Determining the Research Design

cont....
• The research design provides the overall structure for
the procedures the researcher follows, the data the
researcher collects, and the data analyses the
researcher conducts. Simply put, research design is
planning.
• Desgin is a plan for selecting the sources and type of
information used to answer the research question.
• It is a framework for specifying the relationships
among the study’s variables.
 cont....
• It is a blueprint that outlines each procedure from the
hypotheses to the analysis of data.
• Your research design involves this kind of evidence
gathered and from where and how such evidence is
interpreted in order to provide a good answer to the
basic research question.
 cont...
• Whether we call it a plan, framework, procedure, or
blueprint, design is the entire course of the research
or overall approach to the research process and has
to do with the following;
• The data the researcher collects, and the data
analyses the researcher conducts.
• The kind of evidence gathered and from where and
how such evidence is interpreted
• An outline from the hypotheses to the analysis of
data
 cont...
Generally the following types of designs are there
• Explotatory: new area; for the purpose of learning
something about the problem or issue
• Descriptive; state something about size,form,
distribution, existence of a variable(who, what, where,
when of a variable)
• Causal/analytical; analyze the why and how of
something Cause-effect relationship of variables/pheno.
 cont...
• Historical; study about past events(description)
• Experimental; measurement through experiment
This all is to;
• Identify research problem
• Determine purpose of research
• Develop theoretical framework
 cont...
• Define research questions/hypotheses
• Define terms
• Identify limitations of study
• Decide methodology
• Determine expected outcome
 The Research Methodology
• As indicated previously Methodology is part of design,
it is a strategy to the research process from the
theoretical underpinning to the collection and
analysis of the data.
• Methods are by which data can be collected and/or
analyzed; its concerned with the following main
issues
 cont...
• Why you collected certain data
• What data you collected
• From where you collected it
• When you collected it
• How you collected it
• How you will analyze it
 cont...
• Generally our methodology can be classified it to
three; Quantitative, Qualitative and mixed method
• Qualitative; The main focus is to understand, explain,
explore, discover and clarify situations, feelings,
perceptions, attitudes, values, beliefs and
experiences of a group of people.
 cont...
Qualitative research is: an approach to inquiry that begins
with assumptions, worldviews, possible a theoretical lens
• the study of research problems exploring the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem Researchers collect data in natural settings with
a sensitivity to the people under study.
• Data is analyzed inductively to establish patterns or
themes.
 cont...
• Study designs in qualitative research are more
appropriate for exploring the variation and diversity in
any aspect of social life, whereas in quantitative
research they are more suited to finding out the
extent of this variation and diversity. If your interest is
in studying values, beliefs, understandings, perceptions,
meanings, etc., qualitative study designs are more
appropriate as they provide immense flexibility
 cont..
Qualitative
• Aim at holistic picture of reality
• Analyzes words, reports and views
• Focuses on distinction or attributes
Quantitative
• Focuses on numerical data
• Uses statistical model to explain observation
• Mostly determines magnitude and frequency
 cont..
• Mixed method is Incorporate both qualitative and
quantitative elements in structure.
• It involves the collection and analysis of qualitative and
quantitative information in a single study.
• In practice the application of mixed method usually
becomes necessary in studying complex cases like ethnic
diversity and its challenges in a single community.
Collecting Data
 cont...
• when you go to the filed to collect data from different
sources, you have to evaluate it because you might
gather a lot of data which are unrelated to your
specific topic.
• so you must collect data with a ritical eye and be
selctive about what will be useful to your research.
• when evaluating resource consider the following
 cont...
• relevancy; how relevant is the information, is it
appropriate for my research topic, is this something you
can use, does it provide enough information or detail?
• suitability; how suitable is this source for me, can i read
and understand the information?
• Authority; how reliable is the information, what do you
know about the author, is the author an ecpert on this
topic, publication reputable
 cont..
• objectivity; is the information balanced, what is the
author’s purpse in presenting this information to inform or
to persude.
• currency; how current is the infomation when was the
infomation published
 cont....
• Important statistical terms
1.Variable; an attribut of the entity which you have
chosen as your unit of analysis,
2. Population: a set which includes all measurements of
interest to the researcher (The collection of all
responses, measurements, or counts that are of interest),
Sample: A subset of the population
 1. Variable
• The most important characteristic of a variable is that it
can change or vary; in other words, it can take more
than one value either across entities or within the same
entity over time.
 Quantitative and Qualitative Variables
• A qualitative variable is a non-numerical attribute of an
individual or object. Gender or color simply divide people
or objects into groups job position or social class divide
and order, are known as ordered qualitative variables.
• A quantitative variable is a numerical attribute of an
individual or object. To obtain a quantitative variable, you
need to find a suitable measuring tool. Ig there is no
generally accepted measure, you may have to devise
your own measuring tool or find out what other
researchers have used.
 Independent and Dependent Variables
• When we investigate cause and effect relationships, we
are of course, looking at the extent to which one
variable(the cause) influences another variable(the
effect).
• the independent variable is the variable that can be
manipulated to predict the values of the dependent
variable.
 cont...
• The dependent variable is the variable whose values are
predicted b the independent variable.
• For example, you might wish to vary the intensity of
lighting in a room( the independent variable) in order to
observe the effect on the productivity levels of employees(
the dependent variable)
 2. Sampling techniques & sample size
• A sample is made up of some of the members of a
population.
• A sampling frame is ‘a list or other record of the
population from which all the sampling units are drawn’
 cont...
Why sampling?
Get information about large populations,
Less costs, Less field time,
More accuracy i.e. Can Do A Better Job of Data
Collection, When it’s impossible to study the whole
population
 Types of sampling
1.Probability sampling; the researcher can specify in
advance that each segment of the population will be
represented in the sample.
2. Non-probability samples: the researcher has no way of
forecasting or guaranteeing that each element of the
population will be represented in the sample.
 Data Collection Tools
Data refers to known facts or things used as a basis for
inference or calculating.
there are two main sources of data;
1. primary data; is an original data collected from the
source, survey data, experimental data.....etc
2. secondary data; data from already existed book,
document, records, reports......etc.
data can also be classified as qualitative or quantitative
 cont...
• Measurement is limiting the data of any phenomenon so
that those data may be interpreted and ultimately
compared to an acceptable qualitative or quantitative
standard,
• measurement instruments provide a basis on which the
entire research effort rests.
• as you plan your research project, you sould determine
clearly and definitively the nature of the measurement
instruments you will use
 1. Primary Data Collection Tools
1. Observation; Observation is Helpful when need direct
information, trying to understand ongoing behavior
there is physical evidence, products, or outputs than can be
observed, need to provide alternative when other data
collection is infeasible or inappropriate
 cont...
Advantages and Challenges of Observation
Advantages: Collects data on actual vs. self- reported
behavior or perceptions. It is real-time vs. retrospective
Challenges: Observer bias, potentially unreliable;
interpretation and coding challenges; sampling can be a
problem; can be labor intensive; low response rates
 cont...
2. surveys and Interviews; Excellent for asking people
about: perceptions, opinions, ideas
• Less accurate for measuring behavior
• Sample should be representative of the whole
• Big problem with response rates
 cont...
• Advantages and Challenges of Surveys
Advantages
• Best when you want to know what people think, believe,
or perceive, only they can tell you that
Challenges
• People may not accurately recall their behavior or may be
reluctant to reveal their behavior if it is illegal or
stigmatized. What people think they do or say they do is
not always the same as what they actually do.
 xon...
3. Interviews
• Often semi-structured
• Used to explore complex issues in depth
• Forgiving of mistakes: unclear questions can be clarified
during the interview and changed for subsequent
interviews
• Can provide evaluators with an intuitive sense of the
situation
 cont..
Challenges of Interviews
• Can be expensive, labor intensive, and time consuming
• Selective hearing on the part of the interviewer may miss
information that does not conform to pre-existing beliefs
• Cultural sensitivity: e.g., gender issues
 cont...
4. Focus Groups is a type where small homogenous
groups of people are brought together to informally
discuss specific topics under the guidance of a
moderator to identify issues.
Focus Groups are Inappropriate when:
• language barriers are insurmountable
• evaluator has little control over the situation
• trust cannot be established
 cont..
• free expression cannot be ensured
• confidentiality cannot be assured
Advantages
• Can be conducted relatively quickly and easily; may take
less staff time than in-depth, in-person interviews; allow
flexibility to make changes in process and questions; can
explore different perspectives; can be fun
 cont...
Challenges
• Analysis is time consuming; participants not be
representative of population, possibly biasing the data;
group may be influenced by moderator or dominant group
members
 cont..
5. Questionnaires; it is a list of carefully structured
questions, choesn after considerable testing, with a view to
eliciting reliable responses from a choesn sample.
• the aim is to find out what a selected group of participants
do, think or feel.
• a questionnaire survey is cheaper and less time-
consuming than conducting interviews and very large
sampls can be taken
 Designing Questions
• Question design is concerned with the type of
questions to be asked, their wording, the reliablility
and validity of the responses.
• Items of a questionnaire are simply items of your
basic research questions or objectives you have
prepared.
• Remember your research is engaged towards
answering research questions or meeting objectives
on particular points or testing what you have
hypothesized.
 cont...
• one have to consider the reliability and validity of
the question because your finding depend on them.
• Reliability, here is concerned with the findings of the
research.
• The findings can be said to be reliable if you or anyone
else repeated the research and obtained the same
results. Reliability can be assessed by posing the
following two questions
 cont...
1. Will the measure yield the same results on different
occasions?( positivist approach) e.g. Objective type
question the answer is the same always.
2. Will similar observation be made by different
researchers on different occasions?
( phenomenological approach). that the questions
minimize subjectivity.
 cont...
• Validity is concerned with whether the findings are
really about what they appear to be, whether the
research findings accurately represent what is
happening in the situation;
• In other words, whether the data collected is a true
picture of what is being studied.( e.g. That the
questions fit to the level of the university)
 General Rules for designing Questions
(Interview or questionnaire)
Many of the data collection methods described in this
chapter rely on questions as the vehicle for extracting the
primary research data.
1. Explain the purpose of the interview is questionnaire
to all participants.
2.Keep your questions as simple as possible.
3.Do not use Jargon or specialist language
 cont...
4. Phrase each question so that only one meaning is
possible
5. Avoid unclear, descriptive words such as ‘large’ and
small
6.Avoid asking negative questions as these are easy to
misinterpret.
7.Only ask one question at a time
8.Include relevant questions only ( do not be tempted to
include every question you can think of)
 cont...
9. Include questions which serve as cross-checks on the
answers to other questions.
10. Avoid questions which require the participant to
perform calculations.
11. Avoid leading question which imply what the required
answer might be.
12.Avoid offensive questions or insensitive questions
which could cause embarrassment
 cont..
13.Avoid questions which are nothing more than a
memory test.
14.Keep your interview schedule or questionnaire as
short as possible, but include all the questions required
to cover your purposes.
 Type of questions
1. Open-ended; when each respondent can give a
proposal response or opinion in his or her own words.
Questions which seek opinions goes with focus group or
interview(difficult to analyze)
2. Closed-ended- where the respondent’s answer is
selected from a number of predetermined alternatives-
factual questions, age and occupation... etc goes with
questionnaires(easy to analyze).
 Using Rating Scales
• This allows a numerical value to be given to an
opinion; turns the question into a statement and asks
the respondents to indicate their level of agreement
with the statement by ticking a box or circling a
response.
• Allows participants to give more discriminating
responses and to state if they have no opinion, by
providing them with some form of rating scale.
 cont..
• Simple for the respondent to complete and simple for
the researcher to code and analyze.
• Sensitive questions; this are threatening or
embarrassing to the participants questions.
• It is not recommended that you incorporate any type of
sensitive question in a postal questionnaire because
the respondent is highly likely to react by throwing it
away; interview may be a more appropriate form for
asking questions about sensitive issues
 2. Records and Secondary Data
Examples of sources:
– files/records
– industry or government reports
– other reports or prior evaluations
– survey data
– electronic mailing lists and discussion groups
 cont...
– documents (budgets, organizational charts, policies and
procedures, maps, monitoring reports)
– newspapers and television reports
– Diaries and Self-Reported Checklists
Using Existing Data Sets
Key issues: validity, reliability, accuracy, response
rates, data dictionaries, and missing data rates
 cont....
Advantages
• Often less expensive and faster than collecting the
original data.
Challenges
• There may be coding errors or other problems.
• Data may not be exactly what is needed.
• You may have difficulty getting access.
 cont...
You have to verify validity and reliability of data.
will not address the current situation in the selected
church.
Data Collection Summary
Choose more than one data collection technique
Do not let the tool drive your work but rather choose the
right tool to address the evaluation question.
 Ethical consideration in data gathering
• Privacy of individuals
• Voluntary participation
• Consent
• Confidentiality
• Sensitivity to participants
Data Analysis
 cont...
• Data analysis is the most complex task among all the
phases in a research.
• In this section we need to begin with the description of
the sample, data and sources to let the reader know
the sample is representative of the population and
have a background information.
• Figures, graphs and tables are commen in this
chapter.
 cont..
• The data organized in this chapter are related to the
research questions.
• Based on your data collection method you also need to
select the method that you use to change the raw data
into new knowledge.
• The main contents of this chapter are presentation of
data, analysis and interpretation of data and
discussion of data, with relevant concepts and
theories and deriving meaning and conclusion.
 Data processing
Data processing operations are
• Editing: examining the collected raw data to detect
error and omission and to correct these when
possible
• Classification: a process of arranging data in groups
or class on the bases of common character
 1.Presentation of data
• Data may be qualitative or quantitative in essence, so
we can analyse our data based on what method we use
to collect the data.
1. Quantitative data; it is numerical in nature and easily
organized. Tables and graphs are commonly used to
organize and present the numerical data. Tables and
graphs are useful in presenting an overall picture of the
data as well as showing trends that have emerged from
the analysis.
 cont...
• All tables and figures have number and title heading
ex Table 4.1: relation between delivery time and customer
satisfaction.
• Tabulation; Tabulation is the process of summarizing
raw data and displaying the same in compact form for
further analysis. It is an orderly arrangement of data in
columns and rows.
 cont...
Tabulation is essential because:
• It saves space and reduce descriptive statements
• It facilitates the process of comparison
• It facilitates the summation of items and detection of
errors and omission
• It provides the basis for various statistical
computation
 cont...
2. Qualitative data: is based on an attribute and may be
presented in the form of charts, figures and pictures
There would be less numerical data instead we may deal
with concepts, categories or themes which may be
presented in tables.
We also present data in the form quotation from
interviews, observation and documents to support our
arguments.
 cont...
If we use a table we have to refer to them on the text and
explain what they mean
we can categorized based on it nature, such as sex, marital
status...etc
you may also be converted into numbers to present in the
form of tables or graphs
 cont....
Qualitative data analysis process
• Identify the main themes(narration)
• Assign code to the main themes
• Classify responses under the main themes
• Integrate themes and responses into the text of your
report
• Analysis and interpret.
 cont...
• If you are using both methods, in data analysis and
interpretation, the narration of qualitative data should
come in combination with the quantitative data.
common mistake; some researchers present qualitative
and quantitative data in different parts and produce
complicated reports.
 2. Discussion of data
• This section focuses on clarifying points of argument
for the finding and cross- referencing concepts in the
literature as central points.
Discussion of data has three major phases;
1.Understanding the concepts and theories relate to the
data
2.Realizing the structure of the data as they fit for
analysis.
 cont...
3.Bringing together and comparing the data and the
concept in the literature, which help to put the data in a
context to interpret and make meaning at higher level.
In this part their will be an intersection between literature
review and data collected.
Discussion of data takes concepts and theories in the
literature section into account by cross- referencing
each of them.
 cont...
Discussion can be done in two ways
1.Researcher may discuss the data by cross-referencing
with the concepts and theories in the literature while
discussing the data presented qualitatively or
quantitatively.
2.You may form separate section for the discussion to
support the data with cross- referencing the concepts
and theories which can be placed at the end of data
chapter.
 cont...
• In short, discussions strengthen findings by reflecting
consistences and in line with the problems stated and
research questions raised in the introductory chapter.
• A real value of a research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalization
• If the research has no generalization, it is about
interpretation, trying to explain on the partiality of
theories.
 cont...
Common mistake;
• researchers do not cross-reference concepts in the
literature in discussing data. The conceptual part of
the report and the data chapter should stand alone.
Conclusion
 cont...
• It is the last chapter/part of the research report. We
can be entitled as summary and conclusion or
summary, conclusion and Recommendation.
• It is most focused section of the report by readers,
because the chapter includes summary of findings,
concluding remarks and recommendations as
discussed. This chapter begins with introducing what
the chapter is about. The chapter may have several
parts like the reset of the chapters
 1.Summary of Findings
• The aim here is to summarize the study with emphasis
on the data and how it is interpreted to reach
conclusion.
• It begins with restating the objective of the study,
basic questions or hypotheses that guide the study.
• Researchers should retrace key points to show that
they are effectively addressed this includes; basic
question, thesis statement, objective..etc.
 cont...
Common mistake;
• researcher commit in this task is that they present data
without thoughtful discussion,
• and they often miss showing how the research
questions are answered.
• When findings do not lead to clear conclusion,
• over generalizing with limited discussion of data.
 2.Concluding
• Conclusion should be precise, clear and grounded on
the findings. Anything that had not been reflected in
the summary would not appear in the conclusion.
• Conclusion has to match with the specifications
established in the introductory section and the topic
at large.
• If the research is based on two basic question, two
specific conclusions are expected and one broader
conclusion that directly answers the research
problem or title of the study
 3. Recommendation
• After conclusion, recommendation is the one that
points to the future focus of a research report.
• In this part the researcher will suggest what has to be
done to direct the future.
• Recommendation has to focus on key stakeholders
that are identified in the introductory section,
especially in the significance of the study.
• Since it proceeds from conclusion, should be easily
attainable, clear and precise.
 cont...
• It has to focus on actions related to the study
sponsor, Policy makers and academic community.
• It also suggest what future researchers may do to
push the achievements of the particular study.
Common mistake;
• Researchers commit in writing this section is that they
suggest points and give a lot of complicated
explanations and most students exaggerate the
points they suggest.
PREPARING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 Contents
1.Introducing The Research Problem
• The problem proposed to be studied is introduced in
this section.
• It should help the reader to inform the topic and the
problem.
• The problem should be stated in such a way that it’s
importance and relevance is realized by any one who
reads it.
 cont...
2. Objectives; This is a very important section and
everything else in the study is centered around it. one
clearly stated relevant objective for a study would be
good enough.
The objective of the proposed study should be stated very
clearly and should be specific, achievable and measurable.
 cont...
3.Significance of the study; why your research and topic
is important.
4.Research question both general and specific.
5.Review of Literature;This section reflects review of
literature done by the investigator. This section what is
already known about the topic. It is important to make it
coherent, relevant and easily readable knowledge. It
helps the investigator to gain good knowledge in that
field of inquiry
 cont...
6.Research methodology; It is necessary for the
researcher to know the methodology.
7.Preliminary outline; it shows a relationship of ideas to
be presented. It shows the order of thesis and their
relative importance. The thesis statement must be
related with the outline. The headings are the main
topic or the broadest topic and each will have a sub-
heading. Lets see page 52,53, 84.
Thank you!!!