Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Polymer Properties
Elongation Poissons
in 50 mm ratio
Material UTS (MPa) E (GPa) (%) ()
ABS 2855 1.42.8 755
ABS (reinforced) 100 7.5 0.35
Acetals 5570 1.43.5 7525
Acetals (reinforced) 135 10 0.350.40
Acrylics 4075 1.43.5 505
Cellulosics 1048 0.41.4 1005
Epoxies 35140 3.517 101
Epoxies (reinforced) 701400 2152 42
Fluorocarbons 748 0.72 300100 0.460.48
Nylon 5583 1.42.8 20060 0.320.40
Nylon (reinforced) 70210 210 101
Phenolics 2870 2.821 20
Polycarbonates 5570 2.53 12510 0.38
Polycarbonates (reinforced) 110 6 64
Polyesters 55 2 3005 0.38
Polyesters (reinforced) 110160 8.312 31
Polyethylenes 740 0.10.14 100015 0.46
Polypropylenes 2035 0.71.2 50010
Polypropylenes (reinforced) 40100 3.66 42
Polystyrenes 1483 1.44 601 0.35
Polyvinyl chloride 755 0.0144 45040
TABLE 10.1 Approximate range of mechanical properties for various engineering
plastics at room temperature.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Polymer
Structure
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 10.1 Basic structure of some
polymer molecules: (a) ethylene molecule; (b)
polyethylene, a linear chain of many ethylene
molecules; (c) molecular structure of various
polymers. These molecules are examples of
the basic building blocks for plastics.
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polyvinyl chloride
Polytetrafluoroethylene
(Teflon)
Polyethylene
H
C
H
H
C
H
Fl
C
Fl
Fl
C
Fl
H
C
H
H
C
Cl
CH
3
H
C
H
H
C
C
6
H
5
H
C
H
H
C
n
H
C
H
H
C
H
n CH
3
H
C
H
H
C
n
H
C
H
H
C
Cl
n C
6
H
5
H
C
H
H
C
n
Fl
C
Fl
Fl
C
Fl
H
C
H
H
C
H
(a) (b)
Polyethylene
Mer
n
Heat, pressure,
catalyst
(c)
H H H H
C C C C
H H H H H H
C
H H
C
Polymer repeating unit Monomer
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Effect of Molecular Weight
FIGURE 10.2 Effect of molecular weight and degree of polymerization
on the strength and viscosity of polymers.
10
4
10
7
Molecular weight, degree
of polymerization
P
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
Tensile and
impact strength
Commercial
polymers
Viscosity
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Polymer Chains
FIGURE 10.3 Schematic illustration of polymer chains. (a) Linear structure; thermoplastics such as acrylics, nylons,
polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride have linear structures. (b) Branched structure, such as polyethylene. (c) Cross-
linked structure; many rubbers and elastomers have this structure. Vulcanization of rubber produces this structure.
(d) Network structure, which is basically highly cross-linked; examples include thermosetting plastics such as epoxies
and phenolics.
(a) Linear (b) Branched
(c) Cross-linked (d) Network
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Effect of Temperature
FIGURE 10.4 Behavior of polymers as a function of temperature and (a) degree of crystallinity and (b) cross-
linking. The combined elastic and viscous behavior of polymers is known as viscoelasticity.
(a) (b)
A
m
o
r
p
h
o
u
s
Glassy
Increasing
crystallinity
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
l
o
g

s
c
a
l
e
)
Temperature
T
g
T
m
100% crystalline
Leathery
Rubbery
Viscous
N
o

c
r
o
s
s
-
lin
k
in
g
Increasing
cross-linking
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
l
o
g

s
c
a
l
e
)
Temperature
T
m
Leathery
Rubbery
Viscous
Glassy
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Crystallinity
FIGURE 10.5 Amorphous and crystalline regions in a polymer. Note that the crystalline region
(crystallite) has an orderly arrangement of molecules. The higher the crystallinity, the harder, stiffer,
and less ductile is the polymer.
Amorphous
region
Crystalline
region
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Glass-Transition Temperature
FIGURE 10.6 Specic volume of polymers as a
function of temperature. Amorphous polymers, such
as acrylic and polycarbonate, have a glass-transition
temperature, Tg, but do not have a specic melting
point, Tm. Partly crystalline polymers, such as
polyethylene and nylons, contract sharply at their
melting points during cooling.
Temperature
T
g
T
m
Amorphous
polymers
C
ooling:
rapid

slow

S
p
e
c
i
f
i
c

v
o
l
u
m
e

Partly
crystalline
polymers
Material T
g
(

C) T
m
(

C)
Nylon 6,6 57 265
Polycarbonate 150 265
Polyester 73 265
Polyethylene
High density -90 137
Low density -110 115
Polymethylmethacrylate 105
Polypropylene -14 176
Polystyrene 100 239
Polytetrauoroethylene (Teon) -90 327
Polyvinyl chloride 87 212
Rubber -73
TABLE 10.2 Glass-Transition and Melting
Temperatures of Selected Polymers
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Deformation of Polymers
FIGURE 10.7 Various deformation modes for
polymers.: (a) elastic; (b) viscous; (c) viscoelastic
(Maxwell model); and (d) viscoelastic (Voigt or Kelvin
model). In all cases, an instantaneously applied load
occurs at time to, resulting in the strain paths shown.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
S
t
r
a
i
n
Time
t
0
t
1
Increasing viscosity
S
t
r
a
i
n
Time
t
0
t
1
Recovered
strain
S
t
r
a
i
n
Time
t
0
t
1
S
t
r
a
i
n
Time
t
0
t
1
Recovered strain
FIGURE 10.8 General terminology describing the
behavior of three types of plastics. PTFE is
polytetrauoroethylene (Teon, a trade name).
Source: After R.L.E. Brown.
Rigid and
brittle
(melamine,
phenolic)
Soft and flexible
(polyethylene, PTFE)
Tough and ductile
(ABS, nylon)
0
S
t
r
e
s
s
Strain
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Temperature Effects
FIGURE 10.9 Effect of temperature on the stress-
strain curve for cellulose acetate, a thermoplastic.
Note the large drop in strength and increase in
ductility with a relatively small increase in
temperature. Source: After T.S. Carswell and H.K.
Nason.
0
0 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
225C
25
50
65
80
0
10
8
6
4
2
5 10 15 20 25 30
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
p
s
i

x

1
0
3
)
M
P
a
Strain (%)
FIGURE 10.10 Effect of temperature on the
impact strength of various plastics. Note that
small changes in temperature can have a
signicant effect on impact strength. Source: P.C.
Powell.
I
m
p
a
c
t

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
Low-density
polyethylene
High-impact
polypropylene
Polyvinyl chloride
Polymethylmethacrylate
Temperature (F)
C
0 32 90
218 0 32
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Viscosity of Melted Polymers
FIGURE 10.11 Parameters used to
describe viscosity; see Eq. (10.3).
v
y
t
t
FIGURE 10.12 Viscosity of some
thermoplastics as a function of (a)
temperature and (b) shear rate.
Source: After D.H. Morton-Jones.
Low
density polyethylene
Polypropylene
R
i
g
i
d

P
V
C

A
c
r
y
l
i
c

N
ylo
n

140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

(
N
s
/
m
2
)
10
10
2
10
3
10
4
Temperature (C)
(a)
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
10
2
10
3
10
4
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

(
N
s
/
m
2
)
Shear rate, ! (s
-1
)
Polycarbonate
R
i
g
i
d

P
V
C

(
1
9
0

C
)

A
crylic
(2
4
0

C
)
LDPE (170C
)
Nylon (285C)
Polypropylene (230C)
(b)
! = 1000 s
-1
Viscous behavior:
! ="

dv
dy

=" #
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Polymer Behavior in Tension
FIGURE 10.13 (a) Load-elongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic. Source:
After R.P. Kambour and R.E. Robertson. (b) High-density polyethylene tension-test
specimen, showing uniform elongation (the long, narrow region in the specimen).
(a) (b)
0 25 50 75 100 125
mm
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
(
p
s
i

x

1
0
3
)
100
80
60
40
20
0
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Elongation (in.)
Molecules are
being oriented
FIGURE 10.14 Typical load-
elongation curve for elastomers.
The area within the clockwise
loop, indicating loading and
unloading paths, is the hysteresis
loss. Hysteresis gives rubbers the
capacity to dissipate energy, damp
vibration, and absorb shock
loading, as in automobile tires and
vi br at i on dampener s f or
machinery.
L
o
a
d
in
g
U
n
lo
a
d
in
g
L
o
a
d
Elongation
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Applications for Plastics
Design
Requirement
Typical Applications Plastics
Mechanical
strength
Gears, cams, rollers, valves, fan
blades, impellers, pistons.
Acetals, nylon, phenolics, polycarbonates,
polyesters, polypropylenes, epoxies, poly-
imides.
Wear
resistance
Gears, wear strips and liners, bear-
ings, bushings, roller-skate wheels.
Acetals, nylon, phenolics, polyimides,
polyurethane, ultrahigh-molecular-weight
polyethylene.
Frictional prop-
erties
High Tires, nonskid surfaces, footware,
ooring.
Elastomers, rubbers.
Low Sliding surfaces, articial joints. Fluorocarbons, polyesters, polyethylene, poly-
imides.
Electrical
resistance
All types of electrical components and
equipment, appliances, electrical x-
tures.
Polymethylmethacrylate, ABS, uorocarbons,
nylon, polycarbonate, polyester, polypropy-
lenes, ureas, phenolics, silicones, rubbers.
Chemical
resistance
Containers for chemicals, laboratory
equipment, components for chemical
industry, food and beverage contain-
ers.
Acetals, ABS, epoxies, polymethylmethacry-
late, uorocarbons, nylon, polycarbonate,
polyester, polypropylene, ureas, silicones.
Heat resistance Appliances, cookware, electrical com-
ponents.
Fluorocarbons, polyimides, silicones, acetals,
polysulfones, phenolics, epoxies.
Functional and
decorative
features
Handles, knobs, camera and battery
cases, trim moldings, pipe ttings.
ABS, acrylics, cellulosics, phenolics,
polyethylenes, polpropylenes, polystyrenes,
polyvinyl chloride.
Functional and
transparent fea-
tures
Lenses, goggles, safety glazing, signs,
food-processing equipment
Acrylics, polycarbonates, polystyrenes, poly-
sulfones. laboratory hardware.
Housings and
hollow shapes
Power tools, housings, sport helmets,
telephone cases.
ABS, cellulosics, phenolics, polycarbonates,
polyethylenes, polypropylene, polystyrenes.
TABLE 10. 3 Ge ne r a l
recommendations for plastic
products.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Reinforced Polymers
FIGURE 10.15 Schematic illustration of types of reinforcing plastics. (a) Matrix with particles;
(b) matrix with short or long bers or akes; (c) continuous bers; and (d) and (e) laminate or
sandwich composite structures using a foam or honeycomb core (see also Fig. 7.48 on making
of honeycombs).
Particles
Continuous fibers
(a)
(c) (b)
Short or long
fibers, or flakes
Laminate
Foam
Honeycomb
(d)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Properties of Reinforcing Fibers
FIGURE 10.16 Specic tensile strength (ratio of tensile
strength-to-density) and specic tensile modulus (ratio of
modulus of elasticity-to-density) for various bers used in
reinforced plastics. Note the wide range of specic strength
and stiffness available.
Kevlar 49
S-glass
Boron
High-modulus
graphite
E-glass
Celion 3000
Thornel
P-55
Titanium
Steel Aluminum
Kevlar 29
Kevlar 129
Spectra 900
Spectra 2000
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
/
d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
m

x

1
0
4
)
40
30
20
10
0
Stiffness/density (m x 10
6
)
0 10 5 15 20
Thornel P-100
High-tensile
graphite
Tensile Elastic Density Relative
Type Strength (MPa) Modulus (GPa) (kg/m
3
) Cost
Boron 3500 380 2600 Highest
Carbon
High strength 3000 275 1900 Low
High modulus 2000 415 1900 Low
Glass
E type 3500 73 2480 Lowest
S type 4600 85 2540 Lowest
Kevlar
29 2800 62 1440 High
49 2800 117 1440 High
129 3200 85 1440 High
Nextel
312 1630 135 2700 High
610 2770 328 3960 High
Spectra
900 2270 64 970 High
1000 2670 90 970 High
Note: These properties vary signicantly, depending on the material and method
of preparation. Strain to failure for these bers is typically in the range of 1.5% to
5.5%.
TABLE 10.4 Typical properties of reinforcing bers.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Metal and Ceramic Matrix Composites
Material Characteristics
FIBER
Glass High strength, low stiness, high density; E (calcium aluminoborosilicate) and
S (magnesiaaluminosilicate) types are commonly used; lowest cost.
Graphite Available typically as high modulus or high strength; less dense than glass; low
cost.
Boron High strength and stiness; has tungsten lament at its center (coaxial); highest
density; highest cost.
Aramids (Kevlar) Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all bers; high cost.
Other Nylon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, boron carbide, boron
nitride, tantalum carbide, steel, tungsten, and molybdenum; see Chapters 3, 8,
9, and 10.
MATRIX
Thermosets Epoxy and polyester, with the former most commonly used; others are pheno-
lics, uorocarbons, polyethersulfone, silicon, and polyimides.
Thermoplastics Polyetheretherketone; tougher than thermosets, but lower resistance to temper-
ature.
Metals Aluminum, aluminumlithium alloy, magnesium, and titanium; bers used are
graphite, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron.
Ceramics Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and mullite; bers used are
various ceramics.
TABLE 10.4 Types and General Characteristics of Reinforced Plastics and Metal-Matrix and
Ceramic-Matrix Composites
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Fiber Spinning
FIGURE 10.1 The melt spinning process for producing polymer
bers. The bers are used in a variety of applications, including
fabrics and as reinforcements for composite materials.
Polymer
chips
Feed
hopper
Cold air
Spinneret
Melt
spinning
Melter/extruder
Bobbin
Stretching
Twisting and
winding
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Composite Material Microstructure
FIGURE 10.18 (a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing
bers. Source: After J. Dvorak and F. Garrett. (b) Cross-section of boron-ber-reinforced composite
material.
(b) (a)
Kevlar fibers
Graphite fibers
Matrix
Matrix
Boron
diameter 0.1 mm
Tungsten
diameter 0.012 mm
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Effect of Fibers
FIGURE 10.19 Effect of the percentage of reinforcing bers and ber length on the mechanical properties of
reinforced nylon. Note the signicant improvement with increasing percentage of ber reinforcement. Source:
Courtesy of Wilson Fiberll International.
S
h
o
rt g
la
ss fib
e
rs
Carbon fibers
L
o
n
g

g
la
s
s

f
ib
e
r
s

S
h
o
rt g
la
s
s
fib
e
rs

C
a
r
b
o
n

f
ib
e
r
s

L
o
n
g
g
la
s
s
fib
e
rs

Reinforcement (%)
I
m
p
a
c
t

e
n
e
r
g
y

(
f
t
-
l
b
/
i
n
.
)

J
/
m

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 10 20 30 40
10 0 40 20 30
0
100
200
300
Reinforcement (%)
F
l
e
x
u
r
a
l

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
p
s
i

x

1
0
6
)

L
o
n
g
a
n
d
sh
o
rt
g
la
ss fib
e
rs
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
10
0
30
40
20
G
P
a

S
h
o
rt g
la
s
s
fib
e
rs

L
o
n
g
g
la
s
s
fib
e
r
s


C
a
r
b
o
n
fib
e
rs


10 0 30 40 20
Reinforcement (%)
F
l
e
x
u
r
a
l

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
p
s
i

x

1
0
3
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
100
0
200
300
400
M
P
a

Carbon fibers
Reinforcement (%)
(b)
(c) (d)
(a)
T
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
p
s
i

x

1
0
3
)

M
P
a

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 10 20 30 40
0
100
200
300
400
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Strength and Fracture of Composites
FIGURE 10.20 (a) Fracture surface of glass-ber-
reinforced epoxy composite. The bers are 10 m (400
in.) in diameter and have random orientation. (b)
Fracture surface of a graphite-ber-reinforced epoxy
composite. The bers are 9-11 m in diameter. Note
that the bers are in bundles and are all aligned in the
same direction. Source: Courtesy of L.J. Broutman.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.21 Tensile strength of glass-reinforced
polyester as a function of ber content and ber
direction in the matrix. Source: After R.M.
Ogorkiewicz.
T
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
p
s
i

x

1
0
5
)
20 40 60 80
Unidirectional
Orthogonal
Random
Glass content (% by weight)
M
P
a
1000
1.5
2.0
1.0
0.5
0
500
0
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Plastics Processes
Process Characteristics
Extrusion Long, uniform, solid or hollow, simple or complex cross-sections; wide range
of dimensional tolerances; high production rates; low tooling cost.
Injection molding Complex shapes of various sizes and with ne detail; good dimensional
accuracy; high production rates; high tooling cost.
Structural foam
molding
Large parts with high stiness-to-weight ratio; low production rates; less
expensive tooling than in injection molding.
Blow molding Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high production rates and low
cost for making beverage and food containers.
Rotational molding Large hollow shapes of relatively simple design; low production rates; low
tooling cost.
Thermoforming Shallow or deep cavities; medium production rates; low tooling costs.
Compression molding Parts similar to impression-die forging; medium production rates; relatively
inexpensive tooling.
Transfer molding More complex parts than in compression molding, and higher production
rates; some scrap loss; medium tooling cost.
Casting Simple or intricate shapes, made with exible molds; low production rates.
Processing of
reinforced plastics
Long cycle times; dimensional tolerances and tooling costs depend on the
specic process.
TABLE 10.6 Characteristics of processing plastics and reinforced plastics.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Extrusion
FIGURE 10.22 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder.
Thrust bearing
Hopper
Throat
Screw
Barrel
liner
Barrel
Barrel
heater/cooler
Thermocouples
Wire filter
screen
Breaker
plate
Die
Melt-pumping section Melt section Feed section
Throat-cooling
channel
Gear reducer
box
Motor
Adapter
Melt
thermocouple
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Extrusion Mechanics
FIGURE 10.23 Geometry of the
pumping section of an extruder
screw.
W
w
H
D
!
Barrel
Pitch
Flight
Barrel
FIGURE 10.1 Extruder and die
characteristics for Example
10.5.
Extruder characteristic
Die characteristic
Operating point
3
2
1
0
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e
,

q

x

1
0
-
5
(
m
3
/
s
)
0 5 10 15
Pressure (MPa)
Drag ow:
Pressure ow:
Die characteristic
K for circular cross-sections:
Q
d
=
!
2
HD
2
Nsin"cos"
2
Q
p
=
WH
3
p
12!(l/sin")
=
p#DH
3
sin
2
"
12!l
Q
die
=Kp
K =
!D
4
d
128"l
d
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Blown-Film Manufacture
FIGURE 10.25 (a) Schematic illustration of production of thin lm and plastic bags
from a tube produced by an extruder, and then blown by air. (b) A blown-lm
operation. Source: Courtesy of Windmoeller & Hoelscher Corp.
(a) (b)
Wind-up
Pinch rolls
Guide rolls
Blown
tube
Mandrel
Die
Extruder
Air
(a)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Tube Extrusion
FIGURE 10.26 Extrusion of plastic tubes. (a)
Extrusion using a spider die (see also Fig.6.59) and
pressurized air; (b) coextrusion of tube for
producing a bottle.
(b)
(a)
Breaker plate
Spider die
Co-extrusion blow molding
Extruder barrel
Extruder 1
Extruder 2
Screen pack
Melt flow
direction
Mandrel
A
v
A
B
B
Polymer melt
Spider legs (3)
Spider legs (3)
Air channel
Mandrel
Plastic melt:
two or more layers
Parison
Air in
Section
BB
Section AA
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Injection Molding
FIGURE 10.27 Injection molding with (a) a plunger and (b)
a reciprocating rotating screw. Telephone receivers,
plumbing ttings, tool handles, and housings are examples
of parts made by injection molding.
Powder,
Pellets
Hopper
Heating
zones Nozzle Mold
Vent
Ejector pins
Cylinder
(barrel)
Cooling
zone
Piston
(ram)
Injection
chamber
Torpedo
(spreader)
Sprue
Molded
part Vent
Press
(clamp)
force
Rotating and reciprocating
screw
(b)
(a)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Mold Features
FIGURE 10.28 Illustration of mold features for injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold, with
important features identied; (b) injection molding of four parts, showing details and the volume
of material involved. Source: Courtesy of Tooling Molds West, Inc.
(b)
Main
runner
Gate
Cavity Guide
pin
Guide pin Sprue
Cavity
Branch
runner
(a)
Gate
Sprue
Part
Main
runner
Cold slug well
Branch
runner
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Mold Types
FIGURE 10.29 Types of molds used in
injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold, (b)
three-plate mold, and (c) hot-runner mold.
(c)
Parts
Sprue
bushing
Plate
Plate
Hot plate;
Runner stays molten
Ejector
pins
(a) (b)
Parts
Sprue
bushing Sprue
Runner
Gate Plate
Part
Plate
Ejector
pins
Part
Ejector
pins
Sprue
bushing
Plate Plate
Stripper
plate
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Insert Molding
FIGURE 10.30 Products made by insert injection molding. Metallic components are embedded in these
parts during molding. Source: (a) Courtesy of Plaineld Molding, Inc., and (b) Courtesy of Rayco Mold and
Mfg. LLC.
(a) (b)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Reaction-Injection Molding
FIGURE 10.31 Schematic illustration of the reaction-injection-molding process.
Mixing
head
Recirculation
loop
Pump
Monomer 2
Stirrer
Pump
Heat
exchanger
Heat
exchanger
Recirculation
loop
Displacement
cylinders
Mold
Monomer 1
Stirrer
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Blow Molding
FIGURE 10.32 Schematic illustrations of (a) the blow-
molding process for making plastic beverage bottles and
(b) a three-station injection-blow-molding machine.
(c)
(a)
(b)
Heating
passages
Mold closed
and bottle blown
Tail
Blown bottle
Extruded
parison
Knife
Bottle
mold
Blow pin
Extruder
Injection-molding
machine
Parison
Cooling
passages
Parison transferred
to blow mold
Blow pin
Blow pin
removed
Blown
bottle
Parison mold
Blown-mold station
Blown bottle
Stripper station 3
Bottle
Reciprocating-screw extruder
Transfer
head
Blow mold
Preform
neck ring
Parison
Preform
mold
Preform
mold station
Core-pin opening
(Blown air passage)
Blow-mold
neck ring
Indexing
direction
Blow-mold
bottom plug
1
2
Stripper plate
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Rotational Molding
FIGURE 10.33 The rotational molding (rotomolding or rotocasting) process. Trash cans,
buckets, carousel horses and plastic footballs can be made by this process.
Secondary
axis
Spindle
Pressurizing
fluid
Inlet
Outlet
vent
Mold
Primary
axis
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Thermoforming
FIGURE 10.35 Various thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These processes are commonly
used in making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.
(a) Straight vacuum
forming
(b) Drape vacuum
forming
(c) Force above sheet (d) Plug and ring forming
Ring
Clamp
Plastic
sheet
Ram
Mold
Mold
Vacuum line
Vacuum
line
Plastic
sheet
Clamp
Heater
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Compression Molding
FIGURE 10.35 Types of compression molding, a process similar to forging: (a) positive, (b) semipositive,
and (c) ash. The ash in part (c) is trimmed off. (d) Die design for making a compression-molded part
with undercuts. Such designs also are used in other molding and shaping operations.
(a) (b) (c)
Open
Overlap Land
Knockout
(ejector pin)
(d)
Part
Plug
Heating
elements
Punch
Mold
Charge
Molded
part
Closed Flash
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Transfer Molding
FIGURE 10.36 Sequence of operations in transfer molding of thermosetting plastics. This process
is particularly suitable for making intricate parts with varying wall thicknesses.
Transfer plunger
Transfer pot and
molding powder
2. Mold closed and
cavities filled
Knockout
(ejector) pin
3. Mold open and molded
parts ejected
1. Insert polymer in mold
Sprue
Punch
Molded
parts
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Casting, Potting, Encapsulation & Calendering
FIGURE 10.38 Schematic illustration of calendering.
Sheets produced by this process are subsequently used
in processes such as thermoforming.
Liquid
plastic
Mold
Electrical
coil
Housing
or case
Coil Mold Mold
1. 2. 3.
FIGURE 10.37 Schematic illustration of (a) casting, (b) potting, and (c) encapsulation of plastics.
Finished film
Rubber feed
Calender rolls
Takeoff or
stripper roll
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Reinforced Plastic Components
FIGURE 10.39 Reinforced-plastic components for a Honda motorcycle. The parts shown
are front and rear forks, a rear swing arm, a wheel, and brake disks.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Manufacture of Prepregs
FIGURE 10.40 (a) Manufacturing
process for polymer-matrix composite.
Source: After T.-W. Chou, R.L.
McCullough, and R.B. Pipes. (b) Boron-
epoxy prepreg tape. Source: Textron
Systems.
(a) (b)
Continuous
strands
Spools
Surface
treatment
Resin
Backing paper
Continuous
strands
Chopper
Resin
paste
Resin
paste
Compaction
belt
Carrier
film
Carrier
film
FIGURE 10.41 Manufacturing process
for producing reinforced-plastic sheets.
The sheet is still viscous at this stage
and can later be shaped into various
products. Source: After T.-W. Chou, R. L.
McCullough, and R. B. Pipes.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Vacuum and Pressure Molding
FIGURE 10.42 (a) Vacuum-bag forming. (b) Pressure-bag forming. Source: After T. H. Meister.
Atmospheric
pressure
Flexible bag
Gasket
Vacuum
trap
Vacuum
trap
Resin
and glass
Gel
coat
Mold
Clamping
bar
Mold
release
Mold
release
Room-temperature or oven cure
Hand or spray lay-up
Air pressure
345 kPa (50 psi) Clamp
Gel
coat
Resin and
glass
Metal or
plastic mold
Steam or
hot water
Hand or spray lay-up
(a) (b)
Flexible bag
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Open Mold Processing
FIGURE 10.43 Manual
methods of processing
reinforced plastics: (a) hand
lay-up and (b) spray-up. These
methods are also called
open-mold processing. (c) A
boat hull made by these
processes. Source: Courtesy
of Genmar Holdings, Inc.
(c)
(a) (b)
Mold
Boat hull
Mold
Gantry crane
Lay-up of
resin and
reinforcement
Mold
Roller Brush
(a) (b)
Mold
Roving Resin
Chopped glass
roving
Spray
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Filament Winding
FIGURE 10.44 (a) Schematic illustration of the lament-winding process. (b) Fiberglass being wound over
aluminum liners for slide-raft ination vessels for the Boeing 767 aircraft. Source: Advanced Technical Products
Group, Inc., Lincoln Composites.
(a) (b)
Rotating mandrel
Traversing resin bath
Continuous roving
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Pultrusion
FIGURE 10.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the pultrusion process. (b) Examples of parts made by
pultrusion. Source: Courtesy of Strongwell Corporation.
(b) (a)
Infiltration tank
Preforming die
Heated die
Puller
Cured
pultrusion
Pultrusion
cut to length
Prepreg
feed system
Saw
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Processing of RP Parts
FIGURE 10.46 The computational steps
involved in producing a stereolithography le.
(a) Three-dimensional description of the part.
(b) The part is divided into slices. (Only 1 in 10
is shown.) (c) Support material is planned. (d)
A set of tool directions is determined for
manufacturing each slice. Shown is the
extruder path at section A-A from (c), for a
fused-deposition modeling operation.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
A
A
Model
Support
Model
Support
Side view
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Rapid Prototyping Processes
TABLE 10.7 Characteristics of rapid-prototyping processes.
Supply
Phase
Process Layer Creation
Technique
Phase-Change
Type
Materials
Liquid Stereolithography Liquid-layer cur-
ing
Photopoly-
merization
Photopolymers (acrylates,
epoxies, colorable resins, and
lled resins)
Polyjet Liquid-layer cur-
ing
Photopoly-
merization
Photopolymers
Fused-deposition
modeling
Extrusion of
melted plastic
Solidication by
cooling
Thermoplastics (ABS, poly-
carbonate, and polysulfone)
Powder Three-dimensional
printing
Binder-droplet
deposition onto
powder
layer
No phase
change
Polymer, ceramic and metal
powder with binder
Selective
laser sinter-
ing
Layer of powder Laser-driven Sintering or
melting
Polymers, metals with
binder, metals, ceramics,
and sand with binder
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
RP Materials
Tensile Elastic Elongation
Strength Modulus in 50 mm
Process Material (MPa) (GPa) (%) Notes
Stereo-
lithography
Somos 7120a 63 2.59 2.3-4.1 Transparent amber; good general
purpose material for rapid prototyp-
ing.
Somos 9120a 32 1.14-1.55 15-25 Transparent amber; good chemical
resistance; good fatigue properties;
used for producing patterns in rub-
ber molding.
WaterShed 11120 47.1-53.6 2.65-2.88 3.3-3.5 Optically clear with a slight green
tinge; similar mechanical properties
as ABS; used for rapid tooling.
Prototool 20Lb 72-79 10.1-11.2 1.2-1.3 Opaque beige; higher strength poly-
mer suitable for automotive com-
ponents, housings, and injection
molds.
Polyjet FC 700 42.3 2.0 15-25 Transparent amber; good impact
strength, good paint absorption and
machinability.
FC800 49.9-55.1 2.5-2.7 15-25 White, blue or black; good humidity
resistance; suitable for general pur-
pose applications.
FC900 2.0-4.6 47 Gray or black; very exible mate-
rial, simulates the feel of rubber or
silicone.
Fused-
deposition
modeling
Polycarbonate 52 2.0 3 White; high-strength polymer suit-
able for rapid prototyping and gen-
eral use.
ABS 22 1.63 6 Available in multiple colors, most
commonly white; a strong and
durable material suitable for general
use.
PC-ABS 34.8 1.83 4.3 Black; good combination of mechan-
ical properties and heat resistance.
Selective
laser sinter-
ing
Duraform PA 44 1.6 9 White; produces durable heat- and
chemical-resistant parts; suitable for
snap-t assemblies and sandcasting
or silicone tooling.
Duraform GF 38.1 5.9 2 White; glass-lled form of Duraform
PA, has increased stiness and is
suitable for higher temperature ap-
plications.
SOMOS 201 17.3 14 130 Multiple colors available; mimics
rubber mechanical properties
ST-100c 305 137 10 Bronze-inltrated steel powder.
TABLE 10.8 Mechanical properties of
selected materials for rapid prototyping.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Stereolithography and FDM
FIGURE 10.47 Schematic illustration of the
stereolithography process. Source: Courtesy of 3D
Systems.
UV light source
Liquid surface
Vat
c
b
a
Platform
UV curable
liquid
Formed part
(a) (b)
Filament supply
Plastic model
created in
minutes
Thermoplastic
or wax filament
Heated FDM head
moves in xy plane
Table
moves in
z-direction
z
y
x
Fixtureless
foundation
FIGURE 10.48 (a) Schematic illustration of
the fused-deposition modeling process. (b)
The FDM Vantage X rapid prototyping
machine. Source: Courtesy of Stratasys, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Support Structures
FIGURE 10.49 (a) A part with a protruding section that requires support material. (b) Common
support structures used in rapid-prototyping machines. Source: After P.F. Jacobs.
(a) (b)
Gussets Island Ceiling within an arch Ceiling
a
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Selective Laser Sintering
FIGURE 10.50 Schematic illustration of the selective-laser-sintering process. Source: After C. Deckard and P.F. McClure.
Motor
Laser Optics
Motor
Process-control
computer
Part-build
cylinder
Powder-
feed
cylinder
Roller mechanism
Galvanometers
Process chamber
Environmental-
control unit
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Three-Dimensional Printing
FIGURE 10.51 Schematic illustration of the three-
dimensional-printing process. Source: After E. Sachs and M.
Cima.
1. Spread powder 2. Print layer 3. Piston movement
4. Intermediate stage 5. Last layer printed 6. Finished part
Powder Binder
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.52 (a) Examples of parts produced
through three-dimensional printing. Full color parts
also are possible, and the colors can be blended
throughout the volume. Source: Courtesy ZCorp,
Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
3D Printing of Metal Parts
Binder
Metal
powder
powder
Binder deposition
Particles are loosely sintered
Binder is burned off
(a)
Infiltrated by
lower-melting-point metal
(c) (b)
Infiltrating metal, permeates into P/M part
Microstructure detail
Unfused
FIGURE 10.53 The three-dimensional printing process: (a) part build; (b) sintering, and (c) inltration steps
to produce metal parts. Source: Courtesy of the ProMetal Division of Ex One Corporation.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Rapid Manufacturing: Investment Casting
1. Pattern creation
5. Wax meltout/burnout
Heat
2. Tree assembly
6. Fill mold with metal
Molten
metal
Crucible
3. Insert into flask
7. Cool
4. Fill with investment
8. Finish
FIGURE 10.54 Manufacturing steps for investment casting that uses rapid-prototyped wax parts as
patterns. This approach uses a ask for the investment, but a shell method can also be used. Source: 3D
Systems, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Sprayed Metal Tooling Process
Pattern
Base plate
Alignment tabs
Metal
spray
Coating
Aluminum-filled
epoxy
Flask
Finished mold half
Pattern
Base plate
Molded part
Second mold half
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
FIGURE 10.55 Production of tooling for injection molding by the sprayed-metal tooling process. (a) A pattern and base plate are
prepared through a rapid-prototyping operation; (b) a zinc-aluminum alloy is sprayed onto the pattern (See Section 4.5.1); (c) the
coated base plate and pattern assembly is placed in a ask and back-lled with aluminum-impregnated epoxy; (d) after curing, the
base plate is removed from the nished mold; and (e) a second mold half suitable for injection molding is prepared.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Example: RP Injection Manifold
FIGURE 10.56 Rapid prototyped model of an injection-manifold design, produced
through stereolithography. Source: 3D Systems.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Design of Polymer Parts
(b) (c) (d)
Extruded product
Die shape
Original
design
Distortion Modified
design
(a)
Thick
Pull-in (sink mark)
Thin
FIGURE 10.57 Examples of design modications to eliminate or
minimize distortion of plastic parts. (a) Suggested design changes
to minimize distortion. Source: After F. Strasser. (b) Die design
(exaggerated) for extrusion of square sections. Without this
design modication, product cross-sections would not have the
desired shape because of the recovery of the material, known as
die swell. (c) Design change in a rib to minimize pull-in caused
by shrinkage during cooling. (d) Stiffening of the bottom of thin
plastic containers by doming, similar to the process used to
make the bottoms of aluminum beverage cans and similar
containers.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Costs and Production Volumes
Typical Production Volume,
Equipment Production Tooling Number of Parts
Process Capital Cost Rate Cost 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
Machining Med Med Low
Compression molding High Med High
Transfer molding High Med High
Injection molding High High High
Extrusion Med High Low *
Rotational molding Low Low Low
Blow molding Med Med Med
Thermoforming Low Low Low
Casting Low Very low Low
Forging High Low Med
Foam molding High Med Med
*Continuous process.
Source: After R. L. E. Brown, Design and Manufacture of Plastic Parts. Copyright c 1980 by John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TABLE 10.9 Comparative costs and production volumes for processing of plastics.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Case Study: Invisalign Orthodontic Aligners
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.58 (a) An aligner for orthodontic use,
manufactured using a combination of rapid tooling and
thermoforming; (b) comparison of conventional
orthodontic braces to the use of transparent aligners.
Source: Courtesy Align Technologies, Inc.
(a)
(b) (c)
FIGURE 10.59 Manufacturing sequence for Invisalign orthodontic
aligners. (a) Creation of a polymer impression of the patient's
teeth; (b) computer modeling to produce CAD representations of
desired tooth proles; (c) production of incremental models of
desired tooth movement. An aligner is produced by
thermoforming a transparent plastic sheet against this model.
Source: Courtesy Align Technologies, Inc.