Physiology of nervous system

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord.
The brain is held in the cranial cavity of the skull and it consists of:
The cerebrum,
The cerebellum, and
The brain stem,
And are protected by:
Bony structures,
Membranes, and
Fluid.
The nerves involved are cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
Divisions of the Human Brain:
1- Myelencephalon, which includes the medulla
2 - Metencephalon, which includes the pons and cerebellum
3 - Mesencephalon, which includes the midbrain (tectum and tegmentum)
4 - Diencephalon, which includes the thalamus and hypothalamus
5 - Telencephalon, which includes the cerebrum (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, & medullary body)
BRAIN
The human brain is a mass of pinkish-gray tissue containing a neural network involving approximately
10 billion nerve cells, called neurons.
Gen. function:
Weighing in at a mere three pounds, the brain operates as the central control system for:
Movement,
Sleep,
Hunger, and
Thirst.
Thus, it controls nearly every vital activity necessary for survival.
Emotions are controlled by the brain:
Anger,
Fear,
Joy,
Love,
Elation,
Contentment, and
Happiness,

Furthermore, the brain receives and interprets the multitude of signals being sent by other parts of the
body and the outside environment.
There are three major divisions of the brain: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Forebrain:
For anatomical study, the forebrain is divided into two subdivisions: the telencephalon and the
diencephalon.
The primary structures of the telencephalon include the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and the limbic
system. The diencephalon includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus.

Telencephalon:
Cerebral Cortex: The cerebral cortex surrounds the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the
folded, convoluted tissue.
The folded, crumpled structure contains an enormous amount of small and large grooves (sulci and
fissures) and bulges (gyri).
This type of structure is beneficial for it greatly increases the overall surface are of the cortex.

The cerebral cortex is commonly referred to as gray matter. This is based upon the appearance of the
cortex which, due to the predominance of cells appears grayish brown.
The neurons of the cerebral cortex are connected to other neurons within the brain via millions of
axons located beneath the cortex.
This area is white in color due to the concentration of myelin; it is often called white matter
Hemisphere
One of the most apparent visible features of the brain is the division between the left and right
hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.
Through evolutionary advances the functions of each hemisphere have evolved.
Mental and emotional differences between men and women are speculated to result from different
modes of functioning between the two hemispheres.
In most cases the left hemisphere is deemed the dominant half of the brain. This is due to its
superior language abilities as well as its analytic, sequential.

In general terms it is well understood that the left hemisphere controls:

linguistic consciousness,
the right half of the body,
talking,
reading,
writing,
spelling,
speech communication,
verbal intelligence and memories, and
information processing in the areas of math, typing, grammar, logic, analytic reasoning, and
perception of details.
Right hemisphere:
The right hemisphere is associated with:
unconscious' awareness (in the sense it is not linguistically based),
perception of faces and patterns,
comprehension of body language and social cues,
creativity and insight,
intuitive reasoning,
Visual-spatial processing, and
holistic comprehension.
The communication between the two hemispheres takes place through the corpus callosum, which, by
the way, is more fully developed in women than men.
The surface of the cerebral hemispheres is divided into four lobes:
the frontal lobe,
parietal lobe,
temporal lobe, and
the occipital lobe.
In addition to these four lobes, a fifth lobe exists called the insula.
This lobe is internal and is not visible from the surface of the brain.
Frontal lobe
The frontal lobes are sometimes associated with what it means to be human.
Functions:
The capacities for long-term planning, goal development, and
the ability to override immediate gratification in favor for future goals.
According to Candace Pert, "If God speaks to man, if man speaks to God, it would be through the
frontal lobes,
which is the part of the brain that has undergone the most recent evolutionary expansion.
Absence of the frontal lobes typically results in a person who is:
Deemed emotionally shallow,
Listless,
Apathetic, and
Insensitive to social norms.
Furthermore, the frontal lobes exert a degree of control over the hypothalamus, which controls:
The autonomic nervous system and
The endocrine system, as well as,
Organizes survival behavior.
Control of movement is associated with the frontal lobes via the primary motor cortex located within
this lobe.
The Parietal, Temporal, and Occipital lobes are specialized for perception.

Parietal lobe has primary somato-sensory cortex which receives information pertaining to the senses
of the body like as:
touch,
pressure,
temperature, and
pain.
Occipital lobe: The Visual information is received by the primary visual cortex within the occipital lobe.

Temporal lobe: Hearing is processed in the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe
Corpus callosum:
It is the primary connection between the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.
This connection, between the two halves will takes place through axons.

Basal Ganglia:
The basal ganglia are a collection of sub-cortical nuclei situated beneath the anterior portions of the
lateral ventricles;
Function: they are involved with the control of movement (muscular movements).
Parkinson's disease has an effect upon the basal ganglia resulting in :
Poor balance,
rigidity of the limbs,
tremors,
Weakness, and difficulty with initiating movements.
The Limbic System:
The limbic system is a collection of brain structures involved with, mainly:
The hippocampus and
The amygdala (almond), along with portions of the
hypothalamus,
thalamus,
caudate nuclei, and
septum
All these constituents, function (work) together to form the limbic system.
Function:
Emotion,
Motivation,
Multifaceted behavior, and
Memory storage and
recall.
The mammalian brain resides in the limbic system. Its primary purpose is:
Survival of self and species.
Preservation of self and species.
Behavior of the mammalian brain is said to revolve around
feeding,
fighting,
fleeing, and
mating,
All emotions are either:
agreeable or
disagreeable.
The limbic system, feel pleasure when engaged in activities that enhance their preservation or the
preservation of their species.
Pain is experienced when survival needs are thwarted.
The limbic system's perspective, all experiences are judged in the dualistic fashion of pain or
pleasure.
The limbic brain scans for differences;
Typically when one is found it is deemed a threat to survival.
The cerebral cortex comprises the "human" brain and is associated with advanced functions such as:
planning,
thinking,
analyzing, and
communicating.
The limbic brain can be seen as receiving its cues from the inside.
Whereas the neo-cortex processes sensory information from the external world,
The limbic system has, a loose grip on reality.
Temporal lobe epilepsy, resulting in limbic storms, produces the overwhelming feeling of experiencing
truth.
Without the reality check of the neo-cortex, the limbic system is capable of producing sensation of:
sudden memories,
walking dreams,
messages from God,
even religious conversions.
Cingulate Gyrus:
The cingulate gyrus involves three distinct behavior centers:
Nursing and Maternal care,
Play, and
Audio-vocal communication.
The three behavior centers are exhibited by mammals which have a cingulate gyrus, and not by
reptiles who lack a cingulate gyrus.
The cortex covering the cingulate gyrus is an important part of the limbic system.Research indicates
that, it provides an interface between the decision-making processes of:
the frontal cortex,
the emotional functions of the limbic system, and
the brain mechanisms controlling movement.
The cingulate gyrus also communicates with the rest of the limbic system and other regions of the
frontal cortex.
Electrical stimulation of this part of the limbic system produces feelings that are either emotionally
positive or negative.
In general, the cingulate gyrus plays an excitatory role in:
emotions and
motivated behavior.
Hippocampus:
The hippocampus is comprised of rows of 40 million nerve cells.
Its main function is to work on converting short-term memory into long-term memory.
If the hippocampus or pathways to it, are damaged the ability to make new memories disappears;
The hippocampus is considered important for localization memory.
Schizophrenia:
The physiological aspects of schizophrenia have been linked to the hippocampus, evidence has
been found showing that:,
The cells of the hippocampus which are normally arranged in an ordered manner, are grossly
misaligned in the brains of schizophrenics.
The hippocampus in the right hemisphere of the brain is concerned with visual, emotional, tactile, and
nonverbal memories.
The hippocampus in the left hemisphere stores verbal and mathematical memories.
Ultimately, the hippocampus stores in memories that are of emotional and motivational significance.
Amygdala:
This (amygdala) limbic structure is interconnected with the:
hypothalamus,
septal nucleus, and
hippocampus.
Function:
The job of the amygdala is to discern the emotional significance of all aspects of experience.
It adds color to thoughts and
It is responsible for the capacity to feel complex emotions like love and anxiety.
The amygdala is extremely sensitive to tactile stimulation and is involved with memory.
The Visual and auditory perceptual information is received by the amygdala causing an emotional
influence on our perception and thought.
Damage to the amygdala can cause a person to misperceive or fail to perceive societal cues which
are emotionally based.
Traditionally, the amygdala has been linked to violent tendencies and behaviorSeptal Nuclei:
This structure is involved with humankind's ability to form emotional and social bonds with one another
The septal nuclei also exerts dampening effects on mood.
By tapping into the emotional reservoir of the hypothalamus, the septal nuclei is able to exert
emotional influence upon the rest of the brain.
It is also interconnected with the hippocampus, and in some ways it serves to counteract the
amygdala.
Stimulation of the septum, is known to generate strong feelings of pleasure.
Thalamus: (Diencephalon)
The thalamus consists of two large connected lobes. The massa intermedia serves as a bridge
connecting the two lobes of the thalamus.
It is comprised of gray matter and is deemed a non-critical part of the brain;
Absence of which is outwardly unnoticeable.
The thalamus is the relay station for incoming sensory signals and outgoing motor signals passing to
and from the cerebral cortex.
With the exception of the olfactory sense, all sensory input to the brain connected to nerve cell
clusters (nuclei) of the thalamus. blkl
Hypothalamus:
It is located just beneath the thalamus and lies at the base of the brain.
Being the most primitive part of the limbic system, it is the source from which all emotions originate as
raw, powerful, undirected feelings.
This structure represents the emotional core of our being.
Functions:
The hypothalamus controls and monitors hunger, thirst, and
The ability to feel extreme pain or pleasure.
The hypothalamus is also closely involved with:
All aspects of sexual behavior; postures, ejaculation, and
Hormonal secretions relating to pregnancy and menstrual cycles.
Emotional gender difference:
Differences between the hypothalamus of a man and woman indicate that the hypothalamus of
females is more intricate and complex than males.
The hypothalamus is capable of exerting tremendous influence over the rest of the brain.
It is normally controlled by:
The frontal lobes of the brain and
Limbic structures such as the amygdala.
Hypothalamus
It is comprised of distinct areas and nuclei which control;
a). Vital survival behaviors and activities such as:
eating,
drinking,
temperature regulation,
sleep,
emotional behavior, and
sexual activity.
b). And Control on:
The autonomic nervous system and
The endocrine system are controlled by the hypothalamus.
The anterior pituitary gland is directly connected to the hypothalamus via a special system of blood
vessels.
Neurosecretory cells released by the hypothalamus act upon the anterior pituitary gland which then
secretes its hormones.
Most hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland controls other endocrine glands. Because of
this the anterior pituitary gland is sometimes referred to as the Master Gland.
Hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are also governed by the hypothalamus.