UNIT III

PROGRAMITTINC CONCEPTS AND

EMBEDDED PROGRAMMING IN C, C++
Objective
he programming in an embedded environment -ui be
performed using various levels of languages like assembly
language, procedural languages and object oriented language.
This unit aims at introducing the various programming concepts
and the embedded implementation in those languages. The
programming concepts will also include the memory optimization
techniques and the source code engineering tools.
3.1 SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING IN ASSEMBLY
LAI\IGUAGE (ALP) AIID IN IIIGH LBVEL
LAITGUAGE'C'
3.1.1. Assembty Language Programming
Assembly language lies in between the high level and low level
languages. The assembly language uses mnemonic codes for
writing the programs. Assembler is the tool which is used to
convert the assembly language in the machine language.
Advantages
.
It gives a precise contol of the processor internal
devices and full use of processor specific features in its
instruction set and its addressing modes.
3.2 Embedded
The machine codes are compact. This is because the
codes for declaring the conditions, rules, and data type
do not exist. The system thus needs a smaller memory'
Excess memory needed does not depend on the
programmer data type selection and rule-declarations'
It
it ato not the compiler specific and library functions
specific.
Device driver codes may need
.only
a few assembly
instructions. For example, consider a small ernbedded
system, a timer device in a microwave oven or an
automatic washing machine or an automatic chocolate
vending machine.
3.1.2 tligh Level Language
All the programming languages currently used are the high level
languagls. The constructs of the programming language are
gnifisf;
fke structures. lnterpreter and the Compilers are the
system progftms which are used to convert the high level
language in the machine codes.
Advantages
The development cycle is short for complex systems
l. Data lype
declarations
provide programming ease'
2. Type checking makes the program less prone to error'
3. Control structures and conditional Statements make the
program-flow path design tasks siritple'
4. Portability of non-processor specific codes exists'
Additional advantages of C as a high level languages
It is a funguage
between low (assembly) and high level
tanguage. tnseiing the assembly language codes in- between is
catta ln-line assembly. A direct hardware control is thus also
feasible by in-line assembly, and the complex part of the program
can be in high-level language.
Propramming Concepts and Embedded Programming 3. 3
Summary
High level language programming makes the program
development cycle short, enables use of modular programming
approach
'and
lets us follow sound software engineering
principles.
3,2
.C,
PROGRAM ELEMENTS: HEADER AIID
SOT]RCE FILES AND PREPROCESSOR
DIRECTIVES:
The
'C'
program elements, header and source files and
preprocessor directives are as follows:
3.2.1 Include Directive for the Inclusion of Files
Any C program first includes the header and source files that are
readily available
Example
# include semlib.h /* Include Semaphore functions Library
*/
Include is a peprocessor directive to include the contents (codes
or data) of a file. Including Codes Files: These are the files for the
codes already available. For example, #include
"prctlHandlers.c".
.
Including Constant data Files: These are the files for the
codes and may have the extension
'.const'.
.
Including Stings data Files: These are the files for the
'
strings and may have the extension
'.strings'
or'.str.' or
'.txt.
.
Including initial data Files: There are files for the initial
or default data for the shadow ROM of the embedded
system.
.
Including basic variables Files:'These are the files for
thq local or global static variables that are stored in the
RAM because they do not posses the initial (default)
values.
3.4 Embedded Systems
.
Including Header Files: It is a preprocessor directive,
which includes the contents (codes or data) of a set of
.
source files. The pre-processor directives will be
'#
include
(string.h>'
and
-'
# inc lude
Srnath.h>'.
Also included are the header files for the codes in assembly, and
for the VO operations (conio.h), for the OS functions and RTOS
functions.
The difference between inclusion of a header file, and a text file
or data file or constants file is described as follows:
l.
The header files are well tested and debugged modules.
2. The header files provide access to standard libraries.
3. The header file can include several text file or C files.
4. A text file is description of the texts that contain specific
information.
3.2.2 Source Files
Source files are program files for the functions of application
software. The source files need to be compiled. A source file will
also possess the preprocessor directives of the application and
have the first function from where the processing will start. This
function is called main function. Its codes start with void main
0.The
main calls other functions.
3.2.3 ConfigurationFiles
Configuration files are the files for the configuration of the
system.
3.2.4 PreprocessorDirectives
.
Preprocessor Global Variables:
'V
define volatile
boolean IntrEnable" is a preprocessor directive. It
me,ans, it is a directive before processing to consider
Pros:amming Concents and Embedded Prosrammins 3.5
IntrEnable a global variable of Boolean data type and is
volatile.
Preprocessor Constants:
"#
define false 0" is a
prepiocessor directive. It means, it is a dircctive before
processing to assume
'false'
as 0.
Summary
o Preprocessor constants, variables and inclusion, of
configuration files, text files, header files and library
functions are used in C programs.
o Functions are used when the requirement is that the code
should be compiled once only.
o A function may return nothing or a Boolean value or an
integer or any primitive data type.
3.3 PROGRAM ELEMENTS
3.3.1 Macros
A macro is a collection of codes that is defined in a program by a
name. It differs from a function in the sense that once a macro is
defined by a name, the compiler puts the corresponding codes for
it at every place where that macro name appears
Whenever the name of the macro appears, the compiler places
the codes designed for it. Macros, called test macros or test
vectors are also designed and used for debugging a system.
How does a macro differ from a function? The codes for a
function are compiled once only. On calling that function, the
processor has to save the context, and on return restore the
context.
Macros are used for short codes only. This is because, if a
function call is used instead of macro, the overheads (context
saving and other actions on function call and return) will take a
time.
3.6 Embedded
3.3.2 Functions
The functions executes a named set of codes with values
passed
Uy, tt. calling
program through its argumelts'
Also returns a data
;ilj"; when It'is not declarei as voii, It has the context saving
and retrieving overheads.
Main Function
Declarations
of functions and data
b/ps,
typedef and either
(i)
Executes a named s"i or codes, calls a set of functions, and calls
oiift" inttt-pts the ISRs or (ii) starts an OS Kernel'
Interrupt senice Rodine or Daice Drtver
Declarations
of functi6ns and data
Epes, one$et
and
Executes a named set of codes' Must bc short so that other
sources of intemrpts arc also serviced within the deadlines'
Must
be either a reenfa'; routine or must have a solution to the shared
data problem.
Recurcive Function
A function th4 calls itself. It must be a reefitrant function also'
Most often ib use is avoi&d in embeddcd
systems due to
memory consmints.
Reentiant Function
Reentrant
function is usable by the several tasks and routines
synchronouslY.
3.3.3
'
Use of Data TYPes
, . Whenev er adat ai s named, i t wi l l hav et headdr es s ( es )
allocated at the memory' The number of addresses
allocated Jepends upon iht data type'
'C'
allows the
following Primitive
data tYPes'
.
The char (8 bit) for characters,
byte (8 bit)'^unsigned
ttt"tt (16 ;it), strort
(tO bit), unsigne{
lnt.OZ
tit)' int
(32 bit), il;i'oouutelo+
bil), float (32 bI) and double
iOc
Uit).
tCJrtain
compilers-do
not take the
'byte'
as a
oata type'd"rinition,
The
,char'
ls then used instead of
o
I data type appropriate
for the hardware is used' For
example, u iO-iit'timer
can have only the unsigned
short data type, and its range can be from 0 to 65535
only. The tyi.Otf is also uJed' It is made clear by the
following examPle'
o
{ compiler
version may no1 process the declaration
as
an unsigned
byte' The
;unsigned
character' can then be
used as a Oata"typ"' It can then be declared
as follows:
3.3.4 Use of Data Structures
A data structure
is an important
element of any progtam' A few
in,portun,
data structur",
ur. stack, one-dimensional
array,
queue,
circular
queue' plpe; u tuUtt
(two dimensional
amY)' lookup
table, hash table and list'
The following section
gives the uses and shows exemplary uses of
queues, stacks, alTays' lists and trees
Queue
'
It is a sfiucture
with a series of elements
with the first
element
*;ftg for an operation'
An operation can be
done only in thi first in first out (FIFO) mode'
.
lt is used when an element is not to be accessible
by any
index and pointer directly, but only through the FIFO'
'
An element can be inserted only at the end in the series
of elements waiting for an operation'
, '
There are two pointers, one for deleting
after the
operation and other for inserting' Both increment
after
an oPeration.
Example
Print buffer. Each character is to be printed in FIFO mode'
[yt.'. Vfott C compilers
do not take a Boolean variable
3.8 Enlbedded Systems
Stack
.
It is a structure with a series of elements with its last
element waiting for an operation. An operation can be
done only in the last in first out (LIFO) mode.
.
It is used when an element is not to be accessible by any
index or pointer directly, but only through the LIFO.
.
An element can be pqshed (inserted) only at the top in
the series of elements still waiting for an operation.
.
There is only one pointer used for pop (deleting) after
the operation as well as for push (inserting).
o
Pointers increment or decrement after an operation. It
depends on insertion or deletion.
Example
Pushing of variables on intemrpt or call to another function.
Array (One Dimensional Vector)
.
It is a structure with a series of elements with each
element accessible by an identifier name and an index.
o
Its element can be used and operated easily. It is used
when each element of the sructure is to be given a
distinct identity by an index for easy operation. Index
stars from 0 and is fve integers.
Example
ts: 12
*
l2ts[0] Total salary, ts is 12 times the first month salary.
Multi-dimensional Array
.
It is a structure with a series of elements each having
another sub-series of elements.
.
Each element is accessible by identifier name and trvo
or more indices.
.
It is used when every element of the structure is to be
given a distinct identity by two or more indices for easy
operation.
Proerammins Concepts and Embedded Programming 3.9
.
The dimension of an array equals the number of indices
that are needed to distinctly identiff an array-element.
Indices start from 0 and are *ve integers
Example
Matrix or a pixel in an image frame.
List
.
Each element has a pointer to its next element.
.
Only the first element is identifiable and it is done by
list-top pointer (Header). No other
'element
is
identifiable and hence is not accessible directly.
'
By going through the first element, and then
consecutively through all the succeeding elements, an
element can be read, or read and deleted, or can be
added to a neighbouring element or replaced by another
element.
Example
A series of tasks which are active, each task has pointer
for the next task.
Tree
.
It has two or more branches each having a daughter
element.
.
Each daughter element has two or mone daughter
elements.
.
The last one does not have daughters.
.
Only the root element is identifiable and it is done by
the treetop pointer (Header).
o
No other element is identifiable and hence is not
'
acressible dircctly. By traversing the root element, then
proceeding continuously through all the succeeding
daughters, a tree element can be read or read and
deleted, or can be added to another daughter or replaced
by another element.
3. 10
. Thel ast daught er , cal l ednodehasnof ur t her daught er s' l
.
A binary tree is a tree with a maximum
of two daughters
(branches) in each element'
Example
Anexampleisadirectory.Ithasnumberoffile.folders.Eachfile.
folder has a numbtt oiott'tt file folders and so on' In the end is a
file.
I
3.3.5
Use of Modifiers
The actions of modifiers are as follows:
'
Modifier
'auto'
or No modifier'
if outside. a function
I
block, rnt-t- that there is ROM allocation
for the
vari abl euvtr' ' l o.uto' i fi ti si ni ti a| i zedi ntheprogram.]
RAM i, uito"ut.a by the locator, if it is not initialized in
,
the
Program.
'
Modifier
'auto'
or No modifier' if inside the function
i
block, *.un, ttt"t" is ROM allocation
for the variable
by the to"uto, if it is initialized
in the progftm' There is
nb nnU allocation
bY the locator'
. Modi f i er . unsi gned' i smodi f i er f or ashor t or i nt or l ong
Oata type. it ii a directivc
to permit only the positive
valuei of t6, 32 or 64 bits' respectively'
.Modi fi er.stati c.decl arati oni si nsi deafuncti onb| ock.
' Modi f i er r egi st er decl ar at i oni si nsi deaf unct i onbl ock' '
'
Modifier intemrpt'
It directs the compiler
to save all
processor registers on entry.to the function
codes and
restort trtt*"on ittu'n frornthat function'
'
Modifier
extern' It directs the compiler
to look.for the
data type lt"furation
or the function
in a module other
than the one cunentlY
in use'
.
A t*.hasd"t
elements ananged as branches'
if.e Use of Conditions,
Loops and Infinite Loops:
.
Conditional
statements
arc used many times'
r
If a defined condition
(s) is fulfilled, the statements
within tnt tuttv Uotts uittt the condition
are executed'
otherwise
the
irognrn
proceeds to the next statement
or
to the next set of statements'
.
Sometimes
a set of statements
is repeated in a loop'
Clneratty,
in case of array, the index changes and the
same sefis repeated for another element of the array'
.
Infinite loops are never dosired in usual programming'
'
The program will never end and never exit or proceed
further to the codes after the looP'
.
Infinite loop is a feature in embedded
system
Programming
SummarY
o MacroS are used when short functional codes are to be
inserted in a number of
Places'
o The basic C programming elements are the data types' data
structures,
modifiers, cJnditional
statements
and loops'
function calls, multiple functions'
function
queues and
service routine
queues'
o Infinite looping is a greatly *ied feature in embeclded
tyttttnt, as'it feeps u
-att
or system ready for execution
whenever called to run'
3.4 Use of Pointers
Pointersarepowerfultoolswhenusedcorrectlyandacgordingto
;;rt i" basic principles. Exernplary uses are as follows. Let a byte
each be stored at a memory address'
3. r2 Embedded
Let a portA in system have a buffer register that stores a byte.
Now a program using a pointer declares the byte at port A as
follows:
'unsigned
bye
*portA'.
[Pbyte
*portA.]
The
*
means
'the
contents at'. This declaration means that there
is a pointer and an unsigned byte for portA. The compiler will
rcserre one memory address for that byte. Consider
.unsigned
short
*timerl'.
A pointer timerl wilt point to t.wo bytes, and the
compiler will reserve two memory addresses for contents of
timerl.
o
Consider declarations as followg void
*portAdata;
The
void means the undefined data type for portAdata. The
compilcr will allocate for the
*portAdaia
without any
type check.
.
A pointer can be assigned a constant fixed address.
Consider two preprocessor directives:
.#
define portA
(volatile unsigned byte
*)
Od000' and
.#
define PIOC
(volatile unsigned byte
t)
0xl00l'.
.
Alternatively, the addresses in a function can be
assigned as follows.
'volatile
unsigned byte
t
portA
:
(unsigned byte
*)
0x1000' and
'volatile
unsigned byte
*PIOC =
(unsigned byte
*)
0xl00l'. An instruction,
'portA
+r;' will make the portA pointer point to the
next address and to which is the PIOC.
.
Consider, unsigned byte portAdata; unsigned byte
fportA:
&portAdata.
The first statement directs the compiler to allocate one memory
addrpss for portAdata because there is a byte each at an address.
The & (ampersand sigr) means
'at
the address of,. This
declaration means the positive number of 8 bits (byte) pointed by
portA is replaced by the byte at the address of portAdata. The
right side of the expression evaluates the contained byte from the
address, and the left side puts that byte at the pointed address.
3.4.1 I\ruLL Pointer
A
NULL pointer is a special type of pointer which does not points
to valid pointer or to any other variable or an aray.
ProEamming Concepts and Embedded ProEamming 3.13
Null pciintem can be used to place holed at a pointer does not
point anywhere at the moment and that should not use the
"contents
of'operator on it.
.
A NULL pointer declares as following:
'#define
N{.JLL (void*) 0x0000'.
.
NULL pointer is very useful. Consider a statement:
'while
(* RTCSWT_LisI. ListNow
->
state != NULL)
{
numRunning #,'.
.
When a pointer to ListNow in a list of software timers
that are running at psent is not NULL, then only
execute the set of statements in the given pair of
opening and closing curly braces.
.
One of the important uses of the NULL pointer is in a
list.
o
The last element to point to the end of a list or to no
more contents in a queue or empty stack, queuc or list.
Summary
Pointers are needed in number of situations, for example, port bit
manipulation and read or write.
3.5 USE OF FUNCTION CALLS
Functions are useful in such a way that they are used to exccute
repeated codes as a separate program. The function contbins
various parts like declaration, calling and definition of the
function.
A special function for starting the program execution is
'void
main (void)'. Given below are the steps to be followed when
using a function in the program.
3.5.1 Declaring a function
Just as each variable has to have a declaration, each function must
be declared. Consider an example. Declare a function as follows:
3. 14 Em,bdded Systems
int run (int indexRTCSWT, unsigned int maxlength,
unsigned int numTicks);
Here int specifies the returned data type. The run is the
function name. There ar a^rguments inside the brackets.
3.5.2 Defining the statements in the function
Just as each variable has to be given the contents or value, each
function statements. Consider the statements of the functiort
'run'.
These are within a pair of curly bracps as follorys:
int RTCSWT:: run (int indexRTCSWT, unsigned int mar{.jlrgth,
unsigned int numTicks)
{ . . . }
The last statement in a function is for the return and may lso
before returning an element.
3.5.3 Call to a function
Consider an example:
if (delay_F
=:
true & & SsTDelayEnable
:
true)
TSR-Delay (
);
Programming Concepts and Embedded Programmine 3. 15
Function
'run'
arguments indexRTCSWT, maxlength and
numTicks original values in the calling program during execution
of the codes will remain unchanged.
The advantage is that the same values are prcsent on lturn
from the function. The arguments that are passed by the values
are saved temporarily on a stack and retrieved on rqturn from the
functiOn.
3.5.5 Passing the References
When an argument value to a function passes through i pointer,
that function can change this value. On returnin! ftom that
function, the new value will be available in the calling fuilction or
another function called by that function.
Summary
o Software dosignors must learn the uses of pointers in
depth.
e The C program uses passing the variables value by
reference to the function, pointers, null pointers and
function pointers.
3.6 MULTIPLE FIJNCTION CALLS IN CYCLIC
ORDER IN THE MAIN
One of the most common methods is for the multiple function-
calls to be made in a cyclic order infinite loop of the main. The
following diagram illustrates it:
There is a
several times
call
and
on fulfilling a condition. The call can occur
can'be rcpeatedly made. On each call, the
values of the arguments given within the pair of bracket pass for
use in the function statements.
3.5.4 Passing the Values (elemenh)
The values are copied into the arguments of the functions. When
the function is executed in this way, it does not change a
variable's value at the called progam. A frrnction can only use
the copied values in its own variables through the arguments.
Consider a statement,
run (int indexRTCSWT, unsigned int ma:<Length,
unsigned int numTicks)
t . . . )
voumarrtt
{
I
I
Programming model
for
multiple
function
calls in mainfunction
3.6.1 Function Pointers, Function Queues
and Interrupt
Services Routines Queues:
Let the
*
sign not be put before a function name, but there are
arguments within the pair of btaokets, and the statements for those
executed on a call for the function. The statements ard inside a
pair of the curly braces. Consider the following example:
Example:
typedef unsigned char intSbit;
# define intSbit boolean
#deJinefalse 0
# define true I
voidmain (void)
{
Programming Concepts and Efnbedded Programming
3.17
/* Tlrc Declaratiorv of all variables, pointers,
furctions
here and also initializations here*/
uns i gtu d c hm
*
po rt Adat a ;
boolean charAFlag;
boolean clreckPortACh*
(
) ;
void inPortA (unsigned char
*);
void decipherPortAData
(unsigtud cfu,
*);
void encryptPortAData
(unsisned char
);
void outPortB (unsigrred clnr
r);
while (true)
{
/* Codes that rcPeatedlY erccute /
/t Functionfor availability cleck of a clnracter at
port A*/
while (charAFlag !: true) checkPortAClur 0;
/* Functionfor reading PortA character*/
inPortA (unsigned char
*portAdata)
;
/* Functionfor deciPhering V
deciphe rP ortA Data (uns igne d char
*portAdan)
;
/* Functionfor encoding
*I
encryptPortAData (unsigned char
*portAdata)
;
/*Functionfor retransmit output to PortB*/
outPortB (uns igned char
*portAdata)
;
] ;
]
Consider a declaration,
'boolean
checkPortAChar
(
);'.
'checkPortAChar'
is a function, which returns a Boolean value.
Now, checkPortAChar is itself a pointer to the starting address of
lncfrrdeF e3
)
3. 18 Embdded Systems
the statements of the function inside the curly braces without the
star sign before it. The program counter will fetch the address of
checkPortAChar, and CPU sequentially executes the function-
statements from here.
'
Now, let the
*
sign be put before the function.
'*checkPortAChar'
will now refer to all the compiled form
statements in the memory that are specified within the curly
braces.
Consider a declaration in the example,
'void
inPortA (unsigned
char
*);' .
inPortA means a pointer to the statements of the function.
Inside the bracket, there is an unsigned character pointed by some
pointer.
rinportA
will refer to all the compiled form statements of
inPortA.
(* inPortA) will refer to calls to the statements of inPortA,
What will a statement,
'void
create (void (rinPortA) (unsigned
char
*),
void
*portAStach
unsigned char port Apriority);' mean?
First modifier'void' means crate function does not return any
thing.
'create'
is another function.
Consider the argument of this function
'void
(*inPortA)
(unsigned char
*portA
data)'. (*inportA) means call the itcn of
inportA the argument of which is
'unsigned
char
*portAdata'
The second argument of create function is a pointer for the
portA stack at the memory.
The third argument of create function is a byte that defines the
portAfority.
An important lesson to be remembered from above discussion
is that a returning data type specification (for example, void)
followed by'(ffunctionName) (functionArguments)' calls the
statements of the functionName using the functionArgumentg
Proprammins Conceots and Embedded Prosrammine 3.19
and on a rturn, it retums the specified data object. We can thus
use the function pointer for invoking a call tb the function.
When there are multiple ISRs, a high priority intemrpt service
routine is executed first and the lowest priority, last. It is possible
that function calls and statements in any of the higher priority
intemrpts may block the execution of low priority ISR within the
deadline. How is the deadline problern for low priohty foutines to
be solved? One solution is by using the function pointers in the
routines, and forming a queue for them. The functions are then
executed at a later stage.
Summary
o An innovative concept is use of function queues and the
queues of the function pointers built by the ISRs.
o It reduces significantly the ISR latency periods.
o Each device ISR is therefore able to execute within its
stipulated deadline.
3.7 EMBEDDED PROGRAMMING IN C++
3.7.1 Objected Oniented Programming
An objected oriented language is used when there is a need for re-
usability of the defined object or set of objects that are common
within a program between many applications. When a large
program is to be made, an object-oriented language offers many
advantages. Data encapsulation, design of reusable software
components and inheritance are the advantages derived from the
OOPs.
An object-oriented language provides for defining the objects
and methods that manipulate the objects modifring their
definitions. It provides for the data and methods for
encapsulation. An object can be characterized by the following:
.
An identity, a reference to a memory block that holds its
state and behavior.
3.20 Embedded Systems
.
A state (its data property, fields and attributes).
.
A behavior (method or methods that manipulate the
state ofthe object).
.
In a procedure-based language, like FORTRAN'
COBOL, Pascal and C, large programs are split into
simpler functional blocks and statements.
.
In an object- oriented language like Smalltalk, C+r or
Java, logical groups (also known as classes) are first
made. Each group defines the data and the methods of
using the data.
o
A set ofthese groups then gives an application program.
.
Each group has internal user-level fields'for the data and
the methods of processing that data at these fields.
.
Each group can then create many objects by copying the
group and making it functional. Each object is
functional.
.
Each object can interact with other objects to process
the user's data.
.
The language provides for formation of classes by the
definition of a group of objects having similar attributes
and common behavior.
.
A class creates the objects. An object is an instance of a
class.
Programming advantages of Cr-t
g++
is an object oriented Program (OOP) language, which in
addition, supports the procedure oriented codes of C. Program
coding in C++ codes provides the advantage of objected oriented
programming as well as the advantage of C and inJine assembly.
Prograrnming concepts for embedded programming in C+r are as
follows:
.
A class binds all the member functions together for
creating objects. The objects will have memory
ProEamming Concepts and Embedded Programnring 3.21
allocation as well as defauh assignments to its variables
that are not declared static. Let us assume that each
software timer that gets the count input from a real time
clock is an object. Now consider the codes for a C+r
class RTCSWT. A number of software timer objects can
be created as the instances.of RTCSWT.
A class can derive (inherit) from another class also.
Creating a child class from RTCSWT as a parent class
creates a new application of the RTCSWT.
Methods (C functions) can have same name in the
inherited class. This is called method overloading.
Methods can have the same name as well as the same
number and type of arguments in the inherited class.
This is called method overriding. These are the two
significant features that are extremely useful in a large
program.
Operators in C+r can be overloaded like in. method
overloading.
There is struct that binds all the mernber functions
together in C. But a C++ class has object features. It can
be extended and child classes can be derived from it. A
number of child classes can be derived from a common
class. This feature is called polymorphism. A class can
be declared as public or private. The data and methods
access is restricted when a class is declared private
struct does not have these features.
Disadvantages of C+r
Program codes become lengthy, particularly when certain features
of the standard Cr+ are used.
Examples of these features are as follows:
Template.
Multiple Inheritance (Deriving .a class from many
parents).
I
I
)
i
I
l
I
\
I
t
I
}.
a
a
3.22 Embedded Systems
Exceptional handling.
.
Virtual base classes.
.
Classes for IO Stroams.
[Two
library functions are cin
(for character(s) in) and cout charactlr (s) out). The I/O
'stream
class library provides for the input and output
streams of characters (bytes). It supports pipes, sockets
and file management features.
3.7.2 Embedded Programming in C+ +
Embedded system codes can optimized when using an OOp
language by the following:
.
Declare private as many classes as possible. It helps in
optimizing the generated codes.
o
Use char, int and boolean (scalar data types) in place of
the objects (reference datatypes) as arguments and use
local variables as much as feasible.
.
Recover memory already used once by changing the
reference to an object
o
{ special compiler for an embedded system can
facilitate the disabling of specific features provided in
C+r.
.
Embedded C++ is a version of C+r that provides for a
selective disabling of the above features so that there is
a less runtime overhead and less runtime library.
.
The solutions for the library functions in an embedded
C#t compiler are also reentrant.
.
So using embedded C# compilers or the special
compilers make the C+r a significantly more powerful
coding language than C for embedded systems.
GNU Compiler
' .
GNU C/C++ compilers (called gcc) find extensive use
in the C++ environment in embedded software
development.
Procramminc Conceots and Embodded Prromamrninc 3.23
Embcddod C++ is r ncw pogramming tool with a
compihrtrd providcs a smdl nnrtimc library.
o
It satisfies small nurtime RAM
needs
is.by sclectively
deronfiguring featurcs like,' template, multiple
inhritrnce, virtual bose clecs, c0c.
.
Whe,n ttrere is a less runtime overlrcad ana *en tlre less
runtimc library using solutions 6r availSlc. Sclcctively
rcnroved (de-configpred) ftoturcs could be templati, run
rilrc t'"e idcntificatidr, muhiplc inhcritanoc,
cxccpional lnndling virtual base clrsscs, IO streams
and foundcirnchss.
An embcddod sy*cm (C++ compiler (drcr than gcc) is Diab
compilcr ftom Diab lhtr. It also pr,ovirles thc trga (embedded
system processor) spccific opimizatior fic @des. Thc run- line
analysis tools chec* $c e,xpec'tcd nrn time cnu and givc a
profil that is visually fuscractive.
Srmnery
o Embedded C++ is a Cr+
yeniion,
which makes largs
Fogram
development simpler by providing object
orientod prrognmming feahres of using an object, which
bitds stat and behavior and which is dcfind by an
instrnce of a chss.
o Diab oompihr has two spccial festurs
-
processor
specific code opimizdion and run tirne analysis tools for
finding expected run time errors.
3.8
'C'
PROGRAM COMPILER
A compiler generates an object file. The object file is generated
on compilation program while an executable file is.required,
which has the source codes having the absolute addresses..
g
For compilation for.the host alone, the compiler can be
turbo C. Turbo C# or8orland C and Borland C++.
3.24 Embodded SYste$
, -
.
Two *rnpit"ot
" needed' One compiler is- for
$e
host
cor-nputer
*'tti"tt does thc devolopment
and design and
"ft"iftt t"Jingcr{
debugging:
The second compiler is a
'
cross-comPiler.
r
There is a popular freeware calhd GNU CIC++
"Apiftt and ffi Asl lM assembler for 68HCl1'
,
' , A GNU compiler is configurable
both as host compiler
'as
well ss cro$'Gornpiler':It
supports 80x86' Window
95/NT, 80xS6 Red Hat Linux and scveral other
platforms.
'
It supports 80x86, 68HCll, 80960' PowerPC and
'
several other targBt system
processors'
3.8.f Crcss ComPiler
The cross compiler runs on a host machine' but develops the
machine codes io, u tt g"ted system
( Processor of the embedded
system). It means that ; target system can emulate and simuiate
tire application
system on the host
. Thet ar get sy$em. speci f i cor mul t i pl e. choi cecr oss.
compitersttrai
are onuilubtt commercially
may be used'
.
These are available for most enrbpddod
system
microprocesqpn
and miorocontrollers'
The IAR System'
Swedin, offers cross-compilers
for many targets'
. Thet ar get scar r beof t hePf ar r r i l yor S05l f ami l y,
68HCl f famitY or 80196 familY'
'
FCM is another closs compiler for the PIC
(hogrammable
Intemrpt Controller)
microcortroller
i*''ty, PIc 16F84 or l6-C76, l6F876.The host also runs
thecross-compilcrthatoffersanintcgrateddevelopment
envincnment
Erecutablc
File
Inanembeddedsystemdesig&asthefinalstep'thebytes.mustbe
olaced at thc ROM after irnpildiom'
A
'C'
prognm
helps to
ffit""; ;hJr*i nr. .*crutabl"
filc is tlre file that a device
Procrammine Concepts and EmHded Prcgra4ming 3.25
.program
uscs to put (store or buri data' constants, vectors, tables,
and-strings, and ttre source codes in the ROM
A locator file has the final informdion of memory allocation to
the codes, data initialization data and so on. Thi locator then uses
the allopation map file. and generafes the source code within the
allocated addresses.
The ROM has the following sections:
:
.
Machine (Execrrtable) codes for the bootshap (rcse0
program
.. .
Initialization (default) data at shadow ROM for copying
into the RAM during execution
.
Codes for the application and.intemrpt service routines
.
System configuration data needed br the execution the
codes
o
Standard data or vectors and tables
.
Machine codes for the device mana.ge and device
drivers
Summary
Use of appropriate compilers and cross compilers is essential in
any embedded software development
3.9 SOTTRCE CODE ENGINEERING TOOL FOR
EMBEDDED C/C+ +
A source code engineering tool is of great help for source-code
developmen! compiling and cross compiling. The tools are
commercially available for embedded C/C+r code enginecring,
testing and debugging.
The features of a typical tool are comprehension, navigation
and browsing editing debugging configuring (disabling and
enabling the C+r features). A tool for C and C+| is SNiFF+. It is
326 Emb?ddcd
frotn WirdRirct Sysuns. A vcrsion SNiFF+ PRO code as well
as debug module. Mrin fcaturcs ofthe tool are as follows:
It seschas and li$s thc definilions' symbols' hierarchy
of the classcs, and chss inhritsnoc tslcs
It searches and liss ilre dependcncios of symbols and
dcfincd symbols, variablcs, ftnrctiors (mcfiods) and
othcr symbols.
It mqritors' cnabhs and dis.bh tlrc implcrnentatiolt
Yirtual frmctions.
It fu& dtG ftll cftct of ur.y co& dtdtge on dtc soume
codc.
ft scsshcs dd lists trc dcpcn&ncies
md hicrarchy of
irchdod hcldcr fihs.
!t navigScs to ard fio barrccn thc imphrnentation and
synrbol dech*ion
ft navigUes to and Ao bctwoen tlrc ovcrridden and
overriding nrethods.
[Overriding
me0rod is metlrod in
daugbtcrihss with same namc ard srmc number and
types of arguments as in the pastt class. Overriddcn
ithttoO is tlre rtthod of thc porcnt chss, which has
becn Fdfinod *the daugfttcr olas.
It browscs fftrou$ information rcgnrding instantiation
(objoct creation) of a chss.
ft browscs ftturgh information encapsulation of
variables among the mernbers and brswscs through the
public, private and protected visibility of ttre members'
It browses through object comportent relatiorrships'
It automatically rcmoves enor- prone and unused tasks'
It provides easy and automated search and replacement'
Proerammins Concepts 8rd E nbdded Pnogramndm 327
Snmmaty
The embeddcd softrrare designer for sophisticated applications
uses a soure code engineering tool for program coding, profiling,
testing and debugging of embedded system softrrare.
3.IO OPTIMIZATION OF MEMORY NNEDS
When codes are madc compact and fi1ted in small memory af,eas
without affecting the codo performance, it is called memoty
optimization. It also reduces the total number of CPU cycles, and
thuq the total enerry requircments.
Thefollowing are used for optimizing the use of memory in a
system.
Use declarotbn os unsigned hyte
If there is a variable, which always has a value between 0 and
255. When using data sfuctures, limit the maximum size of
queues, lists and stacks size to 256. Byte arithmetic takes less
time than integer arithmetic.
Foltow a rule thot uses wsigned bytes
for
a short ond a short
for
an imeger
It is used to optimize use of the RAM and ROM available in
the system. Avoid if possible the use of
'long'
integers and
'double'precision
floating point values.
Avoid use of librarylundtons
if
a simpler coding is possibla
Library functions arp the general functions. Use of general
fuirction needs mor memory in several cases. Follow a rule that
avoids use of library functions in case a generalized function is
expocted to take more memory when its coding is simple.
t
o
a
a
ffi"er
lenows
fully
the instruction s4 or
the target ptocessor, assimbty codes must be used
This also allows the efficient use of mem-ary.The
device driver
oro**ri nassembl yespeci al l yprovi deeffrci encyduetothe
;;Hil;tne
Uit r"ir.."t instructions
for the control and status
.*gi ' t' *o"l ythefewassembl ycodesforusi ngthedevi ce.V0
ffi
addressei,
confiol and status registers are nee&d. The best
lt" it made of available features for the given applications'
;;;Uy
coding also helps in coding for atomic operations'
A
modifier register can be used in the C progam for-fast access to a
It"Or*ifV
is"O nutiaUle.If
portA Oata is tequently employed' it
is used as follows,
'register
unsigned bye portAfall"
The
;J.'* register directs'the
compiier to place portAdata in a
general-purpose
register of the processor'
Asar ul e, uset heassembl ycodesf or si mpl ef unct i onsl i ke
,onngoting
the device tontroi register,
port addresses and bit
;;dilt6ns
if the instruction
Gt is clearly understood'
Use
|,[ffit
codes for the atomic operations
for increment
and
uJAiti#Ut
modifier register for a frequently used variable'
Cating afunction carrsr contert saving on a memttry stack and
on retirn the cont& is retrieved'
Thisinvolvestimeandcanincreasetheworst.caseintemrpt.
latcncy. There i, n,Jiner inline. when the inline modifier is
;r.4lh. oompiler
inserts the actual codes at all the places when
t heseoper at oo* _o* d. Thi sr educest het i meandst acl t
oulir,"ui,
in the function call and retum. But" this is at the cost o
more ROM being needed forthe codes'
If used, it increases the size of the prograT but gives r
faster speed. usini tne modifier directs the compiler to put th,
;;; flt tr," n nition
(in curlv u9:"t)
instel! -of
calling tha'
n n"tion. As a rule, use inline modifiers
for all frequently use
,r"ii *t, of codes in trr" function or the operator overloadin
functions if trre noM is available in the system' A vacant ROI\
memory is an unused resource' Why not use it for reducing th
worst-case
rnt ^rpi-iutencies
by eliminating
the time taken i
fr"quJ;e
and ietrieval of a program context?
..
ProprammineConcepts andEmbeddedProgamming !.29
As long as sharcd dota problem does orise, the ase of global
variables can be optimired.
These are not used as the arguments for passing the values. A
good function is one that has arguments to be passed. The passed
values are saved on'the stacks in caS'of intemrpt service calls
and other firnction calls. Besides obviaing the need for repeated
declarations, the use of global vdriables will thus reduce the
worct{ase intemrpt-latency and the time and stack overheads in
the function call and return. But this is at the cost of the codes for
eliminating shared data problem. When a variable is declared
statiq, the processor accesses with less instruction than from the
stack.
As a rule, use global variables if shared data problem are
tackled and use static variables in case it needs saving frequently
on the stack.
Combine two functions if possible. As a rule, whenever
feasible combine two functions of more of less similar codes.
.
Bringing the tasks into an initiated task list will reduce
the fr,equent interactions with the OS and context
savings and retrievals stack and time overheads.
Optimize the RAM use for the stacks. It is done by
reducing the number of tasks that interact with the OS.
One function calling another function and that calling
the third and so on means nested calls. Reduce the
number of nested calls and call at best one more
function from a funition. This optimizes the use of the
stack. As a rule reduce use of frequent function calls
and nested calls and thus reduce the time and RAM
memory needed for the stacks, respectively.
r
Use if feasible, alternatives to the switch statements
with a table of pointers to the functions. This saves
processor time in deciding which set of statements to
execute while performing the conditional tests all down
a chain.
o
Use the delete function when there is no longer a need
for a set of statements after that execute. As a rule, to
fre the RAM used by a sct of sta0crrasa use the detete
function and destructor functions.
.
When using C++, configure thc compilcr for not
permitting the muhi-inhcritance, bmplaleq exccptional
handlirry; rrcw g1ile castsr virtuEl basc classei, ard
namcspe$. As r nrle, for using Cr+, usc the classes
without muhiple inheritance, without template, with
nrntime identification and with throwable occeptions.
Sumnery
Embedded software d$igners must us various standard ways for
optimizing the memory needs in a system.