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Design and Simulation of Photovoltaic Water Pumping System
Design and Simulation of Photovoltaic Water Pumping System
A Thesis
Presented to the Faculty of
California Polytechnic State University,
San Luis Obispo
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science in Electrical Engineering
by
Akihiro Oi
September 2005
Date
ii
APPROVAL
Title: DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC WATER PUMPING SYSTEM
Author:
Akihiro Oi
Date Submitted:
Dr. Taufik
Committee Chair
Signature
Signature
Signature
iii
ABSTRACT
DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC WATER PUMPING SYSTEM
Akihiro Oi
This thesis deals with the design and simulation of a simple but efficient photovoltaic
water pumping system.
techniques using equivalent electric circuits. The system employs the maximum power point
tracker (MPPT). The investigation includes discussion of various MPPT algorithms and
control methods.
MATLAB
simulations perform comparative tests of two popular MPPT algorithms using actual
irradiance data. The thesis decides on the output sensing direct control method because it
requires fewer sensors. This allows a lower cost system. Each subsystem is modeled in
order to simulate the whole system in MATLAB. It employs SIMULINK to model a DC
pump motor, and the model is transferred into MATLAB. Then, MATLAB simulations
verify the system and functionality of MPPT. Simulations also make comparisons with the
system without MPPT in terms of total energy produced and total volume of water pumped
per day. The results validate that MPPT can significantly increase the efficiency and the
performance of PV water pumping system compared to the system without MPPT.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to first acknowledge my advisor, Dr. Taufik, for his support and advice
throughout my graduate program. His power electronics courses and his dedication to his
students gave me the best experience during the program. I would also like to express my
sincere appreciation to my other thesis committees, Dr. Nafisi and Dr. Ahlgren, for review of
this thesis in detail and their important feedback.
I would like to thank my colleague and friend, John Carlin, who has a career
experience in designing photovoltaic systems.
numerous discussions and his feedback are incorporated in this thesis. Also, thanks to my
other good colleagues, James Silva, John Cadwell, Michael Chong, James Sorenson, Sajiv
Nair, Alan Yeung, Yat Tam, all other denizens of EE Grad Lab and the lab technicians for
their support and willingness to help me out during various stages of my project.
Finally, to my parents, my sister, and my friends - many thanks for much support the
whole way through, especially Jenny Ho for her constant encouragement and support during
two years of my graduate work.
Akihiro Oi
September 2005
Table of Contents
List of Tables .................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ......................................................................................................ix
Chapter 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................1
1.1 Water Pumping Systems and Photovoltaic Power.......................................................... 1
1.2 Energy Storage Alternatives ........................................................................................... 3
1.3 The Proposed System...................................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 PV Module............................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.2 Maximum Power Point Tracker............................................................................................ 5
1.3.3 MPPT Controller .................................................................................................................. 6
1.3.4 Water Pump .......................................................................................................................... 7
3.6.1 PI Control............................................................................................................................ 47
3.6.2 Direct Control ..................................................................................................................... 48
3.6.3 Output Sensing Direct Control ........................................................................................... 50
vi
Chapter 5 Conclusion..........................................................................................78
5.1 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 78
5.2 Difficulties and Future Research .................................................................................. 79
5.3 Concluding Remarks..................................................................................................... 80
Bibliography .......................................................................................................81
Appendix A.........................................................................................................84
A.1 MATLAB Functions and Scripts ................................................................................. 84
Appendix B .......................................................................................................102
B.1 DSP Control ............................................................................................................... 102
vii
List of Tables
Table 1-1: PV powered, Diesel powered, vs. Windmill [13].................................................... 3
Table 2-1: Electrical characteristics data of PV module taken from the datasheet [1]........... 18
Table 3-1: Load matching with the resistive load (6 ) under the varying irradiance............ 53
Table 3-2: Load matching with the resistive load (12 ) under the varying irradiance.......... 53
Table 4-1: Design specification of the Ck Converter ........................................................... 55
Table 4-2: Ck converter design: comparisons of simulations and calculated results ........... 60
Table 4-3: Comparison of the P&O and incCond algorithms on a cloudy day ...................... 65
Table 4-4: Energy production and efficiency of PV module with and without MPPT .......... 75
Table 4-5: Total volume of water pumped for 12 hours......................................................... 77
viii
List of Figures
Figure 1-1: Block diagram of the proposed PV water pumping system................................... 5
Figure 2-1: Illustration of the p-n junction of PV cell [16]..................................................... 11
Figure 2-2: Illustrated side view of solar cell and the conducting current [16]...................... 11
Figure 2-3: PV cell with a load and its simple equivalent circuit [16] ................................... 12
Figure 2-4: Diagrams showing a short-circuit and an open-circuit condition [16]................. 13
Figure 2-5: I-V plot of ideal PV cell under two different levels of irradiance (25oC)............ 15
Figure 2-6: More accurate equivalent circuit of PV cell......................................................... 16
Figure 2-7: PV cells are connected in series to make up a PV module .................................. 17
Figure 2-8: Picture of BP SX 150S PV module [1] ................................................................ 18
Figure 2-9: Equivalent circuit used in the MATLAB simulations ......................................... 19
Figure 2-10: Effect of diode ideally factors by MATLAB simulation (1KW/m2, 25oC) ....... 21
Figure 2-11: Effect of series resistances by MATLAB simulation (1KW/m2, 25oC) ............ 22
Figure 2-12: I-V curves of BP SX 150S PV module at various temperatures........................ 24
Figure 2-13: Simulated I-V curve of BP SX 150S PV module (1KW/m2, 25oC) .................. 25
Figure 2-14: I-V and P-V relationships of BP SX 150S PV module...................................... 26
Figure 3-1: PV module is directly connected to a (variable) resistive load............................ 27
Figure 3-2: I-V curves of BP SX 150S PV module and various resistive loads..................... 28
Figure 3-3: Electrical model of permanent magnet DC motor ............................................... 29
Figure 3-4: PV I-V curves with varying irradiance and a DC motor I-V curve ..................... 30
Figure 3-5: PV I-V curves with iso-power lines (dotted) and a DC motor I-V curve ............ 31
Figure 3-6: Circuit diagram of the basic Ck converter ......................................................... 34
Figure 3-7: Circuit diagram of the basic SEPIC converter ..................................................... 34
Figure 3-8: Basic Ck converter when the switch is ON........................................................ 35
Figure 3-9: Basic Ck converter when the switch is OFF ...................................................... 35
Figure 3-10: The impedance seen by PV is Rin that is adjustable by duty cycle (D).............. 38
Figure 3-11: I-V curves for varying irradiance and a trace of MPPs (25oC).......................... 39
Figure 3-12: I-V curves for varying irradiance and a trace of MPPs (50oC).......................... 40
Figure 3-13: Plot of power vs. voltage for BP SX 150S PV module (1KW/m2, 25oC).......... 41
Figure 3-14: Flowchart of the P&O algorithm ....................................................................... 41
Figure 3-15: Erratic behavior of the P&O algorithm under rapidly increasing irradiance..... 43
Figure 3-16: Flowchart of the incCond algorithm .................................................................. 46
Figure 3-17: Block diagram of MPPT with the PI compensator ............................................ 48
Figure 3-18: Block diagram of MPPT with the direct control................................................ 48
Figure 3-19: Relationship of the input impedance of Ck converter and its duty cycle ........ 49
Figure 3-20: Output power of Ck converter vs. its duty cycle (1KW/m2, 25oC).................. 51
Figure 3-21: Flowchart of P&O algorithm for the output sensing direct control method ...... 52
Figure 4-1: Schematic of the Ck converter with PMDC motor load .................................... 59
Figure 4-2: PSpice plots of input/output current (above) and voltage (below) ...................... 60
Figure 4-3: Transient response when duty cycle is increased 0.35% at 250ms...................... 61
Figure 4-4: Searching the MPP (1KW/m2, 25oC)................................................................... 62
Figure 4-5: Irradiance data for a sunny and a cloudy day of April in Barcelona, Spain [2]... 63
Figure 4-6: Traces of MPP tracking on a sunny day (25oC)................................................... 64
Figure 4-7: Trace of MPP tracking on a cloudy day (25oC) ................................................... 65
ix
Chapter 1 Introduction
Water resources are essential for satisfying human needs, protecting health, and
ensuring food production, energy and the restoration of ecosystems, as well as for social and
economic development and for sustainable development [25]. However, according to UN
World Water Development Report in 2003, it has been estimated that two billion people are
affected by water shortages in over forty countries, and 1.1 billion do not have sufficient
drinking water [26]. There is a great and urgent need to supply environmentally sound
technology for the provision of drinking water. Remote water pumping systems are a key
component in meeting this need. It will also be the first stage of the purification and
desalination plants to produce potable water.
In this thesis, a simple but efficient photovoltaic water pumping system is presented.
It provides theoretical studies of photovoltaics (PV) and its modeling techniques. It also
investigates in detail the maximum power point tracker (MPPT), a power electronic device
that significantly increases the system efficiency. At last, it presents MATLAB simulations
of the system and makes comparisons with a system without MPPT.
In general, AC
powered system is economic and takes minimum maintenance when AC power is available
from the nearby power grid. However, in many rural areas, water sources are spread over
many miles of land and power lines are scarce. Installation of a new transmission line and a
transformer to the location is often prohibitively expensive. Windmills have been installed
traditionally in such areas; many of them are, however, inoperative now due to lack of proper
maintenance and age. Today, many stand-alone type water pumping systems use internal
combustion engines. These systems are portable and easy to install. However, they have
some major disadvantages, such as: they require frequent site visits for refueling and
maintenance, and furthermore diesel fuel is often expensive and not readily available in rural
areas of many developing countries.
The consumption of fossil fuels also has an environmental impact, in particular the
release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. CO2 emissions can be greatly reduced
through the application of renewable energy technologies, which are already cost competitive
with fossil fuels in many situations. Good examples include large-scale grid-connected wind
turbines, solar water heating, and off-grid stand-alone PV systems [24].
The use of
renewable energy for water pumping systems is, therefore, a very attractive proposition.
Windmills are a long-established method of using renewable energy; however they
are quickly phasing out from the scene despite success of large-scale grid-tied wind turbines.
PV systems are highly reliable and are often chosen because they offer the lowest
life-cycle cost, especially for applications requiring less than 10KW, where grid electricity is
not available and where internal-combustion engines are expensive to operate [24]. If the
water source is 1/3 mile (app. 0.53Km) or more from the power line, PV is a favorable
economic choice [13]. Table 1-1 shows the comparisons of different stand-alone type water
pumping systems.
System Type
PV Powered System
Windmill
Advantages
Low maintenance
Unattended operation
Reliable long life
No fuel and no fumes
Easy to install
Low recurrent costs
System is modular and
closely matched to need
Moderate capital costs
Easy to install
Can be portable
Extensive experience
available
Disadvantages
Relatively high initial cost
Low output in cloudy
weather
and automatic property controlling the output voltage of the array so that loads receive
voltages within their own range of acceptability [16].
While batteries may seem like a good idea, they have a number of disadvantages.
The type of lead-acid battery suitable for PV systems is a deep-cycle battery [15], which is
different from one used for automobiles, and it is more expensive and not widely available.
Battery lifetime in PV systems is typically three to eight years, but this reduces to typically
two to six years in hot climate since high ambient temperature dramatically increases the rate
of internal corrosion [24]. Batteries also require regular maintenance and will degrade very
rapidly if the electrolyte is not topped up and the charge is not maintained. They reduce the
efficiency of the overall system due to power loss during charge and discharge. Typical
battery efficiency is around 85% but could go below 75% in hot climate [24]. From all those
reasons, experienced PV system designers avoid batteries whenever possible.
For water pumping systems, appropriately sized water reservoirs can meet the
requirement of energy storage during the downtime of PV generation. The additional cost of
reservoir is considerably lower than that incurred by the battery equipped system. As a
matter of fact, only about five percent of solar pumping systems employ a battery bank [13].
DC Water
Pump [13]
PV Module [1]
1.3.1 PV Module
There are different sizes of PV module commercially available (typically sized from
60W to 170W). Usually, a number of PV modules are combined as an array to meet
different energy demands. For example, a typical small-scale desalination plant requires a
few thousand watts of power [24]. The size of system selected for the proposed system is
150W, which is commonly used in small water pumping systems for cattle grazing in rural
areas of the United States. The power electronics lab located in the building 20, room 104,
has three BP SX 150S multi-crystalline PV modules. Each module provides a maximum
power of 150W [13], therefore the proposed system requires only one of them. A detailed
discussion about PV and modeling of PV appears in Chapter 2.
maximizes the power output from a PV module or array with varying operating conditions,
and therefore maximizes the system efficiency. MPPT is made up with a switch-mode DCDC converter and a controller. For grid-tied systems, a switch-mode inverter sometimes fills
the role of MPPT. Otherwise, it is combined with a DC-DC converter that performs the
MPPT function.
In addition to MPPT, the system could also employ a sun tracker. According to the
data in reference [15], the single-axis sun tracker can collect about 40% more energy than a
seasonally optimized fixed-axis collector in summer in a dry climate such as Albuquerque,
New Mexico. In winter, however, it can gain only 20% more energy. In a climate with more
water vapor in the atmosphere such as Seattle, Washington, the effect of sun tracker is
smaller because a larger fraction of solar irradiation is diffuse. It collects 30% more energy
in summer, but the gain is less than 10% in winter. The two-axis tracker is only a few
percent better than the single-axis version. Sun tracking enables the system to meet energy
demand with smaller PV modules, but it increases the cost and complexity of system. Since
it is made of moving parts, there is also a higher chance of failure. Therefore, in this simple
system, the sun tracker is not implemented. A detailed discussion on MPPT appears in
Chapter 3.
advanced algorithm with relative ease. It is far easier to code the equation, x = y z, than to
design an analog circuit to do the same [23]. For the same reason, modification of the design
is much easier with digital controllers. They are immune to time and temperature drifts
because they work in discrete, outside the linear operation. As a result, they offer long-term
stability. They are also insensitive to component tolerances since they implement algorithm
in software, where gains and parameters are consistent and reproducible [23]. They allow
reduction of parts count since they can handle various tasks in a single chip. Many of them
are also equipped with multiple A/D converters and PWM generators, thus they can control
multiple devices with a single controller.
This thesis, therefore, chooses a method of digital control for MPPT. The design and
simulations of MPPT in Chapter 4 are done on the premise that it is going to be built with a
microcontroller or a DSP, and the algorithm is readily transferable to its implementation.
Chapter 3 provides discussions of various control methods.
Appendix B provides
motor-pump systems [19]. In general, DC motors are preferred because they are highly
efficient and can be directly coupled with a PV module or array. Brushed types are less
expensive and more common although brushes need to be replaced periodically (typically
every two years) [19]. There is also an aforementioned brushless type.
The water pump chosen here for its size and cost is the Kyocera SD 12-30
submersible solar pump, pictured in Figure 1-1. It is a diaphragm-type positive displacement
pump equipped with a brushed permanent magnet DC motor and designed for use in standalone water delivery systems, specifically for water delivery in remote locations. Flow rates
up to 17.0L/min (4.5GPM) and heads up to 30.0m (100ft.) [13]. The typical daily output is
between 2,700L and 5,000L [13]. The rated maximum power consumption is 150W. It
operates with a low voltage (12~30V DC), and its power requirement is as little as 35W [13].
A simple model of this water pump is used for simulations in Chapter 4.
MPPT was made by Dang [4] of California Polytechnic State University, Pomona. The
thesis built a small PV module simulator and a buck converter without a controller. Then, it
provided a rudimentary computer simulation of MPPT with a resistive load. The study was,
however, far from comprehensive. Another was done here by Day [5], and it centered round
a power system for a miniature satellite.
functionality of MPPT was not tested. The theoretical study was insufficient, and it lacked
simulations and experiments to ensure the functionality of MPPT.
MPPT is one of many applications of power electronics, and it is a relatively new and
unknown area. There is no textbook that provides comprehensive and detailed explanations
about MPPT. Therefore, this thesis investigates it in detail and provides better explanations
for students who are interested in this research area. In order to understand and design
MPPT, it is necessary to have a good understanding of the behaviors of PV. The thesis
facilitates it using MATLAB models of PV cell and module. Each subsystem in the PV
water pumping system is modeled for MATLAB simulations. Finally, the functionality of
MPPT for water pumping systems is verified and validated.
This thesis is limited to providing theoretical studies and simulations of PV water
pumping system with MPPT. The system will not be built in this thesis; that is left as future
work.
10
they will emerge as an electric current. The electric field within the semiconductor itself at
the junction between two regions of crystals of different type, called a p-n junction [16].
The PV cell has electrical contacts on its top and bottom to capture the electrons, as
shown in Figure 2-2. When the PV cell delivers power to the load, the electrons flow out of
the n-side into the connecting wire, through the load, and back to the p-side where they
recombine with holes [16]. Note that conventional current flows in the opposite direction
from electrons.
Figure 2-2: Illustrated side view of solar cell and the conducting current [16]
11
Figure 2-3: PV cell with a load and its simple equivalent circuit [16]
There are two key parameters frequently used to characterize a PV cell. Shorting
together the terminals of the cell, as shown in Figure 2-4 (a), the photon generated current
will follow out of the cell as a short-circuit current (Isc). Thus, Iph = Isc. As shown in Figure
2-4 (b), when there is no connection to the PV cell (open-circuit), the photon generated
current is shunted internally by the intrinsic p-n junction diode. This gives the open circuit
voltage (Voc). The PV module or cell manufacturers usually provide the values of these
parameters in their datasheets.
12
The output current (I) from the PV cell is found by applying the Kirchoffs current
law (KCL) on the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2-3.
I = I sc I d
(2.1)
where: Isc is the short-circuit current that is equal to the photon generated current, and Id is
the current shunted through the intrinsic diode.
The diode current Id is given by the Shockleys diode equation:
I d = I o (e qVd / kT 1)
(2.2)
I = I sc I o (e qV / kT 1)
where: V is the voltage across the PV cell, and I is the output current from the cell.
13
(2.3)
The reverse saturation current of diode (Io) is constant under the constant temperature
and found by setting the open-circuit condition as shown in Figure 2-4 (b). Using the
equation (2.3), let I = 0 (no output current) and solve for Io.
0 = I sc I o (e qVoc / kT 1)
(2.4)
I sc = I o (e qVoc / kT 1)
(2.5)
Io =
(e
sc
qVoc / kT
1)
(2.6)
To a very good approximation, the photon generated current, which is equal to Isc, is
directly proportional to the irradiance, the intensity of illumination, to PV cell [15]. Thus, if
the value, Isc, is known from the datasheet, under the standard test condition, Go=1000W/m2
at the air mass (AM) = 1.5, then the photon generated current at any other irradiance, G
(W/m2), is given by:
I sc |G =
G
I sc |Go
Go
(2.7)
Figure 2-5 shows that current and voltage relationship (often called as an I-V curve)
of an ideal PV cell simulated by MATLAB using the simplest equivalent circuit model. The
discussion of MATLAB simulations will appear in Section 2.5. The PV cell output is both
limited by the cell current and the cell voltage, and it can only produce a power with any
combinations of current and voltage on the I-V curve. It also shows that the cell current is
proportional to the irradiance.
14
5
Full Sun (1000W/m2)
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
Half Sun (500W/m2)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Cell Voltage (V)
0.5
0.6
0.7
Figure 2-5: I-V plot of ideal PV cell under two different levels of irradiance (25oC)
conspicuous in a PV module that consists of many series-connected cells, and the value of
resistance is multiplied by the number of cells.
b) Parallel Resistance
This is also called shunt resistance. It is a loss associated with a small leakage of
current through a resistive path in parallel with the intrinsic device [2].
15
This can be
represented by a parallel resister (Rp). Its effect is much less conspicuous in a PV module
compared to the series resistance, and it will only become noticeable when a number of PV
modules are connected in parallel for a larger system.
c) Recombination
Recombination in the depletion region of PV cells provides non-ohmic current paths
in parallel with the intrinsic PV cell [2] [7]. As shown in Figure 2-6, this can be represented
by the second diode (D2) in the equivalent circuit.
Rs
+
Isc
D1
D2
n=1
n=2
Rp
Load
I = I sc I o1 e
V + I Rs
kT
1 I o2 e
V + I Rs
2 kT
V + I Rs
Rp
(2.8)
It is possible to combine the first diode (D1) and the second diode (D2) and rewrite
the equation (2.8) in the following form.
I = I sc I o e
V + I Rs
nkT
V + I Rs
Rp
(2.9)
where: n is known as the ideality factor (n is sometimes denoted as A) and takes the
value between one and two [7].
16
Current (A)
3.5
3
9 cells
36 cells
2.5
72 cells
3 cells
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
15
20
25
Voltage (V)
30
35
40
45
17
Also, multiple modules can be wired together in series or parallel to deliver the
voltage and current level needed. The group of modules is called an array.
Electrical Characteristics
Maximum Power (Pmax)
Voltage at Pmax (Vmp)
Current at Pmax (Imp)
Open-circuit voltage (Voc)
Short-circuit current (Isc)
Temperature coefficient of Isc
Temperature coefficient of Voc
Temperature coefficient of power
NOCT
150W
34.5V
4.35A
43.5V
4.75A
0.065 0.015 %/ oC
-160 20 mV/ oC
-0.5 0.05 %/ oC
47 2oC
Table 2-1: Electrical characteristics data of PV module taken from the datasheet [1]
18
The study done by Walker [27] of University of Queensland, Australia, uses the
electric model with moderate complexity, shown in Figure 2-9, and provides fairly accurate
results. The model consists of a current source (Isc), a diode (D), and a series resistance (Rs).
The effect of parallel resistance (Rp) is very small in a single module, thus the model does not
include it. To make a better model, it also includes temperature effects on the short-circuit
current (Isc) and the reverse saturation current of diode (Io). It uses a single diode with the
diode ideality factor (n) set to achieve the best I-V curve match.
Rs
+
Isc
Load
Since it does not include the effect of parallel resistance (Rp), letting Rp =
in the
equation (2.9) gives the equation [27] that describes the current-voltage relationship of the
PV cell, and it is shown below.
I = I sc I o e
V + I Rs
nkT
19
(2.10)
First, calculate the short-circuit current (Isc) at a given cell temperature (T):
(2.11)
where: Isc at Tref is given in the datasheet (measured under irradiance of 1000W/m2),
Tref is the reference temperature of PV cell in Kelvin (K), usually 298K (25oC),
a is the temperature coefficient of Isc in percent change per degree temperature also
given in the datasheet.
The short-circuit current (Isc) is proportional to the intensity of irradiance, thus Isc at a
given irradiance (G) is:
I sc |G =
G
I sc |Go
Go
(2.12)
(e
sc
qVoc / nkT
1)
(2.13)
The reverse saturation current (Io) is temperature dependant and the Io at a given
temperature (T) is calculated by the following equation [27].
I o |T = I o |Tref
Tref
3
n
q E g 1 1
nk T Tref
(2.14)
The diode ideality factor (n) is unknown and must be estimated. It takes a value
between one and two; the value of n=1 (for the ideal diode) is, however, used until the more
accurate value is estimated later by curve fitting [27]. Figure 2-10 shows the effect of the
varying ideality factor.
20
5
n=1
4.5
4
n=2
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
Figure 2-10: Effect of diode ideally factors by MATLAB simulation (1KW/m2, 25oC)
The series resistance (Rs) of the PV module has a large impact on the slope of the I-V
curve near the open-circuit voltage (Voc), as shown in Figure 2-11, hence the value of Rs is
calculated by evaluating the slope
dV
of the I-V curve at the Voc [27]. The equation for Rs is
dI
derived by differentiating the equation (2.10) and then rearranging it in terms of Rs.
I = I sc I o e
V + I Rs
nkT
q
dV + Rs dI
dI = 0 I o q
e
nkT
Rs =
dI
dV
(2.15)
V + I Rs
nkT
(2.16)
nkT q
Io e
V + I Rs
nkT
21
(2.17)
Then, evaluate the equation (2.17) at the open circuit voltage that is V=Voc (also let I=0).
Rs =
where:
dV
dI
dV
dI
Voc
nkT q
Io e
(2.18)
qVoc
nkT
is the slope of the I-V curve at the Voc (use the I-V curve in the datasheet then
Voc
Voc is the open-circuit voltage of cell (found by dividing Voc in the datasheet by the
number of cells in series).
The calculation using the slope measurement of the I-V curve published on the BP SX
150 datasheet gives a value of the series resistance per cell, Rs = 5.1m .
5
4.5
4
Rs=0
3.5
3
2.5
Rs=5 mOhm
Rs=10 mOhm
1.5
Rs=15 mOhm
1
0.5
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
Finally, it is possible to solve the equation of I-V characteristics (2.10). It is, however,
complex because the solution of current is recursive by inclusion of a series resistance in the
22
model. Although it may be possible to find the answer by simple iterations, the Newtons
method is chosen for rapid convergence of the answer [27]. The Newtons method is
described as:
f (xn )
f ( x n )
x n +1 = x n
(2.19)
f ( I ) = I sc I I o e
V + I Rs
nkT
1 = 0
(2.20)
Plugging this into the equation (2.19) gives a following recursive equation, and the output
current (I) is computed iteratively.
I sc I n I o e
I n +1 = I n
1 Io
V + I n Rs
nkT
q Rs
e
nkT
V + I n Rs
nkT
(2.21)
The MATLAB function written in this thesis performs the calculation five times
iteratively to ensure convergence of the results. The testing result has shown that the value
of In usually converges within three iterations and never more than four interactions. Please
refer to Appendix A.1.1 for this MATLAB function.
Figure 2-12 shows the plots of I-V characteristics at various module temperatures
simulated with the MATLAB model for BP SX 150S PV module. Data points superimposed
on the plots are taken from the I-V curves published on the manufacturers datasheet [1].
After some trials with various diode ideality factors, the MATLAB model chooses the value
23
of n = 1.62 that attains the best match with the I-V curve on the datasheet. The figure shows
good correspondence between the data points and the simulated I-V curves.
750C
250C
0
50 C
O 0C
24
Isc = 4.75A
P3 = 94.9W
P1 = 150.0W
4.5
Impp = 4.35A
3.5
P2 = 108.2W
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Vmpp = 34.5V
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
Voc = 43.5V
The power vs. voltage plot is overlaid on the I-V plot of the PV module, as shown in
Figure 2-14. It reveals that the amount of power produced by the PV module varies greatly
25
depending on its operating condition. It is important to operate the system at the MPP of PV
module in order to exploit the maximum power from the module. The next chapter will
discuss how to do it.
160
Pmax
140
120
Isc
5
100
Impp
80
MPP
60
40
1
0
Vmpp
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
Voc
35
40
26
20
0
45
+
PV
27
4.5
R=4 Ohms
R=7.93 Ohms
MPP
3.5
3
2.5
Slope=1/R
R=16 Ohms
2
1.5
1
Increasing R
0.5
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
Figure 3-2: I-V curves of BP SX 150S PV module and various resistive loads
Simulated with the MATLAB model (1KW/m2, 25oC)
28
(3.1)
rad/sec.
Ra
+
PV
E=Kw
V
-
29
a long time, it may result in shortening of the life of the motor due to input electrical energy
converted to heat rather than to mechanical output [15].
1000W/m2
Slope = 1/Ra
Current
800W/m2
600W/m2
400W/m2
200W/m2
Voltage
Figure 3-4: PV I-V curves with varying irradiance and a DC motor I-V curve
There is a MPPT specifically called a linear current booster (LCB) that is designed to
overcome the above mentioned problem in water pumping systems. The MPPT maintains
the input voltage and current of LCB at the MPP of PV module. As shown in Figure 3-5, the
power produced at the MPP is relatively low-current and high-voltage which is opposite of
those required by the pump motor. The LCB shifts this relationship around and converts into
high-current and low-voltage power which satisfies the pump motor characteristics. For the
example in Figure 3-5, tracing of the iso-power (constant power) line from the MPP reveals
that the LCB could start the pump motor with as little as 50W/m2 of irradiance (assuming the
LCB can convert the power without loss).
30
800W/m2
Current
600W/m2
400W/m2
200W/m2
50W/m2
Voltage
Figure 3-5: PV I-V curves with iso-power lines (dotted) and a DC motor I-V curve
3.3.1 Topologies
There are a number of different topologies for DC-DC converters.
They are
31
up or down of output voltage by changing the transformer turns ratio. They are very often
used in switch-mode DC power supplies [18]. Popular topologies for a majority of the
applications are flyback, half-bridge, and full-bridge [22]. In PV applications, the grid-tied
systems often use these types of topologies when electrical isolation is preferred for safety
reasons.
Non-isolated topologies do not have isolation transformers. They are almost always
used in DC motor drives [17]. These topologies are further categorized into three types: step
down (buck), step up (boost), and step up & down (buck-boost). The buck topology is used
for voltage step-down. In PV applications, the buck type converter is usually used for
charging batteries and in LCB for water pumping systems. The boost topology is used for
stepping up the voltage. The grid-tied systems use a boost type converter to step up the
output voltage to the utility level before the inverter stage. Then, there are topologies able to
step up and down the voltage such as: buck-boost, Ck, and SEPIC (stands for Single Ended
Primary Inductor Converter). For PV system with batteries, the MPP of commercial PV
module is set above the charging voltage of batteries for most combinations of irradiance and
temperature. A buck converter can operate at the MPP under most conditions, but it cannot
do so when the MPP goes below the battery charging voltage under a low-irradiance and
high-temperature condition. Thus, the additional boost capability can slightly increase the
overall efficiency [27].
32
of all configurations [22]. Another disadvantage is that the input current is discontinuous
because of the switch located at the input, thus good input filter design is essential. Other
topologies capable of voltage step-down are Ck and SEPIC. Even though their voltage
step-up function is optional for LCB application, they have several advantages over the buck
converter. They provide capacitive isolation which protects against switch failure (unlike the
buck topology) [21]. The input current of the Ck and SEPIC topologies is continuous, and
they can draw a ripple free current from a PV array that is important for efficient MPPT.
Figure 3-6 shows a circuit diagram of the basic Ck converter. It is named after its
inventor. It can provide the output voltage that is higher or lower than the input voltage. The
SEPIC, a derivative of the Ck converter, is also able to step up and down the voltage.
Figure 3-7 shows a circuit diagram of the basic SEPIC converter. The characteristics of two
topologies are very similar. They both use a capacitor as the main energy storage. As a
result, the input current is continuous. The circuits have low switching losses and high
efficiency [18]. The main difference is that the Ck converter has a polarity of the output
voltage reverse to the input voltage. The input and output of SEPIC converter have the same
voltage polarity; therefore the SEPIC topology is sometimes preferred to the Ck topology.
SEPIC maybe also preferred for battery charging systems because the diode placed on the
output stage works as a blocking diode preventing an adverse current going to PV source
from the battery. The same diode, however, gives the disadvantage of high-ripple output
current.
On the other hand, the Ck converter can provide a better output current
characteristic due to the inductor on the output stage. Therefore, the thesis decides on the
Ck converter because of the good input and output current characteristics.
33
(3.2)
Assume the capacitor (C1) is large enough and its voltage is ripple free even though it stores
and transfer large amount of energy from input to output [17] (this requires a good low ESR
capacitor [21]).
The initial condition is when the input voltage is turned on and switch (SW) is off.
The diode (D) is forward biased, and the capacitor (C1) is being charged. The operation of
circuit can be divided into two modes.
34
Mode 1: When SW turns ON, the circuit becomes one shown in Figure 3-8.
The voltage of the capacitor (C1) makes the diode (D) reverse-biased and turned off.
The capacitor (C1) discharge its energy to the load through the loop formed with SW, C2, Rload,
and L2. The inductors are large enough, so assume that their currents are ripple free. Thus,
the following relationship is established [21].
I C1 = I L 2
(3.3)
Mode 2: When SW turns OFF, the circuit becomes one shown in Figure 3-9.
The capacitor (C1) is getting charged by the input (Vs) through the inductor (L1). The
energy stored in the inductor (L2) is transfer to the load through the loop formed by D, C2,
and Rload. Thus, the following relationship is established [21].
I C 1 = I L1
(3.4)
35
For periodic operation, the average capacitor current is zero. Thus, from the equation (3.3)
and (3.4) [21]:
[I
C 1 SW
ON
] DT + [I
C 1 SW
OFF
] (1 D )T = 0
(3.5)
I L 2 DT + I L1 (1 D )T = 0
(3.6)
I L1
D
=
I L2 1 D
(3.7)
where: D is the duty cycle (0 < D < 1), and T is the switching period.
Assuming that this is an ideal converter, the average power supplied by the source
must be the same as the average power absorbed by the load [21].
Pin = Pout
(3.8)
V s I L1 = V o I L 2
(3.9)
I L1 Vo
=
I L 2 Vs
(3.10)
Combining the equation (3.7) and (3.10), the following voltage transfer function is derived
[21].
Vo
D
=
Vs 1 D
(3.11)
36
Vo
Io
(3.12)
V MPP
I MPP
(3.13)
where: VMPP and IMPP are the voltage and current at the MPP respectively. When the value of
Rload matches with that of Ropt, the maximum power transfer from PV to the load will occur.
These two are, however, independent and rarely matches in practice. The goal of the MPPT
is to match the impedance of load to the optimal impedance of PV.
The following is an example of load matching using an ideal (loss-less) Ck
converter. From the equation (3.11):
1 D
Vo
D
(3.14)
Is
V
I
= L1 = o
I o I L 2 Vs
(3.15)
Vs =
Is =
D
Io
1 D
37
(3.16)
From the equation (3.14) and (3.16), the input impedance of the converter is:
V s (1 D ) 2 Vo (1 D ) 2
Rin =
=
=
Rload
Is
Io
D2
D2
(3.17)
As shown in Figure 3-10, the impedance seem by PV is the input impedance of the
converter (Rin). By changing the duty cycle (D), the value of Rin can be matched with that of
Ropt. Therefore, the impedance of the load can be anything as long as the duty cycle is
adjusted accordingly.
+
PV
Rin
DC-DC Conv
Rload
Figure 3-10: The impedance seen by PV is Rin that is adjustable by duty cycle (D)
38
of measured Voc which corresponds to the voltage at the MPP [6] (note: the percentage
depends on the type of cell used). The implementation of this open-loop control method is
very simple and low-cost although the MPPT efficiencies are relatively low (between
73~91%) [9]. Model calculations can also predict the location of MPP; however in practice
it does not work well because it does not take physical variations and aging of module and
other effects such as shading into account.
irradiance is quite expensive. Search algorithm using a closed-loop control can achieve
higher efficiencies, thus it is the customary choice for MPPT. Among different algorithms,
the Perturb & Observe (P&O) and Incremental Conductance (incCond) methods are studied
here.
1000W/m2
4.5
4
750W/m2
3.5
3
500W/m2
2.5
2
1.5
250W/m2
1
0.5
0
50W/m2
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
Figure 3-11: I-V curves for varying irradiance and a trace of MPPs (25oC)
39
1000W/m2
4.5
4
750W/m2
3.5
3
500W/m2
2.5
2
1.5
250W/m2
1
0.5
0
50W/m2
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
Figure 3-12: I-V curves for varying irradiance and a trace of MPPs (50oC)
40
operating point has moved away from the MPP, and the direction of perturbation should be
reversed to move back toward the MPP. Figure 3-14 shows the flowchart of this algorithm.
160
MPP
140
120
100
A
80
60
40
20
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
Figure 3-13: Plot of power vs. voltage for BP SX 150S PV module (1KW/m2, 25oC)
41
There are some limitations that reduce its MPPT efficiency. First, it cannot determine
when it has actually reached the MPP. Instead, it oscillates the operating point around the
MPP after each cycle and slightly reduces PV efficiency under the constant irradiance
condition [9]. Second, it has been shown that it can exhibit erratic behavior in cases of
rapidly changing atmospheric conditions as a result of moving clouds [11]. The cause of this
problem can be explained using Figure 3-15 with a set of P-V curves with varying irradiance.
Assume that the operating point is initially at the point A and is oscillating around the MPP
at the irradiance of 250W/m2. Then, the irradiance increases rapidly to 500W/m2. The power
measurement results in a positive P. If this operating point is perturbing from right to left
around the MPP, then the operating point will actually moves from the point A toward the
point E (instead of B). This happens because the MPPT can not tell that the positive P is
the result of increasing irradiation and simply assumes that it is the result of moving the
operating point to closer to the MPP. In this case the positive P is measured when the
operating voltage has been moving toward the left; the MPPT is fooled as if there is a MPP
on the left side. If the irradiance is still rapidly increasing, again the MPPT will see the
positive P and will assume it is moving towards the MPP, continuing to perturb to the left.
From points A, E, F and G, the operating point continues to deviate from the actual MPP
until the solar radiation change slows or settles down. This situation can occur on partly
cloudy days, and MPP tracking is most difficult because of the frequent movement of the
MPP.
42
1000W/m2
D
750W/m2
C
500W/m2
B
250W/m2
A
Figure 3-15: Erratic behavior of the P&O algorithm under rapidly increasing irradiance
P
[4] [12]. Again, this works well under the constant irradiation but
V
worsens the erratic behavior under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions on partly cloudy
43
days because the power change due to irradiance makes the step size too big. A modification
involving taking a PV power measurement twice at the same voltage solves the problem of
not detecting the changing irradiance [9]. Comparing these two measurements, the algorithm
can determine whether the irradiance is changing and decide how to perturb the operating
point. The tradeoff is that the increased number of sampling slows response times and
increases the complexity of algorithm.
(3.18)
dP
> 0 at the left of MPP
dV
(3.19)
dP
< 0 at the right of MPP
dV
(3.20)
The above equations are written in terms of voltage and current as follows.
dP d (V I )
dV
dI
dI
=
=I
+V
= I +V
dV
dV
dV
dV
dV
44
(3.21)
dI
=0
dV
(3.22)
dI
I
=
dV
V
(3.23)
If the operating point is at the left side of the MPP, the equation (3.21) becomes:
I +V
dI
>0
dV
(3.24)
dI
I
>
dV
V
(3.25)
If the operating point is at the right side of the MPP, the equation (3.21) becomes:
I +V
dI
<0
dV
(3.26)
dI
I
<
dV
V
(3.27)
Note that the left side of the equations (3.23), (3.25), and (3.27) represents
incremental conductance of the PV module, and the right side of the equations represents its
instantaneous conductance.
The flowchart shown in Figure 3-16 explains the operation of this algorithm. It starts
with measuring the present values of PV module voltage and current. Then, it calculates the
incremental changes, dI and dV, using the present values and previous values of voltage and
current. The main check is carried out using the relationships in the equations (3.23), (3.25),
and (3.27). If the condition satisfies the inequality (3.25), it is assumed that the operating
point is at the left side of the MPP thus must be moved to the right by increasing the module
voltage. Similarly, if the condition satisfies the inequality (3.27), it is assumed that the
operating point is at the right side of the MPP, thus must be moved to the left by decreasing
45
the module voltage. When the operating point reaches at the MPP, the condition satisfies the
equation (3.23), and the algorithm bypasses the voltage adjustment. At the end of cycle, it
updates the history by storing the voltage and current data that will be used as previous
values in the next cycle. Another important check included in this algorithm is to detect
atmospheric conditions. If the MPPT is still operating at the MPP (condition: dV = 0) and
the irradiation has not changed (condition: dI = 0), it takes no action. If the irradiation has
increased (condition: dI > 0), it raises the MPP voltage. Then, the algorithm will increase the
operating voltage to track the MPP. Similarly, if the irradiation has decreased (condition: dI
< 0), it lowers the MPP voltage. Then, the algorithm will decrease the operating voltage.
dI
I
=
dV
V
dI
I
>
dV
V
46
In practice, the condition dP/dV = 0 (or dI/dV = -I/V) seldom occurs because of the
approximation made in the calculation of dI and dV [11]. Thus, a small margin of error (E)
should be allowed, for example: dP/dV = E. The value of E is optimized with exchange
between an amount of the steady-sate tracking error and a risk of oscillation of the operating
point.
3.6.1 PI Control
As shown in Figure 3-17, the MPPT takes measurement of PV voltage and current,
and then tracking algorithm (P&O, incCond, or variations of two) calculates the reference
voltage (Vref) where the PV operating voltage should move next.
algorithm is to set Vref only, and it is repeated periodically with a slower rate (typically 1~10
samples per second). Then, there is another control loop that the proportional and integral
(PI) controller regulates the input voltage of converter. Its task is to minimize error between
Vref and the measured voltage by adjusting the duty cycle. The PI loop operates with a much
faster rate and provides fast response and overall system stability [10] [12]. The PI controller
itself can be implemented with analog components, but it is often done with DSP-based
controller [10] because the DSP can handle other tasks such as MPP tracking thus reducing
parts count.
47
48
The impedance seen by PV is the input impedance of converter. Using the example of the
Ck converter in Section 3.4, the relationship to the load is:
V s (1 D ) 2
Rin =
=
Rload
Is
D2
(3.28)
where: D is the duty cycle of the Ck converter. As shown in Figure 3-19, increasing D will
decrease the input impedance (Rin), thus the PV operating voltage moves to the left.
Similarly, decreasing D will increase Rin, thus the operating voltage moves to the right. The
tracking algorithm (P&O, incCond, or variations of two) makes the decision how to move the
operating voltage.
5
4.5
R=4 Ohms
R=7.93 Ohms
MPP
3.5
3
2.5
Slope=1/R
R=16 Ohms
Increasing D
1.5
Increasing Rin
1
0.5
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
Figure 3-19: Relationship of the input impedance of Ck converter and its duty cycle
The time response of the power stage and PV source is relatively slow (10~50msec
depending on the type of load) [9]. The MPPT algorithm changes the duty cycle, then the
next sampling of PV voltage and current should be taken after the system reaches the
periodic steady state to avoid measuring the transient behavior [9]. The typical sampling rate
49
is 10~100 samples per second. The sampling rate of PI controller is much faster, thus it
provides robustness against sudden changes of load. The system response is, however, slow
in general. The direct control method can operate stably for applications such as battery
equipped systems and water pumping systems. Since sampling rates are slow, it is possible
to implement with inexpensive microcontrollers [12].
50
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Duty Cycle
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 3-20: Output power of Ck converter vs. its duty cycle (1KW/m2, 25oC)
As shown in the figure, there is a peak of output power when the duty cycle of
converter is varied. This control method employs the P&O algorithm to locate the MPP.
Figure 3-21 shows the flowchart of algorithm. In order to accommodate duty cycle as a
control variable, the P&O algorithm used here is a slightly modified version from that
previously introduced, but the idea how it works is the same. The algorithm perturbs the
duty cycle and measure the output power of converter. If the power is increased, the duty
cycle is further perturbed in the same direction; otherwise the direction will be reversed.
When the output power of converter is reached at the peak, a PV module or array is supposed
to be operating at the MPP.
Even though it works perfectly in the simulation with the ideal converter, there is
some uncertainly if the peak of output power is corresponding with the MPP in practice with
51
non-ideal converters. Also, this control method only works with the P&O algorithm and its
variations, and it does not work with the incCond algorithm.
Figure 3-21: Flowchart of P&O algorithm for the output sensing direct control method
V MPP
I MPP
52
(3.29)
The equation (3.17) for the Ck converter is solved for duty cycle (D).
1
D=
1+
Rin
Rload
(3.30)
D
Vs
1 D
(3.31)
Io =
1 D
Is
D
(3.32)
obtained from the MATLAB simulation model. Using the equations above, two sets of data
are collected for the resistive load of 6
Irradiance
1000W/m2
800W/m2
600W/m2
400W/m2
200W/m2
VMPP
34.5V
34.1V
33.6V
32.7V
31.1V
PV Module
IMPP
4.35A
3.48A
2.61A
1.73A
0.87A
Pmax
150.0W
118.8W
87.7W
56.9W
26.9W
Rin
7.92
9.80
12.9
18.8
35.9
D
0.465
0.439
0.406
0.361
0.290
MPPT
Vo
30.0V
26.7V
22.9V
18.5.V
12.7V
Io
5.00A
4.45A
3.82A
3.08A
2.12A
Rload
6
6
6
6
6
Table 3-1: Load matching with the resistive load (6 ) under the varying irradiance
Irradiance
1000W/m2
800W/m2
600W/m2
400W/m2
200W/m2
VMPP
34.5V
34.1V
33.6V
32.7V
31.1V
PV Module
IMPP
4.35A
3.48A
2.61A
1.73A
0.87A
Pmax
150.0W
118.8W
87.7W
56.9W
26.9W
Rin
7.92
9.80
12.9
18.8
35.9
D
0.552
0.525
0.491
0.444
0.366
MPPT
Vo
42.4V
37.8V
32.4V
26.1V
18.0V
Io
3.54A
3.15A
2.70A
2.18A
1.50A
Table 3-2: Load matching with the resistive load (12 ) under the varying irradiance
53
Rload
12
12
12
12
12
From the above results, its obvious that there is no regulation of the output voltage
and current. If the application requires a constant voltage, it must employ batteries to
maintain the voltage constant. For water pumping system without batteries, the lack of
output regulation is not a predicament as long as they are equipped with water reservoirs to
meet the demand of water. The speed of pump motor is proportional to the converters
output voltage which is relative to irradiation. Thus, when the sun shines more, it simply
pumps more water.
Another noteworthy fact is that MPPT stops its original task if the load cannot
consume all the power delivered. For the stand-alone system, when the load is limited by its
maximum voltage or current, the MPPT moves the operating point away from the MPP and
sends less power. It is very important to select an appropriate size of load, thus it can utilize
the full capacity of PV module and array. On the other hand, the grid-tied system can always
perform the maximum power point tracking because it can inject the power into the grid as
much as produced.
Of course, in reality DC-DC converter used in MPPT is not 100% efficient. The
efficiency gain from MPPT is large, but the system needs to take efficiency loss by DC-DC
converter into account. There is also tradeoff between efficiency and the cost. It is necessary
for PV system engineers to perform economic analysis of different systems and also
necessary to seek other methods of efficiency improvement such as the use of a sun tracker.
After due consideration of limitations, the next chapter will discuss designs and
simulations of MPPT and PV water pumping system.
54
It discusses Ck
converter design. After the component selection, PSpice simulations validate the design and
choice of the MPPT sampling rate. MATLAB simulations perform comparative tests of the
P&O and incCond algorithm. Simulations also verify the functionality of MPPT with a
resistive load and then with the DC pump motor load.
comparisons between the PV water pumping system equipped with MPPT and the directcoupled system without MPPT.
20-48V
0-5A (< 5% ripple)
12-30V (< 5% ripple)
0-5A (< 5% ripple)
150W
50KHz
0.1 D 0.6
55
i L =
Vs D
L f
(4.1)
where: Vs is the input voltage, D is the duty cycle, and f is the switching frequency.
Solving this for L gives:
L=
Vs D
i L f
(4.2)
Assume that the worst current ripple will occur under the maximum power condition. Under
this condition, the average current (IL1) of the input inductor (L1) is 4.35A, and the ripple
current is 5% of IL1.
(4.3)
L1 =
Vs D
(34.5)(0.465)
=
= 1.475 mH
i L1 f (0.2175 )(50 10 3 )
(4.4)
A commercially available 1.5mH inductor is selected. For example, 1.5mH power coke
(5.0A DC max, 0.07 DCR) is available from Hammond Mfg. (www.hammondmfg.com).
Similarly, the value of the output inductor (L2) is calculated as follows.
56
(4.5)
L2 =
Vs D
(34.5)(0.465)
=
= 1.283mH
i L 2 f (0.25)(50 10 3 )
(4.6)
To make parts procurement easier, the output can use the same inductor size as one in the
input.
b) Capacitor Selection
The design criterion for capacitors is that the ripple voltage across them should be
less than 5%. The average voltage across the capacitor (C1) is, from the equation (3.2), Vc1 =
Vs + Vo= 34.5 + 30 = 64.5V, so the maximum ripple voltage is vC1 = 0.05 64.5 = 3.225V.
Vo
(30.0) 2
R=
=
= 6
Po
(150)
(4.7)
C1 =
Vo D
(30.0)(0.465)
=
= 14 .42 F
R f v c1 (6)(50 10 3 )(3.225)
(4.8)
The next commercially available size is 22 F. An aluminum electrolytic capacitor with low
ESR type is required.
The value of the output capacitor (C2) is calculated using the output voltage ripple
equation (the same as that of buck converter) [21].
v o
1 D
=
Vo
8 L2 C 2 f
(4.9)
C2 =
1 D
8 ( v o Vo ) L 2 f
1 0.465
= 0.3567 F
8(0.05)(1.5 10 3 )(50 10 3 ) 2
(4.10)
The next available size is 0.47 F. An aluminum electrolytic capacitor with low ESR type is
required.
57
c) Diode Selection
Schottky diode should be selected because it has a low forward voltage and very good
reverse recovery time (typically 5 to 10ns) [21]. From Figure 3-8, the recurrent peak reverse
voltage (VRRM) of the diode is the same as the average voltage of capacitor (C1) [18], thus
VRRM = 64.5V. Adding the 30% of safety factor gives the voltage rating of 83.9V. The
average forward current (IF) of diode is the combination of input and output currents at the
SW off, thus it is ID = IL1+IL2 = 9.35A. Adding the 30% of safety factor gives the current
rating of 12.2A. Schottky diodes are widely available from numerous vendors. For example,
MBR15100 (IF=15Amax, VRRM=100Vmax) meets the above-mentioned voltage and current
ratings.
d) Switch Selection
Power-MOSFETs are widely used for low to medium power applications. The peak
voltage of the switch (SW) [18] is obtained by KVL on the circuit shown in Figure 3-9.
VSW = Vs
dI L1
dt
(4.11)
The voltage of SW could go up to 48V by the specification. Adding the 30% of safety factor
gives the voltage rating of 62.4V. The peak switch current is the same as the diode. Thus,
adding the 30% of safety factor gives the current rating of 12.2A. There are a wide variety of
Power-MOSFETs available from various vendors.
VDS=100Vmax) meets the above-mentioned requirements.
58
C1
L1
1.5mH
34.5Vdc
Vpwm
La
1
1.5mH
S1
Vin
L2
+
-
1
10mH
22uF
Ra
.2
D1
Dbreak
Sbreak
C2
.47uF
E
28Vdc
0
0
V1 = 0
V2 = 1
TR = 10n
TF = 10n
TD = 0
PW = {D*T}
PER = {T}
PARAMETERS:
f = 50kHz
T = {1/f }
D = .465
Figure 4-2 shows current and voltage plots of the converter after turning on (t = 0sec).
Since the load has such a large inductance, it takes a long time for current to build up. The
plots show that both input and output currents take nearly 250msec to reach steady state.
59
5.0A
2.5A
SEL>>
0A
I(L1)
I(L2)
40V
30V
20V
10V
0V
0s
50ms
V(Vin:+)
100ms
150ms
200ms
250ms
-V(C2:2)
Time
Figure 4-2: PSpice plots of input/output current (above) and voltage (below)
For comparisons, the same simulation is done with an equivalent resistive load (6 ).
The transient time is less than 10msec with the resistive load. It is apparent that the motor
load has a very slow response. Other current and voltage data are gathered and tabulated
below for comparisons with the resistive load and calculated results.
DC Motor
1 Set
2nd Set
4.07A
4.18A
5.2%
6.1%
4.70A
4.84A
4.6%
4.6%
34.5V
34.5V
n/a
n/a
28.9V
29.1V
9%
3.1%
st
Iin
Iout
Vin
Vout
Average
% ripple
Average
% ripple
Average
% ripple
Average
% ripple
Resistive
Load (6 )
4.20A
5.1%
4.83A
4.4%
34.5V
n/a
29.0V
2.7%
Calculated
Results
4.35A
< 5%
5.0A
< 5%
34.5V
n/a
30V
< 5%
Table 4-2 shows two sets of simulation data for the DC motor load. The first set is
the result of simulation using the components selected in the previous section. The output
60
voltage ripple for the DC motor load is as large as 9% while one for the equivalent resistive
load (6 ) is only 2.7%. Therefore, in the next simulation, the size of output capacitor (C2) is
increased to the next commercially available size of 1 F. It makes the input current ripple
slightly worse, but it makes overall improvement of performance. Thus, a 1 F capacitor
(instead of 0.47 F) is finally selected.
5.0A
4.5A
4.0A
I(L1)
I(L2)
35.0V
32.5V
30.0V
SEL>>
27.0V
240ms
V(L1:1)
260ms
-V(C2:2)
280ms
300ms
320ms
340ms
Time
Figure 4-3: Transient response when duty cycle is increased 0.35% at 250ms
61
360ms
Figure 4-3 is the result of PSpice simulation. It shows both input and output currents
take between 80msec and 90msec to go to steady state, where they take only several
milliseconds for the resistive load. It is important for MPPT algorithm to take measurements
of voltage and current after they reach steady state. Therefore, with a PV pump motor, the
sampling rate is 10Hz at most.
end
140
120
100
start
80
60
40
20
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
62
Next, the algorithms are tested with actual irradiance data provided by [2].
Simulations use two sets of data, shown in Figure 4-5; the first set of data is the
measurements of a sunny day in April in Barcelona, Spain, and the second set of data is for a
cloudy day in the same month at the same location.
measurements taken every two minutes for 12 hours. Irradiance values between two data
points are estimated by the cubic interpolation in MATLAB functions.
Sunny Day
Cloudy Day
Irradiance (KW/m2)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
6
Hour (h)
10
12
Figure 4-5: Irradiance data for a sunny and a cloudy day of April in Barcelona, Spain [2]
On a sunny day, the irradiance level changes gradually since there is no influence of
cloud. MPP tracking is supposed to be easy. As shown in Figure 4-6, both algorithms locate
and maintain the PV operating point very close to the MPPs (shown in red asterisks) without
much difference in their performance.
63
160
1000W/m
140
1000W/m2
140
800W/m2
100
600W/m2
80
400W/m2
60
800W/m2
120
Module Output Power (W)
120
Module Output Power (W)
160
40
100
600W/m2
80
400W/m2
60
40
200W/m2
200W/m2
20
0
20
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
On a cloudy day, the irradiance level changes rapidly because of passing clouds.
MPP tracking is supposed to be challenging. Figure 4-7 shows the trace of PV operating
points for (a) P&O algorithm and (b) incCond algorithm. For both algorithms, the deviations
of operating points from the MPPs are obvious when compared to the results of a sunny day.
Between two algorithms, the incCond algorithm is supposed to outperform the P&O
algorithm under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions [11]. A close inspection of Figure
4-7 reveals that the P&O algorithm has slightly larger deviations overall and some erratic
behaviors (such as the large deviation pointed by the red arrow). Some erratic traces are,
however, also observable in the plot of the incCond algorithm. In order to make a better
comparison, total electric energy produced during a 12-hour period is calculated and
tabulated in Table 4-3.
64
50
160
1000W/m 2
140
120
800W/m2
100
600W/m2
80
60
400W/m2
40
800W/m2
100
600W/m2
80
60
400W/m2
40
200W/m2
20
0
1000W/m2
140
120
160
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
200W/m2
20
35
40
45
50
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
P&O Algorithm
479.64Wh
480.38Wh
99.85%
incCond Algorithm
479.69Wh
480.38Wh
99.86%
Table 4-3: Comparison of the P&O and incCond algorithms on a cloudy day
Total electric energy produced with the incCond algorithm is narrowly larger than
that of the P&O algorithm.
(simulation)} {Total Energy (theoretical max)} 100% is still good in the cloudy condition
for both algorithms, and again it is narrowly higher with the incCond algorithm.
The
irradiance data are only available at two-minute intervals, thus they do not record a much
higher rate of changes during these intervals. The data may not be providing a truly rapid
changing condition, and that could be a reason why the two results are so close. Also, further
optimization of algorithm and varying a testing method may provide different results. The
performance difference between the two algorithms, however, would not be large. There is a
study showing similar results [9]. The simulation results showed the efficiency of 99.3% for
65
50
the P&O algorithm and 99.4% for the incCond algorithm. The experimental results showed
96.5% and 97.0%, respectively, for a partly cloudy day.
(4.12)
The function, bp_sx150s, calculates the module current (Ia) for the given module voltage (Va),
irradiance (G in KW/m2), and module temperature (T in oC).
The operating point of PV module is located by its relationship to the load resistance
(R) as explained in Section 3.4.
R=
Va
Ia
(4.13)
66
The irradiance (G) and the module temperature (T) for the function (4.12) are known
variables, thus it is possible to say that Ia is the function of Va hence Ia = f(Va). Substituting
this into the equation (4.13) gives:
Va R f (Va ) = 0
(4.14)
Knowing the value of R enables to solve this equation for the operating voltage (Va).
MATLAB uses fzero function to do so. Please refer Appendix A.1 for details. Placing Va,
back to the equation (4.12) gives the operating current (Ia).
For the direct control method, each sampling of voltage and current is done at a
periodic steady state condition of the converter.
discussed in Section 3.3.3 provides sufficient modeling of the Ck converter. The following
equations describe the input/output relationship of voltage and current, and they are used in
the MATLAB simulation.
Vo =
D
Vs
1 D
(4.15)
Io =
1 D
Is
D
(4.16)
67
The following flowchart, shown in Figure 4-8, explains the operation of the simulated
system. The details can be referred in the MATLAB script listed in the Appendix A.1.
"
#
'
$%
&
!
#
( #!
) *+
)*
!
) *
.
!
+!
/ #
+"
The simulation is performed under the linearly increasing irradiance varying from
100W/m2 to 1000W/m2 with a moderate rate of 0.3W/m2 per sample. Figure 4-9 (a) and (b)
show that the trace of operating point is staying close to the MPPs during the simulation.
Figure 4-9 (c) shows the relationship between the output power of converter and its duty
cycle. Figure 4-9 (d) shows the current and voltage relationship of converter output. Since
the load is resistive, the current and voltage increase linearly with the slope of 1/Rload on the
I-V plane.
68
160
1000W/m
end
1000W/m 2
4.5
140
end
4
800W/m2
100
600W/m 2
80
400W/m 2
60
800W/m2
3.5
Module Current(A)
120
3
600W/m2
2.5
2
400W/m 2
1.5
40
1
200W/m 2
20
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
160
200W/m2
0.5
start
start
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
end
140
end
120
100
80
60
3
Load Line
start
40
1
20
0
start
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Duty Cycle
0.7
0.8
0.9
10
15
20
Output Voltage (V)
25
30
35
Figure 4-9: MPPT simulations with the resistive load (100 to 1000W/m2, 25oC)
The control algorithm contains two loops, as shown in Figure 4-8: the main loop for
MPPT and another loop for output protection. During the normal operation, it operates in
MPPT mode. When the load cannot absorb all the power produced by PV, its voltage or/and
current will exceed the limit. To protect the load from failure, the control algorithm stops
operating in MPPT mode and invokes the output protection. Then, it regulates the output not
to exceed the limit. In the simulation, it sets when the output voltage goes beyond 30V or 5A
for the output current.
irradiance, the 10
load exceeds the voltage limit of 30V. The output protection maintains
69
the voltage around 30V. Figure 4-10 (a) shows that PV is not operating at the MPP and
sending the power less than the maximum after the irradiance reaches at a little over
600W/m2. It also indicates the importance of selecting an appropriate size of load, thus it can
utilize the full capacity of PV module or array.
160
1000W/m
140
5
800W/m
100
end
600W/m 2
80
120
Module Output Power (W)
400W/m 2
60
4
end
3
40
200W/m 2
start
20
start
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
10
15
20
Output Voltage (V)
25
30
35
The input sensing type direct control method, discussed in Section 3.6.2, is also
implemented with both P&O and incCond algorithm. The results are very similar and are
shown in Appendix A.2 for reference.
70
71
TL
Signal 1
0-30V Ramp
s
-
A+
Voltage Source
dc
F+
Demux
AF-
DC Machine
Apply Constant Field
Va, Ia, w, Te, P
Product
+
v
-
Va
Ia vs Va
?
More Info
Divide
Rload
The voltage source applies a 0-30V ramp at the rate of 1V per second. Then, the
change of load resistance (Rload) is observed, as shown in Figure 4-14. The plot data are
72
transferred to MATLAB, and the cubic curve fitting tool in MATLAB provides the equation
of the curve, shown below.
(4.17)
where: Vo is the output voltage of converter. This equation characterizes the DC pump motor,
and MATLAB uses it in the simulations.
73
160
1000W/m
end
1000W/m 2
4.5
140
end
4
800W/m2
100
600W/m 2
80
400W/m 2
60
800W/m2
3.5
Module Current(A)
120
3
600W/m2
2.5
2
400W/m 2
1.5
40
20
0
200W/m 2
start
200W/m2
0.5
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
160
start
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
end
140
end
120
100
80
60
40
1
20
0
start
start
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Duty Cycle
0.7
0.8
0.9
10
15
20
Output Voltage (V)
25
30
Figure 4-15: MPPT simulations with the DC pump motor load (20 to 1000W/m2, 25oC)
Figure 4-15 (d) shows the current and voltage relationship of converter output which
is equal to the DC motor load. It shows that the output current rises rapidly with increasing
voltage until the current is sufficient to create enough torque to start the motor. Once it starts
to run, the back emf takes effect and drops the current, therefore the current rises slowly with
increasing voltage. Figure 4-16 shows the I-V curve produced by the SIMULINK simulation.
The y-axis is the armature current of DC motor, and the x-axis is time (second) that
corresponds to the armature voltage (V). It is similar to the MATLAB version; therefore it
can be concluded that the simple MATLAB model of DC motor used here is valid. The only
74
discrepancy is that the MATLAB version shows slow transition between halt to motion
because the output is limited by the duty cycle which is set to 10% as the minimum.
With MPPT
1.057KWh
1.060KWh
99.75%
Without MPPT
0.577KWh
1.060KWh
54.42%
Table 4-4: Energy production and efficiency of PV module with and without MPPT
75
The result shows that the PV water pumping system without MPPT has poor
efficiency because of mismatching between the PV module and the DC pump motor load.
On the other hand, it shows that the system with MPPT can utilize more than 99% of PV
capacity. Assuming a DC-DC converter has efficiency more than 90%, the system can
increase the overall efficiency by more than 35% compared to the system without MPPT.
Another set of simulations provides a comparison of the two systems in terms of flow
rates and total volume of water pumped. The results show that MPPT can significantly boost
the performance. As shown in Figure 4-11, the flow rate of Kyocera SD 12-30 water pump
is proportional to the power delivered. When the total dynamic head is 30m, the flow rate
per watt is approximately 86.7cm3/Wmin. The minimum power requirement of pump motor
is 35W [13]; therefore as long as the output power is higher than 35W, it pumps water with
the flow rate above. Using the same test condition, the flow rates of pump are obtained from
the MATLAB simulations and shown in Figure 4-17.
14
Loss-less Converter
90% Efficiency Converter
Direct-coupled System
12
10
6
Hour
10
11
12
76
The results show that the direct-coupled PV water pumping system has a severe
disadvantage because the pump stays idle for nearly two more hours in the morning while the
same system with MPPT is already pumping water. Similarly, it goes idle nearly two hours
earlier than the system with MPPT in the afternoon. The flow rate of water is also lower
throughout the operating period.
The total volume of water pumped for the 12-hour period is also calculated for both
systems. The results are tabulated below.
With MPPT
Loss-less
Converter
90% Efficiency
Converter
Without MPPT
5.302m3
4.719m3
2.831m3
The results show that MPPT offers significant performance improvement. It enables
to pump up to 87% more water than the system without MPPT. Even if the efficiency of
converter is set to 90%, it can still pump 67% more water than the system without MPPT.
77
Chapter 5 Conclusion
5.1 Summary
This study presents a simple but efficient photovoltaic water pumping system. It
models each component and simulates the system using MATLAB. The result shows that
the PV model using the equivalent circuit in moderate complexity provides good matching
with the real PV module.
algorithms using actual irradiance data in the two different weather conditions. The incCond
algorithm shows narrowly but better performance in terms of efficiency compared to the
P&O algorithm under the cloudy weather condition. Even a small improvement of efficiency
could bring large savings if the system is large. However, it could be difficult to justify the
use of incCond algorithm for small low-cost systems since it requires four sensors. In order
to develop a simple low-cost system, this thesis adopts the direct control method which
employs the P&O algorithm but requires only two sensors for output. This control method
offers another benefit of allowing steady-state analysis of the DC-DC converter, as opposed
to the more complex state-space averaging method, because it performs sampling of voltage
and current at the periodic steady state. Simulations use SimPowerSystems in SIMULINK to
model a DC pump motor, and then the model is transferred into MATLAB. It performs
simulations of the whole system and verifies functionality and benefits of MPPT.
Simulations also make comparisons with the system without MPPT in terms of total energy
produced and total volume of water pumped a day. The results validate that MPPT can
significantly increase the efficiency of energy production from PV and the performance of
the PV water pumping system compared to the system without MPPT.
78
The accuracy of model is, however, uncertain because the parameters are only
estimates. If tests could be run on the real water pump motor or an equivalent sized motor to
determine reasonable entries to SIMULINK block parameters, this could lead to more
accurate simulation runs. Also, simply increasing the size of system and using a larger motor
(5hp or above) could allow for better results in SUMILINK, though many PV water pumps
rarely use such large motors.
Physical implementation of the system remains for future research. It may involve
implementation of: a DSP or a microcontroller, a method of supplying power to the
controller, signal conditioning circuits for A/D converters, a driving circuit for PowerMOSFET, a Ck converter, and a water level sensor that detects when the water reservoir
reaches full. It may also involve performance analysis on the actual system and comparisons
with simulations.
79
80
Bibliography
[1]
[2]
Castaer, Luis & Santiago Silvestre Modelling Photovoltaic Systems, Using PSpice
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2002
[3]
[4]
[5]
Day, Christopher Alan The Design of an Efficient, Elegant, and Cubic Pico-Satellite
Electronics System Masters Thesis, California Polytechnic State University, San
Luis Obispo, 2004
[6]
Enslin, John H., Mario S. Wolf, Danil B. Snyman, & Wernher Swiegers Integrated
Photovoltaic Maximum Power Point Tracking Converter IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, Vol. 44, No. 6 December 1997, page 769-773
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
Hua, Chihchiang, Jongrong Lin & Chihming Shen Implementation of a DSPControlled Photovoltaic System with Peak Power Tracking IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, Vol. 45, No. 1 February 1998, page 99-107
[11]
[12]
81
[13]
Kyocera Solar Inc. Solar Water Pump Applications Guide 2001 (downloaded from
www.kyocerasolar.com)
[14]
MathWorks Inc. Embedded Target for the TI TMS320C2000 DSP Platform For
Use with Real-Time Workshop Users Guide Version 1 2005 (downloaded from
www.mathworks.com)
[15]
Messenger, Roger & Jerry Ventre Photovoltaic Systems Engineering 2nd Edition
CRC Press, 2003
[16]
Masters, Gilbert M. Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems John Wiley &
Sons Ltd, 2004
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
Taufik EE410 Power Electronics I - Lecture Note Cal Poly State University, San
Luis Obispo, 2004
[22]
Taufik EE527 Switching Power Supply Design - Lecture Note Cal Poly State
University, San Luis Obispo, 2004
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
UNESCO
The UN World Water Development Report, 2003
www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/, August 2005)
82
(viewed on
[27]
83
Appendix A
A.1 MATLAB Functions and Scripts
A.1.1 MATLAB Function for Modeling BP SX 150S PV Module
This MATLAB function (bp_sx150s.m) is to simulate the current-voltage relationship
of BP SX 150S PV module and used in simulations throughout of this thesis.
function Ia = bp_sx150s(Va,G,TaC)
% function bp_sx150s.m models the BP SX 150S PV module
% calculates module current under given voltage, irradiance and temperature
% Ia = bp_sx150s(Va,G,T)
%
% Out: Ia = Module operating current (A), vector or scalar
% In: Va = Module operating voltage (V), vector or scalar
%
G = Irradiance (1G = 1000 W/m^2), scalar
%
TaC = Module temperature in deg C, scalar
%
% Written by Akihiro Oi 7/01/2005
% Revised 7/18/2005
%/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
% Define constants
k = 1.381e-23;
q = 1.602e-19;
% Boltzmanns constant
% Electron charge
84
b = Eg * q /(n * k);
% Calculate reverse saturation current for given temperature
Ir_TrK = Isc_TrK / (exp(Voc_TrK / Vt_TrK) -1);
Ir = Ir_TrK * (TaK / TrK)^(3/n) * exp(-b * (1 / TaK -1 / TrK));
% Calculate series resistance per cell (Rs = 5.1mOhm)
dVdI_Voc = -1.0/Ns;
% Take dV/dI @ Voc from I-V curve of datasheet
Xv = Ir_TrK / Vt_TrK * exp(Voc_TrK / Vt_TrK);
Rs = - dVdI_Voc - 1/Xv;
% Define thermal potential (Vt) at temp Ta
Vt_Ta = n * k * TaK / q;
% Ia = Iph - Ir * (exp((Vc + Ia * Rs) / Vt_Ta) -1)
% f(Ia) = Iph - Ia - Ir * ( exp((Vc + Ia * Rs) / Vt_Ta) -1) = 0
% Solve for Ia by Newton's method: Ia2 = Ia1 - f(Ia1)/f'(Ia1)
Ia=zeros(size(Vc)); % Initialize Ia with zeros
% Perform 5 iterations
for j=1:5;
Ia = Ia - (Iph - Ia - Ir .* ( exp((Vc + Ia .* Rs) ./ Vt_Ta) -1))...
./ (-1 - Ir * (Rs ./ Vt_Ta) .* exp((Vc + Ia .* Rs) ./ Vt_Ta));
End
85
axis([0 50 0 5])
gtext('0C')
gtext('25C')
gtext('50C')
gtext('75C')
hold off
86
%
%
%
%
%
87
88
Vref_new = Va + C;
%
%
%
%
%
89
A.1.6 MATLAB Script for MPPT with Output Sensing Direct Control Method
This MATLAB script is to test the output sensing direct control method with the P&O
algorithm in Section 4.4. The load is a resistive load (6 )
% po_dutyCycle2Test2:
% Script file to test output sensing direct control method
% P&O MPPT Algorithm is used
%
% Written by Akihiro Oi: June 23, 2005
% Revised: September 8, 2005
%//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
clear;
% Define constants
TaC = 25;
% Cell temperature (deg C)
Rload = 6;
% Resistive Load (Ohms)
deltaD = .0035; % Step size for Duty Cycle change (.35%)
% Define variables with initial conditions
G = .1;
% Irradiance (1G = 1000W/m^2)
D = .22;
% Duty Cycle, D(k+1), (0.1 Min, O.6 Max)
D_k_1 = .22;
% Duty Cycle, D(k-1), (0.1 Min, O.6 Max)
Va_k_1 = 0;
% PV voltage, Va(k-1)
Pa_k_1 = 0;
% PV output power, Pa(k-1)
90
Vo_k_1 = 0;
Io_k_1 = 0;
Po_k_1 = 0;
91
else
D = D_k - deltaD; % Decrease duty cycle
end
elseif deltaPo < 0
if D_k > D_k_1
D = D_k - deltaD; % Decrease duty cycle
else
D = D_k + deltaD; % Increase duty cycle
end
else
D = D_k; % No change
end
end
% Update history
Va_k_1 = Va_k;
Ia_k_1 = Ia_k;
Pa_k_1 = Pa_k;
Vo_k_1 = Vo_k;
Io_k_1 = Io_k;
Po_k_1 = Po_k;
D_k_1 = D_k;
% Store data in arrays for plots
Va_array = [Va_array Va_k];
Ia_array = [Ia_array Ia_k];
Pa_array = [Pa_array Pa_k];
Vo_array = [Vo_array Vo_k];
Io_array = [Io_array Io_k];
Po_array = [Po_array Po_k];
D_array = [D_array D_k];
% Increase insolation until G=1
if (Sample > 20) & (G < 1)
G = G + .0003;
end
% Goto next sample
end
% Functions to plot
figure(1)
plot (Va_array, Pa_array, 'g')
% Overlay with P-V curves and MPP
Va = linspace (0, 45, 200);
hold on
for G=.2:.2:1
Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC);
Pa = Ia.*Va;
plot(Va, Pa)
[Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC);
plot(Vmp, Pa_max, 'r*')
end
title('(a) PV Power vs. Voltage')
xlabel('Module Voltage (V)')
ylabel('Module Output Power (W)')
axis([0 50 0 160])
hold off
figure(2)
92
A.1.7 MATLAB Script for MPPT Simulations with DC Pump Motor Load
This MATLAB script is to test MPPT functionality with the DC pump motor as a
load introduced in Section 4.5. It uses the output sensing direct control method with the
P&O algorithm. It also calculates total energy output and total volume of water pump for a
12-hour period.
% po_dutyCycleTest4:
% Output sensing direct control method with the P&O algorithm
% (With variable load mimics DC pump motor)
% Irradiance data on a sunny day
%
% Written by Akihiro Oi: September 6, 2005
% Revised: September 9, 2005
%//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
clear;
93
% Define constants
% Cell temperature (deg C)
TaC = 25;
deltaD = .0035; % Step size for Duty Cycle change (.35%)
% Define variables with initial conditions
Rload = .2;
% Initial load (armature resistance of DC motor) (Ohms)
% Irradiance (1G = 1000W/m^2)
G = 0.028;
D = .10;
% Duty Cycle, D(k+1), (0.1 Min, O.6 Max)
D_k_1 = .10;
% Duty Cycle, D(k-1), (0.1 Min, O.6 Max)
% PV voltage, Va(k-1)
Va_k_1 = 0;
Pa_k_1 = 0;
% PV output power, Pa(k-1)
% Output voltage of Ck converter, Vo(k-1)
Vo_k_1 = 0;
Io_k_1 = 0;
% Output current of Ck converter, Io(k-1)
Po_k_1 = 0;
% Output power of Ck converter, Po(k-1)
% Volume of water pumped per sample
Volume = 0;
% Set up arrays storing data for plots
Va_array = [];
Ia_array = [];
Pa_array = [];
Vo_array = [];
Io_array = [];
Po_array = [];
D_array = [];
Rload_array = [];
%Pmax_array =[];
Volume_array =[];
% Load irradiance data
load irrad;
x = irrad(:,1)';
y = irrad(:,2)';
xi = 147.4e+3:190.6e+3;
yi = interp1(x,y,xi,'cubic');
%
%
%
%
%
94
95
96
A.1.8 MATLAB Script for MPPT Simulations with Direct-coupled DC Water Pump
This MATLAB script is to make comparative tests with PV water pumping system
which employs direct-coupling between PV and the pump motor in Section 4.6. The script
also calculates total energy output and total volume of water pump for a 12-hour period.
% directCoupledSystem:
% DC pump motor is direct-coupled with PV module
% (Variable load mimics DC pump motor)
% * Testing on a sunny day
%
% Written by Akihiro Oi: September 6, 2005
% Revised: September 9, 2005
%//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
clear;
% Define constants
TaC = 25;
% Cell temperature (deg C)
% Define variables with initial conditions
Rload = .2;
% Initial load (armature resistance of DC motor)(Ohms)
G = 0.028;
% Irradiance (1G = 1000W/m^2)
% Set up arrays storing data for plots
Va_array = [];
Ia_array = [];
Pa_array = [];
Vo_array = [];
Io_array = [];
Po_array = [];
Rload_array = [];
Pmax_array =[];
Volume_array =[];
97
%
%
%
%
%
98
figure(1)
plot (Va_array, Pa_array, 'g')
% Overlay with P-V curves and MPP
Va = linspace (0, 45, 200);
hold on
for G=.2:.2:1
Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC);
Pa = Ia.*Va;
plot(Va, Pa)
[Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC);
plot(Vmp, Pa_max, 'r*')
end
title('(a)Direct-coupled System')
xlabel('Module Voltage (V)')
ylabel('Module Output Power (W)')
axis([0 50 0 160])
hold off
figure(2)
plot (Va_array, Ia_array, 'g')
% Overlay with I-V curves and MPP
hold on
for G=.2:.2:1
Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC);
plot(Va, Ia)
[Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC);
plot(Vmp, Imp, 'r*')
end
title('(b) PV Current vs. Voltage')
xlabel('Module Voltage (V)')
ylabel('Module Current(A)')
axis([0 50 0 5])
hold off
figure(3)
plot (Vo_array, Io_array, 'g.')
title('(c) Output Current vs. Voltage')
xlabel('Output Voltage (V)')
ylabel('Output Current (A)')
axis([0 35 0 6])
figure(4)
hold on
VolumeMin = Volume_array.*60;
sample = 1:43.2e+3;
Hour=sample./3600;
plot(Hour, VolumeMin)
xlabel('Hour')
ylabel('Flow Rate (L/min)')
axis([0 12 0 14])
99
160
1000W/m
end
1000W/m 2
4.5
140
end
4
800W/m2
100
600W/m 2
80
400W/m 2
60
800W/m2
3.5
Module Current(A)
120
3
600W/m2
2.5
2
400W/m2
1.5
40
1
200W/m 2
20
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
160
200W/m2
0.5
start
start
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
end
140
end
120
100
80
60
3
Load Line
start
40
1
20
0
start
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Duty Cycle
0.7
0.8
0.9
10
15
20
Output Voltage (V)
25
Figure A-1: MPPT Simulations with the direct control method (P&O algorithm)
100
30
35
160
1000W/m 2
end
1000W/m 2
4.5
140
end
4
800W/m2
100
600W/m 2
80
400W/m 2
60
800W/m2
3.5
Module Current(A)
120
3
600W/m2
2.5
2
400W/m2
1.5
40
1
200W/m 2
20
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
160
200W/m2
0.5
start
start
0
10
15
20
25
30
Module Voltage (V)
35
40
45
50
end
140
end
120
100
80
60
3
Load Line
start
40
1
20
0
start
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Duty Cycle
0.7
0.8
0.9
10
15
20
Output Voltage (V)
25
Figure A-2: MPPT Simulations with the direct control method (incCond algorithm)
101
30
35
Appendix B
B.1 DSP Control
The power electronics lab located in the building 20, room 104, has a DSP Starter Kit
(DSK) for Texas Instruments (TI) TMS320F2812 DSP. This appendix provides introduction
of this DSP and the SIMULNK tool for implementation of DSP.
102
B.1.3 Example
The following SIMULINK block diagram presents a simple example of implementing
control system in SIMULINK using the Blockset for TI DSP. As shown in Figure B-1, the
system consists of the following blocks: C28x ADC, a gain, C28x PWM, and F2812 eZdsp.
Another set of block diagram located below is to emulate this system. The analog voltage
(0.39V) is input to the A/D converter. The PWM generator is also emulated, and the gain is
included in the sub-block. Figure B-2 shows the input voltage (0.39V) and the PWM output
shown as duty cycle (10%). In practice, a control law comes in the place of gain block. It
could be SIMULINK blocks or an embedded MATLAB function.
C28x ADC
12.
C28x ADC
Gain1
W1 C28x PWM
C28x PWM
0.39
F2812 eZdsp
PWM Emulation
Analog Voltage
Subsystem
Pulse Width
Control
Duty Cycle
(%)
Info
Figure B-1: A simple example of generating PWM from the voltage input
Figure B-2: Plots of the input voltage and the PWM output shown as duty cycle
103