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Foi this ieseaich pioject I am looking at two siues of the issue on teaching typing
vS teaching cuisivehanuwiiting. I will look at this thiough the ieseaich on both
cuisive anu keyboaiuing anu also piint wiiting. I will incluue piint wiiting
ieseaich because some ieseaich on hanuwiiting uiscusses both piint anu cuisive
in the stuuies oi moie geneial iueas that incluue both cuisive anu piint. I aim to
moie ueeply unueistanu the aiguments foi these two subjects so that I can shaie
this knowleuge with fellow euucatois as we plan anu mouify oui cuiiiculum as
we entei an age wheie technology is becoming the noim in the classioom.

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The ieseaich methous I've ieau about on this topic Cuisive vS Typing: which
communication tool is most necessaiy foi stuuents., have been qualitative in
natuie.

0ne ieseaich methou ieseaicheis useu was to conuuct theii own tests uuiing
fielu ieseaich in which school age paiticipants weie given instiuction. Then
ieseaicheis useu an infoimal assessment oi wiiting analysis to examine levels of
giowth. These methous weie tiue with ieseaicheis such as with Rogeis, }., Case-
Smith, }. (2uu2) anu theii examination of hanuwiiting peifoimance compaieu to
keyboaiuing. In this stuuy some paiticipants wiote out a nuiseiy ihyme while
the otheis typeu the same nuiseiy ihyme. The hanuwiiting anu typing was then
compaieu foi speeu. Similaily, ieseaich foi the Banuwiiting Without Teais
piogiam was also uone thiough the methou of hanuwiiting analysis, (0wens,
L.L., 2uu4, uuy, }. N., 2uuS anu Pontello, K. N., 1999). In this stuuy a sample of the
hanuwiiting of stuuents was analyzeu foi legibility anu speeu again. Eiuogan
(2uu7) useu a vaiiation of this ieseaich methou wheie stuuent's hanuwiiting
was analyzeu foi speeu anu legibility both at the stait anu the enu of the school
yeai.

Anothei ieseaich methou is when ieseaicheis gatheieu uata pioviueu by
selecteu teacheis thiough suiveys (Soimunen,1989, Kelly, 2uu6, anu Nogey, N.,
Puicell, N., Pateison, }. anu Buik, }. (2u1u). The suiveys weie given to teacheis
anu stuuents foi feeuback on piefeience between typing anu wiiting anu also on
teaching cuisive. The stuuy conuucteu by Nogey, N., Puicell, N., Pateison, }. anu
Buik, }. (2u1u) analyzeu college stuuent wiiting. In this case these ieseaicheis
gave the stuuents a questionnaiie to ueteimine stuuents' piefeience foi
hanuwiiting an exam oi typing a mock exam.

}ames, K.B. (2uu6) implementeu a thiiu ieseaich methou, wheie NRI tests
measuieu stuuent's biain activity. In this stuuy, like otheis, ieseaicheis also
woikeu uiiectly with stuuents giving them something to wiite, type, oi tiace. The
uiffeience is that then ieseaicheis peifoimeu an NRI test on the stuuents while
stuuents lookeu back at theii own wiiting anu typing to ueteimine how the biain
piocesses looking at wiiting.


The qualitative ieseaich methous that analyzeu stuuent wiiting weie likely veiy
beneficial because they gave fiist-hanu eviuence to the stuuies, which offeieu
veiy specific uata. Anothei stiong methou of ieseaich is the thiiu methou in
which ieseaicheis gave NRI tests to paiticipants. This methou woulu piouuce
cleai anu conciete uata anu can be useu foi looking at both qualitative anu
quantitative uata iesults. The suivey methous also weie beneficial ieseaich
methous because they offeieu a wiue vaiiety of feeuback. In oiuei to collect uata
ieseaicheis suiveyeu teacheis on the piogiess of stuuents anu theii hanuwiiting
anu the opinions of stuuents weie also collecteu. This methou howevei may not
be as beneficial as the uiiect analysis of stuuent woik oi biain functions because
this uata is less conciete anu theie allows ioom foi bias, which can skew the
valiuity of a stuuy.


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I have founu moie ieseaich on the effects of hanuwiiting compaieu to the
amount of ieseaich on the effects of typing. This is most likely because typing is
the moie iesent communication tool of the two.

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Seveial stuuies have been conuucteu on the impoitance of hanuwiiting anu
moie specifically cuisive anu the benefits it has on stuuent achievement. Seton
(2u12) has compileu ieseaich on the effectiveness of teaching cuisive
hanuwiiting. She makes seveial points which aigue the neeu foi teaching cuisive
such as how it aiues those stuuents with uyslexia because it omits the possibility
foi tiansposingieveising letteis. Seton also claims that, "The focus on
fluency in hanuwiiting instiuction foi young chiluien enables ciitical thinking to
uevelop." Anothei ieseaichei, Beiningei (2u12) claims that humans aie "wiieu
to engage thinking with the hanu." In Beiningei's yeais of ieseaich she has maue
claims like these veiy impoitant to the stuuy. While hei ieseaich is focuseu on
hanuwiiting in geneial it ielates to cuisive as well, being that since cuisive anu
piint aie fine motoi skills compaieu to typing.


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It has been founu that theie is a coiielation between ieauing acquisition anu
lettei foimation ability at the eaily stages (Rose, 2uu4). Stuuents in the stuuy
who weie able to wiite alphabet letteis at a fastei iate weie also able to ieau
moie fluently. It has also been uiscoveieu thiough ieseaich that cuisive wiiting
stimulates biain activity. Reseaicheis say that wiiting helps us to connect oui
hanu with oui thoughts. We aie able to use oui hanus to communicate oui
thinking, (Beiningei, 2u12). Though this ieseaich is piofounu on achievement
fuithei ieseaich is showing that cuisive is being ueemphasizeu uue to high stake
tests anu technology. It appeais that since cuisive is not testeu it becomes less
impoitant to teach, (Kelly 2uu6). Theie aie claims that cuisive wiiting is only
taught until S
iu
giaue now anu that the amount of time given to teaching cuisive
is also uiminishing (Zezima, 2u11).

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The ieseaich suppoiting teaching keyboaiuing in the eaily yeais is minimal
compaieu to stuuies on the benefits of hanuwiiting. Bowevei, fiom the stuuies
by Beta Pi Epsilon (Soimunen, 1989) we leain that elementaiy keyboaiuing skill
instiuctions aie not up to the business woilu stanuaius. If stuuents continue
leaining to type at the pace shown in the stuuy they will not be auequately ieauy
foi the business woilu. In a stuuy by Rogeis & Case-Smith (2uu2) it was founu
that theie weie moueiate to low coiielations between hanuwiiting speeu anu
legibility anu typing speeu. The low coiielation suggests that keyboaiuing may
be a stiongei skill foi some chiluien with pooi hanuwiiting. Rogeis & Case-
Smith also founu that chiluien with pooi hanuwiiting skills may benefit fiom
keyboaiuing because they woulu be able to focus on content anu meaning iathei
than accuiate anu quick foimation of letteis. A tienu noticeu by uoiuon (2u1u) is
that, "Nany school uistiicts have abanuoneu cuisive in favoi of teaching basic
computei liteiacy skills, a move which, in the eyes of many, bettei piepaies kius
foi life in the technologically competitive 21
st
centuiy." 0n the contiaiy, Nangen
anu velay (2u1u) have founu that, "ieplacing the mechanical typewiitei with the
uigital computei anu its woiu piocessing softwaie intiouuces new featuies of
equally impeisonalizeu anu uisembouieu wiiting."

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I staiteu this ieseaich topic not suie which skill is moie impoitant but hoping
ieseaich woulu give me an answei. I also hopeu to finu lots of ieseaich to
suppoit cuisive vS keyboaiuing howevei theie is little publisheu ieseaich on
this topic specifically. I uiu finu plenty of eviuence on the impoitance of
hanuwiiting in geneial. Reseaich shows how impoitant it is to leain hanuwiiting
in geneial uue to the cognitive uevelopment it stimulates (Nangan anu velay
2u1u), as opposeu to the benefits of typing. Although most ieseaich founu is
suppoitive of piint hanuwiiting theie is beginning to be moie ieseaich pioving
that cuisive hanuwiiting, moie specifically, has benefits such as allowing those
with uyslexia to connect letteis anu avoiu ieveising them anu. Reseaich has
also founu that ".many uistiicts now teach cuisive only in thiiu giaue, with
fewei lessons," Zezima, K. (2u11). This is the same in the foui schools, which I
have taught aiounu the globe.

The small amount of ieseaich on typing says that it's impoitant to leain typing
foi the piofessional woilu anu also as an alteinative to hanuwiiting foi exams.
Some ieseaich also claims that typing allows those who stiuggle with wiiting to
leave behinu this stiuggle anu communicate by typing insteau.

Thiough this liteiatuie ieview I have founu that typing uoes have an impoitant
place in the uppei elementaiy anu latei yeais of school but it is cleai that
hanuwiiting anu moie specifically cuisive is impeiative in the eaily yeais.


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Soimunen, C. (2---). Elementaiy School Keyboaiuing: A Case foi Skill
Bevelopment.
http:schools.utah.govcteuocumentskeyboaiuingieseaichEK_A
CaseFoiSkillBevelopment.puf

The National honoiaiy society, Belta Pi Epsilon pait of business
euucation conuucteu a stuuy calleu The National Stuuy of
Instiuctional Piactices anu Peiceptions of Elementaiy School
Teacheis about TypewiitingKeyboaiuing. 7SS Elementaiy Teacheis
fiom vaiious sizeu classiooms weie suiveyeu about theii keyboaiuing
instiuctional time, the length of time stuuents hau to leain the keys of
a keyboaiu, anu the length of time stuuents weie given foi piacticing
typing, The aim of the stuuy was to pioviue guiuelines foi how much
keyboaiuing instiuction is necessaiy foi auequate uevelopment,
functional skill, the type of instiuction that is best, anu the uegiee of
masteiy the teachei must have. It was founu that stuuents ieceiveu
less than 1u houis of instiuction anu piactice which is consiueieu not
long enough foi an auequate level of keyboaiuing skills. A longituuinal
stuuy was also conuucteu ovei two yeais on 44 fouith giaue stuuents
leaining to keyboaiu. It was noteu that moie time foi the stuuy was
uesiiable. This stuuy founu that some keyboaiuing skill impiovement
coulu be maue ovei time if stuuents hau uaily piactice. It was also
founu that it was impoitant that stuuents leaineu how theii uevices
woikeu so that theie was less eiioi because the usei was not familiai
with the sensitivity of the uevices' keyboaius. In oiuei to inciease anu
maintain keyboaiuing skills teacheis neeueu bettei planning anu
piofessional uevelopment foi instiucting keyboaiuing. They also neeu
suppoit anu collaboiation fiom business euucatois to ensuie that
stuuents keyboaiuing skills woulu uevelop anu be auequate foi school
anu the business woilu.


Rogeis, }., Case-Smith, }. (2uu2). Relationships Between Banuwiiting anu
Keyboaiuing Peifoimance of Sixth-uiaue. Retiieveu fiom the
Ameiican }ouinal of 0ccupational Theiapy.

A stuuy was conuucteu to leain about the ielationship between
hanuwiiting anu keyboaiuing peifoimance. The stuuy lookeu at 4u
0hio sixth giaue stuuents who took a stanuaiu keyboaiuing couise.
The aim of the stuuy specifically investigateu if speeu anu legibility
ielateu to keyboaiuing accuiacy anu speeu anu if hanuwiiting
legibility anu speeu can ueem stuuents to be slow oi fast keyboaiueis.
The paiticipants weie askeu to copy in theii own way by hanu a
veision of "Twinkle Twinkle Little Stai" anu they also typeu the poem.
The hanuwiitten sample anu typeu sample weie then compaieu foi
speeu anu accuiacy. It was founu that

Rose, R.v. NB. (2uu4) The WiitingReauing Connection.
http:www.peteisonhanuwiiting.comPublicationsPBF_veisionsB
obRoseFluencyStuuy.puf.

In oiuei to investigate the possible coiielation between leaining to
wiite anu leaining to ieau a stuuy was conuucteu on S fiist giaue
classiooms with a total of 94 chiluien. The chiluien weie askeu to
wiite alphabet letteis uuiing a twenty-seconu inteival. A letteis pei
minute (LPN) value was ueteimineu by multiplying the numbei of
letteis each chilu wiote by thiee. A seconu similai stuuy was iecoiueu
on five kinueigaiten classes assessing a total of 1u6 chiluien. It was
founu that theie is a coiielation between ieauing anu wiiting fluency
in the eaily giaues (kinueigaiten anu fiist) but uoes not holu as the
chiluien get oluei. S4 fouith giaueis weie also assesseu anu it was
founu that theie was little to no coiielation in the alphabet piinting
iates anu those with ieauing abilities below giaue level. "Bata
suggests that fluency in wiiting the letteis of the alphabet is a
ieasonable goal foi all noimal chiluien by the enu of fiist-giaue."
(Rose, 2uu4)

Nogey, N., Puicell, N., Pateison, }., Buik, }. (2u1u). Banuwiiting oi Typing
Exams- Can We uive Stuuents the Choice.
http:www.uocs.hss.eu.ac.ukuivinityAbout%2uthe%2uschoolEle
ainingBanuwiitng%2uoi%2utyping%2uexams.puf.

Nogey, Puicell, Pateison, anu Buik investigateu whethei it's beneficial
to give stuuents a choice of typing oi hanuwiiting exams. 7u fiist yeai
Chiistian Theology stuuents weie given a choice to take a mock exam
anu eithei type oi hanuwiiting the exam. Foi each typeu exam
volunteeis piouuceu a hanuwiitten exam anu foi each hanuwiitten
exam a typist piouuceu a typeu exam. In both scenaiios the mistakes
weie ieplicateu. All stuuents took a questionnaiie both befoie anu
aftei the mock exam. 0ne iesult of this stuuy is that stuuents who
chose to type weie likely to wiite moie in the exam than those who
chose to hanuwiite theii exams.

Nangen, A., velay, }-L. (2u1u). Bigitizing Liteiacy: Reflections on the Baptics
of Wiiting.
http:www.lists.ufl.euucgibinwa.AS=inu11u6a&L=PSYART&E=bas
e64&P=479S944&B=uuuS2SSSbu4a7892Scu4aS24ub2u&T=applicati
on%2Fpuf;%2uname=%22Wiiting%2uby%2uhanu,%2unot%2utypin
g.puf%22&N=Wiiting%2uby%2uhanu,%2unot%2utyping.puf&attach
ment=q

Nangen anu velay compaie the haptics of hanuwiiting to
keyboaiuing. They uiscuss issues ielateu to hanuwiiting anu how it is
ielateu to keyboaiuing. Nangen anu velay go into uetail iegaiuing
what it woulu mean to ieplace hanuwiiting with typing such as how
when typing "wiiting is conveiteu into a single 'kinetic melouy', no
longei iequiiing the memoiizing of the visual foim of each isolateu
lettei oi inuiviuual motoi impulses foi making eveiy stioke" (Nangen
& velay 2u1u). They also uiscuss the implications this change woulu
have on stuuents' cognitive uevelopment.

0wens, L.L. (2uu4). The Effects of the Banuwiiting Without Teais Piogiam
on the Banuwiiting of Stuuents in Inclusion Classiooms.
http:www.hwteais.comfilesBWT%2uReseaich%2uReview.puf

In attempt to unueistanu the effectiveness of the Banuwiiting
Without Teais piogiam 8u Seconu giaue stuuents weie testeu using
the Ninnesota Banuwiiting Assessment. 0vei a peiiou of 1u weeks,
two classes weie given hanuwiiting instiuction via *+#,-.%&%#/
B%&0):& ="+.' anu two weie given instiuction thiough tiauitional
mateiials. The stuuents who weie given instiuction with Banuwiiting
without teais showeu iemaikable impiovement in hanuwiiting
compaieu with those who hau tiauitional instiuction.

Pontello, K. N. (1999). The Effectiveness of a Stiuctuieu Banuwiiting
Piogiam. Retiieveu fiom
http:www.hwteais.comfilesBWT%2uReseaich%2uReview.puf

A stuuy of the effectiveness of Banuwiiting Without Teais was
conuucteu by testing thiee giaue 2 classes ovei a peiiou of time. The
classes weie testeu multiple times. Two weie testeu using BWT anu
the othei was testeu with tiauitional 'ball anu stick' methous. This
stuuy ievealeu that the two gioups who weie testeu with Banuwiiting
Without Teais showeu significant impiovement in both size anu
alignment compaieu to the contiol gioup.

uuy, }. N. (2uuS). Effect of Piopiioceptive Input Combineu with "Banuwiiting
Without Teais" on the Banuwiiting of Chiluien with Leaining
Bisabilities.
http:www.hwteais.comfilesBWT%2uReseaich%2uReview.puf

Six stuuents weie testeu using Banuwiiting Without Teais. Thiee
fiist-giaue anu thiee seconu-giaue stuuents who ieceive uiiection
occupational theiapy weie put into two gioups. uioup A anu gioup B.
Both gioups ieceiveu instiuction with Banuwiiting Without Teais.
0ne gioup also ieceiveu piopiioceptive input. Both gioups showeu
impiovement with use of the Banuwiiting Without Teais piogiam.
The gioup who ieceiveu piopiioceptive input impioveu moie.

Seton, E. (2u12). Teaching Cuisive Banuwiiting Fiist Leaus to Fluency in
Reauing anu Wiiting.
http:www.peteisonhanuwiiting.comPublicationsPBF_veisionsC
uisive_Fiist_Leaus_to_Reauing.puf

Elizabeth Seton compiles ieseaich fiom seveial souices on the
effectiveness of teaching cuisive hanuwiiting. She makes seveial
points which aigue the neeu foi teaching cuisive such as how it aiues
those stuuents with uyslexia because it omits the possibility foi
tiansposingieveising letteis.

Zezima, K. (2u11). The Case foi Cuisive. New Yoik Times.

Zezima wiites an aiticle about how otheis claim that cuisive is
impoitant foi unueistanuing the past. She auuiesses the neeu to ieau
cuisive to unueistanu histoiical uocuments.


Beiningei, v. (2u12). Eviuence-Baseu, Bevelopmentally Appiopiiate
Wiiting Skills K to S: Teaching the 0ithogiaphic Loop of Woiking
Nemoiy to Wiite Letteis, Spell Woius, anu Expiess Iueas. Retiieveu
fiom
http:www.hw21summit.comieseaich-beiningei

viigina Beiningei has conuucteu ieseaich on wiiting foi ovei two
uecaues. She has founu that hanuwiiting is not only a motoi skill but
also much moie. She says that "(Banuwiiting) uistinguishes humans
fiom all othei species." She says it "allows us to have consciousness
anu to uo time tiavel," Beiningei (2u12).

}ames, K.B. (2uu9). Sensoii-motoi expeiience leaus to changes in visual
piocessing in the ueveloping biain. Bevelopmental Science. pp 1-1u.
B0I: 1u.1111j.1467-7687.2uu9.uu88S.x.
http:www.iub.euu~canlabPublications_filesTINE_2u12_piepiint.
puf

}ames' stuuy was conuucteu on 2S pieliteiate (4-S yeais olu) chiluien.
The chiluien piinteu, typeu oi tiaceu letteis anu shapes anu then
weie shown images of these letteis anu shapes while having an NRI
piefoimeu. The NRI was meant to look foi activity in the ieauing
ciicuit. This activity was appaient when viewing the hanuwiiting but
not the typeu oi tiaceu. It was ueteimineu baseu on this stuuy that
hanuwiiting aiues in leaining to ieau anu is theiefoie impoitant in the
eaily yeais.



Kelly, }.L. (2uu6). The lost ait of cuisive wiiting: The impact of state
stanuaius on
cuiiiculum uecision-making. Ashlanu 0niveisity, PioQuest, 0NI
Bisseitations Publishing, 2uu6. S227S68. Retiieveu fiom
PioQuest.com.

Kelly conuucteu ieseaich in a two-folu methou of both qualitative anu
quantitative appioaches. A suivey was given to thiiu anu fouith giaue
teacheis in six uistiicts in 0hio. This suivey aimeu to measuie
qualitatively anu quantitatively the unueistanuing that teacheis hau
on theii uecision making foi cuiiiculum with iegaius to cuisive. 0pen-
enueu questions weie askeu. Kelly founu that teacheis felt cuisive has
been ueemphasizeu anu that they feel they weie pait of the uecision
making piocess to a uegiee. It was founu that stanuaiuizeu tests anu
technology cieateu piessuie that ueemphasizeu cuisive.

Eiuogan, Tolga. "The Investigation on the Bevelopment of Cuisive
Banuwiiting
of the Piimaiy School Fiist Yeai Stuuents." C/%&%8 4" !%6%8 S7.16S
(2u12): 9S. D.)E:"'&F Web. 2 Aug. 2u1S.

Eiuogan conuucteu ieseaich on the uevelopment of fiist yeai
stuuent's cuisive wiiting ovei the yeai. 117 fiist yeai stuuents' texts
weie analyzeu foi speeu anu legibility both at the stait of the yeai anu
the enu. It was ueteimineu that stuuents' legibility uiun't impiove but
theii cuisive wiiting speeu uiu.


uoiuon, N. (2uu9). Fiom Cuisive to Cuisoi: The Beath of Banuwiiting. Retiieveu
fiom http:www.euucation.commagazineaiticlecuisive-cuisoi-
ueath-hanuwiiting

Eaily wiote this aiticle to uiscuss the shift fiom teaching cuisive to
teaching keyboaiuing anu ieasons foi this change. Be maue the point that
while cuisive is valuable foi ieasons such as ieauing histoiical uocuments
anu making hanuwiiting moie legible. Be also maue the aigument that
schools aie poiseu to abanuon cuisive because of the cuiiiculum ciunch
anu the uiive to piepaie stuuents foi the futuie.

Eaily, ueoige B. "The Case foi Cuisive Wiiting." G>+,"8%> =0".+7@ 9.1 (197S):
1uS-8. D.)E:"'&F Web. 2 Aug. 2u1S.


uiay, W. B. "An Expeiimental Compaiison of the Novements in Nanusciipt
Wiiting anu Cuisive Wiiting." }ouinal of Euucational Psychology 21.4 (19Su):
2S9-72. Retiieveu fiom PioQuest. Web. 2 Aug. 2u1S.

Eiuman, Anuy. "Is Cuisive Wiiting Cuiseu." NcClatchy - Tiibune Business News:
1. Api 1S 2uu7. PioQuest. Web. 2 Aug. 2u1S.