Chapter 2.

Fundamental Laws of Mechanics

Chapter Two
The Fundamental laws of Mechanics
Contents
The concepts of displacement ( ), velocity, acceleration, angular velocity, angular
acceleration and angular momentum ()
Newtons laws of motion, rotational laws,
Conservational () laws of momentum, energy and angular momentum
2.1 The motion of Point masses
2.1.1 Displacement and equation of motion
hen a particle is moving in space, it changes its position with time. !enerally, the
motion could "e descri"ed "y a function of time.
#or e$ample, a particle moves along x%direction in a constant speed v, its position can
"e written as
x & vt + x
0
x(t) (2.')
$
(
can "e determined "y the initial condition.
)f the particle moves in a three dimensional space, its path at time t can "e descri"ed
"y the following e*uation+
r r(t) & x(t) i i , y(t) j j , z(t) k k (2.2)
r r r r(t) (2.-)
where r denotes vector r

and same for i, j, and k. .uite a few "oo/s used such "old form
letters as vectors for simplicity. 0t the time of t+t, r r(t) "ecomes r r(t, t). The change of its
path during the interval t is given by
r = r r = r(t+ t) % r r(t).
r r(t) is called the displacement of the particle
in t period. )t also has three components in x, y and z
directions. r r(t) is called the equation of motion for the
particle.
2.1.2 Velocity and cceleration
1. !nstantaneous "elocity and acceleration #ig. 2.' The displacements
'(
r(t)
r r(t+ t)
r(t)
Chapter 2. Fundamental Laws of Mechanics
The average velocity of the particle during t with displacement of r r is r# r#t. )t is also a
vector, its direction is the same as the increment r. r. The instantaneous "elocity of the
particle at time t is
dt
r d
t
r
v
t

=
(
lim
(2.1)
The instantaneous velocity is not necessarily a constant. )t can "e a function of time. 0t the
moment t,
) (t r

will give the e$act position of that particle. 2sing e*uation (2.1), we could
get the e$act value of velocity at that particular moment. !enerally spea/ing, the magnitude
of the velocity is called speed, denoted "y
dt
ds
dt
r d
v v = = =

,
where v represents instantaneous speed, ds is the a"solute path length displaced at the time
interval dt. )n the Cartesian coordinate system, as i, i, $ $ and and % % do not change with time, we have
k
dt
dz

dt
dy
i
dt
dx
v

+ + =
. (2.3)
The three components on the a$es of x, y and z are e$pressed as
dt
dz
v
dt
dy
v
dt
dx
v
z y x
= = = , ,

(2.4)
0nd the magnitude of the velocity is
2 2 2
z y x
v v v v + + =
(2.5)
&'ample 2.1 The position of a particle moving in $%y plane is descri"ed "y the following
parametric e*uations given "y
t r y
t r r x

sin
cos
=
+ =
(6.'.')
where
'
1
, '

= = s m r

. #ind
(') the path (or or"it) function f(x,y) & (7
(2) velocity at any time7
(-) position vectors at t ! ( and t ! 4s, the displacement r

and path length s

during this time interval.
(olution
(') rearrange the e*uation (6.') as
t r y
t r r x

sin
cos
=
=
(6.'.2)
8*uare on "oth sides and delete t, then we have
2 2 2
) ( r y r x = + (6.'.-)
here is the path function of a circle with radius r and its centre locates at (r, (). i.e. x ! r and
y & (.
(2)
( ) t i t r t r i t r
dt
dy
i
dt
dx
v

cos sin cos sin + = + = + =

(6.'.1)
and the magnitude of the velocity is

' 2 2
1

= = + = ms r v v v
y x

(6.'.3)
''
9edical :hysics
hich means that the motion is a circular motion with constant speed. The angle "etween
v

and $%direction can "e simply found as

t
v
v
x
y
cot tan = =
(6.'.4)
;y inspection of the sign v
$
and v
y
at a particular time, you can determine which *uadrant the
angle is in.
(-) at first, we could get the two position vectors at t & ( and t & 4s respectively,
t & (
i r r

2
(
=
(6.'.5)
t & 4s
r i r r i r r r
s

= + + =
2
-
sin )
2
-
cos (
4

(6.'.<)
the displacement during s t 4 = is
) (
( 4
i r r r r
s


+ = =
)ts shortcut length is
m r r r r 2 2 ) ( ) (
2 2
= = + =

hile the path length during the time interval should "e calculated "y the following+
or"it circle the of radius radian "y moved angle the = s
& angular velocity time interval r
m m s s
2
-
' 4
1
'

= =

)n a"ove calculations, the concept that the arc length is e*ual to the angle in radian multiplied
"y radius was used.
2. cceleration
The path of a particle moving in two or three dimensions is a curve in general, its velocity
changes "oth in magnitude and in direction. The magnitude of the velocity changes when the
particle speeds up or slows down. The direction of the velocity changes "ecause the velocity
is tangent to the path and the path "ends continuously. To descri"e the average velocity rate of
change in velocity for the time interval t, the average acceleration is defined as
t
v
a

. (2.<)
The instantaneous acceleration of a particle is defined in the same way as instantaneous
velocity as
k
dt
z d

dt
y d
i
dt
x d
dt
r d
k
dt
dv

dt
dv
i
dt
dv
dt
v d
t
v
a
z
y
x
t

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(

lim
+ + = =
+ + = =

=

(2.=)
&'ample 2.2 8uppose that the motion of a particle is descri"ed "y the e*uation of motion x =
2( + 1t
2
. #ind the speed and the acceleration of the particle at t ! "s.
(olution) (a) find speed

using the differentiation formula
'
) (

=
n n
nx x
dx
d
,
we have
'2
Chapter 2. Fundamental Laws of Mechanics
(') the speed at any moment t
t
dt
dx
t v < ) ( = =
,
(2) the speed at t & 2 seconds
v(t) >
t & 2s
& < t#
t & 2s
& '4 (m?s)
(") 0cceleration
) ( <
2
= = ms
dt
dv
a

&'ample 2.* The coordinate of a particle moving in the three dimensional space given as
functions of time "y

k t z t y i t x t r

) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( + + =
where
x(t) & ' , 2t
2
(m), y(t) & 2t , t
-
(m) and z(t) & -t , 1t
2
(m).
#ind the particles vectors and magnitudes of its position, velocity and acceleration at t ! 2s.
(olution) (') position at t & 2s, this is
) 2 ( r

k i t r

22 '2 = ) ( + + =
)ts magnitude is )ts magnitude is
) ( 22 '2 =
2 2 2
m r + + =
(2) find the velocity at time t
k t t i t k
dt
dz

dt
dy
i
dt
dx
v

) < - ( ) - 2 ( 1
2
+ + + + = + + =
.
0t t & 2s, we have
k i v

'= '1 < + + =

+ +
the magnitude of the velocity is
) ( '= '1 <
' 2 2 2
+ + = ms v
(-) 0cceleration
k t i k
dt
dv

dt
dv
i
dt
dv
a
z
y
x

< 4 1 + + = + + = ,
0t t & 2s, the acceleration is
k i a

< '2 1 + + =
+ +
The magnitude of the acceleration is The magnitude of the acceleration is
) ( < '2 1
2 2 2 2
+ + = ms a
&'ample 2., 0 person standing on a cliff pulls a "oat "y a pulley, as shown in #ig. 2.2.
8uppose that the height of the cliff is h, the rate of the rope pulled is u. #ind+ (') the velocity
of the "oat7 (2) its acceleration.
x
x

h

@
'-
9edical :hysics
#ig. 2.2 diagram for e$ample 2.1
(olution) 0s the "oat moves on the surface of water, its motion is in one dimension. 8et the
x$a$is point to the right, choose the origin at the foot point of the pulley, and let represent the
varia"le length of the rope at any time. 8o the relation among h, and x can "e found easily "y
:ythagorean Theorem ()
2 2 2
h x = ,
and the e*uation of motion for the "oat is
i x r

= ,
Ta/e the time derivative of x, we have
( ) ( )
x
u
u h
dt
d
h
dt
dx

= = =

) ( 2
2
' 2 ? '
2 2
'
2
'
2 2
where
u
dt
d
=

, as the "oat moves towards negative direction of $%a$is. Therefore, the speed
of the "oat is
2 2
h x
x
u
v + =
@"viously, the velocity is e$pressed as a function of coordinate x. The acceleration of the "oat
is then
-
2 2
x
h u
dt
dv
a = =
8o as long as we /now where it is, i.e. position x, we could simply calculate the acceleration.
The result indicates that acceleration and velocity are in the same direction, so the speed of
the "oat will "ecome larger and larger with the value of x decreased.
2.2 -ewton.s /aw of Motion
e /now from e$perience that an o"Aect at rest never starts to move "y itself7 in order to
move a "ody, a push or pull must "e e$erted on it "y some other "ody. 8imilarly, a force is
re*uired to slow down or stop a "ody already in motion, and to ma/e a moving "ody deviate
from straight line motion re*uires a sideways force. 0ll these processes (speeding up, slowing
down, or changing direction) involve a change in either the magnitude or direction of the
velocity. Thus in each case the "ody accelerates, and an e$ternal force must act on it to
produce the acceleration. ;efore discussing Newtons Baw of motion, the definitions of
momentum and force should "e stated.
Momentum) The momentum of a "ody is defined as the product of its mass times its
vector velocity.

v m %

=
(2.'()
Force) )f a single force F

is applied to a "ody of mass m, the value of the force is

defined as the time rate of change of momentum of the "ody
dt
% d
F

=
(2.'')
for a "ody of constant mass, (2.'') "ecomes

a m
dt
v d
m
dt
v m d
F

= = =
) (
(2.'2)
2.2.1 -ewton.s first law of motion
'1
Chapter 2. Fundamental Laws of Mechanics
Newtons first law descri"es the motion of an isolated o"Aect which, for our purposes,
is an o"Aect on which no net force is acting.
&f an isolated obect is at rest, it will remain at rest' if it is in motion, it will continue
moving along a straight line at a constant s%eed.
( body remains in a state of rest or constant velocity )zero acceleration* when left to
itself.
)n the most general case, a single force acting on a "ody produces a change in "oth its
translational and rotational motion. Cowever, when several forces act on a "ody
simultaneously, their effects can compensate one another, with the result that there is no
change in either the translational or rotational motion. hen this is the case, the "ody is said
to "e in e+uilibrium. This means (') that the "ody as a whole either remains at rest or moves
in a straight line with constant speed, and (2) that the "ody is either not rotating at all or is
rotating at a constant rate.
9athematically, this says
, ( = a

when ( =
net
F

(2.'-)
where
net
F

is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the "ody.

-ote) Newtons first law is often called the law of inertia. !nertia is the property of an
o"Aect that resists acceleration.
2.2.2 -ewton.s second law of motion
The time rate of change of momentum of a "ody is e*ual to the net force acting on the "ody.
#or constant mass
F F
net
& dP P?dt or F F
net
& ma a (2.'')
That is, if the sum of all forces acting on an o"Aect is not Dero, then it will "e accelerated. The
acceleration depends on the net force and on the mass m of the o"Aect as well.
)f you thin/ of inertia as the *ualitative term for the property of a "ody that resists
acceleration, then mass (a scalar *uantity) is the *uantitative measure of inertia. )f the mass is
large, the acceleration produced "y a given force will "e small.
2.2.* -ewton.s third law of motion
herever two "odies interact, the force on the first "ody due to the second is e*ual and
opposite to the force on the second due to the first.
F F
0 due to ;
& % F F
; due to 0
(2.'2)
@r we can say+ if o"Aect 0 e$erts () a force on o"Aect ;, then o"Aect ; e$erts an e*ual and
opposite force on o"Aect 0.
#or every action there is an e*ual and opposite reaction. This law is true for any type
of force, including frictional, gravitational, electrical, and magnetic forces.
2.2., !nertial frame of reference 0inertial system1
0 frame of reference ( ) in which "odies move in straight lines with constant
speeds unless acted upon "y e$ternal forces, i.e. 0 frame of reference in which free "odies are
not accelerated.
Newtons laws of motion are valid in an inertial system "ut not in a system that is itself
accelerated with respect to such a frame.
'3
9edical :hysics
2.* 2or% and &ner3y
2.*.1 2or%
)n everyday life, the term wor/ is applied to any activity re*uiring the e$ertion of
muscular or mental effort. )n physics, the term is used in a much more specific sense, which
involves the application of a force to a "ody and displacement of that "ody.
)f a displacement dr r of a "ody is caused "y a force F, the wor/ (d0) done "y the force
is e$pressed as
d0 & F4dr F4dr & #Edr Cos (2.'-)
is the angle "etween the F and dr. or/ is a scalar, its dimension ( ) is
FNewtonE9eterG and its unit is FAouleG (H).
)f a "ody moves along a curve from a to ;, the wor/ done "y the force # is
0
0;
& d0 & F4dr F4dr (2.'1)
F is the sym"ol of integral, finding the result of a continuous summation. The formula of
integration we used here is
,
n
x
dx x
n
n
+
+
=
+

'
'
(, is a constant) (2.'3)
)f this integration is from $ & 0 to $ &;, the result should "e
'
' '
+

=
+ +

n
( -
dx x
n n -
(
n
2.*.2 &ner3y
1. 5inetic &ner3y
)f a "ody is drawn "y a force on a horiDontal frictionless surface, the wor/ done "y the force
will increase the speed of the "ody. 8o the wor/ can "e descri"ed "y the /inetic energy. )t can
"e evaluated as

( ) ( )


= =

=
= = =
-
(
-
(
v
v
- (
t
t
-
(
-
(
-
(
(-
v v m vdv m vdt
dt
dv
m
Fdr dr F r d F (
2 2
2
'

) ( ( cos

(2.'4)
hen the length of the curve 0; is s, the proAection value of F F is F (resultant force), the wor/
done "y F from ( to - should "e F.s, therefore
( )
2 2
2
'
- (
v v m s F =

2sing Newtons second law of motion, we have
2 2
2
- (
v v as = (2.'5)
8o this shows that the integration is correct. The *uantity '?2mv
2
is called /inetic energy.
Therefore we could conclude that FThe wor/ done "y the resultant e$ternal force on a "ody is
e*ual to the change in /inetic energy of the "ody.G
2. Potential &ner3y
'4
Chapter 2. Fundamental Laws of Mechanics
:otential energy can "e thought of as energy stored up for future potential use. )n many cases,
it can "e converted into other useful forms of energy.
* 6onser"ati"e force )f the system is conservative, the total wor/ done on a particle when it
moves around any closed curve is Dero+

= ( s d F

(2.'<)
Now consider two points 0 and ;, and any two paths connecting them. e can com"ine these
two paths to ma/e a closed curve, to which (2.'<) applies. This means that
( ) I ( ) I ( = +

(
-
-
(
%ath higher s d F %ath lower s d F

( ) I ( ) I ( =

-
(
-
(
%ath higher s d F %ath lower s d F

=
-
(
-
(
%ath higher s d F %ath lower s d F ) I ( ) I (

8o that the wor/ done on the particle "y conservative force when it moves from 0 to ; is
independent of the path from 0 to ;. )n this case we choose a reference point C, and define
the potential energy at point 0 "y

=
(
,
s d F ( /

) (
Then we can write

) ( ) ( ) ( - / ( / s d F s d F s d F s d F s d F
-
,
(
,
-
,
,
(
-
(
= = + =

)n such a force field, there is a special function which is determined "y the relative positions
of the particle, and it is called potential Energy function.
&'ample 2.7 !ravitational potential energy function is mgh. Mg is gravitational force.
mgh mgds h /
h
= =

(
) (
That means that from a height h, the conservative force (gravity) does a wor/ of mgh.
Therefore, at that height h, it has potential energy of mgh.
&'ample 2.8 6lastic potential energy is '?2 /$
2
(/ is elastic constant of a spring). The elastic
force is also a conservative force and usually is e$pressed as Jkx, choose a proper point as the
Dero point of the elastic potential energy, it could "e easily derived.
)n such a system, potential energy and /inetic energy can "e converted each other. )t can "e
shown that the total /inetic energy plus potential energy is a constant at any time. Therefore if
a system has a conservative force only, it has the property of conser"ation of ener3y.
E = K + U = 6onstant (2.'=)
'5
0
;
9edical :hysics
(hints of proof+
( )
2 2
2
'
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
( -
v
v
-
(
-
(
v v m mvdv vdt
dt
dv
m s d F - / ( /
-
(
= = = =

This shows that all the potential energy "etween 0 and ; is transformed into /inetic energy.)
2., 9otational Motion
2.,.1 9otational %inematics
Kisplacement $ angular displacement
Lelocity d$?dt d?dt angular velocity
d?dt (2.2()
#or motion a circle, there is a simple relation "etween w and the velocity v along the
circumference. 8ee fig. 1.'
s & M (2.2')
Now differentiating the "oth sides with respect to t, we have
ds?dt & M d?dt
v & M (2.22)
The velocity v is the distance traveled in one second. 8o
v & 2M f f is the num"er of revolution
2M f & M
Therefore we have the very important relation "etween the fre*uency and the angular velocity
& 2f or f & /2 (2.2-)
The letter f stands for fre*uency in revolution per second and is radius per second.
Kisplacement $ (angular)
Lelocity d$?dt d?dt (angular)
0cceleration a & d
2
$?dt
2
& d
2
?dt
2
(angular)
dv?dt & M d?dt
a & M (2.21)
@"viously, the acceleration a is the tangential acceleration. This relation is not only valid for
the circular motion "ut also for any /ind of curve motion. The only difference is the radius M
is changea"le at different moment.
2.,.2 n3ular momentum and its conser"ation
1. Definition of an3ular momentum
0 single particle can have angular momentum even if it moves in a straight line. )t is
defined as
% r L

= (2.23)

where % is the particles linear momentum and r is the position vector from the origin to the
particle. 0ccording to the definition of cross product of two vectors, we have
sin sin mrv r% L = =
'<
Chapter 2. Fundamental Laws of Mechanics
here is the angle "etween r and p and the direction of angular momentum is determined
"y the right%handed rule. 8ee the fig. 1.' B is in % % (D) direction.
here
r & >r r> & (x
2
, y
2
)
'?2
for r r & x i i , y $ $ and
v & >v> & (v
$
2
,v
y
2
)
'?2
for " " & v
$
i i , v
y
$ $
2. 6onser"ation of n3ular momentum
e consider a single particle moves in a central force field which is directed from or
away from the origin. This means that the central force has the same direction with r r . Ta/ing
the gravity as an e$ample, the gravity points to the center of the earth.
The conservation of a physical *uantity is defined that it is not changed with time.
Therefore if the angular momentum is conserved, the d/ /?dt should "e e*ual to Dero. Bets
calculate it for the central force field.
:roduct rule of differentiation + d($Ey)?dt & d$?dt E y , $ E dy?dt
d/ /?dt & d(r r Np p)?dt
& dr r?dt Np p , r r Ndp p?dt
& " " Nm" " , r r NF F
& m (" " N" ") , (r r NF F)
& ( (2.24)
Thus we have
/ / & constant (2.25)
This e$plains that 0ngular 9omentum in a central force field is a conservative physical
*uantity.
2.,.* Torque 01 and Moment of inertia 01
0 tor*ue is defined as
& r r N F F (2.2<)
Consider a very small "ody of mass m attached to the end of a string and accelerating in a
circle of radius M as a result of an applied force F acting tangentially to the circle. )f Newtons
second law of motion is applied to this situation, we have
F & ma,
here the vector notation is dropped and we recogniDe the acceleration is tangentially to the
circle "ecause the applied force is in tangent direction.
)t is /nown that from (2.21)
a & M
#urthermore, as r and # are orthogonal (perpendicular) here,
& > r r N F F > & r F sin=(O & r F
& M (m a) & M m (M ) (using r & M)
& m M
2

& ) 2.29)
(2.29)
here ) & m M
2
is called the moment of inertia and & ) is the alternative e$pression of
Newtons second law. )t is also called rotational law.
'=
9edical :hysics
2.7 &lasticity of Materials
!n this section+ the stress+ strain and modulus will :e discussed. The contents are the
:ases of material properties and will :e used in the followin3 chapters.
2.7.1 (tress
The definition of the stresses is
d(
dF
0tress =
02.*;1
2hew dF is the element of force suffered :y material on dA area. <:"iously+ stress has
dimensions of pressure 0force#area1+ and we often measure it in pascals+ 01 -#m
2
= 1
pascal = 1 Pa1. (tress can :e classified into two different types. <ne is called normal
stress or stretchin3 stress+ the other is called shearin3 stress. The normal 0stretchin31
stress is perpendicular to the surface e'erted :y a force. !t is e'pressed :y
d(
dF
=
02.*11
<f course+ it is equal to F# if the force is uniform on the area. (hearin3 stress is parallel
to the actin3 area+ e'pressed :y
d(
dF
=
02.*21
(ame as a:o"e+ it is equal to F#( if the area is uniformly e'erted :y the force.


#ig. 2.- showing different forces acting on an o"Aect
2.7.2 strain
There are three %inds of strains+ which are stretchin3+ "olume and shearin3 strains.
The definition of the three strains is 3i"en :elow respecti"ely.
1. (tretchin3 0tensile1 strain is defined :y
(
L
L
=
02.**1
where L = L
;
=L denotes the len3th chan3e and L
;
is the ori3inal len3th of that o:$ect.
2. Volume strain+ e'pressed :y , is defined :y
(
1
1
=
02.*,1
where =
;
=+
;
is the "olume :efore :ein3 depressed and is the "olume under
stain. The minus si3n means that the :ul% of o:$ect is always depressed and :ecomes
smaller.
2(
Chapter 2. Fundamental Laws of Mechanics
*. (hearin3 strain+ denoted :y + is defined as
tan =

=
h
x
02.*71
where ! is the len3th chan3e on the direction of actin3 force+ " is the hei3ht of the
o:$ect and is the related an3le de"iated from the "ertical line 0see Fi3. 2.,1. (hearin3
strain is related to the shearin3 stress+ caused :y the pair of shearin3 forces 0also see Fi3.
2.,1

#ig. 2.1 8howing the shearing strain related elements
,. Poisson ratio
hen an o"Aect is elongated, its cross%section will "e getting smaller (contractive). The two
sides of the cross%section are originally la"eled as a
(
and b
(
respectively and its length is
la"eled as L
(
. 0fter elongation, there are some changes along the three edges. The :oisson
ratio is defined as
( ( ( (
L
L
b
b
L
L
a
a
=

=
02.*81
)f the material is incompressi"le,

2
'
=
02.*>1
and for other materials, P Q
2.7.* &lastic moduli
1. stretch modulus
0 straight wire doesnt stretch as easily as a coiled wire, "ut its length does increase when
a force is applied. The wire made of different material will have a different increase. Cow
far the wire stretches depends on the stress and strain and finally depends on the material
properties. )n order to descri"e such a property, the concept of modulus is introduced.
0 stretch modulus 2 of the wire is the ratio of stress to strain when the length of the wire
changes. )t is also called the elastic modulus or ?oun3.s modulus and denoted "y 3 or 2

= 2
(2.-<a)
where denotes normal stress, is tensile strain. e can also e$press it as
(
?
?
mosulus stretch
L L
d( dF
strain stretching
stress streching

= =
(2.-<")
2. (hear modulus
2nder certain conditions, a force applied to a solid o"Aect can change the shape of the
o"Aect. #ig. 2.1 illustrates the result of applying a large horiDontal force to the top of a
rectangular "loc/ welded to a horiDontal steel plane. 0 shearing strain is the displacement
divided "y height. )f the force is not great enough to produce a permanent distortion of the
F
h
F

2'
x
9edical :hysics
"loc/, the "loc/ will return to its original shape when the force is removed. The shearing
stress #orce?0rea is the applied force divided "y the area. The shear modulus of an o"Aect
is the ratio of shearing stress to strain when the shape of the o"Aect changes.

= =
h x
d( dF
strain shearing
stress shearing
4
?
?
mosulus shear
(2.-=)
*. @ul% modulus
0 solid o"Aect, such as a steel cylinder or a copper "loc/, su"Aected to a high pressure
decreases slightly in volume. #or a given su"stance, the relative change in volume in
proportional to the applied pressure. The "ul/ modulus R of an o"Aect is the ratio of stress
to strain when the volume of the o"Aect changes. That is the "ul/ modulus is e*ual to the
volume stress divided "y volume strain.
1
5
1
5
6

=
(

(2.1()
The minus sign indicates that the increase in pressure causes a decrease in volume.
&'ample 2.> 0n aluminum cylinder 23 cm long and < cm in diameter is lowered
appro$imately one /ilometer into the ocean where the pressure is '.('(
5
N?m
2
greater than
the atmospheric pressure. The "ul/ modulus of aluminum is 5.3'(
'(
N?m
2
. Calculate the
decrease in volume produced "y this e$treme pressure.
(olution) the original volume of the cylinder is
- - 2 2
'( 24 . ' ) 23 . ( ( ) (1 . ( ( m m m h r 1

= = =
Now, you can use 6*.(2.1() to find the decrease in volume+
- 5
2 '(
- - 2 5
(
'( 4< . '
? '( 3 . 5
) '( 24 . ' )( ? '( ' (
m
m 7
m m 7
6
1 5
1

=

=
2.8 Mechanical properties of :ones and muscles
This part is ta/en as a self%study reading material in the third section of chapter two in the
te$t"oo/ written in Chinese.
Pro:lems
0. .uestions
'. hat is the difference "etween displacement and distanceS
2. hat is the difference "etween velocity and speedS
-. )s it possi"le for a "ody to move in a constant speed "ut a varia"le velocityS
1. hen a "ody has a constant acceleration, does the direction of its velocity change or
notS )f yes, give one of your e$amples.
3. )f an o"Aect is acted on under several forces, does the o"Aect have to have
accelerationS
4. Ko the direction of the net force acted on a "ody and the direction of motion of the
"ody have to "e the sameS
;. :ro"lems
'. 0 - /g point mass moves parallel to the x a$is along the line y !2 m. the speed of the
o"Aect is 1m?s. #ind (a) the linear momentum and (") the angular momentum of this
o"Aect.
22
Chapter 2. Fundamental Laws of Mechanics
2. 0n o"Aect moves according to the e*uation of motion
k t t i t t r

- ) < 4 ( ) 1 - ( ) (
1 2 2
+ + + + =
#ind+
(i). The initial position of the o"Aect7 (r(() &- /)
(ii). The velocity of the o"Aect at t & 2 second and the angle with z%
a$is also at t &2 s.
(iii). The magnitude of its acceleration at any moment. (hint+ find
acceleration "y
2
2
dt
r d
and then using
2 2 2
> >
z y x
a a a a + + =

)
-. 0 force acting on an o"Aect has an angle of
-

with the o"Aects displacement.

(i) 8uppose the magnitude of the force is 1 N and the o"Aect moves for 2 meters
under the force. #ind the wor/ done "y the force using

=
2
(
r d F work

.
(ii) 8uppose the initial velocity of the o"Aect is Dero and final speed of the o"Aect
is 4 ms
%'
. Calculate the mass of the o"Aect if it moves on a smooth horiDontal
plane. (hint+ the change of /inetic energy is e*ual to the wor/ done "y the
force and using the result in (i).)
1. 0 particle with mass m moves around a circle of radius r. 8uppose that its angular
displacement can "e descri"ed "y a function of 2 - -
2 -
+ = t t . #ind
(i) its angular velocity at t & 3 second and its tangential speed at t & 2 second7
(hint+
dt
d
=
,
r v =
)
(ii) its angular acceleration at t & 3 second and tangential acceleration at t &2
second7 (hint+

r a
dt
d
dt
d
= = =
2
2
)
(iii) the magnitude of its angular momentum to the center of the circle at t & 4
second. (hint+ sin > > , r% L % r L = =

, should "e e*ual to ninety degree in

circular motion case)
3. :rove e*uation (2.-5)
4. 0 compressional stress of 3.(='(
3
N?m
2
is applied to a steel rod '(cm long and
'.(cm in diameter. The elastic (Toungs) modulus of steel is 2('(
'(
N?m
2
. hat
strain does this stress produceS
5. The shear modulus of cast%iron ( ) is 1.4'(
'(
N?m
2
. 0 '(%cm cu"e of iron is
distorted "y a horiDontal force of 23(N. hat horiDontal displacement will "e
producedS
<. 0 vertical steel shaft, having a diameter of '.( cm, is fastened to a horiDontal plate.
hen a horiDontal force of '3( N is applied to the top of the shaft, (.3 m a"ove the
plate to which is fastened, what horiDontal displacement will "e producedS (The shear
modulus of steel is <.('(
'(
N?m
2
.)
2-