Measurement and scaling

Techniques
 Types of Scales
 A scale is basically a continuous spectrum or series of
categories and has been defined as any series of items that are
arranged progressively according to value or magnitude, into
which an item can be placed according to its quantification.
these are simply ways to categorize different types of
variables.

 Four popular scales in business research are:

– Nominal scales
– Ordinal scales
– Interval scales
– Ratio scales
 Nominal Scale
 A nominal scale is the simplest of the four scale types and in which
the numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as labels for
identification or classification . “Nominal” scales could simply be
called “labels”. Labels are divided into mutually exclusive and
exhaustive categories. A sub-type of nominal scale with only two
categories (e.g. male/female) is called “dichotomous”. The numbers
assigned in a nominal scale cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied or
divided.
 Example:
What is your gender?
 Males
 Females
What is your hair color?
 Black
 Brown
 Other
 Ordinal Scale
An ordinal scale is one that arranges objects or alternatives
according to their magnitude. It is the order of the values is
what’s important and significant, but the differences between
each one is not really known. ie., excellent is better than good but
how much is excellent better?
In ordinal scale, the assigned ranks cannot be added, multiplied,
subtracted or divided. One can compute median, percentiles and
quartiles of the distribution.
Ordinal Scale data can be converted to nominal scale data but
not the other way around.
 Examples:
Career Opportunities with this course?
 Moderate
 Good
 Excellent
 Interval Scale

Interval scales are numeric scales in which not only the order, but
also the differences between the values have meaningful
interpretation. The interval Scale data has an arbitrary origin
(non-zero origin).In this scale difference of value have
meaningful interpretation but ratio of scale does not have
meaningful interpretation.

Example:
• Celsius and Farenheit Temperature

• Time
• Consumer Price Index
 Ratio Scale
 Ratio scales are the ultimate  when it comes to measurement
scales because they tell us about the order, the exact value
between units, and also have an absolute. everything above
about interval data applies to ratio scales + ratio scales have a
clear definition of zero.  Good examples of ratio variables
include height and weight.
 Examples:

 Weight
 Distance
Summary
 Attitude measurement
Attitude can not measured directly. There are many variables
which the researcher wishes to investigate as psychological
variables and these cannot directly observed.

In order to measure an attitude, we make an inference based on

the perceptions the customers have about the product/services.
Basically attitude has three components:
 Cognitive Component
 Affective Component

 Intention Component
 Cognitive Component: This component represents an
individual’s information and knowledge about an object. It
includes awareness of the existence of the object, beliefs about
the characteristics or attributes of the object and judgment about
the relative importance of each of the attribute.
 Affective Component: The affective component summarizes a
person’s overall feeling or emotions towards the objects.
Example: the plastic product produced by Pearl Pet are cheaper
that Tupperware products; however, the quality of Tupperware
products is better than that of Pearl Pet. In this example
consumers overall feeling is stated.
 Intention Component: This component of an attitude, also
called the behavioural component, reflects a predisposition to an
action by reflecting the consumer’s buying or purchase intention.
 Classification of Scales

Comparative Non-Comparative
Scales C Scales

Paired
Comparison
Likert Scale

Constant
Sum

Stapel

Rank Order
 Comparative Scales
In comparative scales it is assumed that respondents make
use of a standard frame of reference before answering the
question.

Example: How do you rate Barista in comparison to Café Coffee

Day on quality of beverage?
 Paired comparison scales
Here a respondent is presented with two object and is asked to
select one according to whatever criterion he/she wants to use.
The resulting data from this scale is ordinal in nature.
Example: there are 4 brands( A,B,C,D) and a paired comparison
with 2 brands at a time is presented to the respondent with the
option to choose one of them. As there are 4 brands, it will result
in 6 paired comparison. If sample size is 250 respondent result is
presented as followed.
A B C D
A ---- 0.60 0.30 0.60
B 0.40 ---- 0.28 0.70
C 0.70 0.72 ---- 0.65
D 0.40 0.30 0.35 ----
 Rank order scaling
Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously
and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion.
Example: Rank the following soft drinks in order of your
preference, the most preferred soft drink should be ranked 1,
second most should be ranked 2 and so on.

Soft Drinks Rank

Coke
Pepsi
Limca
Sprite
Mirinda
Seven Up
Fanta
 Constant Sum Rating Scaling
The respondents are asked to allocate a total of 100 points
between various objects and brands. The respondent distributes
the points in various object in the order of his preference.
Example: Allocate a total of 100 points among the various
schools into which you would like to admit your child.

Schools Points
DPS
Modern School
Doon International
APEEJAY
DAV Public School
Laxman Public School
Tagore International
Total Points 100
 Non-Comparative Scales
In non- comparative scale respondent do not make any frame of
reference before answering the question.
Example: the respondent may be asked to evaluate the quality of
food in a restaurant on a five point scale.
 The Likert Scale

This is a multiple item agree-disagree five-point scale. The

respondents are given a certain number of items on which they
are asked to express their degree of agreement/disagreement. An
assumption of the Likert scale is that each of the items measures
some aspect of a single common factor.
Example:
Please select the number below that best represents how you feel
about your new job.
1. This job is quite pleasant.

Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly

agree (1) (2) (3) (4) Disagree (5)
 Stapel Scale
The Stapel Scale is used to measure the direction and intensity of an attitude.
This scale generally has 10 categories involving numbering -5 to +5 without a
neutral point and is usually presented in a vertical form.
+5 +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2
+1 +1
Quality of Food Quality of Food
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
 Sources of Error in Measurement
(a)Respondent: At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong
negative feelings or it is just possible that he may have very little
knowledge but may not admit his ignorance. All this result in an interview
of ‘guesses.’ Transient factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may
limit the ability of the respondent to respond accurately and fully.
(b)Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct
measurement. Any condition which places a strain on interview can have
serious effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport. For instance, if
someone else is present, he can distort responses by joining in or merely
by being present..
(c) Measurer: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or
reordering questions. His behaviour, style and looks may encourage or
discourage certain replies from respondents.
(d)Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring
instrument. The use of complex words, beyond the comprehension of the
respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for
replies, response choice omissions, etc.
 Criteria for Good Measurement
Validity – refers to the suitability or meaningfulness of the
measurement. Validity is the ability of a scale or measuring
instrument to measure what it is intended to measure. Validity
is analogous to unbiasedness.
Does this instrument describe accurately the construct I am
attempting to measure?
(e.g. is absenteeism from work a valid measure of job
satisfaction are there other influences like a flu epidemic
which is keeping employees from work)
Reliability – refers to consistency or stability of measurement.

Reliability is the degree to which measurements are devoid of error and

therefore in the position to yield consistent results, also over repeated

attempts over time (ordinal measures always yield the same order,

interval measurements always yield the same order and same distance

between the measured items). Reliability is analogous to variance.

Can our measure or other form of observation be confirmed by further

measurements or observations?

If you measure the same thing would you get the same score?
 Practicality: Practicality is the ability of a measurement
instrument to accurately measure variability in stimuli or
responses (e.g. on a scale, the choices very strongly agree,
strongly agree, agree, don’t agree offer more choices than a scale
with just two choices - agree and don’t agree – and is thus more
practical)