Research Methodology

Away of thinking
Identifying Variables
Constructing Hypothesis
The research process: an eight-step model
1-Formulating a research problem
2- Selecting a study design
3- Construction an instrument for data collection
4- Selecting sample
5- Writing a research proposal
6- Collecting data and considering ethical issues
7- Displaying data
8- writing the research report
 Research A way of thinking
• There are several ways of collecting and understanding- information and
finding answers to your questions-research is one way. The difference
between research and other ways of obtaining answers to your questions is
that in a process that is classified as research, you work within a framework
of a set of philosophies, use methods that have been tested for validity and
reliability, and attempt to be unbiased and objective.
• Research has many applications. You need to have research skills to be an
effective service provider, administrator/manager or planner: As a
professional who has a responsibility to enhance professional knowledge,
research skills are essential.
• The typology of research can be looked at from three perspectives:
application, objectives and the type of information sought. From the point of
view of the application of research, there is applied and pure research. Most
of the research undertaken in the social sciences is applied, the findings
being designed either for use in understanding a phenomenon/issue or to
bring change in a program/situation.
• Pure research is academic in nature and is undertaken in order to
gain knowledge about phenomena that may or may not have
application in the near feature, and to develop new techniques and
procedures that form the body of research methodology.
• A research study can be carried out with four objectives: to describe
a situation, phenomenon, problem or issue (descriptive research); to
establish or explore a relationship between two or more variables
(correlation research); to explain why certain things happen the way
they do (explanatory research); and to examine the feasibility of
conducting a study (exploratory research). From the point of view of
the type of information sought, there are two types of research:
quantitative and qualitative. The main objective of a qualitative study
is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude,
whereas" quantitative research, in addition, helps you to quantify the
variation.
 Identifying Variables

• Knowledge of the different types of variables and the way they are measured plays
a crucial role in research. Variables are important in bringing clarity and specificity
to the conceptualization of a research problem, to the formulation of hypotheses,
and to the development of a research instrument. They affect how the data can be
analyzed, what statistical tests can be applied to the data, what interpretations can
be made, how the data can be presented, and what conclusions can be drawn.
The way you ask a question determines its categorization on a measurement
scale, which in turn affects how the data can be analyzed, what statistical tests can
be applied to the data, what interpretations can be made, how the data can be
presented and what conclusions can be drawn. Also, the way a variable is
measured at the data collection stage to a great extent determines whether a study
is considered to be predominantly 'qualitative' or 'quantitative' in nature. It is
important for a beginner to understand the different ways in which a variable can
be measured and the implications of this for the study.
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 Constructing A Hypothesis
• Hypotheses, though important, are not essential for a study. A
perfectly valid study can be conducted without constructing a single
hypothesis. Hypotheses are important for bringing clarity, specificity
and focus to a research study.
• A hypothesis is a speculative statement that is subjected to
verification through a research study. In formulating a hypothesis it
is important to ensure that it is simple, specific, conceptually clear,
able to be verified, rooted in a body of knowledge and able to be
operationalised .
• There are two broad types of hypothesis: a research hypothesis;
and an alternate hypothesis. A research hypothesis can be further
classified, based upon the way it is formulated, as a null hypothesis,
a hypothesis of difference, a hypothesis of point-prevalence, and a
hypothesis of association.
• The Research Process: An Eight-step
Model
 Formulating A research Problem
• The formulation of research problem is the
more important step in the research. It is
the foundation, in term of design, on which
you build the whole study. Any effects in it
will affect the validity and reliability of your
study.
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 Selecting A study Design
• There are three perspectives for each study design.
• The three perspectives are: the number of contacts, the reference
period, and the nature of the investigation. The first comprises
cross-sectional studies, before-and-after studies, and longitudinal
studies. The second categorizes the studies as retrospective,
prospective and retrospective, prospective. The third perspective
classifies studies into experimental, non-experimental, and semi-
experimental studies.
• The terminology used to describe these perspectives is that of the
author but the names of the study designs are universally used. The
different designs across each category are mutually exclusive but
not so within a category. Some commonly used designs have been
discussed.
 Construction an instrument for data collection

• The methods used to collect information about a situation, phenomenon, issue or group
of people can be classified as:
• primary sources; and
• secondary sources.
• Interviewing, observation and the use of questionnaires are the three main methods
classified under primary sources. All other sources, where the information required is
already available, such as government publications, reports and previous research, are
called secondary sources.
• The choice of a particular method of collecting data depends upon the purpose of
collecting information, the type of information being collected, the resources available to
the researcher, the skills of the researcher and the socio-economic-demographic
characteristics of the study population. Each method has its own advantages and
disadvantages and each is appropriate for certain situations. The choice of a particular
method for collecting data is important in it self for ensuring the quality of the information.
No method of data collection will guarantee 100 percent accurate information. The quality
of your information is dependent upon several methodological, situational, and
respondent-related factors and your ability as a researcher lies in either controlling or
minimizing the effect of these factors in the process of data collection.
 Selecting sample
• Sampling, in a way, is a trade-off between accuracy and resources.
Through sampling you make an estimate about the information of
interest. You do not find the true population mean
• One of the most important principles of sampling is that the greater
the sample size, the more accurate will be the estimate of the true
population mean, given that everything else remains the same. The
interferences drawn from a sample can be: affected by both the size
of the sample and the extent of variation in the sampling population.
• Sampling designs can be classified as random/probability sampling.
designs, non-random/probability sampling designs, and 'mixed'
sampling designs. For a sample to be called a random sample, each
element in the study population must have an equal and
independent chance of selection.
 Writing a research proposal
• A research proposal details the operational plan for obtaining
answers to research questions. It must tell your supervisor and
others what you propose to do, how you plan to proceed and why
the chosen strategy has been selected. It thus assures readers of
the validity of the methodology used to obtain answers accurately
and objectively.
• The contents of your proposal are arranged under the following
headings: preamble/introduction, the problem, objectives of the
study, hypotheses to be tested, study design, the setting,
measurement procedures sampling, analysis of data, structure of
your report, and problems and limitations.
 Collecting data and considering
ethical issues
• Ethical issues in research can be looked at as they relate to participants,
researchers, and sponsoring organizations.
• With regard to participants, ethical considerations concern: collecting
information; seeking consent; providing incentives; seeking sensitive
information; the possibility of causing harm to participants; and maintaining
confidentiality.
• With regard to the researcher, areas of ethical concern include: introducing
bias; providing and depriving individuals of treatment; using unacceptable
research methodology; inaccurate reporting; and, the use of information.
• Ethical considerations in relation to sponsoring organizations concern
restrictions imposed on research designs and the possible use of findings.
 Displaying data
• Research findings are usually conveyed to readers as text. However, there are
times when a piece of information can be better communicated in the form of a
table or graph. These do not give readers any more information but they
communicate it clearly. What you use should be determined by what you think
will be easiest for readers to understand. Tables have the, advantage of
containing a great deal of information in a small space, whilst graphs make it
easy for readers to absorb information at a glance. "
• Ideally, a table should have five parts: title, column headings or caption, body
and supplementary notes or footnotes.
• To interpret a table, simple arithmetic procedures such as percentages,
cumulative frequencies, or ratios can be used. You can also calculate simple
descriptive statistical procedures such as the mean, the mode, the median, the
chi-square test, the t-test, and the coefficient of correlation. If you have
statistical knowledge, advanced statistics can be applied.
• While there are many types of graphs, the common ones are: the histogram,
the bar diagram, the line diagram and scattergram.
 writing the research report
• In a way, writing your report is the most crucial step in the research process as it
communicates the findings to your research supervisor and readers. A badly
written report can spoil all the hard work you have put into your research study.
• Styles of research writing vary but all research reports must be written clearly
and concisely. Furthermore, scientific writing requires intellectual rigour and
there are certain obligations in terms of accuracy and objectivity.
• There are different ways of referencing and of writing a bibliography. You need
to select the system that is acceptable to your discipline and university.
• Before you start writing the research report, develop an outline of the different
chapters and their contents. The chapters should be written around the main
themes of the study, for which your sub-objectives are of immense help. When
providing specific information about a variable, the write-up should integrate the
rationale for studying the variable; the literature review; the hypothesis, if any;
findings; conclusions drawn; and possible explanations for the findings.