1

Low Noise Oscillator Design and
Performance
Low Noise Oscillator Design and
Performance
Michael M. Driscoll Michael M. Driscoll
Presented at the 2002 IEEE Frequency Control Symposium Presented at the 2002 IEEE Frequency Control Symposium
June 1, 2002 New Orleans, LA, USA June 1, 2002 New Orleans, LA, USA
2
Contents Contents
u u Short Short- -Term Frequency/Phase/Amplitude Stability Term Frequency/Phase/Amplitude Stability
u u Basic Oscillator Operation Basic Oscillator Operation
u u Types of Resonators and Delay Lines Types of Resonators and Delay Lines
u u Useful Network/Impedance Transformations Useful Network/Impedance Transformations
u u Sustaining Stage Design and Performance Sustaining Stage Design and Performance
u u Oscillator Frequency Adjustment/Voltage Tuning Oscillator Frequency Adjustment/Voltage Tuning
u u Environmental Stress Effects Environmental Stress Effects
u u Oscillator Circuit Simulation & Noise Modeling Oscillator Circuit Simulation & Noise Modeling
u u Oscillator Noise De Oscillator Noise De- -correlation/Noise Reduction Techniques correlation/Noise Reduction Techniques
u u Oscillator Test/Troubleshooting Oscillator Test/Troubleshooting
u u Summary Summary
u u List of References List of References
1. Short-term Frequency/Phase/
Amplitude Stability
1. Short-term Frequency/Phase/
Amplitude Stability
4
Signal Signal
Spectral Spectral
Amplitude Amplitude
(dB) (dB)
Signal Frequency (Hz) Signal Frequency (Hz)
Carrier Signals Carrier Signals
fo fo fo fo
Additive Additive
Baseband flicker Baseband flicker
(1/f) noise (1/f) noise
Multiplicative Multiplicative
(i.e., 1/f AM & 1/f PM) (i.e., 1/f AM & 1/f PM)
Types of Phase and Amplitude Noise Types of Phase and Amplitude Noise
5
Additive Noise [noise power Additive Noise [noise power independent independent of signal] of signal]
Types of Phase and Amplitude Noise (cont.) Types of Phase and Amplitude Noise (cont.)
Thermal noise: Thermal noise: en en
2 2
=4KTRB =4KTRB K = Boltzmans constant K = Boltzmans constant
= 1.374X10 = 1.374X10
- -22 22
T = temp in Kelvin T = temp in Kelvin
= 300K at room temp. = 300K at room temp.
R = resistance in ohms R = resistance in ohms
B = bandwidth B = bandwidth
Shot noise: Shot noise: in in
2 2
=2qIB =2qIB q=1.59X10 q=1.59X10
- -19 19
I=current in amperes I=current in amperes
6
How to Calculate Additive Noise How to Calculate Additive Noise
Amplifier additive noise Amplifier additive noise
power power
KTBF (Rg=50 ohms, T=300K, B=1Hz), KTBF (Rg=50 ohms, T=300K, B=1Hz),
referred to input = referred to input = - -174dBm/Hz + NF(dB) 174dBm/Hz + NF(dB)
Carrier Signal Carrier Signal- -to to- -Noise Noise
Ratio Ratio
in dBc/Hz = in dBc/Hz = - -174 + NF(dB) 174 + NF(dB) - - input signal input signal
power (dBm) power (dBm)
One One- -half noise power is half noise power is
AM, One AM, One- -half PM half PM
in dBc/Hz = in dBc/Hz = - -177 + NF(dB) 177 + NF(dB) - - input signal input signal
power (dBm) power (dBm)
7
Characteristics of Multiplicative Noise Characteristics of Multiplicative Noise
u u An example of multiplicative noise is a noise component in the An example of multiplicative noise is a noise component in the
transmission gain magnitude (AM noise) and phase (PM noise) transmission gain magnitude (AM noise) and phase (PM noise)
in an amplifier in an amplifier
u u The noise component can equivalently occur in a transistor, for The noise component can equivalently occur in a transistor, for
example, as noise example, as noise- -like variation in the transconductance (gm) or like variation in the transconductance (gm) or
junction capacitance junction capacitance
u u Device multiplicative AM and PM noise levels usually are non Device multiplicative AM and PM noise levels usually are non- -
identical identical
u u Multiplicative noise level can be affected by non Multiplicative noise level can be affected by non- -linearity (i.e., in linearity (i.e., in- -
compression amplifier operation) compression amplifier operation)
u u Multiplicative noise most often occurs as flicker Multiplicative noise most often occurs as flicker- -of of- -amplitude amplitude
and flicker and flicker- -of of- -phase modulation, or 1/f AM and 1/f PM phase modulation, or 1/f AM and 1/f PM
8
(continued) (continued)
u u The spectral level of the 1/f AM and PM noise decreases at a The spectral level of the 1/f AM and PM noise decreases at a
rate of 10dB/decade with increasing carrier offset (modulation) rate of 10dB/decade with increasing carrier offset (modulation)
frequency frequency
u u In (oscillator sustaining stage) transistor amplifiers: In (oscillator sustaining stage) transistor amplifiers:
l l Relatively low1/f AM and PM noise is observed in Relatively low1/f AM and PM noise is observed in
silicon bipolar and HBT transistor amplifiers operating silicon bipolar and HBT transistor amplifiers operating
at and below L at and below L- -band band
l l Highest 1/f AM and PM noise is observed in microwave Highest 1/f AM and PM noise is observed in microwave
GaAs FET amplifiers GaAs FET amplifiers
u u 1/f AM and PM noise is also observed in passive devices. 1/f AM and PM noise is also observed in passive devices.
1/f variation in quartz crystal and SAW resonator impedance(s) 1/f variation in quartz crystal and SAW resonator impedance(s)
is often the main source of near is often the main source of near- -carrier noise in oscillators using carrier noise in oscillators using
these resonators these resonators
9
(continued) (continued)
u u Other mechanisms resulting in carrier signal noise Other mechanisms resulting in carrier signal noise- -modulation modulation
include: include:
l l Noise on device DC power supplies Noise on device DC power supplies
l l Noise Noise- -like environmental stress (especially vibration) like environmental stress (especially vibration)
u u 1/f AM and 1/f PM noise levels vary (widely) from vendor 1/f AM and 1/f PM noise levels vary (widely) from vendor- -to to- -
vendor for similar performance devices and can vary vendor for similar performance devices and can vary
significantly for the same component on a device significantly for the same component on a device- -to to- -device device
basis basis
u u It is necessary to evaluate noise performance via measurement It is necessary to evaluate noise performance via measurement
of purchased/sample devices of purchased/sample devices
u u In an oscillator, amplifier 1/f PM noise is converted to higher In an oscillator, amplifier 1/f PM noise is converted to higher
level 1/f FM at carrier offset frequencies within the resonator level 1/f FM at carrier offset frequencies within the resonator
half half- -bandwidth bandwidth
10
1 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M
-110
-120
-130
-140
-150
-160
-170
Carrier Offset Frequency (Hz)
Phase
Noise
Sideband
Level
(dBc/Hz)
Typical Component 1/f PM Multiplicative Typical Component 1/f PM Multiplicative
Noise Levels Noise Levels
X-band GaAs Amp.
X-band Schottky Mixer
& X-band HBT amp.
HF-VHF Bipolar Amp. &
HF-UHF Schottky Mixer
L-band Bipolar and HBT
Amp.
11
Component 1/f Instability Component 1/f Instability
u u The non The non- -semiconductor components in the oscillator circuit also semiconductor components in the oscillator circuit also
exhibit short exhibit short- -term instability term instability
u u Passive components (resistors, capacitors, inductors, reverse Passive components (resistors, capacitors, inductors, reverse- -
biased, varactor diodes) exhibit varying levels of flicker biased, varactor diodes) exhibit varying levels of flicker- -of of- -
impedance instability whose effects can be comparable to or impedance instability whose effects can be comparable to or
higher than to that of the sustaining stage amplifier 1/f AM and higher than to that of the sustaining stage amplifier 1/f AM and
PM noise in the oscillator circuit PM noise in the oscillator circuit
u u The oscillator frequency control element (i.e., resonator) can The oscillator frequency control element (i.e., resonator) can
exhibit dominant levels of flicker exhibit dominant levels of flicker- -of of- -resonant frequency resonant frequency
instability, especially acoustic resonators instability, especially acoustic resonators
u u In an open loop sense, the resonator instability can be plotted In an open loop sense, the resonator instability can be plotted
as flicker as flicker- -of of- -phase noise (induced on a carrier signal passing phase noise (induced on a carrier signal passing
through the resonator) through the resonator)
12
1 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M
-110
-120
-130
-140
-150
-160
-170
Passive Component 1/f Impedance Passive Component 1/f Impedance
Instability Instability
PSD
(DX/X)
2
in dB
HF Varactor diodes, Ceram.
Capacitors, Powedered Iron Inductors
VHF Varactor & PIN diodes, Ceram.
Capacitors, Powdered Iron Inductors HF-VHF Bipolar Amp. &
Amp.
& X-band HBT amp.
X-band GaAs Amp.
13
1 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M
-110
-120
-130
-140
-150
-160
-170
Phase
Noise
Sideband
Level
(dBc/Hz)
Resonator Open Loop Phase Instability Resonator Open Loop Phase Instability
Low Noise HF/VHF BAW
Low Noise UHF SAWR/STWR
X-band GaAs Amp.
& X-band HBT amp.
HF-VHF Bipolar Amp. &
Amp.
14
Phase Phase
Noise Noise
Sideband Sideband
Level Level
(dBc/Hz) (dBc/Hz)
Carrier Offset Frequency (Hz) Carrier Offset Frequency (Hz)
= oscillator closed loop group delay = oscillator closed loop group delay
1/2 1/2 = BW/2 for a single (1 pole) resonator = BW/2 for a single (1 pole) resonator
PM PM- -to to- -FM Noise Conversion in an Oscillator FM Noise Conversion in an Oscillator
Additional signal noise degradation Additional signal noise degradation
due to resonator FM noise due to resonator FM noise
1/f FM 1/f FM
Oscillator closed loop signal FM noise Oscillator closed loop signal FM noise
due to sustaining stage open loop PM due to sustaining stage open loop PM
noise noise
white FM white FM
1/f PM 1/f PM
1/2 1/2
white PM white PM
Oscillator sustaining stage open Oscillator sustaining stage open
loop PM noise loop PM noise
15
Commonly Used Measures of Oscillator Commonly Used Measures of Oscillator
Signal Short Signal Short- -Term Frequency Stability Term Frequency Stability
(f) = Single sideband phase noise (f) = Single sideband phase noise- -to to- -carrier power ratio carrier power ratio
in a 1Hz bandwidth at a offset frequency f from the in a 1Hz bandwidth at a offset frequency f from the
carrier (dBc/Hz) carrier (dBc/Hz)
S S

(f) = Spectral density of the phase fluctuations (rad (f) = Spectral density of the phase fluctuations (rad
2 2
/Hz). /Hz).
S S
y y
(f) = Spectral Density of the fractional frequency (f) = Spectral Density of the fractional frequency
fluctuations (1/Hz). fluctuations (1/Hz).
S S
y y
(f) = (f/ (f) = (f/
o o
) )
2 2
S S

(f), (f), (f) = 10LOG(S (f) = 10LOG(S

(f)/2) (f)/2)

o o
= carrier frequency = carrier frequency
Frequency Domain: Frequency Domain:
Time Domain: Time Domain:
y y
() () = Two = Two sample deviation (square root sample deviation (square root
Allan Variance) Allan Variance)

y y
( ( ) = ( ) = (
y y
k+1 k+1
- -
y y
k) k)
2 2
> >
16
(f)
(dBc/Hz)

y y
( ( ) )
White phase White phase
0dB/decade 0dB/decade

- -1 1
Flicker of phase Flicker of phase

- -1 1

- -1/2 1/2
White frequency White frequency
Flicker of frequency Flicker of frequency

0 0
Random walk Random walk

1/2 1/2
Frequency Domain Frequency Domain
Time Domain Time Domain
1Hz 1Hz
1sec 1sec
Types of Frequency/Phase Noise Spectra Types of Frequency/Phase Noise Spectra
Time Time
Frequency Frequency
17
Conversion from Frequency to Time Domain Conversion from Frequency to Time Domain
u u If the nature of the noise spectra is known to If the nature of the noise spectra is known to
dominate over a large carrier offset region, the Allan dominate over a large carrier offset region, the Allan
Variance can be calculated from the frequency Variance can be calculated from the frequency
domain data using the appropriate conversion domain data using the appropriate conversion
equations. The equations differ, depending on the equations. The equations differ, depending on the
type of noise (random walk, etc.) type of noise (random walk, etc.)
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Relationships between Relationships between S S
y y
(f) and (f) and
y y
(t): (t):
S
y
(f) = Hf
=
S
y
(f) = a
y
(t)
a =
(white phase)
(flicker noise)
(white frequency)
(flicker frequency)
(random walk frequency)
((2 )
2
2
f
2
)/(3f
h
)
2
1/((2f) (2))
6/(2
)
2
f
2
2
1
0
-1
-2
((2 )
2
2
f
2
)/(1.038+3 ( ))

0 0
= carrier frequency = carrier frequency
f = fourier frequency f = fourier frequency

0 0
L L(f) in (f) in dBc/Hz = 10LOG(S dBc/Hz = 10LOG(S (f)/2) = 10LOG[( (f)/2) = 10LOG[(
f f
) )
2 2
Sy(f)/2 Sy(f)/2
Short Short- -Term Frequency/Phase/Time Stability Term Frequency/Phase/Time Stability
Relationships Relationships
19
Example: Conversion from Frequency to Example: Conversion from Frequency to
Time Domain Time Domain
Suppose a 100MHz Crystal Oscillator signal spectrum Suppose a 100MHz Crystal Oscillator signal spectrum
in the region around f=100Hz is flicker in the region around f=100Hz is flicker- -of of- -frequency frequency
with: with:
(f=100Hz) = (f=100Hz) = - -120dBc/Hz 120dBc/Hz
Then Sy(f) in the same region Then Sy(f) in the same region
= (10 = (10
(f)/10 (f)/10
)2f/ )2f/
o o
= (10 = (10
- -12 12
)(200/10 )(200/10
8 8
)=2X10 )=2X10
- -22 22
/f /f
And (from the conversion formula for flicker And (from the conversion formula for flicker- -of of- -
frequency noise): frequency noise):

y y
2 2
( ( ) in the region ) in the region
= 1/f = 1sec = (2)(ln(2))(Sy(f))(f) = 2.77X10 = 1/f = 1sec = (2)(ln(2))(Sy(f))(f) = 2.77X10- -22 22
therefore, therefore,
y y
( ( ) = 1.66X10 ) = 1.66X10- -11 11
2. Basic Oscillator Operation
2. Basic Oscillator Operation
21
Resonator Resonator
Input Input
Matching Matching
& Frequency & Frequency
Tuning Tuning
Circuits Circuits
Negative Negative
Resistance Resistance
(Gain) Stage (Gain) Stage
Including Including
AGC/ALC AGC/ALC
Output Output
Matching Matching
Circuit Circuit
Load Load
Zin at fo = jXin + Rin (Rin is negative) Zin at fo = jXin + Rin (Rin is negative)
Zin at fo = jXr + Rr Zin at fo = jXr + Rr
Conditions for start Conditions for start- -up: Xr = up: Xr = - -Xin, Rr + Rin Xin, Rr + Rin< < 0 0
Steady State: Xr = Steady State: Xr = - -Xin, Rr + Rin = 0 Xin, Rr + Rin = 0
Oscillator Viewed as a Two Terminal Oscillator Viewed as a Two Terminal
Negative Resistance Generator Negative Resistance Generator
22
Resonator Resonator
Matching Matching
& Tuning & Tuning
Circuits Circuits
Resonator Resonator
Matching Matching
and and
Tuning Tuning
Circuits Circuits
Load Load
Resonator Resonator
or or
Delay Line Delay Line
Amplifier Amplifier
(Gain) Stage (Gain) Stage
Including Including
AGC/ALC AGC/ALC
G G
M1 M1
, ,
M1 M1 Output Output
Matching Matching
Circuit Circuit
G G
A A
, ,
A A
G G
M2 M2
, ,
M2 M2
G G
M3 M3
, ,
M3 M3
G G
R R
, ,
R R
Conditions for start Conditions for start- -up: G up: G
M1 M1
G G
A A
G G
M2 M2
G G
M3 M3
G G
R R
> >1, 1,
M1 M1
+ +
A A
+ +
M2 M2
+ +
M3 M3
+ +
R R
= = 2N 2N radians radians
Steady State: G Steady State: G
M1 M1
G G
A A
G G
M2 M2
G G
M3 M3
G G
R R
= 1, = 1,
M1 M1
+ +
A A
+ +
M2 M2
+ +
M3 M3
+ +
R R
= = 2N 2N radians radians
Oscillator Viewed as a Feedforward Oscillator Viewed as a Feedforward
Amplifier with Positive Feedback Amplifier with Positive Feedback
23
*Symmetrical diode waveform clipping provides better (harder) *Symmetrical diode waveform clipping provides better (harder)
limiting, compared to single limiting, compared to single- -ended clipping, and appears to ended clipping, and appears to
provide more immunity from the effects of diode noise. The leas provide more immunity from the effects of diode noise. The least t
noisy form of transistor amplifier gain compression is single noisy form of transistor amplifier gain compression is single- -
ended current limiting, rather than voltage limiting (saturation ended current limiting, rather than voltage limiting (saturation). ).
Single Single- -ended limiting is soft limiting. ended limiting is soft limiting.
(1) Instantaneous signal amplitude limiting/waveform (1) Instantaneous signal amplitude limiting/waveform
clipping via sustaining stage amplifier gain clipping via sustaining stage amplifier gain
compression or separate diode waveform clipping.* compression or separate diode waveform clipping.*
(2) Gain reduction using a feedback control loop. The (2) Gain reduction using a feedback control loop. The
oscillator RF signal is DC oscillator RF signal is DC- -detected, and the amplified detected, and the amplified
detector output fed to a variable gain control element detector output fed to a variable gain control element
(i.e., PIN attenuator) in the oscillator. (i.e., PIN attenuator) in the oscillator.
ALC / AGC Must Occur ALC / AGC Must Occur
u u Types of automatic level control (ALC) and/or Types of automatic level control (ALC) and/or
automatic gain control (AGC): automatic gain control (AGC):
24
Oscillator Turn Oscillator Turn- -On Behavior On Behavior
u u Oscillation is initiated by spectral components of Oscillation is initiated by spectral components of
circuit noise and/or DC turn circuit noise and/or DC turn- -on transients occurring at on transients occurring at
the frequency where the small signal conditions for the frequency where the small signal conditions for
oscillation are satisfied oscillation are satisfied
u u Turn Turn- -on time is determined by the: on time is determined by the:
l l initial noise/transient spectral signal level, initial noise/transient spectral signal level,
l l steady steady- -state signal level, state signal level,
l l oscillator loop (resonator loaded Q) delay, oscillator loop (resonator loaded Q) delay,
l l and small signal excess gain and small signal excess gain
25
Resonator, Resonator,
Multi Multi- -pole Filter, pole Filter,
or Delay Line or Delay Line
A A
u u This conversion results in significant signal spectral degradati This conversion results in significant signal spectral degradation at on at
carrier offset frequencies within carrier offset frequencies within f=1/2 f=1/2 where where is the loop group delay is the loop group delay
(1/2 (1/2 = = BW/2 for a single resonator) BW/2 for a single resonator)
= /2 = /2f f
f = f = /2 /2
u u The amount of signal frequency change caused by the phase The amount of signal frequency change caused by the phase
perturbation is related to the oscillator loop group delay (i.e. perturbation is related to the oscillator loop group delay (i.e., resonator , resonator
loaded Q) loaded Q)
- -
u u If a phase perturbation, If a phase perturbation, occurs in an oscillator component (i.e., occurs in an oscillator component (i.e.,
sustaining stage amplifier phase noise), the oscillator signal f sustaining stage amplifier phase noise), the oscillator signal frequency requency
must change in order to maintain constant must change in order to maintain constant (2 (2n n radians) loop phase radians) loop phase
shift shift
Conversion of Phase to Frequency Conversion of Phase to Frequency
Instability in an Oscillator Instability in an Oscillator
26
Conversion of Open Conversion of Open- -Loop Noise to Closed Loop Noise to Closed- -
Loop Noise (cont.) Loop Noise (cont.)
u u The conversion process can be described by: The conversion process can be described by:
l l Closed Closed- -loop S loop S

(f) = open (f) = open- -loop S loop S

(f)(1/2 (f)(1/2 f) f)
2 2
l l Noise sideband level = Noise sideband level = (f) = 10LOG(S (f) = 10LOG(S

(f)/2) (f)/2)
27
Phase Phase
Noise Noise
Sideband Sideband
Level Level
(dBc/Hz) (dBc/Hz)
Carrier Offset Frequency (Hz) Carrier Offset Frequency (Hz) 1/2 1/2
= oscillator closed loop group delay = oscillator closed loop group delay
1/2 1/2 = BW/2 for a single (1 pole) resonator = BW/2 for a single (1 pole) resonator
PM PM- -to to- -FM Noise Conversion in an Oscillator FM Noise Conversion in an Oscillator
1/f PM 1/f PM
Additional signal noise degradation Additional signal noise degradation
due to resonator FM noise due to resonator FM noise
1/f FM 1/f FM
Oscillator closed loop signal FM noise Oscillator closed loop signal FM noise
due to sustaining stage open loop PM due to sustaining stage open loop PM
noise noise
white FM white FM
white PM white PM
Oscillator sustaining stage open Oscillator sustaining stage open
loop PM noise loop PM noise
28
Characteristics of Ideal Resonator Characteristics of Ideal Resonator
u u High group delay (high resonator loaded Q) High group delay (high resonator loaded Q)
u u High operating frequency High operating frequency
u u Low Loss Low Loss
u u Moderate Drive Capability Moderate Drive Capability
u u Low frequency sensitivity to environmental stress (vibration, Low frequency sensitivity to environmental stress (vibration,
temperature, etc.) temperature, etc.)
u u Good short Good short- -term and long term and long- -term frequency stability term frequency stability
u u Accurate frequency set Accurate frequency set- -on capability on capability
u u External frequency tuning capability External frequency tuning capability
u u No undesired resonant modes or higher loss in undesired No undesired resonant modes or higher loss in undesired
resonant modes or undesired resonant mode frequencies far resonant modes or undesired resonant mode frequencies far
from desired operating frequency from desired operating frequency
u u High manufacturing yield of acceptable devices High manufacturing yield of acceptable devices
29
Characteristics of Ideal Characteristics of Ideal
Oscillator Sustaining Stage Oscillator Sustaining Stage
u u Low multiplicative (1/f AM and especially 1/f PM) noise Low multiplicative (1/f AM and especially 1/f PM) noise
u u Low additive noise (good noise figure) Low additive noise (good noise figure)
u u Drive capability consistent with resonator drive level and loss Drive capability consistent with resonator drive level and loss
u u Low noise in ALC/AGC circuits and/or in Low noise in ALC/AGC circuits and/or in- -compression amplifier compression amplifier
operation operation
u u Low gain and phase sensitivity to DC supply and circuit Low gain and phase sensitivity to DC supply and circuit
temperature variations temperature variations
u u Low group delay (wide bandwidth) Low group delay (wide bandwidth)
u u High load circuit isolation High load circuit isolation
u u High MTBF; minimal number of adjustable components High MTBF; minimal number of adjustable components
u u Ease of alignment and test Ease of alignment and test
u u Good DC efficiency Good DC efficiency
u u Low cost Low cost
3. Types of Resonators and Delay
Lines
3. Types of Resonators and Delay
Lines
31
5. Cavity, Waveguide 5. Cavity, Waveguide
1. Lumped Element (L 1. Lumped Element (L- -C) C)
2. Acoustic 2. Acoustic
Bulk Acoustic Wave (BAW) Bulk Acoustic Wave (BAW)
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)
Surface Transverse Wave Surface Transverse Wave
(STW) (STW)
3. Distributed Element 3. Distributed Element
(transmission line) (transmission line)
Helical Helical
Microstrip and Stripline Microstrip and Stripline
Dielectric Loaded Coaxial Dielectric Loaded Coaxial
4. Dielectric 4. Dielectric
6. Optical Fiber 6. Optical Fiber
7. Whispering Gallery 7. Whispering Gallery
Mode, Sapphire Dielectric Mode, Sapphire Dielectric
Highlighted types used in Highlighted types used in
lower noise oscillators lower noise oscillators
2. Acoustic
Bulk Acoustic Wave (BAW)
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)
Surface Transverse Wave
(STW)
4. Dielectric
6. Optical Fiber
7. Whispering Gallery
Mode, Sapphire Dielectric
Types of Resonators and Delay Lines Types of Resonators and Delay Lines
32
Quartz Acoustic Resonators Quartz Acoustic Resonators
Desirable Properties Desirable Properties
u u Very high Q Very high Q
u u Controllable (selectable) Controllable (selectable)
frequency temperature frequency temperature
coefficient coefficient
u u Excellent long Excellent long- -term and term and
short short- -term frequency stability term frequency stability
u u Relatively low cost Relatively low cost
u u Moderately small volume Moderately small volume
(especially SAW, STW) (especially SAW, STW)
u u Well defined, mature Well defined, mature
technology technology
Undesirable Properties Undesirable Properties
u u 1/f FM noise that often 1/f FM noise that often
exceed effects of sustaining exceed effects of sustaining
stage 1/f PM noise stage 1/f PM noise
u u Unit Unit- -to to- -unit 1/f FM noise unit 1/f FM noise
level. variation; high cost level. variation; high cost
associated with low yield of associated with low yield of
very low noise resonators very low noise resonators
u u BAW resonator drive level BAW resonator drive level
limitations: 1 limitations: 1- -2mW for AT 2mW for AT- -
cut, 5 cut, 5- -7mW for SC 7mW for SC- -cut, even cut, even
lower drive for low drift/aging lower drive for low drift/aging
u u Non Non- -uniform vibration uniform vibration
sensitivity sensitivity
u u FOM (loaded Q) decreases FOM (loaded Q) decreases
with increasing frequency with increasing frequency
33
Fundamental resonance, Fundamental resonance,
f f
s s
=1/(2 =1/(2 (LmCm) (LmCm)
0.5 0.5
) )
Third overtone resonance, f Third overtone resonance, f =3f =3f
s s
Fifth overtone resonance, f Fifth overtone resonance, f =5f =5f
s s
Quartz Crystal Electrical Equivalent Circuit Quartz Crystal Electrical Equivalent Circuit
(for widely used AT (for widely used AT- -cut and SC cut and SC- -cut crystals) cut crystals)
C
o
= Static capacitance
u u L L
m m
= motional (series) inductance = motional (series) inductance
u u C C
m m
= motional capacitance = motional capacitance
u u R R
s s
= series resistance 2 = series resistance 2 f f
s s
/R /R
s s
= unloaded Q = unloaded Q
Anharmonic and higher odd Anharmonic and higher odd- -overtone overtone
resonance(s) resonance(s)
L
m
C
m
R
s
Quartz Acoustic Resonators, continued Quartz Acoustic Resonators, continued
34
Year Year Resonator Type Resonator Type Frequency Frequency Noise Level, Sy(f=100Hz) Noise Level, Sy(f=100Hz) Pmax Pmax Virbration Virbration
(mW) (mW) Sensitivity Sensitivity
Nominal Nominal Best Best (parts in 10 (parts in 10
- -10 10
/g) /g)
1985 1985 2 2 5 to 20 5 to 20 5th OT AT 5th OT AT- -cut cut 80MHz 80MHz 1X10 1X10
- -24 24
2X10 2X10
- -25 25
1985 1985 Raytheon SAW Raytheon SAW 500MHz 500MHz 2X10 2X10
- -24 24
4X10 4X10
- -25 25
50 50 5 to 50 5 to 50
1995 1995 SAWTEK STW SAWTEK STW 1000MHz 1000MHz 5X10 5X10
- -24 24
1X10 1X10
- -24 24
100 100 1 to 3 1 to 3
1999 1999 FEI OT S C FEI OT S C- -cut cut 100MHz 100MHz ??? ??? 1.6X10 1.6X10
- -26 26
??? ??? ??? ???
80MHz 80MHz
100MHz 100MHz
1989 1989 3rd OT S C 3rd OT S C- -cut cut 2X10 2X10
- -25 25
4X10 4X10
- -26 26
7 7 3 to 10 3 to 10
1989 1989 5th OT AT 5th OT AT- -cut cut 40MHz 40MHz 5X10 5X10
- -26 26
1X10 1X10
- -26 26
2 2 10 to 30 10 to 30
1995 1995 5th OT S C 5th OT S C- -cut cut 160MHz 160MHz 1X10 1X10
- -25 25
2X10 2X10
- -26 26
7 7 3 to 10 3 to 10
Improvements in Acoustic Resonator Improvements in Acoustic Resonator
Performance Performance - - 1985 to 1999 1985 to 1999
35
metal tab metal tab
metal metal- -plated, dielectric rod plated, dielectric rod
with plated with plated- -thru hole thru hole
Dielectric Dielectric- -Filled Coaxial Resonators Filled Coaxial Resonators
u u Very popular in wireless hardware Very popular in wireless hardware
u u High drive capability High drive capability
u u One piece, plated construction results in low vibration sensitiv One piece, plated construction results in low vibration sensitivity ity
u u Unloaded Q is only moderate (proportional to volume) Unloaded Q is only moderate (proportional to volume)
u u L L(100Hz)= (100Hz)=- -100dBc/Hz, with 100dBc/Hz, with - -178dBc/Hz noise floor achieved at 640MHz 178dBc/Hz noise floor achieved at 640MHz
using large volume resonators as multi using large volume resonators as multi- -pole filter oscillator stabilization pole filter oscillator stabilization
elements elements
u u Even though resonators are passive, excess 1/f noise has been Even though resonators are passive, excess 1/f noise has been
measured in large volume, high delay devices with variations in measured in large volume, high delay devices with variations in 1/f noise 1/f noise
level of up to 20dB level of up to 20dB
36
Dielectric Resonators Dielectric Resonators
Advantages Advantages
u u High Q at high High Q at high
(microwave) (microwave)
frequency frequency
u u No measurable resonator 1/f No measurable resonator 1/f
noise noise
u u High drive capability High drive capability
u u Near Near- -zero temperature zero temperature
coefficient for some ceramic coefficient for some ceramic
dielectric materials dielectric materials
u u Amenable to mechanical Amenable to mechanical
adjustment and electronic adjustment and electronic
frequency tuning frequency tuning
Disadvantages Disadvantages
u u Substantial Q degradation Substantial Q degradation
unless cavity volume is large unless cavity volume is large
compared to that of dielectric compared to that of dielectric
(low order mode resonances) (low order mode resonances)
u u Highest Q with modest volume Highest Q with modest volume
occurs above C occurs above C- -band where band where
sustaining stage amplifiers are sustaining stage amplifiers are
primarily GaAs sustaining stage primarily GaAs sustaining stage
amplifiers exhibiting relatively amplifiers exhibiting relatively
high 1/f AM and PM noise high 1/f AM and PM noise
u u Resonator frequency sensitivity Resonator frequency sensitivity
to vibration is typically 10 to 100 to vibration is typically 10 to 100
times higher, compared to BAW, times higher, compared to BAW,
SAW resonators SAW resonators
37
Multiple Resonators Can Provide Lower Noise Multiple Resonators Can Provide Lower Noise
u u Multiple resonators can be cascaded (isolated by amplifiers) or Multiple resonators can be cascaded (isolated by amplifiers) or
used in multi used in multi- -pole filters in order to increase the oscillator open pole filters in order to increase the oscillator open
loop signal path group delay loop signal path group delay
u u Analysis shows that for a given net insertion loss, increasing t Analysis shows that for a given net insertion loss, increasing the he
filter order beyond 2 filter order beyond 2- -pole does not result in significant increase pole does not result in significant increase
in group delay in group delay
u u The group delay increase (going from 1 pole to 2 poles) for net The group delay increase (going from 1 pole to 2 poles) for net
loss in the range 3dB to 15dB is 17% to 60% loss in the range 3dB to 15dB is 17% to 60%
l l Increasing the number of poles does result in an increase in the Increasing the number of poles does result in an increase in the
bandwidth over which the group delay is maximum bandwidth over which the group delay is maximum
l l Use of a single, multi Use of a single, multi- -pole filter at a given, net insertion loss results pole filter at a given, net insertion loss results
in approximately the same delay as a cascade of resonators havin in approximately the same delay as a cascade of resonators having g
the same overall insertion loss the same overall insertion loss
38
Optical Fiber Delay Lines Optical Fiber Delay Lines
u u High delay possible: tens of High delay possible: tens of
microseconds microseconds
u u Low optical signal strength Low optical signal strength
loss in fiber loss in fiber
u u Opto Opto- -electronic Oscillator electronic Oscillator
(OEO) signal generation (OEO) signal generation
directly at microwave directly at microwave
u u Noise level (i.e., delay) Noise level (i.e., delay)
theoretically independent of theoretically independent of
carrier frequency carrier frequency
u u Possible generation of Possible generation of
multiple, selectable multiple, selectable
frequency signals (spaced at frequency signals (spaced at
the reciprocal of the delay the reciprocal of the delay
time time
u u Detector and/or microwave Detector and/or microwave
amplifier noise may limit amplifier noise may limit
attainable performance attainable performance
u u For low noise signal For low noise signal
generation, long fiber length generation, long fiber length
results in conditions for results in conditions for
oscillation being satisfied at oscillation being satisfied at
multiple, closely multiple, closely- -spaced spaced
frequencies frequencies
u u Selectable (reciprocal of Selectable (reciprocal of
delay) frequencies are non delay) frequencies are non- -
coherent coherent
39
Laser Laser
Optical fiber Optical fiber
Modulator Modulator
delay = delay =
Detector Detector
Bandpass Bandpass
Filter Filter
Possible operating frequencies separated by 1/ Possible operating frequencies separated by 1/
Bandpass filter selectivity Bandpass filter selectivity
uWave uWave
Amp Amp
Reference: JPL:1995 Reference: JPL:1995- -1999 Freq. Contr. Symp. 1999 Freq. Contr. Symp.
Opto Opto- -Electronic Oscillator (OEO) Electronic Oscillator (OEO)
u u Other refinements include use of a second, shorter length Other refinements include use of a second, shorter length
optical fiber for selection (in optical fiber for selection (in- -phase reinforcement) of a specific phase reinforcement) of a specific
frequency signal and use of carrier suppression for additional frequency signal and use of carrier suppression for additional
noise reduction noise reduction
u u Approximately Approximately - -84dBc/Hz at fm=100Hz demonstrated at 10GHz 84dBc/Hz at fm=100Hz demonstrated at 10GHz
using carrier suppression. This level of near using carrier suppression. This level of near- -carrier PM noise is carrier PM noise is
comparable to that obtainable using frequency comparable to that obtainable using frequency- -multiplied, quartz multiplied, quartz
crystal oscillator or SAW oscillator crystal oscillator or SAW oscillator- -derived, X derived, X- -band signal band signal
40
(f) (f)
(dBc/Hz) (dBc/Hz)
10dB typ. 10dB typ.
10dB typ. 10dB typ.
15dB typ. 15dB typ.
10dB typ. 10dB typ.
S S- -Band Dielectric Resonator Oscillator Band Dielectric Resonator Oscillator
Signal Multiplied to X Signal Multiplied to X- -Band Band
100MHz Quartz Crystal Oscillator 100MHz Quartz Crystal Oscillator
1GHz Quartz SAW or STW Oscillator 1GHz Quartz SAW or STW Oscillator
Spectral Tradeoff: Near Spectral Tradeoff: Near- -Carrier vs Noise Carrier vs Noise
Floor Performance Floor Performance
41
Whispering Gallery Mode, Sapphire Whispering Gallery Mode, Sapphire
Dielectric Resonators Dielectric Resonators
u u Dielectric loss in sapphire is low at room temperature Dielectric loss in sapphire is low at room temperature
and rapidly decreases with decreasing temperature and rapidly decreases with decreasing temperature
u u High High- -order whispering gallery mode ring and solid order whispering gallery mode ring and solid
cylindrical resonators have been built that exhibit cylindrical resonators have been built that exhibit
unloaded Q values, at X unloaded Q values, at X- -band, of 200,000 at room band, of 200,000 at room
temperature and 5 to 10million at 80K temperature and 5 to 10million at 80K
u u This ultra This ultra- -high resonator Q results in oscillators high resonator Q results in oscillators
whose X whose X- -band output signal spectra are significantly band output signal spectra are significantly
superior to that attainable using any other resonator superior to that attainable using any other resonator
technology technology
42
Whispering Gallery Mode, Sapphire Whispering Gallery Mode, Sapphire
Dielectric Resonators: Issues Dielectric Resonators: Issues
u u Resonator volume (including hermetic, cooled enclosure) is Resonator volume (including hermetic, cooled enclosure) is
relatively large relatively large
u u The ultra The ultra- -low phase noise spectrum exhibited by the oscillator low phase noise spectrum exhibited by the oscillator
is degraded by correspondingly low levels of vibration is degraded by correspondingly low levels of vibration
u u For cryo For cryo- -cooled resonators, cryo cooled resonators, cryo- -cooler vibration, MTBF, cost, cooler vibration, MTBF, cost,
etc. constitute overall hardware performance issues. etc. constitute overall hardware performance issues.
Vibration Vibration- -free, TE free, TE- -coolers are inefficient with limited cooling coolers are inefficient with limited cooling
capability. Resonant frequency temperature coefficient is capability. Resonant frequency temperature coefficient is
large at elevated (i.e., TE large at elevated (i.e., TE- -cooler) temperatures cooler) temperatures
u u Addition of temperature compensating materials usually Addition of temperature compensating materials usually
degrades resonator Q degrades resonator Q
u u GaAs sustaining stage amplifiers exhibit high 1/f PM noise GaAs sustaining stage amplifiers exhibit high 1/f PM noise
that degrades oscillator near that degrades oscillator near- -carrier signal spectral carrier signal spectral
performance. Noise reduction feedback circuitry adds performance. Noise reduction feedback circuitry adds
cost/volume/complexity to the oscillator circuit cost/volume/complexity to the oscillator circuit
43
Measured Performance: TE Measured Performance: TE- -Cooled, Cooled,
Sapphire DRO Sapphire DRO
Poseidon Scientific Instruments (PSI) Sapphire DRO
Phase Noise at 9GHz
-180.0
-160.0
-140.0
-120.0
-100.0
-80.0
-60.0
10.0 100.0 1000.0 10000.0 100000.0
Frequency (Hz)
P
h
a
s
e

N
o
i
s
e

S
i
d
e
b
a
n
d

L
e
v
e
l

(
d
B
c
/
H
z
)
4. Useful Network/Impedance
Transformations
4. Useful Network/Impedance
Transformations
45
Impedance Matching and Transformations Impedance Matching and Transformations
u u Useful for matching non Useful for matching non- -50 ohm devices to 50 ohms 50 ohm devices to 50 ohms
or to each other or to each other
u u A standard tool used extensively in the design of A standard tool used extensively in the design of
band band- -pass or band pass or band- -reject filters allowing use of reject filters allowing use of
practical component element values practical component element values
u u Very useful in oscillator design, both within the Very useful in oscillator design, both within the
sustaining circuit stage itself and also for matching sustaining circuit stage itself and also for matching
between oscillator functional elements (i.e., resonator between oscillator functional elements (i.e., resonator
and resonator tuning circuitry) and resonator tuning circuitry)
46
Rp Rp Xp Xp
Let Q = Rp/Xp = Xs/Rs Let Q = Rp/Xp = Xs/Rs
Rs Rs
Xs Xs
Rs = Rp/(Q Rs = Rp/(Q
2 2
+1) +1)
Xs = Xp(Q Xs = Xp(Q
2) 2)
/(Q /(Q
2 2
+1) +1)
Example: If Rp = 300 ohms and Xp = j100 ohms at frequency fo, th Example: If Rp = 300 ohms and Xp = j100 ohms at frequency fo, then en
Q = 3 at (and only at fo), this is equivalent to Rs + jXs = 3 Q = 3 at (and only at fo), this is equivalent to Rs + jXs = 30 + j90 0 + j90
The Q is an approximate measure of the bandwidth of the The Q is an approximate measure of the bandwidth of the
transformation (i.e., BW=fo/Q) transformation (i.e., BW=fo/Q)
Series Series - - Parallel Reactance/ Parallel Reactance/
Resistance Conversions Resistance Conversions
47
ZZ = ZaZb + ZaZc + ZbZc ZZ = ZaZb + ZaZc + ZbZc
Zx = Zx = ZZ ZZ
Zb Zb
Zy = Zy = ZZ ZZ
Zc Zc
Zz = Zz = ZZ ZZ
Za Za
Zc
Za Zb
Zz Zx
Zy
Delta Delta- -Star Transformation Star Transformation
u u Often results in being able to obtain more realistic Often results in being able to obtain more realistic
element values (component impedance levels) element values (component impedance levels)
48
Z Z
K:1 K:1
Z Z
Z Z
K(K K(K- -1) 1)
Z Z
1 1- -K K
K K
Z Z
K:1 K:1
Z(K Z(K- -1) 1)
K K
2 2
Z Z
K K
K K
Z(1 Z(1- -K) K)
Nortons Transformation Nortons Transformation
u u Very powerful and useful Very powerful and useful
u u Not a single frequency approximation, a true transformation Not a single frequency approximation, a true transformation
u u Negative value, reactive element can usually be absorbed into Negative value, reactive element can usually be absorbed into
existing, adjacent positive value similar reactive element existing, adjacent positive value similar reactive element
49
R R
0 0
=g =g
0 0
=1 =1
C C
1 1
=g =g
1 1
L L
2 2
=g =g
2 2
L L
n n
=g =g
n n
C C
n n- -1 1
=g =g
n n- -1 1
G G
n+1 n+1
=g =g
n+1 n+1

A A
[1] G. L. Matthaei, Tables of Chebyshev Impedance [1] G. L. Matthaei, Tables of Chebyshev Impedance- -Transforming Networks of Transforming Networks of
Low Low- -Pass Filter Form, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 52, No. 8, August 1988, pp. Pass Filter Form, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 52, No. 8, August 1988, pp. 939 939- -963. 963.
Chebyshev Impedance Transforming Chebyshev Impedance Transforming
Networks Networks
[1] [1]
u u Tabulated impedance ratios from 1.5:1 to 50:1 and bandwidths Tabulated impedance ratios from 1.5:1 to 50:1 and bandwidths
from 10% to 100% from 10% to 100%
u u Can be lumped or distributed element Can be lumped or distributed element
50
Lumped element approximations for a quarter Lumped element approximations for a quarter- -wavelength lines wavelength lines
R R
L L
quarter quarter- -wavelength at fo wavelength at fo
Zin = Z Zin = Z
0 0
2 2
/R /R
L L characteristic impedance characteristic impedance
= Z = Z
0 0
R R
L L
Zin = (Z Zin = (Z
01 01
2 2
/ Z / Z
02 02
2 2
)R )R
L L
characteristic impedance characteristic impedance
= Z = Z
02 02
characteristic impedance characteristic impedance
= Z = Z
01 01
Quarter Quarter- -wavelength Impedance Inverters, Impedance wavelength Impedance Inverters, Impedance
Transformers, and Delay Lines (phase shift) Transformers, and Delay Lines (phase shift)
51
Transmission Lines: Lumped Element Transmission Lines: Lumped Element
Approximations Approximations
L L
total total
= ( = ( / / )(Z )(Z
0 0
/f /f
0 0
), C ), C
total total
= ( = ( / / )(1/ (Z )(1/ (Z
0 0
f f
0 0
)), L )), L
total total
/C /C
total total
= Z = Z
0 0
2 2
If the line is considered a series of pi networks, the inner cap If the line is considered a series of pi networks, the inner capacitor acitor
values are twice that of the end capacitors (i.e., C2=2C1) values are twice that of the end capacitors (i.e., C2=2C1)
Single Single- -ended lines ended lines
(coaxial, microstrip, stripline) (coaxial, microstrip, stripline)
Balanced lines Balanced lines
(twin (twin- -lead, twisted pair) lead, twisted pair)
L1/2 L1/2 L1/2 L1/2
C1 C1 C2 C2 C1 C1
L1/2 L1/2 L1/2 L1/2
L1 L1 L1 L1
C1 C1 C2 C2 C1 C1
52
Useful Aspects of Lumped or Distributed Useful Aspects of Lumped or Distributed
Element Transmission Lines Element Transmission Lines
u u Impedance inversion/transformation (can transform a resonator se Impedance inversion/transformation (can transform a resonator series ries- -
resonance impedance to a parallel resonance) resonance impedance to a parallel resonance)
u u Relatively broadband impedance transformation, compared to band Relatively broadband impedance transformation, compared to band- -pass pass
structures (lower sensitivity to element value tolerance, temper structures (lower sensitivity to element value tolerance, temperature ature
coefficient, etc.) coefficient, etc.)
u u All or some of the line can be realized using actual transmissio All or some of the line can be realized using actual transmission line (coaxial n line (coaxial
cable) cable)
l l Thermal isolation of ovenized components Thermal isolation of ovenized components
l l Vibration isolation of acceleration sensitive components Vibration isolation of acceleration sensitive components
u u At HF and Low VHF, transmission line transformers can be realize At HF and Low VHF, transmission line transformers can be realized with d with
values for characteristic impedance not obtainable using convent values for characteristic impedance not obtainable using conventional coaxial ional coaxial
or twin lead cable or twin lead cable
u u Positive or negative phase shifts may be obtained using high Positive or negative phase shifts may be obtained using high- -pass or low pass or low- -
pass lumped element approximations pass lumped element approximations
53
Lm Lm
Cm Cm
Rs Rs
Co Co
Lo Lo
Cv Cv
Lp Lp
Quartz Crystal Quartz Crystal
with Parallel with Parallel
Capacitance Capacitance
Anti Anti- -resonated resonated
Varactor Varactor
Inductor Inductor
Tuning Tuning
Circuit Circuit
Lm Lm
Cm Cm
Rs Rs
Co Co
Cv Cv
Lp = LpLo/(Lp+Lo) Lp = LpLo/(Lp+Lo)
The series resonant frequency of a high Q dipole is unaffected b The series resonant frequency of a high Q dipole is unaffected by y
movement of parallel elements from one portion of the dipole to movement of parallel elements from one portion of the dipole to the the
other as long as series and parallel resonant frequencies do not other as long as series and parallel resonant frequencies do not
approach one another approach one another
Dipole Transformation Dipole Transformation
5. Sustaining Stage Design and
Performance
5. Sustaining Stage Design and
Performance
55
Zin (ideal voltage Zin (ideal voltage- -controlled current source) controlled current source)
= Z1 + Z2 + gm(Z1)(Z2) = Z1 + Z2 + gm(Z1)(Z2)
If Z1 and Z2 are reactances, Z1=jX1, Z2=jX2, and If Z1 and Z2 are reactances, Z1=jX1, Z2=jX2, and
Zin = j(X1+X2) Zin = j(X1+X2) - -gm(X1)(X2) gm(X1)(X2)
where where - -gm(X1)(X2) is the negative resistance term gm(X1)(X2) is the negative resistance term
Z1 Z1
Z2 Z2
The Transistor Viewed as a Reactance The Transistor Viewed as a Reactance- -plus plus- -
Negative Resistance Generator Negative Resistance Generator
u u Normally, capacitors are used for the reactances X1 Normally, capacitors are used for the reactances X1
and X2 and X2
u u At microwave frequencies, transistor junction At microwave frequencies, transistor junction
capacitance may comprise a significant part or all of capacitance may comprise a significant part or all of
the reactance the reactance
56
Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2
Z3 Z3
Zin (ideal voltage Zin (ideal voltage- -controlled current source) controlled current source)
= (Z1)(Z2)/(Z1+Z2+Z3) + 1/gm = (Z1)(Z2)/(Z1+Z2+Z3) + 1/gm
If Z1=1/j If Z1=1/j C1, Z2=1/j C1, Z2=1/j C2, and Z3=j C2, and Z3=j Ls+Rs Ls+Rs
and if, at and if, at = =
o o
, Z1/Z2/Z3 are resonant , Z1/Z2/Z3 are resonant
(Z1+Z2+Z3 = Rs), (Z1+Z2+Z3 = Rs),
then Zin at then Zin at = =
o o
= = - -1/( 1/(
o o
2 2
C1C2Rs) +1/gm C1C2Rs) +1/gm
The Transistor Viewed as a Negative The Transistor Viewed as a Negative
Resistance Generator (at Resistance Generator (at o) o)
u u Normally, capacitors are used as the impedances Z1 Normally, capacitors are used as the impedances Z1
and Z2 and Z2
u u Z3 is normally an inductor, and the net resonant Z3 is normally an inductor, and the net resonant
resistance of the series combination, Rs, includes resistance of the series combination, Rs, includes
that due to the circuit external load resistance as well that due to the circuit external load resistance as well
as the loss in the inductor as the loss in the inductor
57
Zin = j(X1+X2) Zin = j(X1+X2) - - (X1)(X2)/(RE+1/gm) (X1)(X2)/(RE+1/gm)
where where - -(X1)(X2)/(RE+1/gm) is the (X1)(X2)/(RE+1/gm) is the
negative resistance term negative resistance term
X1 X1
X2 X2
RE RE
Use of Unbypassed Emitter Resistance for Use of Unbypassed Emitter Resistance for
Gain (Negative Resistance) Stabilization Gain (Negative Resistance) Stabilization
u u The addition of RE stabilizes the negative resistance The addition of RE stabilizes the negative resistance
(makes it more dependent on RE then on gm (makes it more dependent on RE then on gm
u u In addition, un In addition, un- -bypassed emitter resistance bypassed emitter resistance
constitutes one method for reducing transistor 1/f PM constitutes one method for reducing transistor 1/f PM
noise levels noise levels
58
RE RE
C1 C1
C2 C2
Ls Ls
Rs Rs
Q1 Q1
basic oscillator circuit basic oscillator circuit
C1 C1
C2 C2
Ls Ls
Rs Rs
Q1 Q1
crystal operation at fs crystal operation at fs
where Z where Z
Y1 Y1
= Rs (i.e., Z=RE) = Rs (i.e., Z=RE)
RE RE
C1 C1
C2 C2
Q1 Q1
crystal operation above fs crystal operation above fs
where Z where Z
Y1 Y1
= j = j Ls + Rs Ls + Rs
Y1 Y1
Crystal Oscillators with Crystal Placement in Crystal Oscillators with Crystal Placement in
Different Portions of the Circuit Different Portions of the Circuit
59
* From * From the NIST Tutorial on 1/f AM and PM Noise in Amplifiers the NIST Tutorial on 1/f AM and PM Noise in Amplifiers
Methods for Reducing Discrete Transistor Methods for Reducing Discrete Transistor
Sustaining Stage 1/f PM Noise Sustaining Stage 1/f PM Noise
u u Use un Use un- -bypassed emitter resistance (a resistor or the bypassed emitter resistance (a resistor or the
resonator itself connected in series with the emitter resonator itself connected in series with the emitter
u u Use high frequency transistors having small junction Use high frequency transistors having small junction
capacitance and operate at moderately high bias voltage to capacitance and operate at moderately high bias voltage to
reduce phase modulation due to junction capacitance noise reduce phase modulation due to junction capacitance noise
modulation* modulation*
u u Use heavily bypassed DC bias circuitry and regulated DC Use heavily bypassed DC bias circuitry and regulated DC
supplies* supplies*
u u Consider the use of a base Consider the use of a base- -band noise reduction feedback band noise reduction feedback
loop* loop*
u u Extract the signal through the resonator to the load, thereby Extract the signal through the resonator to the load, thereby
using the resonator transmission response selectivity to filter using the resonator transmission response selectivity to filter
the carrier noise spectrum the carrier noise spectrum
60
C1 C1
Ls Ls
Rs Rs
Q1 Q1
C2 C2
Q2 Q2 Matching Matching
Network Network
R R
L L
Y1 Y1
I I
Y1 Y1
N N
2 2
(I (I
Y1 Y1
) )
N N
2 2
:1 :1
Transformer sometimes used Transformer sometimes used
to step up current into Q1,Q2 to step up current into Q1,Q2
N N
1 1
(I (I
Y1 Y1
) )
1:N 1:N
1 1
Extraction of the Oscillator Signal Through Extraction of the Oscillator Signal Through
the Resonator the Resonator
61
RL RL
Cascode transistor Cascode transistor
configuration configuration
(large ratio of Po/P (large ratio of Po/P
Y1 Y1
) )
+VDC +VDC
Y1 Y1
Symmetric diode Symmetric diode
clipping clipping
Ref. bias (RF level adjust) Ref. bias (RF level adjust)
Ferrite beads Ferrite beads
to prevent UHF to prevent UHF
oscillation oscillation
Discrete Transistor Oscillator Example: Discrete Transistor Oscillator Example:
Low Noise, VHF Crystal Oscillator Low Noise, VHF Crystal Oscillator
62
Discrete Transistor Sustaining Stages Discrete Transistor Sustaining Stages
u u Low Cost Low Cost
u u Pre Pre- -fabrication and post fabrication and post- -
fabrication design and fabrication design and
design change flexibility design change flexibility
u u Biasing flexibility Biasing flexibility
u u Efficiency (DC power Efficiency (DC power
consumption) consumption)
u u For low noise, transistors For low noise, transistors
with high ft should be used; with high ft should be used;
circuit is then susceptible to circuit is then susceptible to
high frequency instability due high frequency instability due
to layout parasitics and loss to layout parasitics and loss- -
less resonator out less resonator out- -of of- -band band
impedance impedance
u u Difficulty in predicting or Difficulty in predicting or
measuring 1/f AM and PM measuring 1/f AM and PM
noise using 50 ohm test noise using 50 ohm test
equipment since actual equipment since actual
sustaining stage sustaining stage- -to to- -
resonator circuit interface resonator circuit interface
impedances are not usually impedances are not usually
50 ohms. 50 ohms.
63
Advantages of Modular Amplifier Advantages of Modular Amplifier
Sustaining Stages Sustaining Stages
u u Easily characterized using 50 ohm test equipment (amplifier s Easily characterized using 50 ohm test equipment (amplifier s- -
parameters, 1/f AM , 1/f PM, and KTBF noise) parameters, 1/f AM , 1/f PM, and KTBF noise)
u u Availability of unconditionally stable amplifiers eliminates pos Availability of unconditionally stable amplifiers eliminates possibility sibility
of parasitic oscillations of parasitic oscillations
u u Amplifiers available (especially silicon bipolar and GaAs HBT ty Amplifiers available (especially silicon bipolar and GaAs HBT types) pes)
exhibiting low 1/f AM and PM noise exhibiting low 1/f AM and PM noise
u u Certain models maintain low noise performance when operated in Certain models maintain low noise performance when operated in
gain compression thereby eliminating a requirement for separate gain compression thereby eliminating a requirement for separate
ALC/AGC circuitry in the oscillator ALC/AGC circuitry in the oscillator
u u Amplifier use allows a building block approach to be used for al Amplifier use allows a building block approach to be used for all of l of
the oscillator functional sub the oscillator functional sub- -circuits: amplifier, resonator, resonator circuits: amplifier, resonator, resonator
tuning, resonator mode selection filter, etc tuning, resonator mode selection filter, etc
u u Relatively low cost amplifiers (plastic, COTS, HBT darlington pa Relatively low cost amplifiers (plastic, COTS, HBT darlington pair ir
configuration) are now available with multi configuration) are now available with multi- -decade bandwidths decade bandwidths
operating from HF to microwave frequencies operating from HF to microwave frequencies
64
Silicon Bipolar Modular Amplifier: Silicon Bipolar Modular Amplifier:
Measured 1/f PM Noise Measured 1/f PM Noise
1/f PM noise (10dB/decade) 1/f PM noise (10dB/decade)
White PM noise (floor) White PM noise (floor)
65
1 10 100 1K 1 10 100 1K 10K 10K 100K 1M 100K 1M
- -110 110
- -120 120
- -130 130
- -140 140
- -150 150
- -160 160
- -170 170
Phase Phase
Noise Noise
Sideband Sideband
Level Level
(dBc/Hz) (dBc/Hz)
X X- -band GaAs Amp. band GaAs Amp.
X X- -band Schottky Mixer band Schottky Mixer
& X & X- -band HBT amp. band HBT amp.
HF HF- -VHF Bipolar Amp. & VHF Bipolar Amp. &
HF HF- -UHF Schottky Mixer UHF Schottky Mixer
L L- -band Bipolar and HBT band Bipolar and HBT
Amp. Amp.
Typical Component 1/f PM Multiplicative Typical Component 1/f PM Multiplicative
Noise Levels Noise Levels
66
Modular Amplifiers: General Comments Modular Amplifiers: General Comments
u u Generally, amplifier vendors do not design for, specify, or Generally, amplifier vendors do not design for, specify, or
measure device 1/f AM and PM noise measure device 1/f AM and PM noise
u u It is usually necessary to evaluate candidate sustaining stage It is usually necessary to evaluate candidate sustaining stage
amplifiers in terms of measured 1/f AM and PM noise at amplifiers in terms of measured 1/f AM and PM noise at
intended drive level (i.e., in gain compression when the intended drive level (i.e., in gain compression when the
oscillator will not employ separate ALC/AGC) oscillator will not employ separate ALC/AGC)
u u Amplifier S21 phase angle sensitivity to gain compression, as Amplifier S21 phase angle sensitivity to gain compression, as
well as gain magnitude and phase sensitivity to DC supply well as gain magnitude and phase sensitivity to DC supply
variation (noise) must be considered variation (noise) must be considered
u u Silicon bipolar amplifiers and HBT amplifiers operating below Silicon bipolar amplifiers and HBT amplifiers operating below
L L- -band normally exhibit lower levels of 1/f AM and PM noise, band normally exhibit lower levels of 1/f AM and PM noise,
compared to microwave amplifiers compared to microwave amplifiers
67
SAWR SAWR SAWR SAWR
SAWR SAWR Xs Xs SAWR SAWR
loop loop
phase phase
adjust adjust
Xs Xs
Xs Xs Xs Xs
Modular Amplifier Oscillator Design Modular Amplifier Oscillator Design
Example: Low Noise, SAWR Oscillator Example: Low Noise, SAWR Oscillator
u u Xs = Select Xs = Select- -in in- -test inductor or capacitor to align SAWR center test inductor or capacitor to align SAWR center
frequency frequency
u u Four, cascaded combinations of SAWRs and amplifiers used to Four, cascaded combinations of SAWRs and amplifiers used to
increase loop group delay increase loop group delay
u u Achieved Achieved - -124dBc/Hz at fm=100Hz at fo=320MHz 124dBc/Hz at fm=100Hz at fo=320MHz
u u Requires accurate tracking between resonators over time and Requires accurate tracking between resonators over time and
temperature temperature
68
Zs = Rs at fo Zs = Rs at fo
Rp Rp Rp Rp
G G
A A
= 14dB, = 14dB,

A A
= 180 = 180
o o
Lumped element, quarter Lumped element, quarter
wavelength lines wavelength lines
Zo Zo
2 2
= 50Zx = 50Zx
A A
Tune input Tune input
Modular Amplifier Oscillator Design Modular Amplifier Oscillator Design
Example: Low Noise, HF Oscillator Example: Low Noise, HF Oscillator
u u Quarter Quarter- -wavelength lines yield 90 wavelength lines yield 90
o o
phase shift and match 50 ohms to phase shift and match 50 ohms to
Zx at fo, provide improper phase shift below fo and attenuation Zx at fo, provide improper phase shift below fo and attenuation above above
fo preventing oscillation at other crystal resonant modes fo preventing oscillation at other crystal resonant modes (previous (previous
exercise) exercise)
u u Demonstrated Demonstrated - -156dBc/Hz at fm=100Hz at fo=10MHz using third 156dBc/Hz at fm=100Hz at fo=10MHz using third
overtone AT overtone AT- -cut crystals cut crystals
6. Oscillator Frequency
Adjustment/Voltage Tuning
6. Oscillator Frequency
Adjustment/Voltage Tuning
70
Methods for Providing Oscillator Methods for Providing Oscillator
Frequency Tuning Frequency Tuning
Xs Xs Resonator Resonator
sustaining stage sustaining stage
A A
u u Xs = variable reactance in series with the resonator used Xs = variable reactance in series with the resonator used
to vary the overall resonant frequency of the resonator to vary the overall resonant frequency of the resonator- -
reactance combination reactance combination
Resonator Resonator
A A
u u = variable phase shifter used to force the oscillator signal = variable phase shifter used to force the oscillator signal
frequency to change to a (new, 360 frequency to change to a (new, 360
o o
loop phase shift) loop phase shift)
frequency that varies within the resonator pass frequency that varies within the resonator pass- -band band
71
Oscillator Frequency Tuning Oscillator Frequency Tuning
Reactance Tuning Reactance Tuning Phase Shift Tuning Phase Shift Tuning
Carrier signal is maintained at Carrier signal is maintained at
center of the transmission center of the transmission
response of the resonator response of the resonator- -
reactance combination reactance combination
Carrier signal moves within the Carrier signal moves within the
resonator transmission resonator transmission
response pass response pass- -band; tuning band; tuning
range is restricted to less than range is restricted to less than
the passband width the passband width
Impedance transformation is Impedance transformation is
often required between the often required between the
resonator and the tuning circuit resonator and the tuning circuit
Phase shift circuit can be Phase shift circuit can be
implemented as a 50 ohm implemented as a 50 ohm
device device
For electronic (voltage) tuning, For electronic (voltage) tuning,
the placement of the phase shift the placement of the phase shift
tuning circuit in the oscillator tuning circuit in the oscillator
effects the sideband response effects the sideband response
of the oscillator, and must be of the oscillator, and must be
taken into account in phase taken into account in phase- -
locked oscillator applications locked oscillator applications
72
Tuning voltage Tuning voltage
VCO Gain VCO Gain
modulation modulation
frequency frequency
desired gain constant = Ko/s desired gain constant = Ko/s
actual gain constant actual gain constant
1/2 1/2
delay = delay =

Resonator Resonator
A A
Phase Shift Tuning Phase Shift Tuning
u u Modulation frequency response affected by Modulation frequency response affected by
placement of phase shifter placement of phase shifter
73
Methodology of Linear Frequency Tuning Methodology of Linear Frequency Tuning
Using Abrupt J unction Varactor Diodes Using Abrupt J unction Varactor Diodes
u u A resonator operated at/near series resonance exhibits a near A resonator operated at/near series resonance exhibits a near- -
linear reactance vs frequency characteristic linear reactance vs frequency characteristic
u u Connection of a linear reactance vs voltage network in series wi Connection of a linear reactance vs voltage network in series with th
the resonator will then result in a circuit whose overall resona the resonator will then result in a circuit whose overall resonant nt
frequency vs voltage characteristic is near frequency vs voltage characteristic is near- -linear linear
u u The same holds true for a parallel connection of a parallel reso The same holds true for a parallel connection of a parallel resonant nant
resonator and a linear susceptance vs voltage circuit resonator and a linear susceptance vs voltage circuit
u u Impedance transformation between the resonator and the tuning Impedance transformation between the resonator and the tuning
circuit is often required to increase tuning range using practic circuit is often required to increase tuning range using practical al
value components in the tuning circuit value components in the tuning circuit
u u Use of back Use of back- -to to- -back varactor diodes in the tuning circuits has been back varactor diodes in the tuning circuits has been
found to eliminate effects of tuning circuit diode noise n oscil found to eliminate effects of tuning circuit diode noise n oscillator lator
signal spectral performance signal spectral performance
74
L L
p p
C C
v v
L L
s s
Obtaining Linear Reactance vs Voltage Obtaining Linear Reactance vs Voltage
u u For abrupt junction varactor diodes, C = K/(V+ For abrupt junction varactor diodes, C = K/(V+ ) )

where where = =
contact potential = 0.6 volts at room temp, and contact potential = 0.6 volts at room temp, and = 0.5 = 0.5
u u To achieve near To achieve near- -linear reactance vs voltage using abrupt linear reactance vs voltage using abrupt
junction varactor diodes, 1/(LpCvo) = junction varactor diodes, 1/(LpCvo) =
o o
2 2
/3 where Cvo is the /3 where Cvo is the
varactor diode capacitance at the band center voltage = Vo varactor diode capacitance at the band center voltage = Vo
u u For zero reactance at the band center tuning voltage, Ls=Lp/2 For zero reactance at the band center tuning voltage, Ls=Lp/2
u u The reactance vs voltage slope at the band center voltage is The reactance vs voltage slope at the band center voltage is
0.375 0.375
o o
Lp/(vo+ Lp/(vo+ ) )
75
C C
p p
C C
v v
L L
s s
Linear Susceptance vs Voltage Linear Susceptance vs Voltage
u u For near For near- -linear susceptance vs voltage using abrupt junction linear susceptance vs voltage using abrupt junction
varactor diode, 1/(LsCvo) = varactor diode, 1/(LsCvo) =
o o
2 2
/3 where Cvo is the varactor /3 where Cvo is the varactor
diode capacitance at the band center voltage = Vo diode capacitance at the band center voltage = Vo
u u For zero susceptance at the band center tuning voltage, For zero susceptance at the band center tuning voltage,
Cp = Cvo/2 Cp = Cvo/2
76
Linear Tunable Low Noise Oscillators: Linear Tunable Low Noise Oscillators:
Typical Results Typical Results
Resonator Type Resonator Type
AT AT- -Cut Fundamental Cut Fundamental
AT AT- -Cut Fundamental Cut Fundamental
SC SC- -Cut Overtone Cut Overtone
SAWR SAWR
STW STW
Coaxial Resonator Coaxial Resonator
Band pass Filter Band pass Filter
Tuning Range Tuning Range
(ppm) (ppm)
2000 2000
250 250
10 10
500 500
500 500
150 150
Error from Linear Error from Linear
(ppm) (ppm)
5 5
1 1
0.5 0.5
5 5
100 100
50 50
Tuning Circuit Type Tuning Circuit Type
Reactance Reactance
Reactance Reactance
Reactance Reactance
Reactance Reactance
Phase Shift Phase Shift
Phase Shift Phase Shift
7. Environmental Stress Effects
7. Environmental Stress Effects
78
Environmentally Environmentally- -Induced Oscillator Signal Induced Oscillator Signal
Frequency Change Frequency Change
u u Resonator/Oscillator signal frequency change can be Resonator/Oscillator signal frequency change can be
induced by changes in: induced by changes in:
l l Temperature Temperature
l l Pressure Pressure
l l Acceleration (vibration) Acceleration (vibration)
l l Other (radiation, etc) Other (radiation, etc)
79
Vibration Vibration
u u Vibration constitutes the primary environmental Vibration constitutes the primary environmental
stress affecting oscillator signal short stress affecting oscillator signal short- -term frequency term frequency
stability (phase noise) stability (phase noise)
u u Although resonator sensitivity to vibration is often the Although resonator sensitivity to vibration is often the
primary contributor, vibration primary contributor, vibration - -induced changes in the induced changes in the
non non- -resonator portion of the oscillator circuit can be resonator portion of the oscillator circuit can be
significant significant
u u High Q mechanical resonances in the resonator High Q mechanical resonances in the resonator
and/or non and/or non- -resonator oscillator circuitry and resonator oscillator circuitry and
enclosure can cause severe signal spectral enclosure can cause severe signal spectral
degradation under vibration degradation under vibration
80
Vibration: An Example Vibration: An Example
u u A 100MHz crystal oscillator can exhibit a phase noise sideband A 100MHz crystal oscillator can exhibit a phase noise sideband
level at 1KHz carrier offset frequency of level at 1KHz carrier offset frequency of - -163dBc/Hz. 163dBc/Hz.
u u The fractional frequency instability is Sy(f=1000Hz) = 1X10 The fractional frequency instability is Sy(f=1000Hz) = 1X10
- -26 26
/Hz. /Hz.
u u The corresponding phase instability, S The corresponding phase instability, S (f), is 1X10 (f), is 1X10
- -16 16
rad rad
2 2
/Hz. /Hz.
u u The crystal vibration level that would degrade the at The crystal vibration level that would degrade the at- -rest oscillator rest oscillator
signal spectrum, based a crystal frequency vibration sensitivity signal spectrum, based a crystal frequency vibration sensitivity
value value
f f
= 5X10 = 5X10
- -10 10
/g is quite small: Sg(f) = Sy(f)/ /g is quite small: Sg(f) = Sy(f)/
f f
2 2
= 4X10 = 4X10
- -8 8
g g
2 2
/Hz. /Hz.
u u The corresponding allowable signal path dimensional change, The corresponding allowable signal path dimensional change,
based on a wavelength of 300cm is: 48 angstroms/Hz based on a wavelength of 300cm is: 48 angstroms/Hz
1/2 1/2
. .
u u In the 50 In the 50- -ohm circuit, a capacitance variation (due to vibration ohm circuit, a capacitance variation (due to vibration- -
induced printed board or enclosure cover movement) of: 6X10 induced printed board or enclosure cover movement) of: 6X10
- -7 7
pF/Hz pF/Hz
1/2 1/2
would degrade the at would degrade the at- -rest signal spectrum. rest signal spectrum.
81
Methods for Attenuating Effects of Vibration Methods for Attenuating Effects of Vibration
u u Vibration isolation of resonators or of entire oscillator Vibration isolation of resonators or of entire oscillator
u u Cancellation vie feedback of accelerometer Cancellation vie feedback of accelerometer- -sensed sensed
signals to oscillator frequency tuning circuitry signals to oscillator frequency tuning circuitry
u u Measurement of individual (crystal) resonator vibration Measurement of individual (crystal) resonator vibration
sensitivity magnitude and direction and use of matched, sensitivity magnitude and direction and use of matched,
oppositely oppositely- -oriented devices oriented devices
l l Use of multiple, unmatched oppositely Use of multiple, unmatched oppositely- -oriented devices oriented devices
u u Reduction of resonator vibration sensitivity via resonator Reduction of resonator vibration sensitivity via resonator
design (geometry, mounting, mass loading, etc.) design (geometry, mounting, mass loading, etc.)
82
y y
x x
z z
a a b b
c c d d
Poor Mans Method for Reducing Quartz Poor Mans Method for Reducing Quartz
Crystal Vibration Sensitivity Crystal Vibration Sensitivity
u u Two Crystals: partial Two Crystals: partial
cancellation in z and x cancellation in z and x
directions, no cancellation in y directions, no cancellation in y
direction direction
u u Four Crystals: partial Four Crystals: partial
cancellation in x, y, and z cancellation in x, y, and z
directions directions
u u Crystals connected electrically in series Crystals connected electrically in series
u u 5:1 reduction in vibration sensitivity magnitude has been 5:1 reduction in vibration sensitivity magnitude has been
achieved using four crystals achieved using four crystals
83
Measurement of Oscillator/Resonator Measurement of Oscillator/Resonator
Vibration Sensitivity Vibration Sensitivity
u u Entire oscillator or resonator alone can be mounted on a Entire oscillator or resonator alone can be mounted on a
shaker for determination of vibration sensitivity. shaker for determination of vibration sensitivity.
l l Resonator vibration sensitivity measurements can be made with Resonator vibration sensitivity measurements can be made with
the resonator connected to the oscillator sustaining stage or the resonator connected to the oscillator sustaining stage or
connected in a passive phase bridge. connected in a passive phase bridge.
u u The effects of coaxial cable vibration must be taken into The effects of coaxial cable vibration must be taken into
account, especially for measurement of devices having very account, especially for measurement of devices having very
small values of vibration sensitivity. small values of vibration sensitivity.
l l The effects of cable vibration can be determined by re The effects of cable vibration can be determined by re- -orienting orienting
the DUT on the shake table 180 degrees while not re the DUT on the shake table 180 degrees while not re- -orienting orienting
the connecting coaxial cable and measuring the relative change the connecting coaxial cable and measuring the relative change
in the magnitude and phase of the recovered, vibration in the magnitude and phase of the recovered, vibration- -induced induced
carrier signal sideband, relative to that of the shake table carrier signal sideband, relative to that of the shake table
accelerometer. accelerometer.
84
shake table shake table
D.U.T. D.U.T.
vibration direction vibration direction
shake table shake table
D . U . T .D . U . T .
vibration direction vibration direction
Measurement #1 Measurement #1
Overall vibration sensitivity Overall vibration sensitivity
= =
COAX COAX
+ +
DUT DUT
Measurement #2 Measurement #2
Overall vibration sensitivity Overall vibration sensitivity
= =
COAX COAX
- -
DUT DUT
Measurement of Oscillator/Resonator Measurement of Oscillator/Resonator
Coaxial Cable Affects Coaxial Cable Affects
85
Test Results for 40MHz Oscillator Sustaining Test Results for 40MHz Oscillator Sustaining
Stage and Coaxial Cables Stage and Coaxial Cables
(vibration (vibration- -induced phase shift increases with carrier induced phase shift increases with carrier frequency) frequency)
50 ohm flexible coaxial 50 ohm flexible coaxial
cable cable
approx 15 micro approx 15 micro- -radians radians
per g per g
50 ohm semi 50 ohm semi- -rigid coaxial rigid coaxial
cable cable
approx 5 micro approx 5 micro- -radians radians
per g per g
Coaxial cable Coaxial cable
Open loop measurements Open loop measurements
for a 2.5X2.5 inch PWB for a 2.5X2.5 inch PWB
mounted on corners with mounted on corners with
no adjustable components no adjustable components
approx 1.5 micro approx 1.5 micro- -radians radians
per g per g
Sustaining Stage Sustaining Stage
8. Oscillator Circuit Simulation
and Noise Modeling
8. Oscillator Circuit Simulation
and Noise Modeling
87
CAD Small Signal Analysis/Simulation of CAD Small Signal Analysis/Simulation of
Oscillator Circuits Oscillator Circuits
u u Small signal analysis is useful for simulating linear Small signal analysis is useful for simulating linear
(start (start- -up) conditions up) conditions
u u Simulation of steady Simulation of steady- -state condition is possible state condition is possible
if/when large signal (i.e., in if/when large signal (i.e., in- -compression) device s compression) device s- -
parameters or ALC diode steady parameters or ALC diode steady- -state impedance state impedance
values are known values are known
u u Circuit analysis/simulation should include component Circuit analysis/simulation should include component
parasitic reactance (inductor distributed capacitance parasitic reactance (inductor distributed capacitance
and loss, component lead inductance, etc). For and loss, component lead inductance, etc). For
circuits operating at and above VHF, printed circuits operating at and above VHF, printed
board/substrate artwork (printed tracks, etc) should board/substrate artwork (printed tracks, etc) should
also be included in the circuit model. also be included in the circuit model.
88
CAD Small Signal Analysis of Oscillator CAD Small Signal Analysis of Oscillator
Circuits Circuits
u u Two port analysis is most appropriate for oscillator Two port analysis is most appropriate for oscillator
circuits employing modular amplifier sustaining stages. circuits employing modular amplifier sustaining stages.
Open loop simulation in a 50 ohm system is valid for Open loop simulation in a 50 ohm system is valid for
simulation of closed loop performance only when the simulation of closed loop performance only when the
loop is broken at a point where either the generator or loop is broken at a point where either the generator or
load impedance is 50 ohms (i.e., at the amplifier input load impedance is 50 ohms (i.e., at the amplifier input
or output if the amplifier has good input or output or output if the amplifier has good input or output
VSWR). VSWR).
u u One port (negative resistance generator) analysis is One port (negative resistance generator) analysis is
useful when simulating discrete oscillators employing useful when simulating discrete oscillators employing
transistor sustaining stage circuitry. transistor sustaining stage circuitry.
89
CAD Small Signal Simulation of Oscillator CAD Small Signal Simulation of Oscillator
Circuits Circuits
u u CAD circuit simulation can (and should) include circuit CAD circuit simulation can (and should) include circuit
analysis at out analysis at out- -of of- -band frequency regions to make sure band frequency regions to make sure
conditions for oscillation are only satisfied at the desired conditions for oscillation are only satisfied at the desired
frequency. frequency.
u u Frequency bands where undesired resonator resonant Frequency bands where undesired resonator resonant
responses occur (i.e., unwanted crystal overtone responses occur (i.e., unwanted crystal overtone
resonances) should be analyzed. resonances) should be analyzed.
u u CAD circuit simulation results can be experimentally CAD circuit simulation results can be experimentally
checked using an Automatic Network Analyzer (ANA). checked using an Automatic Network Analyzer (ANA).
u u Simulation also allows optimization of element values to Simulation also allows optimization of element values to
tune the oscillator, as well as statistical analyses to be tune the oscillator, as well as statistical analyses to be
performed for determination of the effects of component performed for determination of the effects of component
tolerance. tolerance.
90
RL RL
+VDC +VDC
Y1 Y1
Vbias Vbias
Zin = impedance (negative Zin = impedance (negative
resistance) resistance)
seen by the crystal seen by the crystal
resonator resonator
Cx Cx
Cy Cy
Z Z
ALC ALC
Rc Rc
Simulation of the Sustaining Stage Portion Simulation of the Sustaining Stage Portion
of a Crystal Oscillator of a Crystal Oscillator
u u Cx and Cy values optimized to Cx and Cy values optimized to
provide Zin = provide Zin = - -70 + j0 at 70 + j0 at
100MHz 100MHz
u u Zin calculated from 50MHz to Zin calculated from 50MHz to
1GHz to insure negative 1GHz to insure negative
resistance is only generated resistance is only generated
over a small band centered at over a small band centered at
100MHz (note use of Rc) 100MHz (note use of Rc)
u u Large signal condition (where Large signal condition (where
the negative resistance the negative resistance
portion of Zin drops to 50 portion of Zin drops to 50
ohms = crystal resistance) ohms = crystal resistance)
simulated by reducing the simulated by reducing the
ALC impedance value ALC impedance value
91
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
*
*
*
*
* *
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
100MHz Oscillator Sustaining Stage Circuit 100MHz Oscillator Sustaining Stage Circuit
Simulation: 80MHz to 120MHz Simulation: 80MHz to 120MHz
u u Zin = Zin = - - 70 + j0 at 70 + j0 at
100MHz 100MHz
92
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
100MHz Oscillator Sustaining Stage Circuit 100MHz Oscillator Sustaining Stage Circuit
Simulation: 50MHz to 1.5GHz Simulation: 50MHz to 1.5GHz
u u 33 ohm collector resistor 33 ohm collector resistor
installed in the circuit installed in the circuit
u u Note that the real part of Note that the real part of
the impedance remains the impedance remains
positive everywhere positive everywhere
except at the desired except at the desired
frequency band at frequency band at
100MHz 100MHz
u u This fact indicates the This fact indicates the
circuit will only oscillate circuit will only oscillate
at the desired frequency at the desired frequency
93
+
+
+
+
+ + +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
*
*
* *
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Results of 100MHz Oscillator Sustaining Results of 100MHz Oscillator Sustaining
Stage Circuit Simulation Stage Circuit Simulation
u u 50MHz to 1.5GHz; 50MHz to 1.5GHz;
collector resistor (Rc) collector resistor (Rc)
removed removed
u u Note that the real part of Note that the real part of
the impedance becomes the impedance becomes
highly negative1.15GHz highly negative1.15GHz
u u This fact points to a This fact points to a
probable circuit probable circuit
oscillation at/near oscillation at/near
1.1GHz 1.1GHz
94
RF RF
Amplifier Amplifier
+VDC +VDC
Power Power
Divider Divider
RF Output RF Output
RF Level set via RF Level set via
Zener diode voltage Zener diode voltage
value selection value selection
loop phase shift set and SC loop phase shift set and SC- -cut cut
crystal b mode suppression circuit crystal b mode suppression circuit
TP1 TP1 TP2 TP2
80MHz Crystal Oscillator Using Modular 80MHz Crystal Oscillator Using Modular
Amplifier Sustaining Stage and Diode ALC Amplifier Sustaining Stage and Diode ALC
u u Output signal near Output signal near- -carrier (1/f FM) noise primarily determined by carrier (1/f FM) noise primarily determined by
crystal self noise crystal self noise
u u TP1 TP1- -to to- -TP2 voltage is maximized via trimmer capacitor TP2 voltage is maximized via trimmer capacitor
adjustment. The voltage level is a measure (verification) of adjustment. The voltage level is a measure (verification) of
requisite loop excess gain. requisite loop excess gain.
95
80MHz Modular Amplifier Oscillator Circuit 80MHz Modular Amplifier Oscillator Circuit
Simulation Simulation
u u Open Loop Transmission Open Loop Transmission
Response: 79.998MHz to Response: 79.998MHz to
80.002MHz 80.002MHz
u u Note that the excess gain Note that the excess gain
is approximately 3dB is approximately 3dB
u u The loaded Q of the The loaded Q of the
crystal in the circuit is crystal in the circuit is
approximately 50,000 approximately 50,000
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
96
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
80MHz Oscillator Circuit Simulation 80MHz Oscillator Circuit Simulation
Effect of 5% tolerance in inductors and capacitors Effect of 5% tolerance in inductors and capacitors
u u 99% of the time, the 99% of the time, the
effect on open loop effect on open loop
response is a phase response is a phase
shift off of nominal of shift off of nominal of
less than 15 degrees less than 15 degrees
(2.5ppm frequency (2.5ppm frequency
error without circuit error without circuit
frequency frequency
adjustment) adjustment)
u u 90% of the time, the 90% of the time, the
phase shift error is phase shift error is
less than 10 degrees less than 10 degrees
97
1.Express the open loop noise of each component as a Sf(f)/2 noise Express the open loop noise of each component as a Sf(f)/2 noise
power spectral density function of the form: power spectral density function of the form:
10 10
K1/10 K1/10
/f+10 /f+10
K2/10 K2/10
K1 = 1Hz 1/f PM noise level, in dBc/Hz K1 = 1Hz 1/f PM noise level, in dBc/Hz
K2 = white PM noise floor level, in dBc/Hz K2 = white PM noise floor level, in dBc/Hz
Reference: Mourey, Galliou, and Besson, A Phase Noise Model to Improve the Frequency
Stability of Ultra Stable Oscillator, Proc. 1997 IEEE Freq. Contr. Symp.
Simple Oscillator Noise Modeling* Simple Oscillator Noise Modeling*
(Open loop (Open loop- -to to- -closed loop method) closed loop method)
u u Model the open loop noise of each functional sub Model the open loop noise of each functional sub- -circuit circuit
(i.e., sustaining stage amplifier, tuning circuit, ALC/AGC (i.e., sustaining stage amplifier, tuning circuit, ALC/AGC
circuit, and the resonator), usually as having a flicker circuit, and the resonator), usually as having a flicker- -of of- -
phase and a white phase noise component. phase and a white phase noise component.
Steps: Steps:
98
Simple Oscillator Noise Modeling (cont.) Simple Oscillator Noise Modeling (cont.)
Steps, continued: Steps, continued:
2. 2. Add each of the noise power numeric values for the Add each of the noise power numeric values for the
cascaded devices together. cascaded devices together.
2a. 2a. Also, apply the appropriate, normalized frequency Also, apply the appropriate, normalized frequency- -
selective transmission responses (as a function of selective transmission responses (as a function of
frequency offset from the carrier), including that of the frequency offset from the carrier), including that of the
frequency frequency- -determining element (i.e., resonator) to determining element (i.e., resonator) to
those component noises that are filtered by the those component noises that are filtered by the
responses along the signal path. In most cases, the responses along the signal path. In most cases, the
transmission responses of the non transmission responses of the non- -resonator circuits resonator circuits
are broadband and are not included in modeling. are broadband and are not included in modeling.
99
Simple Oscillator Noise Modeling (cont.) Simple Oscillator Noise Modeling (cont.)
3. 3. Calculate the oscillator Calculate the oscillator closed closed loop signal PM noise sideband level as loop signal PM noise sideband level as
(for example): (for example):
(f) = 10LOG[(((S (f) = 10LOG[(((S
1 1
(f)/2)+(S (f)/2)+(S
2 2
(f)/2))(H (f)/2))(H
a a
(f)))+(S (f)))+(S
2 2
(f)/2))(H (f)/2))(H
b b
(f))+ (f))+
S S
3 3
(f)/2...)((1/2 (f)/2...)((1/2 ) )
2 2
+1)] +1)]
l l H(f) terms are the normalized transmission responses of frequenc H(f) terms are the normalized transmission responses of frequency y
selective circuitry as a function of carrier offset (modulation) selective circuitry as a function of carrier offset (modulation) frequency, frequency,
and and is the open loop group delay. The primary selectivity function is the open loop group delay. The primary selectivity function
and delay are those of the frequency determining element (resona and delay are those of the frequency determining element (resonator, tor,
multi multi- -pole filter, delay line, etc). pole filter, delay line, etc).
l l The((1/2 The((1/2 ) )
2 2
+1) term accounts for the conversion of open loop phase +1) term accounts for the conversion of open loop phase
fluctuations to closed loop frequency fluctuations in the oscill fluctuations to closed loop frequency fluctuations in the oscillator. ator.
100
Helpful Hints for Simple Oscillator Noise Helpful Hints for Simple Oscillator Noise
Modeling Modeling
u u The short The short- -term frequency instability of the frequency term frequency instability of the frequency- -
determining element can be modeled either as: determining element can be modeled either as:
(a) having a open loop (normally flicker (a) having a open loop (normally flicker- -of of- -phase) phase phase) phase
fluctuation spectrum that is then also filtered by the fluctuation spectrum that is then also filtered by the
resonator transmission response, or resonator transmission response, or
(b) a flicker (b) a flicker- -of of- -frequency fluctuation spectrum that is added frequency fluctuation spectrum that is added
separately to the calculated oscillator signal noise separately to the calculated oscillator signal noise
spectrum (not subject to the ((1/2 spectrum (not subject to the ((1/2 ) )
2 2
+1) term). +1) term).
101
Helpful Hints for Simple Oscillator Noise Helpful Hints for Simple Oscillator Noise
Modeling Modeling
u u The advantage of modeling the frequency The advantage of modeling the frequency- -
determining element instability as an open loop, determining element instability as an open loop,
phase fluctuation spectrum is that the spectrum used phase fluctuation spectrum is that the spectrum used
can be data collected from separate, phase bridge can be data collected from separate, phase bridge
measurements of the phase instability induced onto a measurements of the phase instability induced onto a
carrier signal by the device with corrections made for carrier signal by the device with corrections made for
any differences in in any differences in in- -bridge vs in bridge vs in- -oscillator circuit oscillator circuit
loading loading
102
Oscillator Noise Modeling Oscillator Noise Modeling - - Vibration Vibration
u u The vibration The vibration- -induced noise can be modeled similarly by entering induced noise can be modeled similarly by entering
the vibration power spectral density function (including the the vibration power spectral density function (including the
transmission responses of vibration isolation systems used, transmission responses of vibration isolation systems used,
unintentional mechanical resonances, etc), together with the unintentional mechanical resonances, etc), together with the
frequency and/or phase sensitivities of the oscillator functiona frequency and/or phase sensitivities of the oscillator functional sub l sub- -
circuits to vibration circuits to vibration
u u Normally, the most sensitive element is the resonator Normally, the most sensitive element is the resonator
u u The vibration The vibration- -induced PM noise is then simply added to the noise induced PM noise is then simply added to the noise
power numeric in the spreadsheeteither as vibration power numeric in the spreadsheeteither as vibration- -induced, induced,
open loop phase instability spectrum (then converted with the ot open loop phase instability spectrum (then converted with the other her
open loop noises to the closed loop noise) or as vibration open loop noises to the closed loop noise) or as vibration- -induced, induced,
resonator frequency instability spectrum added to the calculated resonator frequency instability spectrum added to the calculated
oscillator closed loop noise oscillator closed loop noise
103
- -180.0 180.0
- -160.0 160.0
- -140.0 140.0
- -120.0 120.0
- -100.0 100.0
- -80.0 80.0
- -60.0 60.0
10 10 100 100 1000 1000 10000 10000 100000 100000
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Sustaining Stage Amplifier
Open Loop Noise
Quartz Crystal Circuit
Open Loop Noise
Xtal M.O. Static PM Noise In
dBbc/Hz
Oscillator Closed Loop
Noise Under Vibration
mechanical mechanical
resonance resonance
isolator isolator
resonance resonance
Typical Plotted Result with Effects of Typical Plotted Result with Effects of
Mechanical Resonance(s) Mechanical Resonance(s)
VHF Crystal Oscillator VHF Crystal Oscillator
9. Oscillator Noise
De-correlation/Noise Reduction
Techniques
9. Oscillator Noise
De-correlation/Noise Reduction
Techniques
105
matching matching
circuit circuit
RL RL
Y1 Y1
RL RL
Resonator Resonator
Amp Amp
Pwr Pwr
Div Div. .
Output Amp Output Amp
A A
A A
Methods to Reduce Noise Internal to the Methods to Reduce Noise Internal to the
Oscillator Circuit Oscillator Circuit
u u Out Out- -of of- -band noise band noise
suppression via: suppression via:
l l Resonator transmission Resonator transmission
selectivity (RL) or selectivity (RL) or
l l Resonator (high out Resonator (high out- -of of- -
band) impedance band) impedance
selectivity (RL) selectivity (RL)
u u The technique shown above is not The technique shown above is not
very useful for suppressing noise very useful for suppressing noise
unless the output amplifier 1/f PM unless the output amplifier 1/f PM
noise and noise figure are better noise and noise figure are better
than that of the sustaining stage than that of the sustaining stage
amplifier amplifier
Use the resonator impedance or transmission response selectivity Use the resonator impedance or transmission response selectivity to to
reduce noise (i.e., extract the signal though the resonator to t reduce noise (i.e., extract the signal though the resonator to the load). he load).
106
Methods to Reduce Noise Internal to the Methods to Reduce Noise Internal to the
Oscillator Circuit (continued) Oscillator Circuit (continued)
u u Multiple, parallel sustaining stage amplifiers (amplifier Multiple, parallel sustaining stage amplifiers (amplifier
1/1 PM noise de 1/1 PM noise de- -correlation) correlation)
u u Multiple, series connected resonators (resonator 1/f Multiple, series connected resonators (resonator 1/f
FM noise de FM noise de- -correlation) correlation)
u u Multiple resonators in an isolated cascade or multi Multiple resonators in an isolated cascade or multi- -
pole filter configuration (increased loop group delay) pole filter configuration (increased loop group delay)
107
Example: Example:
Multiple Device Use for Noise Reduction Multiple Device Use for Noise Reduction
Resonator Resonator Resonator Resonator Resonator Resonator
Power Power
Divider Divider
Power Power
Combiner Combiner
Power Power
Divider Divider
Resonator Resonator
Power Power
Divider Divider
Resonator Resonator
u u Noise de Noise de- -correlation in correlation in
amplifiers and/or amplifiers and/or
resonators resonators
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
u u Cascaded amplifier Cascaded amplifier- -
resonators to increase loop resonators to increase loop
group delay group delay
108
Additional Methods for Reducing Noise Additional Methods for Reducing Noise
Internal to the Oscillator Circuit Internal to the Oscillator Circuit
u u Consider sustaining stage amplifier noise reduction Consider sustaining stage amplifier noise reduction
via: via:
l l noise detection and base noise detection and base- -band noise feedback (to band noise feedback (to
phase and amplitude modulators) or phase and amplitude modulators) or
l l feed feed- -forward noise cancellation forward noise cancellation
109
uWave local uWave local
oscillator oscillator
Power Power
Divider Divider
Power Power
Divider Divider
Power Power
Divider Divider
Voltage Voltage
controlled controlled
phase phase
shifter shifter
Resonator Resonator
uWave uWave
Resonator Resonator
Loop Loop
amp/filter amp/filter
down down
converter converter
up up
converter converter
phase phase
detector detector
VHF VHF
Amp Amp
Example: Noise Reduction Techniques Example: Noise Reduction Techniques
u u Wide Wide- -band noise feedback band noise feedback
to reduce sustaining stage to reduce sustaining stage
amplifier 1/f PM noise amplifier 1/f PM noise
u u VHF delay = VHF delay =
u u Double frequency conversion: Double frequency conversion:
l l Sustaining stage implementation Sustaining stage implementation
at VHF using a low 1.f PM noise at VHF using a low 1.f PM noise
amplifier amplifier
110
Voltage Voltage
phase phase
shifter shifter
Resonator Resonator
Pwr Pwr
Div Div
Voltage Voltage
phase phase
shifter shifter
Pwr Pwr
Div. Div.
Resonator Resonator
Loop Loop
phase phase
detector detector
phase phase
detector detector
Pwr Pwr
Comb Comb
carrier nulling carrier nulling
Loop Loop
post post- -nulling nulling
uwave amplifier uwave amplifier
Amp Amp
Amp Amp
Example: Example:
Additional Noise Reduction Techniques Additional Noise Reduction Techniques
Use of resonator response Use of resonator response
to increase phase detector to increase phase detector
(JPL and Raytheon) (JPL and Raytheon)
Carrier nulling with post Carrier nulling with post- -
nulling uwave amplifier used nulling uwave amplifier used
to increase phase detector to increase phase detector
(Univ. Western Australia/Poseidon (Univ. Western Australia/Poseidon
Scientific Instruments) Scientific Instruments)
111
Phase Phase
Noise Noise
Sideband Sideband
Level, Level,
dBc/Hz dBc/Hz
Carrier Offset Frequency, Hz Carrier Offset Frequency, Hz
- -170 170
- -150 150
- -130 130
- -110 110
- -160 160
- -140 140
- -120 120
- -100 100
100 100 1000 1000 10K 10K 100K 100K 1M 1M
Northrop Grumman Oscillator using double frequency
conversion sustaining stage and low order mode DR
at 77K, Q=350,000 (1995 IEEE FCS)
PSI Oscillator using high sensitivity noise
feedback and high order mode DR
at 300K, Q=200,000 (1996 IEEE FCS)
Hewlett Packard Oscillator using no noise
feedback and high order mode DR
at 28K, Q=20million (1993 IEEE FCS)
- -180 180
Advantages of Noise Feedback in X Advantages of Noise Feedback in X- -Band, Sapphire Band, Sapphire
Dielectric Resonator (DR) Oscillators Dielectric Resonator (DR) Oscillators
u u Lower Noise with 60 times lower Q Lower Noise with 60 times lower Q
112
Input Input
signal signal
power power
divider divider
f f
A A
fo fo
f f
A A
1/f noise introduced 1/f noise introduced
by amplifier by amplifier
power power
combiner combiner
(nuller) (nuller)
A A
noise enhancement: noise enhancement:
carrier nulled, but carrier nulled, but
1/f noise not nulled 1/f noise not nulled
fo fo
fo fo
post post- -null null
amplifier amplifier
A A
fo fo
f f
f f
f f
1/f noise cancelled 1/f noise cancelled
(subtracted out) (subtracted out)
fo fo
A A
noise noise
subtraction subtraction
Amp Amp
Amp Amp
Amplifier Noise Reduction via Feed Amplifier Noise Reduction via Feed- -forward forward
Cancellation* Cancellation*
(no noise down (no noise down- -conversion to base conversion to base- -band) band)
*amplifier operated linearly *amplifier operated linearly
113
Methods to Reduce Noise External to the Methods to Reduce Noise External to the
Oscillator Circuit Oscillator Circuit
u u External active (phase External active (phase- -locked VCO) or passive, locked VCO) or passive,
narrow narrow- -band spectral cleanup filters band spectral cleanup filters
u u Overall subsystem noise reduction via feedback or Overall subsystem noise reduction via feedback or
feed feed- -forward noise reduction techniques forward noise reduction techniques
114
UHF VCO Phaselocked To HF Crystal UHF VCO Phaselocked To HF Crystal
Oscillator: Oscillator:
u u Oscillator noise reduction can be accomplished via external filt Oscillator noise reduction can be accomplished via external filters: ers:
l l passive filter passive filter
l l phase phase- -locked oscillator locked oscillator
u u Provides near Provides near- -carrier noise of HF crystal oscillator plus low noise carrier noise of HF crystal oscillator plus low noise
floor of UHF VCO (PLL BW APPROX. 5KHz) floor of UHF VCO (PLL BW APPROX. 5KHz)
- -180.0 180.0
- -160.0 160.0
- -140.0 140.0
- -120.0 120.0
- -100.0 100.0
- -80.0 80.0
- -60.0 60.0
1.E+01 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+06
Carrier Offset Freq (Hz) Carrier Offset Freq (Hz)
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Crystal Oscillator-multiplier PM
noise at PLL input
UHF Oscillator free-running
PM noise
Phaselocked UHF oscillator
PM noise
115
Noisy Noisy
microwave microwave
input signal input signal
Power Power
divider divider
Quadrature (phase) Quadrature (phase)
detector detector
Frequency Discriminator Frequency Discriminator
Video amp/filter Video amp/filter
detected base detected base- -band noise band noise
fed back or fed forward fed back or fed forward
to a voltage to a voltage- -controlled controlled
phase shifter to cancel out phase shifter to cancel out
carrier signal phase noise carrier signal phase noise
Power Power
divider divider
Output Output
microwave delay line microwave delay line
or resonator, delay=t or resonator, delay=t
Overall Subsystem Noise Reduction using a Overall Subsystem Noise Reduction using a
Discriminator Discriminator
u u Large delay needed to obtain high detection sensitivity Large delay needed to obtain high detection sensitivity
u u Large delay implies high delay line loss and/or small Large delay implies high delay line loss and/or small
resonator bandwidth resonator bandwidth
u u Can achieve similar noise levels by using the same, high Can achieve similar noise levels by using the same, high
delay device in a microwave oscillator delay device in a microwave oscillator
10. Oscillator Test and
Troubleshooting Methods
10. Oscillator Test and
Troubleshooting Methods
117
Trouble Shooting Methods for: Trouble Shooting Methods for:
Discrete Transistor Sustaining Stage Discrete Transistor Sustaining Stage
Steps: Steps:
1. 1. Measure one Measure one- -port negative resistance vs frequency using port negative resistance vs frequency using
Automated Network Analyzer (ANA) s11 measurements Automated Network Analyzer (ANA) s11 measurements
(may need to use a series build (may need to use a series build- -out resistor to keep the out resistor to keep the
sustaining stage from oscillating). sustaining stage from oscillating).
2. 2. For the closed loop (oscillating circuit), measure the circuit For the closed loop (oscillating circuit), measure the circuit
nodal voltage amplitude and relative phase and view the nodal voltage amplitude and relative phase and view the
amplitude waveforms to estimate the degree of limiting amplitude waveforms to estimate the degree of limiting
(excess gain) using a vector voltmeter or similar test (excess gain) using a vector voltmeter or similar test
equipment. equipment.
118
Trouble Shooting Methods for: Trouble Shooting Methods for:
Discrete Transistor Sustaining Stage Discrete Transistor Sustaining Stage
3. 3. If the circuit does not oscillate, break open the oscillator If the circuit does not oscillate, break open the oscillator
loop where accurate duplication of source and load loop where accurate duplication of source and load
impedances is not critical (i.e., where Z impedances is not critical (i.e., where Z
S S
is much smaller is much smaller
than Z than Z
L L
and drive the circuit with an external generator to and drive the circuit with an external generator to
determine faulty portion of the circuit from phase and determine faulty portion of the circuit from phase and
amplitude measurements made along the signal path. amplitude measurements made along the signal path.
4. 4. As necessary, make circuit modifications to achieve As necessary, make circuit modifications to achieve
desired circuit open loop phase and gain characteristics. desired circuit open loop phase and gain characteristics.
Note: Note:
In In- -circuit resonator effective Q can be determined by intentionally circuit resonator effective Q can be determined by intentionally altering altering
the circuit phase shift by a known amount and measuring the resu the circuit phase shift by a known amount and measuring the resultant ltant
oscillator signal frequency shift. oscillator signal frequency shift.
119
Signal Signal
Generator Generator
Vector Voltmeter Vector Voltmeter
A A B B
Scope Scope
20KHz sampled outputs 20KHz sampled outputs
C1 C1
C2 C2
C3 C3
L1 L1
Q1 Q1
Z Z
in in
(Q1) > Z(C1) (Q1) > Z(C1)
Example: Test Set Up Example: Test Set Up
120
Modular Amplifier Sustaining Stage Modular Amplifier Sustaining Stage
Oscillator Test and Troubleshooting Oscillator Test and Troubleshooting
Steps: Steps:
1. 1. Break open the oscillator loop at a point where the circuit Break open the oscillator loop at a point where the circuit
impedance is close to 50 ohms (either on the generator or impedance is close to 50 ohms (either on the generator or
load side). load side).
2. 2. Using an Automated Network Analyzer (ANA), measure Using an Automated Network Analyzer (ANA), measure
the transmission response (s21 phase and amplitude) to the transmission response (s21 phase and amplitude) to
verify adequate excess gain and the response centered at verify adequate excess gain and the response centered at
the zero degree phase frequency. the zero degree phase frequency.
2a. 2a. Increase the ANA drive until steady Increase the ANA drive until steady- -state drive state drive
conditions are achieved (gain drops to unity). The conditions are achieved (gain drops to unity). The
sustaining stage amplifier input is the recommended sustaining stage amplifier input is the recommended
signal insertion point. signal insertion point.
121
Modular Amplifier Sustaining Stage Modular Amplifier Sustaining Stage
3. 3. As an alternative, the loop can be opened and driven from As an alternative, the loop can be opened and driven from
a signal generator, and relative signal amplitude and a signal generator, and relative signal amplitude and
phase measurements made along the circuit signal path phase measurements made along the circuit signal path
using vector voltmeter probes. using vector voltmeter probes.
4. 4. As necessary, make circuit modifications to achieve As necessary, make circuit modifications to achieve
desired circuit open loop phase and gain characteristics. desired circuit open loop phase and gain characteristics.
122
Typical Display of Network Analyzer Data Typical Display of Network Analyzer Data
u u Example: ANA Measurement of 100MHz Crystal Oscillator Example: ANA Measurement of 100MHz Crystal Oscillator
Small and Large Signal Open Loop Response: s21 magnitude Small and Large Signal Open Loop Response: s21 magnitude
Small Signal Gain Small Signal Gain - - +2.6dB +2.6dB
(ANA Po=AMP 11dBm (ANA Po=AMP 11dBm- -11dB 11dB
=O dBm =O dBm
Large Signal (Steady State)
Gain - 0 dB
(ANA Po=8 dBm)
Center 100,000 350 MHz SPAN Center 100,000 350 MHz SPAN .003 000 .003 000 MHz MHz
123
Typical Display of Network Analyzer Data Typical Display of Network Analyzer Data
u u Example: ANA Measurement of 100MHz Crystal Oscillator Example: ANA Measurement of 100MHz Crystal Oscillator
Small and Large Signal Open Loop Response: s21 angle Small and Large Signal Open Loop Response: s21 angle
Large Signal
(Unity Gain)
Phase Response
Small Signal Small Signal
Phase Phase
Response Response
Center 100,000 350 MHz Span .003 000 MHz Center 100,000 350 MHz Span .003 000 MHz
11. Summary
11. Summary
125
Designing the Optimal Oscillator Designing the Optimal Oscillator
u u Identify the oscillator/resonator technology best Identify the oscillator/resonator technology best
suited for the application suited for the application
l l Operating frequency Operating frequency
l l Unloaded Q Unloaded Q
l l Drive level Drive level
l l Short Short- -term stability term stability
l l Environmental stress sensitivity Environmental stress sensitivity
126
Designing the Optimal Oscillator Designing the Optimal Oscillator
u u Identify the optimum sustaining stage design to be Identify the optimum sustaining stage design to be
used used
l l Discrete transistor Discrete transistor
l l Modular amplifier Modular amplifier
l l Silicon bipolar, GaAs, HBT, etc. Silicon bipolar, GaAs, HBT, etc.
l l ALC, AGC, or amplifier gain compression ALC, AGC, or amplifier gain compression
u u Determine if use of noise reduction techniques, Determine if use of noise reduction techniques,
including multiple device use, noise feedback, feed including multiple device use, noise feedback, feed- -
forward noise cancellation, vibration isolation, etc is forward noise cancellation, vibration isolation, etc is
needed needed
127
Verify Oscillator Design Verify Oscillator Design
u u Perform CAD circuit analysis/simulation Perform CAD circuit analysis/simulation
u u Know or measure the resonator short Know or measure the resonator short- -term frequency term frequency
stability stability
u u Know or measure the sustaining Know or measure the sustaining- -stage 1/f PM noise stage 1/f PM noise
at operating drive level at operating drive level
u u Know or measure the resonator and non Know or measure the resonator and non- -resonator resonator
circuit vibration sensitivities and package mechanical circuit vibration sensitivities and package mechanical
128
The Optimal Oscillator: The Optimal Oscillator:
Wish List for Future Improvements Wish List for Future Improvements
u u Improvements in resonator performance Improvements in resonator performance
l l New resonator types having higher Q, higher drive New resonator types having higher Q, higher drive
capability, higher frequency, smaller volume, better capability, higher frequency, smaller volume, better
short short- -term stability, and lower vibration sensitivity term stability, and lower vibration sensitivity
u u Microwave (sustaining stage) transistors/amplifiers Microwave (sustaining stage) transistors/amplifiers
with lower levels of 1/f AM and PM noise with lower levels of 1/f AM and PM noise
l l New semiconductor designs, materials, processing New semiconductor designs, materials, processing
l l Circuit noise reduction schemes (feedback, etc) Circuit noise reduction schemes (feedback, etc)
u u Improved vibration sensitivity reduction schemes Improved vibration sensitivity reduction schemes
l l Cancellation, feedback control, mechanical isolation, Cancellation, feedback control, mechanical isolation,
etc. etc.
12. List of References
12. List of References
130
1. Short-term Frequency/Phase/Amplitude Stability 1. Short 1. Short- -term Frequency/Phase/Amplitude Stability term Frequency/Phase/Amplitude Stability
1-1. J. A. Barnes et. al., NBS Technical Note 394, "Characterization of Frequency Stability", U. S. Dept. of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Oct.
1970.
1-2. D. Halford et. al., "Special Density Analysis: Frequency Domain Specification and Measurement of Signal Stability" Proc. 27
th
Freq.
Contr. Symp., June 1973, pp. 421-431.
1-3. T. R. Faukner et. al., "Residual Phase Noise and AM Noise Measurements and Techniques", Hewlett-Packard Application Note, HP Part
No. 03048-90011.
1-4. F. Labaar, Infrared and Millimeter Waves, Vol. 11, 1984.
1-5. D. W. Allan et. al., "Standard Terminology for Fundamental Frequency and Time Metrology", Proc. 42
nd
Freq. Contr. Symp., June 1988,
pp. 419-425.
1-6. J. R. Vig, "Quartz Crystals Resonators and Oscillators: A Tutorial", U. S. Army Communications-Electronics Command Report SLCET-
TR-88-1 (Rev. 8.5.1.6), December 2002, AD-M001251, http://www.ieee-uffc.org/index.asp?page=freqcontrol/fc_reference.html&Part=5#tutor.
1-7. W. F. Walls, "Cross-Correlation Phase Noise Measurements", Proc. 1992 IEEE Freq. Contr. Symp., May 1992, pp. 257-261.
1-8. M. M. Driscoll, "Low Noise Signal Generation Using Bulk Acoustic Wave Resonators:, Tutorial Session, 1993 IEEE Ultrason, Symp.,
Oct. 1993.
1-9. W. Walls, "Your Signal - a Tutorial Guide to Signal Characterization and Spectral Purity" Femtosecond Systems, Golden, CO, 1996.
1-10. Penny Technologies, Inc., "Correction Modules for Feed-forward Applications", Microwave Journal, Aug. 1996, pp. 142-144.
1-11. F. G. Ascarrunz, et. al., "PM Noise Generated by Noisy Components", Proc. 1998 IEEE Freq. Contr. Symp., June 1998, pp. 210-217.
1-12. M. M. Driscoll, "Evaluation of Passive Component Short-Term Stability via Use in Low Loop Delay Oscillators", Proc. 1999 EFTF-IEEE
IFCS, April 1999, pp. 1146-1149.
1-13. D.A. Howe and T.K. Pepler, Definitions of Total Estimators of Common Time Domain Variances, Proc. 2001 IEEE Freq. Contr.
Symp., June 2001, pp. 127-132.

131
2. Basic Oscillator Operation 2. Basic Oscillator Operation 2. Basic Oscillator Operation
2-1. D. B. Leeson, "A Simple Model of Feedback Oscillator Noise Spectrum", Proc. IEEE, Vol.54, No.2, Feb. 1966,
pp. 329-330.
2-2. W. A. Edson, Vacuum Tube Oscillators, John Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 1953.
2-3. J. P. Buchanan, "Handbook of Piezoelectric Crystals for Radio Equipment Designers", Wright Air Development
Center Tech, Report No. 56-156, Oct. 1956.
2-4. B. Parzen, The Design of Crystal and Other Harmonic Oscillators, John Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 1983.
2-5. E. A. Gerber et. al., Precision Frequency Control, Vol.2: Oscillators and Standards, Academic Press, Inc., 1985.

132
3. Types of Resonators and Delay Lines 3. Types of Resonators and Delay Lines 3. Types of Resonators and Delay Lines
3-1. J. P. Buchanan, "Handbook of Piezoelectric Crystals for Radio Equipment Designers", Wright Air Development Center Tech.
Report No. 56-156, Oct. 1956.
3-2. D. Kajfez et. al., Dielectric Resonators, Aertech House, Norwood, MA.
3-3. E. A. Gerber et. al., Precision Frequency Control, Vol. 1: Acoustic Resonators and Filters, Academic Press,
Inc., 1985.
3-4. A. J. Giles et. al., "A High Stability Microwave Oscillator Based on a Sapphire Loaded Superconducting
Cavity", Proc. 43
rd
Freq. Contr. Symp., May 1989, pp. 89-93.
3-5. J. Dick et. al., "Measurement and Analysis of Microwave Oscillator Stabilized by Sapphire Dielectric Ring
Resonator for Ultra-Low Noise", Proc. 43
rd
3-6. M. M. Driscoll, "Low Noise Microwave Signal Generation: Resonator/Oscillator Comparisons", Proc. 1989
IEEE MTT Digest, June 1989, pp. 261-264.
3-7. C. A. Harper, editor, Passive Component Handbook, Chapter 7: Filters, McGraw-Hill, Inc., N.Y., 1997.
3-8. M. J. Loboda, et. al., "Reduction of Close-to-Carrier Phase Noise in Surface Acoustic Wave Resonators",
Proc. 1987 IEEE Ultrason, Symp., Oct. 1987, pp. 43-46.
3-9. S. Yao and L. Maleki, "Characteristics and Performance of a Novel Photonic Oscillator, Proc. 1995 IEEE Freq.
Contr. Symp., June 1995, pp. 161-168.
3-10. M. S. Cavin and R. C. Almar, "An Oscillator Design Using Lowg-Sensitivity, Low phase Noise STW Devices",
Proc. 1995 IEEE Freq.Contr. Symp., June 1995, pp. 476-485.
3-11. S. Yao, et. al., "Dual -Loop Opto-Electronic Oscillator", Proc. 1998 IEEE Freq. Contr. Symp., June 1998, pp.
545-549.
3-12. S. Yao, et. al., "Opto-Electronic Oscillator Incorporating Carrier Suppression Noise Reduction Technique",
Proc. 1999 EFTF-IEEE IFCS Symp., April 1999, pp. 565-566.
3-13. T. McClelland, et. al., "100 MHz Crystal Oscillator with Extremely Low Phase Noise". Proc. 1999 EFTF-IEEE
IFCS Symp., April 1999, pp.331-333.
3-14. M. M. Driscoll, "The Use of Multi-Pole Filters and Other Multiple Resonator Circuitry as Oscillator Frequency
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133
4. Useful Network/Impedance Transformations 4. Useful Network/Impedance Transformations 4. Useful Network/Impedance Transformations
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5. Sustaining Stage Design and Performance 5. Sustaining Stage Design and Performance 5. Sustaining Stage Design and Performance
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6. Oscillator Frequency Adjustment/Voltage Tuning 6. Oscillator Frequency Adjustment/Voltage Tuning 6. Oscillator Frequency Adjustment/Voltage Tuning
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136
7. Environmental Stress Effects 7. Environmental Stress Effects 7. Environmental Stress Effects
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137
8. Oscillator Circuit Simulation and Noise Modeling 8. Oscillator Circuit Simulation and Noise Modeling 8. Oscillator Circuit Simulation and Noise Modeling
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