www.stk.

com
SSMD-1102-366 [1]
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Pg 1 of 27
Understanding Orbital Mechanics Through a Step-by-Step
Examination of the Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS)
Denny Sissom Elmco, Inc.
May 2003
Pg 2 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [2]
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Radars
IFICS (In-Flight Interceptor Communications System)
Ground-Based Interceptors
Battle Management (BMC3)
Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS)
SBIRS High GEO (Geo-Stationary Orbits)
SBIRS High HEO (Highly-Elliptical Orbits)
SBIRS Low (Low-Altitude Orbits)
SBIRS Ground Station Processing (MCS)
The Ground-Based Midcourse
Defense Architecture (2004)
The Ground-Based Midcourse
Defense Architecture (2004)
Pg 3 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [3]
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SBIRS Low
DSP/GEO
SBIRS High
Mission
Control
Station
(MCS)
Mission Control Station
One Central CONUS Location
Boost and Coast Tracking
Booster Typing
Launch Point Estimation
Impact Point Prediction
Mission Control Station
One Central CONUS Location
Boost and Coast Tracking
Booster Typing
Launch Point Estimation
Impact Point Prediction
Launch Detection
Boost Tracking
SBIRS Communication
GEO Satellites
Rotating Platform
Provides 2D
Detection Reports to
MCS
Scanner Only
- SWIR Band
- Periodic Revisit
DSP Payload
2D Detection
Report
Highly Elliptical
Orbit (HEO)
Scanner Only
- SWIR, MWIR
Bands
- Taskable Scan
Rate and Revisit
HEO Payload
Scanner
Rapid Global
Coverage
SWIR, MWIR
Bands
Taskable Scan
Rate and Revisit
Starer
SWIR, MWIR
Bands
Taskable Revisit
Follow-on and
replacement for
DSP
GEO
Payload
LEO Payload
Acquisition Sensor
- Wide FOV (WFOV)
- SWIR Band
- Boost Detection
Track Sensor
- Narrow FOV
(NFOV)
- Multiple Wavebands
- 2-Axis Gimbal
Control
- Precise Midcourse
Acquisition,
Tracking, &
Discrimination
SBIRS Architecture
Four Satellites in Geo-
stationary Orbits (GEO)
Two Satellites in Highly
Elliptical Orbits (HEO)
Twenty or more
Satellites in Low Earth
Orbit (LEO)
Ground-Based Mission
Control Station (MCS)
Launch Detection
Boost Tracking
Launch Detection
Boost Tracking
Mid-Course
Tracking
Discrimination
SBIRS Model Overview
Pg 4 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [4]
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SBIRS Concept of Operations
SBIRS High (GEO and/or HEO)
Acquire Target (SBIRS Low Can
Also Acquire Target)
Data Transmitted From SBIRS
High To Mission Control Station
(MCS)
Track Data Is Transmitted From
MCS To SBIRS Low
SBIRS Low Acquires And Hands
Data Over From Acquisition
Sensor To Track Sensor
Data Handed Over To Other SBIRS
Low Spacecraft and MCS
Track Data Sent From
MCS To Battle Manager
Animation Showing Concept of Operations
From www.stk.com
Pg 5 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [5]
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Keplers Laws
Keplers First Law: The Orbits of Planets (or Satellites) are Ellipses with the Sun at a Focus
Keplers Second Law: The Orbits of the Planets Sweep Out Equal Areas in Equal Time
Keplers Third Law: The Square of the Orbit Period (The Time it Takes to Go Around Once)
is Proportional to the Cube of the Average Distance to the Sun
Where:
P = Period (sec)
a = Semi-Major Axis (km)
= Gravitational Parameter (km
3
/s
2
) = GM
earth
G = Universal Gravitational Constant (Nm
2
/kg
2
)
M
earth
= Mass of the Earth (kg)

a
2! P
3
=
Area 2 Area 1
Planetary
Motion over
30 Days
Planetary
Motion over
30 Days
Area 1 = Area 2
Average Distance
Pg 6 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [6]
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Newtons Law and the Restricted Two-
Body Equation of Motion
a m F
v
v
=
2
2 1
R
m Gm
F
g
=
R
R
R
m
F
E
g
v
r
2

=
R m a m
R
R
R
m
E & &
v
v
v
= =

0
2
= +
R
R
R
R
v
& &
v
Newtons Second Law
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation in
Vector Form with Earth as Central Body
(
E
= GM
earth
= 3.986 x10
14
m
3
/s
2
)
Combining Newtons Two Laws, assuming:
(1) No perturbations (drag, earths oblateness, other planets, etc.)
(2) Bodies are spherically symmetric
(3) m
1
>> m
2
We Get the Restricted Two-Body Equation of
Motion Which is a Second-Order, Non-Linear,
Vector Differential Equation YUK!
This Equation Represents a Conic Section (Circle, Ellipse, Parabola, or Hyperbola)
Pg 7 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [7]
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A Few More Useful Equations for
Orbital Mechanics
V m R H
v v v
=
Angular Momentum
Specific Angular Momentum, where
V R h
v v v
=
R
m
mV E

=
2
2
1
R
V
=
2
2
a 2

=
m
H
h
v
v

Total Mechanical Energy for Orbiting Spacecraft

(Must remain constant!)
Specific Mechanical Energy, where
m
E

Shows We can Easily Find Specific Mechanical Energy Just
Knowing the Semi-Major Axis
Apogee:
High PE = -m/R
Low KE = mV
2
Perigee:
Low PE = -m/R
High KE = mV
2
Earth
- is negative for circles and ellipses
- is zero for parabolas
- is positive for hyperbolas
E
Pg 8 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [8]
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Geocentric Equatorial
Coordinate System
Origin Center of Earth
Fundamental Plane Earths Equator
Principle Direction (I-Axis)
Vernal Equinox Direction Found by Drawing a Line from the Earth to the
Sun on the First Day of Spring
Points at First Star in Aries Constellation (First Point of Aries)
Denoted by Rams Head Symbol
Wanders Due to Earth Spin-Axis Wobble
Because of the Wobble, Sometimes the Vernal Equinox Direction is
Specified at a Certain Time or Epoch
Fixed at Vernal Equinox direction at Noon on January 1, 2000 at
Greenwich Meridian by International Astronomical Union (More Truly
Inertial)
K-Axis
North Pole
Pg 9 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [9]
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circle
Semi-Major Axis and Eccentricity
The Size and Shape of a Orbit
Size Determination: Semi-Major Axis
Shape Determination: Eccentricity
Apogee radius
Apogee Altitude
Apogee Perigee
Perigee Altitude
Perigee radius
Semi-Major Axis
C
Center of
Ellipse
C = distance from center of Earth to center
of ellipse = eccentricity * semi major axis
e = 1
e > 1
0 < e < 1
ellipse
e = 0
Pg 10 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [10]
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Inclination
The Orientation of an Orbit
Tilt of Orbital Plane with Respect to Fundamental Plane (of Geocentric-
Equatorial Coordinate System)
Angle Between Specific Angular Momentum Vector ( ) and the
Vector Perpendicular to the Fundamental Plane Pointing Through the
North Pole (K-axis)
Ranges from 0 to 180
V R h
v v v
=
Indirect or Retrograde
(Moves Against the
Direction of Earths
Rotation)
90 < i 180
Direct or Prograde (Moves
in the Direction of Earths
Rotation)
0 i < 90
Polar 90
Equatorial 0 or 180
Diagram Orbital Type Inclination
i =
90
Ascending
node
Ascending
node
J

h
i
Pg 11 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [11]
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Right Ascension of Ascending Node (RAAN or )
The Swivel of an Orbit
Angle, Along the Equator, Between Principle Direction (i.e., First Point
of Aries) and the Point Where the Orbital Plane Crosses the Equator,
from South to North (The Ascending Node), Measured Eastward
Not the Same As the Longitude of the Ascending Node
RAAN Relative to Inertial Frame (Geocentric-Equatorial)
Longitude of Ascending Node Relative to Rotating Earth
Ranges from 0 to 360
J

Ascending
Node
Equatorial
Plane
Pg 12 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [12]
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Argument of Perigee ()
The Orientation of the Orbit within the Orbital Plane
Angle Along Orbital Path Between the Ascending Node and the Perigee
Always measured Along the Orbital Path in Direction of Spacecraft
Motion
Perigee Closest Approach to Earth
Ranges from 0 to 360
J

Perigee
Pg 13 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [13]
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True Anomaly at Epoch
The Spacecrafts Location within an Orbit
Angle Along Orbital Path from Perigee to Spacecrafts Position
Always Measured Along Orbital Path in Direction of Spacecraft Motion
The Only Orbital Element Set Parameter That Varies with Time as the
Spacecraft Travels Around its Fixed Orbit, Assuming a Spherically-
Symmetric Earth (A So-So Assumption)
R

Perigee
V

Pg 14 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [14]
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Summary of Orbital Elements
When e = 0 (circular orbit) 0 360 Angle from perigee to
the spacecrafts position
True anomaly
When i = 0 or 180
(equatorial orbit) or e = 0
(circular orbit)
0 360 Angle from ascending
node to perigee
Argument of
perigee

Swivel, angle from

vernal equinox to
ascending node
Tilt, angle from unit
vector to specific
angular momentum
vector
Shape
Size
Description
0 360
0 i 180
e = 0: Circle
0 < e < 1: ellipse
Depends on the
Conic Section
Range of Values
When i = 0 or 180
(equatorial orbit)
Right ascension
of the ascending
node

Never Inclination i
Never Eccentricity e
Never Semimajor Axis a
Undefined Name Element
K

Pg 15 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [15]
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Alternate Orbital Elements
A Circular Orbit?
No Argument of Perigee
No True Anomaly
An Equatorial Orbit?
No RAAN
No Argument of Perigee
A Circular Equatorial Orbit?
No RAAN
No Argument of Perigee
No True Anomaly
Angle from the principal
direction to the spacecrafts
position
Angle from the principal
direction to perigee
Angle from ascending node
to the spacecrafts position
Description
0 l 360
0 360
0 u 360
Range of Values
Use when there is no perigee and
ascending node (e = 0 and i = 0
or 180)
True longitude l
Use when equatorial (i = 0 or
180) because there is no
ascending node
Longitude of
perigee

Use when there is no perigee (e =

0)
Argument of
latitude
u
Undefined Name Element
What Do We Do With:
Pg 16 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [16]
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SBIRS High Scenario
SBIRS High is a Molniya Type Orbit
Russian word for Zipper or Lightning
Large Dwell Time over Northern Hemisphere
Usually a 12-Hour Orbit with High Eccentricity (0.7)
and Perigee in Southern Hemisphere
Has Inclination of 63.4 (No Rotation of Perigee)
Covers High Latitudes and Polar Regions Very Well
Pg 17 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [17]
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SBIRS Low Coverage Studies
SBIRS Low Constellation Showing Threat Object Coverage
(Sensor Footprints in Green, Sensor Acquisitions in Yellow)
SBIRS Low Constellation As Implemented In TESS
Coverage Almost Complete Utilizing 24 Satellites
Orbital Element Set Propagation Within TESS
Pg 18 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [18]
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SBIRS DSP (GEO)
Geostationary Orbits (Fixed ECR)
Above and Below-the-Horizon Viewing Ability
From www.stk.com
Pg 19 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [19]
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In Summary
Excellent References
Expensive: Understanding Space An Introduction to Astronautics, Jerry
Jon Sellers
$66.00 at www.walmart.com
Cheap: Fundamentals of Astrodynamics, Roger R. Bate
$9.00 at www.walmart.com
Introduction to Space Dynamics, William Tyrrell Thomson
$9.00 at www.walmart.com
Free: TRW Space Data, Neville J. Barter, editor
Free from TRW Space and Electronics Group
Excellent Web Site
www.heavens-above.com
Iridium Flares, ISS, HST, etc.
Excellent Software
Satellite Tool Kit from Analytical Graphics, Inc. (www.stk.com)
Price: Free to Over $100,000
Training Available for Basic Orbital Mechanics
Pg 20 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [20]
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Supplemental Charts
Pg 21 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [21]
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GBIs
IFICS
BMC3
GBR-P
IFICS
UEWR
Cobra Dane
IFICS
GBIs
IFICS
GBIs
IFICS
BMC3
GBIs
BMC3
SBIRS MCS
AEGIS
Ground-Based Midcourse
Defense Architecture (2004)
Pg 22 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [22]
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From www.stk.com
GMD with SBIRS High and DSP
Pg 23 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [23]
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SBIRS Waveband Utilization
SBIRS DSP, High, and Low
Utilize Different Sensor
Wavebands
Different Target Types are Visible
in Different Wavelengths
Synergy Between Satellites Allow
Full Tracking of Threat Objects
from Initial Launch Through Mid-
Course
Provides Extended Capability for
Strategic and Theater Missile
Defense
SBIRS Low
LWIR (8-14 m)
MWIR (3-8 m)
SWIR (1-3 m)
Visible (0.4-0.7 m)
30 20 15 10 8 6 4 3 2 1.5 1 0.8 0.6 0.4
Visible Near Infrared Middle Infrared Far Infrared Extreme Infrared
V B G Y OR
Upper
Stage
Boost
Phase
Low-
Altitude
Boost
Phase
PBV
Plumes
DSP/GEO
SBIRS High
MWIR (3-8 m)
SWIR (1-3 m)
SWIR (1-3 m)
Mid-
Course
Tracking
PBVs
Pg 24 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [24]
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Effects of Earths Oblateness
on Orbiting Spacecraft
Equatorial Bulge Causes Slight Shift in Direction
Gravity Pulls Spacecraft
Modeled by Complex Mathematics Referred to as
the J2 Effect
Earth is 22 km Bigger (radius) at Equator
Causes Nodal Regression Rate (Movement of the
RAAN, ) and a Perigee Rotation Rate ()
R

22 km
22 km
2 J
F
v
Nodal Regression Rate
Nodal Regression Rate
Perigee Rotation Rate
Perigee Rotation Rate
.
.
Graphs from Understanding Space by Jerry Jon Sellers
Pg 25 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [25]
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Sun Synchronous Orbits
If Someone Gives You Lemons, Make Lemonade! (Part 1)
Despite the Complexities That the J2 Effect Cause, There are Advantages
Sun-Synchronous Orbits Take Advantage of the Rate of Change of the RAAN
Inclination is Set to Give Approximately a One-Degree Nodal Regression Eastward per day (Note that the
Earth Moves 0.9863 Degrees per day in its Orbit Around the Sun (i.e., 360 /365 days)
Spacecrafts Orbital Plane Always Maintains Same Orientation to Sun
Spacecraft Always Sees Same Sun Angle When It Passes Over a Particular Point on Earth
Suns Shadows Cast by Objects on Earths Surface Will Not Change When Pictures are Taken Days or Weeks Apart
Good for Remote Sensing, Reconnaissance, Weather, etc.
Inclination = 97.03
Earth moves
around the Sun at
1 /day
Orbital plane
rotates at ~1 /day
due to earths
oblateness
Orbital plane
Sun line
Sun angle
Pg 26 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [26]
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Molniya Orbits
If Someone Gives You Lemons, Make Lemonade! (Part 2)
Another Advantage of the J2 Effect
Molniya Russian word for Zipper
or Lightning
Large Dwell Time over Northern
Hemisphere
Usually a 12-Hour Orbit with High
Eccentricity (0.7) and Perigee in
Southern Hemisphere
Has Inclination of 63.4 (No Rotation
of Perigee)
Covers High Latitudes and Polar
Regions Very Well
Pg 27 of 27 www.stk.com
SSMD-0403-433 [27]
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Geosynchronous Orbit
No Perigee Rotation
Orbits Every 24 Hours
Inclination of 63.4 degrees
No Perigee Rotation