must contain at least one
independent variable and one dependant variable
• Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured
relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of a testable statement.
Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the
network of associations established in the
theoretical framework formulated for the research
study.
 HYPOTHESIS

• Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the

solution of the problem.
• Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It
describes in concrete terms what you expect to
happen in the study.
• Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of
the study.
• It delimits the area of research and keeps the
researcher on the right track.
 Creating the Hypothesis
• When the researcher has found out that there
are no prior studies and the problem is not
precisely resolved, the researcher will create a
hypothesis based on the questions obtained
while identifying the problem
 Problem (vs) Hypothesis

• Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested

and can be proved to be right or wrong.
• A problem is a broad question which cannot be
directly tested. A problem can be scientifically
investigated after converting it into a form of
hypothesis.
 Characteristics of Hypothesis
• Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise.
• Specificity - It should be specific and limited in scope.
• Consistency - It should be consistent with the objectives of
research.
• Testability - It should be capable of being tested.
• Expectancy - It should state the expected relationships between
variables.
• Simplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms.
• Objectivity - It should not include value judgments, relative
terms or any moral preaching.
• Theoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a
substantial body of established or known facts or existing theory.
• Availability of Techniques – Statistical methods should be
available for testing the proposed hypothesis.
 Functions or Role of Hypothesis
• It gives a definite point to the investigation
and provides direction to the study.
• It determines the data needs.
• It specifies the sources of data.
• It suggests which type of research is likely
to be more appropriate.
• It determines the most appropriate technique
of analysis.
• It contributes to the development of theory.
 Sources of Hypothesis

• Discussions with colleagues and experts

about the problem, its origin and
objectives in seeking a solution.
• Examination of data and records for
possible trends, peculiarities.
• Review of similar studies.
• Exploratory personal investigation /
Observation.
• Logical deduction from the existing theory.
• Continuity of research.
• Intuition and personal experience.
 Types of Hypothesis
• Descriptive Hypothesis
These are assumptions that describe the
characteristics (such as size, form or
distribution) of a variable. The variable may be
an object, person, organisation, situation or
event.
Examples:
• “Public enterprises are more amenable for
centralized planning”.
• Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]
These are assumptions that describe the relationship
between two variables. The relationship suggested
may be positive, negative or causal relationship.
Examples:
 “Families with higher incomes spend more for
recreation”.
• Causal Hypothesis states that the existence of or
change in one variable causes or leads to an effect on
another variable. The first variable is called the
independent variable and the latter is the dependant
variable.
• Null Hypothesis
When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null
hypothesis. It is a ‘no difference’, ‘no relationship’
hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists
between the parameter and statistic being compared to
or no relationship exists between the variables being
compared.
It is usually represented as HO or H0 .
Example:
 H0: There is no relationship between a family’s income
and expenditure on recreation.
• Alternative Hypothesis
It is the hypothesis that describes the researcher’s
prediction that, there exist a relationship between
two variables or it is the opposite of null
hypothesis. It is represented as HA or H1.

Example:
HA: There is a definite relationship between
family’s income and expenditure on recreation.
 Forms of Relationships

NON-DIRECTIONAL Vs DIRECTIONAL

• There IS a relationship • If X goes up, Y ….

or difference between • or
• X&Y • As X increases, Y…
• X = Independent
• X….linked….Y • variable
• Y = Dependent variable
 Non-directional Hypothesis
• A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis
predicts that the independent variable will
have an effect on the dependent variable, but
the direction of the effect is not specified. It
just states that there will be a difference.
• e.g., there will be a difference in how many
numbers are correctly recalled by children and
adults.
 Directional Hypothesis
• A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis predicts
the nature of the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable. It predicts
in which direction the change will take place.
(i.e. greater, smaller, less, more)
• e.g., adults will correctly recall more words
than children.
Significance of the Study
• It is a written statement that explains why your
research was needed.
• It gives you an opportunity to prove the
study’s impact on your field of research, the
new knowledge it contributes to the literature,
and the people, community or institutions that
will benefit from it.
Justification of the Study
• The rationale or justification of the research is
basically why a particular research work was
carried out. You should be able to communicate
why your study was necessary when writing your
justification. It should explain how your study
was unique and why it was important; this will
assist the reader in understanding why your
research question needs to be addressed in your
work.
• hat was the problem identified that made you
want to carry out such research work.
 Difference between justification
and significance of a study
• The justification is the reason a study was
done
• Significance of the study is the relevance to
the individual e.g. the researcher, people,
community or institutions
 Difference between purpose of the
study and significance of the study
• Significance is the extent to which something
matters; importance while purpose is an object
to be reached; a target; an aim; a goal.
Limitation and delimitation/scope
• Limitations are influences that the researcher
cannot control. They are the shortcomings,
conditions or influences that cannot be
controlled by the researcher that place
restrictions on your methodology and
conclusions.
• Delimitations are choices made by the
researcher which should be
mentioned. They describe the boundaries that
you have set for the study.
Scope of the Study
• The scope of a study explains the extent to
which the research area will be explored in the
work and specifies the parameters within the
study will be operating. Basically, this means
that you will have to define what the study is
going to cover and what it is focusing on
• The scope relates to three main perspectives;
geographical/physical, conceptual and
time scope
Difference between Scope and Delimitations
• The scope and delimitations define the topic and
boundaries of the research problem to be investigated.
• The scope details how in-depth your study is to
explore the research question and the parameters in
which it will operate in relation to the population and
timeframe.
• The delimitations of a study are the factors and
variables not to be included in the investigation. In
other words, they are the boundaries the researcher
sets in terms of study duration, population size and
type of participants, etc.
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

• Literature Review is the documentation of a

comprehensive review of the published and
unpublished work from secondary sources of
data in the areas of specific interest to the
researcher.
• The main aim is to find out problems that
are already investigated and those that need
further investigation.
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

• It is an extensive survey of all available past

studies relevant to the field of investigation.
• It gives us knowledge about what others
have found out in the related field of study
and how they have done so.
 Purpose of Review

• To gain a background knowledge of the research

topic.
• To identify the concepts relating to it, potential
relationships between them and to formulate
researchable hypothesis.
• To identify appropriate methodology, research
design, methods of measuring concepts and
techniques of analysis.
• To identify data sources used by other researchers.
• To learn how others structured their reports
 How to conduct the Literature
Survey?

• Identify the relevant sources.

• Extract and Record relevant information.
• Write-up the Literature Review
 Sources of Literature

• Books and Journals

• Electronic Databases
o Bibliographic Databases
o Abstract Databases
o Full-Text Databases
• Govt. and Industry Reports
• Internet
• Research Dissertations / Thesis
 Types of Literature Reviews
• Narrative literature review: critiques the literature and summarizes the
body of a literature..
• Argumentative Review: examines literature selectively in order to support
or refute an argument.
• Integrative Review: summarizes past empirical or theoretical literature to
provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular phenomenon.
• Historical Review focuses on examining research throughout a period of
time.
• Methodological Review: summarizes a methodological issue and provide
best-practice recommendations.
• Systematic Review: evaluates and interprets all available research relevant
to a particular research question or topic area or phenomenon of interest
• Theoretical Review: helps to establish what theories already exist, the
relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been
investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested
• Thematic reviews: literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather
than the progression of time
 How to write the review?
• There are several ways of presenting the ideas of
others within the body of the paper.
• For Example; If you are referring the major
influencing factors in the Sheth’s model of Industrial
Buying Behaviour, it can be written as,
1) Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that, there are a
number of influencing factors ……..
2) According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial
buying behaviour, there are a number of
influencing factors……..
 How to write the review?

3) In some models of industrial buying behaviour,

there are a number of influencing factors (Sheth,
1973).
4) In some models of industrial buying behaviour,
there are a number of influencing factors1.

1. Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, Journal of

Marketing, 37(4), pp. 50-56.
 Points to be kept in mind while
reviewing literature.

• Read relevant literature.

• Refer original works.
• Read with comprehension.
• Read in time.
• Index the literature.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A conceptual framework illustrates what you expect
to find through your research. It defines the
relevant variables/key concepts/principles/theories for
your study and maps out how they might relate to
each other. You should construct a conceptual
framework before you begin collecting data. It is
often represented in a visual representation
(schematic diagram) of an expected relationship
between variables/key concepts/principles/theories,
followed by definition/description of those relevant
variables/key concepts/principles/theories for your
study in the diagram
 VARIABLE / ATTRIBUTE

• A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more

values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a
variable (qualitative).

For example;
• The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male
and Female.
• The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes –
Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly
Disagree.
 VARIABLES
• Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.

• A variable is anything that can take on differing or

varying values.

For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex,

Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.

Note: The values can differ at various times for the

same object or person (or) at the same time for different
objects or persons.
 Types of Variables
• Explanatory vs Extraneous Variable
The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory
variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose
of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.

•Dependant vs Independent Variable

The variable that changes in relationship to changes in
another variable(s) is called dependant variable.
The variable whose change results in the change in another
variable is called an independent variable.
OR
An independent variable is the one that influences the dependant
variable in either a positive or negative way.
The independent variable may be either qualitative or quantitative. A
qualitative variable in one that differs in kind rather than in
amount. In contrast, a quantitative variable differs in amount
 DATA COLLECTION BY
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH METHODS

• Quantitative
As explained earlier, the information is collected
from existing and potential customers using
sampling methods and sending out online
surveys, online polls, questionnaires (with
open ended or closed ended questions), etc.,
the results of which can be depicted in the
form of numerical.
 Types of Quantitative Research
There are two methods to conduct quantitative
research. They are:
•Primary quantitative research methods
•Secondary quantitative research methods
•Primary quantitative research is the most widely
used method of conducting market research. The
distinct feature of primary research is that the
researcher focuses on collecting data directly rather
than depending on data collected from previously
done research
• Secondary quantitative research or desk
research is a research method that involves
using already existing data or secondary
data. Existing data is summarized and collated
to increase the overall effectiveness of
research.
Secondary Research Methods
with Examples
 Primary quantitative research
methods
There are five different types of quantitative
research methods:
•Survey Research
•Descriptive,
•Correlational,
•Experimental Research
•Causal-Comparative
 Survey Research
• Is the most elementary tool for all sorts of
quantitative research techniques. It is most
typically employed by both small and large
organizations for a proper understanding of
their customers and to understand the
merchandise and product views.
• Multiple queries can be raised by the
customers and the analysis can be done for the
same.
 Example of Survey Research
• For example, suppose a researcher intends to
learn about the eating habits of teenagers.
In that case, he/she will follow a sample of
teenagers over a considerable period to ensure
that the collected information is reliable.
Often, cross-sectional survey research follows
a longitudinal study.
 Descriptive Research
• Explains the current status of an identified
variable. The aim of descriptive research is to
explain and interpret, the current status of
people, settings, conditions, or events.
• In descriptive research, the researcher does not
usually begin with the hypothesis, however, it
is probably going to develop one after
collecting the information.
Example of Descriptive Research
• Example a University wishes to evaluate
lecturers’ attitudes about using technology in
the classroom. By conducting surveys and
observing their comfortableness using
technology through observational methods, the
researcher can gauge what they can help
understand if a full-fledged implementation
can face an issue. This also helps in
understanding if the students are impacted in
any way with this change.
 Correlational Research
Used to establish a relationship between two close entities and to
determine how one impacts the other. This type of research will
recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far in
its analysis to observe the different patterns.
•Correlational research sometimes considered a type of
descriptive research as no variables are manipulated in the study.
•Cause and effect are not the basis of this type of observational
research.
•Example of Correlational research is the relationship between
physical activity and academic performance.
•The correlation coefficient value is measured between -1 and +1.
The correlation coefficient close to +1, means a strong positive
correlation and that close to -1, implies a strong negative
correlation between the two variables.
 Experimental Research
Is usually based on one or more theories. It uses the scientific
method to establish the cause-effect relationship among a group
of variables that make up a study. The components of the
experimental research design are prescribed below.
•A comparison group of participants who are randomly selected
and assigned to experimental and control groups.
•An independent variable, which can be referred to as the
experimental variable that can be applied to the experimental
group.
•A dependent variable, which can be referred to as the effect or
posttest variable that can be measured in an identical manner for
all groups.
• Imagine taking 2 samples of the same plant
and exposing one of them to sunlight, while
the other is kept away from sunlight. Let the
plant exposed to sunlight be called sample A,
while the latter is called sample B.
• If after the duration of the research, we find
out that sample A grows and sample B dies,
even though they are both regularly wetted and
given the same treatment. Therefore, we can
conclude that sunlight will aid growth in all
similar plants.
 Casual-Comparative Research
Is a research design that seeks to find
relationships between independent and dependent
variables after an action or event has already
occurred. The researcher's goal is to determine
whether the independent variable affected the
outcome, or dependent variable, by comparing
two or more groups of individuals.
Examples of Causal Comparative
Research Variables
• Researchers use causal-comparative research to achieve research
goals by comparing two variables that represent two groups.
• For example, to find out the difference in wages between men and
women, researchers have to make a comparative study of wages
earned by both genders across various professions, hierarchies and
locations. None of the variables can be influenced and cause-effect
relationship has to be established with a persuasive logical
argument. Some common variables investigated in this type of
research are:
– Achievement and other ability variables
– Family-related variables
– Organismic variables such as age, sex and ethnicity
– Variables related to schools
– Personality variables
 DATA COLLECTION
• Data collection is defined as the procedure of
collecting, measuring and analyzing accurate
insights for research using standard validated
techniques. A researcher can answer
the research question or evaluate the
objectives or hypothesis on the basis of
collected data. The approach of data collection
is different for different fields of study,
depending on the required information
 Data Collection Methods
• Interviews.
• Questionnaires and surveys.
• Observations.
• Documents and records.
• Focus groups.
• Participant observation
• Oral histories.
 Methods Used For Quantitative
Data Collection
• Experiments.
• Controlled observations.
• Surveys: paper, kiosk, mobile, questionnaires.
• Longitudinal studies.
• Polls.
• Telephone interviews.
• Face-to-face interviews.
• Automated series of messages using email
campaigns, SMS, whatsapp and push notifications, or
creating and launching Facebook chatbots
 Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research involves collecting and

analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video,
or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or
experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth
insights into a problem or generate new ideas for
research. Many different methodologies can be
used for qualitative data collection. These
include interviews, focus group discussions,
observation, photography, video, surveys and
case study.
Data Collection Sources
• Population: a complete set of elements (persons or
objects)
• to whom you intend to generalize the results of your
study
• Target population (universe): The total group of
individuals from which the sample might be drawn
• Accessible population: The portion of the population
to which the researcher has reasonable access; may be
a subset of the target population
• Sample = the selected elements (people or objects)
chosen for participation in a study;
people are referred to as subjects or participants.
Data Collection Source
 Sample Frame vs Sample
• The sample frame is the source material or
device from which a sample is drawn.
Unit of Analysis and Unit of Observation
• A unit of analysis is the item you wish to be able to say
something about at the end of your study (The ‘who’ or ‘what’
about which generalizations and conclusions are made) while a
unit of observation is the item that you actually observe (The
‘who’ or ‘what’ which are observed, from which measurements
are taken and data collected)
• The unit of analysis (a case) is at the level at which you pitch the
conclusions. The unit of observation is at the level at which you
collect the data
• Example, units of observation could be students and units of
analysis classes, if classes are compared. Or students can be
both the units of observation and analysis if students are
compared. Or students can be the units of analyses and
grades the unit of observations if several observations (grades)
are available per student
 Unit of Analysis and Unit of
Observation Continues……
• For instance, if you are comparing the children
in two classrooms on achievement test scores,
the unit of analysis is the individual child
because you have a score for each child. On
the other hand, if you are comparing average
classroom performance the unit of analysis is
the group. For different analyses in the same
study you may have different units of analysis.
 Unit of Analysis and Unit of Observation
Continues……
• For example, a study on electronic gadget addiction
may interview undergraduate students (our unit of
observation) for the purpose of saying something
about undergraduate students (our unit of analysis)
and their gadget addiction. Perhaps, if we were
investigating gadget addiction in elementary school
children (our unit of analysis), we might collect
observations from teachers and parents (our units of
observation) because younger children may not report
their behavior accurately. In this case and many
others, units of analysis are not the same as units of
observation.
 Unit of Analysis and Unit of
Observation Continues……
• More specifically, the unit of analysis will be
determined by your research question. The
unit of observation, on the other hand, is
determined largely by the method of data
collection used to answer that research
question.
• Therefore a population defined as all people or
items is unit of analysis whereas the sampling
units in the last stage are usually
the observation units.
 Unit of Observation in Surveys
and Survey Respondents
• The unit of observation in a survey is the type of respondent or
an item that you actually observe, but sometimes a respondent
provides answers about a larger entity, which is the unit of
observation.
• For example, if school principals are the survey respondents
but they provide answers about their schools, the unit of
observation is school. If mothers are the survey respondents
but they provide answers about their households, the unit of
observation is household. However, if school principals are the
survey respondents and they provide answers about
themselves, then the unit of observation is principal. Similarly,
if mothers are the survey respondents and they provide
answers about themselves, the unit of observation is mother
 Research
Unit of
Question/ Unit of Analysis Data Collection Population
Observation
Hypothesis

To investigate the
consumers Individuals Survey of Individuals
100 Consumers
behiviour towards (Consumers) Consumers (Consumers)
online shopping

How a company
can make good Survey of Individuals
Organization 20 Managers
managerial managers. (Managers)
decisions?

A student’s GPA
is directly related Individuals Survey of Individuals
300 Students
to his/her class (Students) students (Students)
attendance

How to make web

pages more Social artifacts Survey of the Individuals
500 Users
attractive to its (Web Pages) users (Users)
users?
 Methods Used for Qualitative
Data Collection
• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or
encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one
conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion
among a group of people.
• Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended
questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of
texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• Case Studies: depend on ethnographic and participant
observer methods
Data Collection Methodologies:
Sampling Methods
• There are two main sampling methods for
quantitative research: Probability and Non-
probability sampling.
• Probability sampling: A theory of probability
is used to filter individuals from a population
and create samples in probability sampling.
Participants of a sample are chosen random
selection processes. Each member of the target
audience has an equal opportunity to be
selected in the sample
 Types of probability sampling

There are four main types of probability

sampling:
•Simple random sampling (SRS)
•Stratified random sampling
•Cluster sampling
•Systematic sampling
•Multistage Sampling or multistage cluster
sampling
 Non-probability Sampling
Is a sampling technique in which the researcher
selects samples based on the subjective judgment
of the researcher rather than random selection. It
is a less stringent method. This sampling method
depends heavily on the expertise of the
researchers. It is carried out by observation, and
researchers use it widely for qualitative research.
 Types of Non-probability
Sampling
• Convenience sampling (also called accidental, opportunity or
grab sampling) : is a non-probability sampling technique
where samples are selected from the population only because
they are conveniently available to the researcher
• Quota sampling: Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants
to study the career goals of male and female employees in an
organization. There are 500 employees in the organization,
also known as the population. To understand better about a
population, the researcher will need only a sample, not the
entire population. Further, the researcher is interested in
particular strata within the population.
• Judgmental or purposive, selective, subjective or
authoritative sampling: Researchers select the samples based
purely on the researcher’s knowledge and credibility. The
researchers choose only those people who they deem fit to
participate in the research study. Judgmental sampling is not
a scientific method of sampling, because the preconceived
notions of a researcher can influence the results. Thus, this
research technique involves a high amount of ambiguity.
• Consecutive or Sequential Sampling: The researcher picks a
single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts
his study, analyzes the results then picks another group of
subjects if needed and so on. This technique can be considered
as the best of all non-probability samples because it includes
all subjects that are available that makes the sample a better
representation of the entire population.
• Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling (also known as
chain-referral sampling) is a non-probability (non-random)
sampling method used when characteristics to be possessed by
samples are rare and difficult to find. This sampling method
involves primary data sources nominating another potential
primary data sources to be used in the research. In other
words, snowball sampling method is based on referrals from
initial subjects to generate additional subjects.
• Expert Sampling: Assembling a sample of persons with
known or demonstrable experience and expertise in some area
(e.g. an expert panel).
• Heterogeneity Purposive Non-probability Sampling: A way
to sample a wide array of ideas. One includes a broad and
diverse range of participants.
• Census Sampling: The survey that covers the total population
whereby all members in the population are interviewed
 Bias in Sampling
There are five important potential sources of bias
irrespective of the method used. Sampling bias may
be introduced when:
•Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from
•People in hard-to-reach groups are omitted
•Selected individuals are replaced with others, for example if
they are difficult to contact
•There are low response rates
•An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame (for example,
if it excludes people who have recently moved to an area)
 DATA CLEANING
• Data cleaning is the process of preparing data
for analysis by removing or modifying data
that is incorrect, incomplete, irrelevant,
duplicated, or improperly formatted. This
data is usually not necessary or helpful when it
comes to analyzing data because it may hinder
the process or provide inaccurate results.
ANALYZING DATA, VISUALIZATION
AND INTERPRETATION
• Data Analysis is the process of bringing
order and structure to collected data. It
turns data into information teams can use.
Analysis is done using systematic
methods to look for trends, groupings, or
other relationships between different
types of data
• The type of data analysis you do is determined
by the type of data you have and the
information needs outlined in the
project Performance Management Plan.
• Quantitative data allows you to count and
conduct quantitative, statistical analysis. It
generally tells you “what” is happening with
your project.
• There are two main types of quantitative
analysis: Descriptive Statistics or analysis and
Inferential Statistics or Analysis
 Data visualization
• Data visualization is the process of putting
data into a chart, graph, or other visual format
that helps inform analysis and interpretation.
Data visuals present the analyzed data in ways
that are accessible to and engage different
stakeholders.
Descriptive Statistics or analysis
Descriptive statistics (also known as descriptive
analysis) is the first level of analysis. A few commonly
used descriptive statistics are:
•Mean: numerical average of a set of values.
•Median: midpoint of a set of numerical values.
•Mode: most common value among a set of values.
•Percentage: used to express how a value or group of
respondents within the data relates to a larger group of
respondents.
•Frequency: the number of times a value is found.
•Range: the highest and lowest value in a set of values.
Inferential Statistics or Analysis
Inferential statistics are often used to compare
the differences between the treatment groups.
Inferential statistics use measurements from the
sample of subjects in the experiment to compare
the treatment groups and make generalizations
about the larger population of subjects
 Types of Inferential Statistics
There are many different types of analysis that involve inferential
statistics. Below is a partial list of Inferential Statistics.
•Pearson Correlation Coefficient–Used to determine the strength of
the relationship between two continuous variables
•Regression Coefficient-The squared value of the Pearson
Correlation Coefficient. Indicates the amount of variance explained
between two or more variables.
• t-test-Determines if there is a significant statistical difference
between two means. The independent variable is categorical while the
dependent variable is continuous.
•Analysis of Variance-Same as a t-test but for three means or more.
•Chi-Square-Goodness-of-Fit-This test determines if there is a
difference between two categorical variables.
 Visualization
Multiple visuals will likely be needed to understand the
larger change process and inform data use. Common data
visual formats include:
•Frequency tables
•Cross-tabulation tables
•Bar charts
•Line graphs
•Pie charts
•Heat Maps
•Scatter graph
 Correlational Relationship

Positive correlation
70
• When the values of 60
• TWO variables 50 Hr
work
• “go together” 40
Earnin
• or 30 gs

• values on X & Y 20

• change in SAME 10

• DIRECTION 0
 Negative Correlation

• When the values of 120

two variables 100
• CO-VARY
80
Hrs
• in Opposite direction work
60
Earnin
40 gs
• (as one goes up,
20
• the other goes down)
0
 Regression Coefficients
Regression coefficients represent point estimates
that are multiplied by values of variables to predict
the dependent variable. The multiple linear
regression equation is
Y=α+b1X1+b2X2+…+bkXk,
where Y is the dependent variable, X1 through Xk are
values of the independent variables, α is the
intercept, and b1 through bk are the regression
coefficients
• Coefficients are the numbers by which the
variables in an equation are multiplied. For
example, in the equation y = -3.6 + 5.0X 1 -
1.8X2, the variables X1 and X2 are multiplied
by 5.0 and -1.8, respectively, so the
coefficients are 5.0 and -1.8.
• The size and sign of a coefficient in an
equation affect its graph. In a simple linear
equation (contains only one x variable), the
coefficient is the slope of the line
 Regression Coefficient Graphs

The coefficient (and slope) is positive 5. The coefficients are 2 and -3

 Data interpretation
Data interpretation is the process of attaching
meaning to the data. Interpretation requires
making conclusions about generalization,
correlation and causation, and is intended to
answer the questions/address the key
objectives /test hypothesis of your research.
 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The discussion interprets and describes the significance
of your findings in light of what was already known
about the research problem being investigated, and
explains any new understanding or fresh insights about
the problem after you've taken the findings into
consideration. The discussion always connects to the
introduction by way of the research objectives,
questions or hypotheses you posed and the literature
you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange
the introduction; the discussion should always explain
how your study has moved the reader's understanding of
the research problem forward from where you left them
at the end of the introduction.
Importance of a Good Discussion
• This section is often considered the most important part of
a research paper because it most effectively demonstrates
your ability as a researcher to think critically about an issue, to
develop creative solutions to problems based on the findings,
and to formulate a deeper, more profound understanding of the
research problem you are studying.
• The discussion section is where you explore the underlying
meaning of your research
• This is the section where you need to present the
importance of your study and how it may be able to
contribute to and/or fill existing gaps in the field
General Rules
• Do not be verbose or repetitive.
• Be concise and make your points clearly.
• Avoid using jargon.
• Follow a logical stream of thought.
• Use the present verb tense, especially for
established facts; however, refer to specific
works and references in the past tense.
• If needed, use subheadings to help organize
your presentation or to group your
interpretations into themes.
 CONCLUSION
The conclusion is intended to help the reader
understand why your research should matter to
them after they have finished reading your
report. A conclusion is not merely a summary of
your points or a re-statement of your research
problem but a synthesis of key points.
 Importance of a Good Conclusion
A well-written conclusion provides you with several
important opportunities to demonstrate your overall
understanding of the research problem to the reader.
These include:
•Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in
your report.
•Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger
implications of your study..
•Demonstrating the importance of your ideas.
•Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking
about the research problem.
 General Rules
When writing the conclusion, these general
rules apply:
•State your conclusions in clear, simple
language.
•Do not simply reiterate your results or the
discussion.
•Indicate opportunities for future research, as
long as you haven't already done so in the
discussion section of your paper.
 REFERENCES
• Referencing allows you to acknowledge the contribution of
other writers and researchers in your work.
• Referencing is also a way to give credit to the writers from
whom you have borrowed words and ideas.
• Referencing is a way to provide evidence to support the
assertions and claims in your own assignments. By citing
experts in your field, you are showing your marker that you
are aware of the field in which you are operating.
• References should always be accurate, allowing your
readers to trace the sources of information you have used.
 APPENDICES
Appendices contain material that is too
detailed to include in the main report, such as
long mathematical derivations or calculations,
detailed technical drawings, or tables of raw
data. The content should be summarised and
referred to at the appropriate point in the the
body of the report.