WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP: THE STATE OF PLAY

Deborah L. Rhode and Barbara Kellerman

!l"# $%%& '
Some (o!r de'ade) a*o# Be++" Fr,edan hel-ed la!n'h +he 'on+em-orar" .omen/)
mo0emen+ .,+h her -!bl,'a+,on o( The Feminine Mystique. The boo1 (amo!)l" ,den+,(,ed a
2-roblem +ha+ ha) no name3: Amer,'an .omen/) 'on(,nemen+ +o a )e-ara+e and !ne4!al dome)+,'
)-here. One (a'+or 'on+r,b!+,n* +o .omen/) !ne4!al )+a+!) .a) +he,r ab)en'e (rom leader)h,-
-o),+,on). Ano+her a)-e'+ o( +he -roblem .a) +he la'1 o( '!l+!ral 'on)en)!) +ha+ +h,) ab)en'e .a)
,+)el( -ar+ o( +he -roblem# and a ma++er o( )o',al 'on'ern.
O0er +he la)+ )e0eral de'ade)# .e ha0e named +ha+ leader)h,- -roblem and 'rea+ed
a 'o++a*e ,nd!)+r" +o addre)) ,+. Women/) !nderre-re)en+a+,on ,n -o),+,on) o( -o.er *enera+e) an
,n'rea),n* arra" o( 'omm,++ee)# 'omm,)),on)# 'on)!l+an+)# 'en+er)# 'on(eren'e)# and 'ommen+ar"
)!'h a) +he e))a") +ha+ (ollo.. Ye+ .h,le .e ha0e made 'on),derable -ro*re)) ,n !nder)+and,n*
+he -roblem# .e rema,n a d,)-,r,+,n* d,)+an'e (rom )ol0,n* ,+.
I. The 5nderre-re)en+a+,on o( Women ,n Leader)h,- Role)
The (a'+) are (r!)+ra+,n*l" (am,l,ar. De)-,+e almo)+ a hal(6'en+!r" o( e4!al o--or+!n,+"
le*,)la+,on# .omen/) o--or+!n,+,e) (or leader)h,- are an"+h,n* b!+ e4!al. To be )!re# +he ),+!a+,on
ha) ,m-ro0ed ),*n,(,'an+l" o0er +h,) -er,od# -ar+,'!larl" ,( leader)h,- ,) broadl" de(,ned +o
,n'l!de ,n(ormal a) .ell a) (ormal e7er',)e) o( a!+hor,+".
8
B" +ha+ de(,n,+,on# +he -er'en+a*e o(
.omen ,n leader)h,- role) ,) )!b)+an+,al and ,) ,n'rea),n* drama+,'all". Tha+ ,) -ar+,'!larl" +r!e
,n mana*emen+ and +he -ro(e)),on)# .here .omen no. o''!-" ro!*hl" hal( o( all 9ob).
$
Women
al)o hold -o),+,on) o( -o.er ,n a .,de ran*e o( *o0ernmen+al# non6-ro(,+# and rel,*,o!)
'on+e7+)#.
:
B!+ +he" are )+,ll *ro))l" !nderre-re)en+ed a+ +he +o- and o0erre-re)en+ed a+ +he
bo++om o( +he mo)+ ,n(l!en+,al leader)h,- h,erar'h,e).
In +he 5n,+ed S+a+e)# .omen are a ma9or,+" o( +he ele'+ora+e b!+ hold onl" a 4!ar+er o(
!--er6le0el )+a+e *o0ernmen+al -o),+,on) and 8; -er'en+ o( 'on*re)),onal )ea+).
<
O0er hal( o(
'olle*e *rad!a+e) b!+ le)) +han a 4!ar+er o( (!ll -ro(e))or) and a (,(+h o( 'olle*e -re),den+) are
(emale.
;
In mana*emen+# .omen a''o!n+ (or abo!+ a +h,rd o( M.B.A. 'la))e)# b!+ onl" $ -er'en+
o( For+!ne ;%% =EO)# > -er'en+ o( +o- leader)h,- -o),+,on)# and 8& -er'en+ o( board d,re'+or)
and 'or-ora+e o((,'er).
&
In la.# .omen 'on)+,+!+e abo!+ hal( o( ne. en+ran+) +o +he -ro(e)),on# b!+
le)) +han a (,(+h o( la. (,rm -ar+ner)# (ederal 9!d*e)# la. )'hool dean)# and For+!ne ;%% *eneral
'o!n)el). The *a- .,den) (or .omen o( 'olor# .ho a''o!n+ (or onl" abo!+ < -er'en+ o(
'on*re)),onal le*,)la+or)# : -er'en+ o( (!ll -ro(e))or)# and 8 -er'en+ o( 'or-ora+e o((,'er)# la.
(,rm -ar+ner)# and *eneral 'o!n)el).
?
From an ,n+erna+,onal -er)-e'+,0e# +he 5n,+ed S+a+e) ,) b" no mean) a+"-,'al. Ho.e0er# a)
)!b)e4!en+ d,)'!)),on ma1e) 'lear# ne,+her ,) ,+ a .orld leader# a+ lea)+ ,n +he n!mber o( .omen
-ol,+,'al leader). A+ +h,) .r,+,n*# +he 5n,+ed S+a+e) ran1) ),7+"6n,n+h ,n (emale le*,)la+,0e
re-re)en+a+,on# beh,nd =a-e @erde# S,n*a-ore # T!r1men,)+an# A,mbab.e # and +he
Ph,l,--,ne).
>
O0erall# +he -er'en+a*e o( .omen ,n ele'+,0e o((,'e ha) *ro.n )!b)+an+,all" o0er
+he la)+ 4!ar+er 'en+!r"# b!+ a) )e0eral 'ommen+a+or) ,n +h,) 0ol!me no+e# -ro*re)) rema,n)
)l!**,)h.
B
Women hold abo!+ 8& -er'en+ o( +he )ea+) ,n -arl,amen+ar" bod,e) and abo!+ 88
-er'en+ o( +he -re),d,n* o((,'er -o),+,on). A+ '!rren+ ra+e) o( 'han*e# ,+ .o!ld +a1e abo!+ a
'en+!r" (or .omen +o rea'h e4!al re-re)en+a+,on ,n le*,)la+,0e o((,'e).
8%
A ),m,lar -a++ern ,)
a--aren+ .,+h head) o( )+a+e. Abo!+ & -er'en+ o( +he .orld/) +o- -ol,+,'al leader) are (emale# !-
(rom le)) +han 8 -er'en+ ,n lB;%. S,n'e +he 8BB%)# onl" abo!+ :% .omen ha0e )er0ed a) head) o(
$
)+a+e# al+ho!*h an ,n'rea),n* n!mber ha0e been ,n -o.er(!l na+,on) )!'h a) +he 5n,+ed K,n*dom#
Ind,a# Cerman"# and =h,le.
88
=om-rehen),0e ,n+erna+,onal da+a ,) !na0a,lable (or .omen/) re-re)en+a+,on ,n leader)h,-
role) ,n b!),ne)) and +he -ro(e)),on)# b!+ +he l,m,+ed ,n(orma+,on +ha+ ha) been 'om-,led )!**e)+)
am-le room (or -ro*re)). For e7am-le# a'ro)) E!ro-e# .omen ma1e !- onl" abo!+ a +h,rd o(
h,*h6le0el de',),on ma1er)# ,n'l!d,n* le*,)la+or)# )en,or *o0ernmen+ o((,',al)# and b!),ne))
mana*er).
8$
Onl" > -er'en+ o( d,re'+or) and ; -er'en+ o( +o- e7e'!+,0e) ,n +he $%% lar*e)+
'om-an,e) are (emale.
In )ome o( +he mo)+ -o.er(!l na+,on)# ,n'l!d,n* Cerman"# a-an# and Crea+ Br,+a,n# +he
(,*!re) are )+,ll .or)e.
8:
No+ a ),n*le .oman (,*!red ,n a re'en+ For+!ne ma*aD,ne )!r0e" o( +he
$; h,*he)+6-a",n* =EO/) ,n E!ro-e# and ,n )ome 'o!n+r,e)# no .oman ha) e0er headed a lar*e
*lobal 'or-ora+,on.
8<
In man" na+,on) ,n A),a# A(r,'a# and +he M,dea)+# .omen ha0e d,((,'!l+"
.al1,n* !ne)'or+ed or .or1,n* ,n an" )e++,n* o!+),de +he,r home) or (,eld)# le+ alone a)'end,n* a
leader)h,- ladder.
8;
De)-,+e ),*n,(,'an+ na+,onal 0ar,a+,on)# +he *lobal .or1(or'e ,) h,*hl" *ender6
)e*re*a+ed and *ender6)+ra+,(,ed# and -ro*re)) +o.ard e4!,+" a+ +he h,*he)+ le0el) ha) been )lo.
and !ne0en.
8&

Th,) 'ha-+er e7-lore) +he rea)on) (or +he)e -er),)+en+ and -er0a),0e ,ne4!al,+,e). Al+ho!*h
+he e7-lana+,on) 0ar" )ome.ha+ a'ro)) na+,onal# '!l+!ral# and o''!-a+,onal 'on+e7+)# 'ommon
ob)+a'le) +o .omen/) leader)h,- emer*e. The (ollo.,n* d,)'!)),on (o'!)e) on +he 5n,+ed S+a+e)#
.h,'h ha) +he mo)+ .ell6de0elo-ed re)ear'h on +he ,))!e. Ho.e0er# anal"),) ,) ,n(ormed b" +he
,n+erna+,onal da+a a0a,lable# -ar+,'!larl" on +o-,') )!'h a) -ol,+,'al re-re)en+a+,on and
.or1E(am,l" -ol,',e) on .h,'h +he 5n,+ed S+a+e la*) beh,nd o+her na+,on).
:
An ,n,+,al ,))!e (or 'on),dera+,on ,n0ol0e) +he role o( .omen/) o.n 'ho,'e) ,n e7-la,n,n*
.omen/) !nderre-re)en+a+,on ,n leader)h,- -o),+,on). Al+ho!*h +he)e 'ho,'e) -la" an ,m-or+an+
-ar+# +he" 'anno+ be !nder)+ood ,n ,)ola+,on (rom broader '!l+!ral 'on)+ra,n+). A) +he d,)'!)),on
belo. )!**e)+)# +he)e 'on)+ra,n+) ,n'l!de *ender b,a)e) ,n leader)h,- o--or+!n,+,e)# *ender role)
,n (am,l,e)# ,n(le7,b,l,+" ,n .or1-la'e )+r!'+!re)# and ,nade4!a',e) ,n )o',al -ol,',e).
II. Womens Choices
The mo)+ 'ommon# and (or man" 'on)+,+!en',e)# mo)+ 'on0en,en+ e7-lana+,on (or
.omen/) !nderre-re)en+a+,on ,n leader)h,- -o),+,on) ,) .omen/) 'ho,'e). Prom,nen+ ne.)
-!bl,'a+,on)# +ele0,),on +al1 )ho.)# and em-lo"ee 'h,+'ha+ all o((er 0ar,a+,on) on a lon*)+and,n*
+heme: .omen .ho o-+ o!+ o( (!ll +,me -ro(e)),onal .or1 ,n order +o 1ee- +he home (,re)
b!rn,n*.
8?
In 8B&?# Fr,edan/) Feminist Mystique -rom-+ed ),m,lar e7-lana+,on) (or .omen/)
ab)en'e a+ leader)h,- le0el). 2To -ara-hra)e +he (amo!) l,ne#3 .ro+e +he New York Times
re0,e.er# 2+he (a!l+# dear Mr). Fr,edan# ,) no+ ,n '!l+!re b!+ ,n o!r)el0e).3
8>
Almo)+ (o!r de'ade)
la+er# L,)a Bel1,n/) 'o0er )+or" ,n +he New York Times Magazine la,d blame ,n ),m,lar -la'e). In
her a''o!n+ o( +he 2o-+6o!+ re0ol!+,on#3 .omen are !nderre-re)en+ed ,n leader)h,- -o),+,on) le))
be'a!)e 2+he .or1-la'e ha) (a,led .omen3 +han be'a!)e 2.omen are re9e'+,n* +he .or1-la'e.3
2Wh" don/+ .omen r!n +he .orldF3 a)1) Bel1,n. 2Ma"be ,+/) be'a!)e +he" don/+ .an+ +o.3
8B
S!'h e7-lana+,on) 'a-+!re a -ar+,al +r!+h. Women# ,n'l!d,n* +ho)e .,+h leader)h,-
'reden+,al)# do on a0era*e ma1e d,((eren+ 'ho,'e) +han menG more o-+ o!+ (or a+ lea)+ )ome -er,od
and more .ho )+a" ,n rema,n 'h,ldle)). In a )+!d" b" +he =en+er (or Wor16L,(e Pol,'" o( )ome
:%%% h,*h6a'h,e0,n* Amer,'an .omen and men Hde(,ned a) +ho)e .,+h *rad!a+e or -ro(e)),onal
de*ree) or h,*h honor) !nder*rad!a+e de*ree)I# nearl" (o!r ,n +en .omen re-or+ed lea0,n* +he
.or1 (or'e 0ol!n+ar,l" a+ )ome -o,n+ o0er +he,r 'areer). The )ame -ro-or+,on re-or+ed )ome+,me)
<
'hoo),n* a 9ob .,+h le))er 'om-en)a+,on and (e.er re)-on),b,l,+,e) +han +he" .ere 4!al,(,ed +o
a))!me ,n order +o a''ommoda+e (am,l" re)-on),b,l,+,e). B" 'on+ra)+# onl" one ,n +en men le(+ +he
.or1(or'e -r,mar,l" (or (am,l"6rela+ed rea)on).
$%
Al+ho!*h o+her )!r0e") (,nd )ome 0ar,a+,on ,n
+he n!mber o( .omen .ho o-+ o!+ +o a''ommoda+e dome)+,' obl,*a+,on)# all o( +he)e )+!d,e) (,nd
)!b)+an+,al *ender d,((eren'e).
$8
Almo)+ $% -er'en+ o( .omen .,+h *rad!a+e or -ro(e)),onal
de*ree) are no+ ,n +he labor (or'e# 'om-ared .,+h onl" ; -er'en+ o( ),m,larl" 'reden+,aled men.
One ,n +hree .omen .,+h MBA) are no+ .or1,n* (!ll +,me# 'om-ared .,+h one ,n +.en+" men.
$$

The o0er.helm,n* ma9or,+" o( +he)e .omen do# ho.e0er# .an+ +o re+!rn +o .or1# and mo)+ do
)o# al+ho!*h *enerall" no+ .,+ho!+ ),*n,(,'an+ 'areer 'o)+) and d,((,'!l+,e).
$:
The )ame ,) +r!e ,n
o+her ad0an'ed ,nd!)+r,al na+,on) (or .h,'h da+a ,) a0a,lable.
$<

F,nd,n*) on 'areer a)-,ra+,on) and e7-e'+a+,on) are al)o m,7ed# b!+ *ender d,((eren'e)
+"-,'all" emer*e. A )!r0e" o( )ome 8$%% e7e'!+,0e) ,n 0ar,o!) re*,on) o( +he .orld (o!nd +ha+
)!b)+an+,all" more .omen +han men re-or+ed red!',n* 'areer a)-,ra+,on) +o a''ommoda+e
-er)onal and (am,l" 'on'ern).
$;
In one re'en+ 5n,+ed S+a+e) -oll# a +h,rd o( .omen H'om-ared +o
onl" a (,(+h o( menI re-or+ed ),*n,(,'an+ .or1E(am,l" 'on(l,'+) and a need +o ma1e )a'r,(,'e)
,n0ol0,n* ho!r)# +ra0el# and )+re)) ,n order +o ad0an'e -ro(e)),onall".
$&
In mo)+# al+ho!*h no+ all#
)+!d,e)# (e.er h,*hl" 4!al,(,ed .omen +han men de)'r,bed +hem)el0e) a) 0er" amb,+,o!)# or
,n+ere)+ed ,n a =EO -o),+,on or ele'+,0e -ol,+,'al o((,'e.
$?
A) )!b)e4!en+ d,)'!)),on ,nd,'a+e)#
+he)e .omen are al)o le)) l,1el" +han +he,r ),m,larl" 4!al,(,ed male 'ollea*!e) +o ne*o+,a+e (or
-ro(e)),onal o--or+!n,+,e).
$>

Cender d,((eren'e) ,n re-rod!'+,0e 'ho,'e) are al)o a--aren+. M!'h h,*her -er'en+a*e) o(
h,*hl" 'reden+,aled .omen +han men -er'e,0e )er,o!) -roblem) ,n re'on',l,n* .or1 and (am,l"
obl,*a+,on)# and m!'h h,*her -er'en+a*e) o( .omen rema,n 'h,ldle)). In +he ,n+erna+,onal )!r0e"
;
no+ed abo0e# (emale e7e'!+,0e) .ere more +han +.,'e a) l,1el" a) +he,r male 'o!n+er-ar+) +o
dela" marr,a*e or )+ar+,n* a (am,l" ,n order +o e)+abl,)h a 'areer# and 8$ -er'en+ o( .omen#
'om-ared .,+h onl" 8 -er'en+ o( men# de',ded no+ +o ha0e 'h,ldren.
$B
A re'en+ 5n,+ed S+a+e) -oll
o( For+!ne ;%% )en,or e7e'!+,0e) (o!nd +ha+ $? -er'en+ o( .omen# 'om-ared .,+h : -er'en+ o(
+he men# had no 'h,ldren.
:%
O+her el,+e -ro(e)),on) re0eal ),m,lar -a++ern). For e7am-le# ,n a
)+!d" o( +en!red Amer,'an a'adem,')# hal( o( +he .omen b!+ onl" a 4!ar+er o( +he men .ere
'h,ldle)).
:8
In )hor+# .omen .ho do no+ o-+ o!+ o( demand,n* -ro(e)),onal -o),+,on) are more
l,1el" +o o-+ o!+ o( demand,n* (am,l" obl,*a+,on).
Ye+ .ha+ ,) +oo o(+en m,))ed or mar*,nal,Ded ,n d,)'!)),on) o( .omen/) 2d,((eren+
'ho,'e)3 ,) +he e7+en+ +o .h,'h +he 'ho,'e) are )o',all" 'on)+r!'+ed and 'on)+ra,ned. Wha+ dro-)
o!+ o( +he o-+6o!+ narra+,0e are +he 'om-le7 (or'e) +ha+ dr,0e .omen/) de',),on). E4!all"
no+,'eable (or +he,r ab)en'e are +he 'ho,'e) +ha+ men ma1e# a) )-o!)e)# -ol,'" leader)# and
em-lo"er) +ha+ l,m,+ +he 'ho,'e) a0a,lable +o .omen. E7-lana+,on) (o'!),n* )olel" on .omen/)
-re(eren'e) !nder)+a+e +he )!b+le# o(+en !n'on)',o!)# b,a)e) +ha+ bo+h )ha-e +he -r,or,+,e) o( +ho)e
.ho o-+ o!+ and l,m,+ +he o--or+!n,+,e) (or +ho)e .ho o-+ ,n. O0er +he la)+ 4!ar+er6'en+!r"# a
*ro.,n* n!mber o( .omen ha0e a)-,red +o leader)h,- on +he )ame +erm) a) menG +he" ha0e made
+he )ame 'ho,'e) a) +he,r male 'o!n+er-ar+) b!+ 'on(ron+ an add,+,onal )e+ o( ob)+a'le). The)e
barr,er) de)er0e *rea+er -!bl,' a++en+,on and -ol,'" ,n,+,a+,0e).
III. Gender Bias in Leadership Opportunities
Gender Stereotypes
One o( +he mo)+ ,n+ra'+able ob)+a'le) (or .omen )ee1,n* -o),+,on) o( ,n(l!en'e ,) +he
m,)ma+'h be+.een +he 4!al,+,e) +rad,+,onall" a))o',a+ed bo+h .,+h .omen and .,+h leader)h,-.
The 2*rea+ man3 model o( leader)h,- ,) )+,ll .,+h !) and +he +erm ,) )eldom !)ed *ener,'all".
Mo)+ 'hara'+er,)+,') a))o',a+ed .,+h leader) are ma)'!l,ne: dom,nan'e# a!+hor,+"# a))er+,0ene))
&
and )o (or+h.
:$
In re'en+ "ear)# +h,) d,)9!n'+!re be+.een (em,n,n,+" and leader)h,- ha) le))ened
)ome.ha+. Women are be'om,n* more l,1e men ,n +he,r 'areer a)-,ra+,on) and a'h,e0emen+)#
and are more .,ll,n* +o )ee +hem)el0e) a) ha0,n* 4!al,+,e) a))o',a+ed .,+h a!+hor,+".
::
More
.omen no. o''!-" h,*hl" 0,),ble leader)h,- role)# and re'en+ +heor,e) o( leader)h,- ha0e
)+re))ed +he ,m-or+an'e o( ,n+er-er)onal 4!al,+,e) 'ommonl" a++r,b!+ed +o .omen# )!'h a)
'oo-era+,on and 'ollabora+,on.
:<

Ye+ de)-,+e +he)e +rend)# +rad,+,onal *ender )+ereo+"-e) )+,ll lea0e .omen .,+h a do!ble
)+andard and a do!ble b,nd. Men 'on+,n!e +o be ra+ed h,*her +han .omen on mo)+ o( +he 4!al,+,e)
a))o',a+ed .,+h leader)h,-.
:;
Wha+ ,) a))er+,0e ,n a man )eem) abra),0e ,n a .oman# and (emale
leader) r,)1 )eem,n* +oo (em,n,ne or no+ (em,n,ne eno!*h. On +he one hand# +he" ma" a--ear +oo
2)o(+3J!nable or !n.,ll,n* +o ma1e +he +o!*h 'all) re4!,red ,n -o),+,on) o( *rea+e)+ ,n(l!en'e.
On +he o+her hand# +ho)e .ho m,m,' +he 2male model3 are o(+en 0,e.ed a) )+r,den+ and o0erl"
a**re)),0e or amb,+,o!). 2A++,la +he Hen3 and 2+he Dra*on Lad"3 ha0e d,((,'!l+" enl,)+,n*
re)-e'+# )!--or+# and 'oo-era+,on (rom 'o.or1er).
:&
Indeed# )ome e7e'!+,0e 'oa'he) ha0e
de0elo-ed a mar1e+ n,'he ,n rehab,l,+a+,n* 2b!ll" broad)#3 (emale mana*er) .ho 'ome a'ro)) a)
,n)!((,',en+l" (em,n,ne.
:?
An o0er0,e. o( more +han a h!ndred )+!d,e) 'on(,rm) +ha+ .omen are
ra+ed lo.er a) leader) .hen +he" ado-+ a!+hor,+a+,0e )eem,n*l" ma)'!l,ne )+"le)# -ar+,'!larl"
.hen +he e0al!a+or) are men# or .hen +he role ,) one +"-,'all" o''!-,ed b" men.
:>
Ye+ o+her
re)ear'h (,nd) +ha+ ,nd,0,d!al) .,+h ma)'!l,ne )+"le) are more l,1el" +o emer*e a) leader) +han
+ho)e .,+h (em,n,ne )+"le). In e((e'+# .omen (a'e +radeo(() +ha+ men do no+. A)-,r,n* (emale
leader) 'an be l,1ed b!+ no+ re)-e'+ed# or re)-e'+ed b!+ no+ l,1ed# ,n )e++,n*) +ha+ ma" re4!,re
,nd,0,d!al) +o be bo+h ,n order +o )!''eed.
?
O+her *ender6rela+ed )+ereo+"-e) are ,n'on),)+en+ .,+h leader)h,- role). Ha0,n* 'h,ldren
ma1e) .omen# b!+ no+ men# a--ear le)) 'om-e+en+ and le)) a0a,lable +o mee+ .or1-la'e
re)-on),b,l,+,e).
:B
The +erm 2.or1,n* (a+her3 ,) rarel" !)ed and 'arr,e) none o( +he ad0er)e
'onno+a+,on) o( 2.or1,n* mo+her.3 A++,+!de) +o.ard )el(6-romo+,on re(le'+ a rela+ed m,)ma+'h
be+.een )+ereo+"-e) a))o',a+ed .,+h leader)h,- and .,+h (em,n,n,+": Women are e7-e'+ed +o be
n!r+!r,n*# no+ )el(6)er0,n*# and en+re-rene!r,al beha0,or) 0,e.ed a) a--ro-r,a+e ,n men are o(+en
0,e.ed a) d,)+a)+e(!l ,n .omen.
<%

Be'a!)e )!'h )+ereo+"-e) o-era+e a+ !n'on)',o!) le0el) and )ele'+,on) (or
leader)h,- -o),+,on) ,n0ol0e )!b9e'+,0e and 'on(,den+,al 9!d*men+)# +he e7+en+ o( b,a) ,) hard +o
a))e)). I+ ,)# ho.e0er# ,n)+r!'+,0e +ha+ ,n e7-er,men+al )e++,n*)# re)!me) are ra+ed more (a0orabl"
.hen +he" 'arr" male ra+her +han (emale name).
<8
And ,n lar*e6)'ale )!r0e") o( )en,or e7e'!+,0e
.omen# +he mo)+ (re4!en+l" ',+ed ob)+a'le +o ad0an'emen+ ,) 2male )+ereo+"-,n* and
-re'on'e-+,on).3
<$
Pol,+,',an) ',+e ),m,lar barr,er) and a )!b)+an+,al )e*men+ o( +he -!bl,' a*ree).
Al+ho!*h re'en+ -oll) (,nd +ha+ B? -er'en+ o( Amer,'an) )a" +ha+ +he" .o!ld 0o+e (or a 4!al,(,ed
.oman (or -re),den+# onl" abo!+ hal( +h,n1 +he 'o!n+r" ,) read" (or a (emale leader# and e0en
(e.er bel,e0e +ha+ +he,r ne,*hbor) are.
<:
Al+ho!*h +he e7+en+ o( b,a) 0ar,e) )ome.ha+ b" 'o!n+r"#
'ro))6'!l+!ral da+a lea0e) no do!b+ abo!+ +he -er0a),0ene)) o( +rad,+,onal *ender )+ereo+"-e).
<<
Man" .omen al)o ,n+ernal,De +he)e )+ereo+"-e)# .h,'h 'rea+e) a -)"'holo*,'al *la))
'e,l,n*. On a0era*e# .omen a--ear le)) .,ll,n* +o en*a*e ,n )el(6-romo+,n* or a))er+,0e
beha0,or)# or +o +a1e +he r,)1) +ha+ ma" be ne'e))ar" (or leader)h,- role).
<;
So +oo# a) one
'om-rehen),0e o0er0,e. o( *ender ,n ne*o+,a+,on) -!+) ,+# 2Women don/+ a)1.3 An !n.,ll,n*ne))
+o )eem +oo 2-!)h"3 or 2d,((,'!l+#3 and an !nder0al!a+,on o( +he,r o.n .or+h# o(+en de+er)
.omen (rom ne*o+,a+,n* e((e'+,0el" (or .ha+ +he" .an+ or need.
<&
In .or1-la'e )e++,n*)# +he
>
re)!l+ ,) +ha+ (emale em-lo"ee) ma" be le)) l,1el" +han +he,r male 'ollea*!e) +o *a,n +he
a)),*nmen+)# -o),+,on)# and )!--or+ ne'e))ar" (or leader)h,- role).
O+her 'o*n,+,0e b,a)e) 'om-o!nd +he (or'e o( +he)e +rad,+,onal )+ereo+"-e). Peo-le are
more l,1el" +o no+,'e and re'all ,n(orma+,on +ha+ 'on(,rm) +he,r -r,or a))!m-+,on) +han
,n(orma+,on +ha+ 'on+rad,'+) +ho)e a))!m-+,on)G +he d,))onan+ da+a ,) (,l+ered o!+. For e7am-le#
.hen em-lo"er) a))!me +ha+ a .or1,n* mo+her ,) !nl,1el" +o be (!ll" 'omm,++ed +o her 'areer#
+he" more ea),l" remember +he +,me) .hen )he le(+ earl" +han +he +,me) .hen )he )+a"ed la+e. So
+oo# a++orne") .ho a))!me +ha+ .omen o( 'olor are bene(,',ar,e) o( -re(eren+,al +rea+men+# no+
mer,+6 ba)ed )ele'+,on # .,ll re'all +he,r error) more read,l" +han +he,r ,n),*h+). A rela+ed -roblem
,) +ha+ -eo-le )hare .ha+ -)"'holo*,)+) label a 29!)+ .orld3 b,a).
<?
The" .an+ +o bel,e0e +ha+# ,n
+he ab)en'e o( )-e',al +rea+men+# ,nd,0,d!al) *enerall" *e+ .ha+ +he" de)er0e and de)er0e .ha+
+he" *e+. Per'e-+,on) o( -er(orman'e (re4!en+l" are ad9!)+ed +o ma+'h ob)er0ed o!+'ome). I(
.omen# -ar+,'!larl" .omen o( 'olor# are !nderre-re)en+ed ,n -o),+,on) o( *rea+e)+ -rom,nen'e#
+he mo)+ -)"'holo*,'all" 'on0en,en+ e7-lana+,on ,) +ha+ +he" la'1 +he ne'e))ar" 4!al,(,'a+,on) or
'omm,+men+.
The)e -er'e-+,on) 'an# ,n +!rn# -re0en+ .omen (rom *e++,n* a)),*nmen+) +ha+ .o!ld
demon)+ra+e +he,r 'a-ab,l,+,e)# and a '"'le o( )el(6(!l(,ll,n* -red,'+,on) ,) e)+abl,)hed.
<>
In
mana*er,al 'on+e7+)# de',),on ma1er) *enerall" )ee .omen a) more )!,+ed (or 9ob) ,n0ol0,n*
h!man rela+,on) +han +ho)e ,n0ol0,n* l,ne re)-on),b,l,+,e) (or -ro(,+) and lo))e). The ab)en'e o(
)!'h 9ob e7-er,en'e ,) +he ma9or rea)on *,0en b" =EO) ,n +he 5n,+ed S+a+e) and abroad (or
.omen/) !nderre-re)en+a+,on ,n leader)h,- -o),+,on).
<B
Cender )+ereo+"-e) al)o hel- e7-la,n .h"
.omen are le)) l,1el" +o be 0,e.ed a) leader) +han ),m,larl" ),+!a+ed men. For e7am-le# ,n
)+!d,e) .here -eo-le )ee a man )ea+ed a+ +he head o( a +able (or a mee+,n*# +he" +"-,'all" a))!me
B
+ha+ he ,) +he leader. The" do no+ ma1e +he )ame a))!m-+,on .hen +he -er)on ,n +ha+ )ea+ ,) a
.oman.
;%
IV. In-Group Favoritism: Gender Bias in Evaluations and Mentoring Networks
A rela+ed -roblem ,n0ol0e) ,n6*ro!- (a0or,+,)m. E7+en),0e re)ear'h do'!men+) +he
-re(eren'e) +ha+ ,nd,0,d!al) (eel (or member) o( +he,r o.n *ro!-). Lo"al+"# 'oo-era+,on#
(a0orable e0al!a+,on)# and +he allo'a+,on o( re.ard) and o--or+!n,+,e) all ,n'rea)e ,n l,1el,hood
(or ,n6*ro!- member).
;8
A 1e" e7am-le ,) +he -re)!m-+,on o( 'om-e+en'e +ha+ dom,nan+ *ro!-)
a''ord +o +he,r member) b!+ no+ +o o!+),der). Member) o( ,n6*ro!-) +end +o a++r,b!+e
a''om-l,)hmen+) o( (ello. member) +o ,n+r,n),' 'hara'+er,)+,')# )!'h a) ,n+ell,*en'e# dr,0e# and
'omm,+men+. B" 'on+ra)+# +he a'h,e0emen+) o( o!+6*ro!- member) are o(+en a)'r,bed +o l!'1 or
)-e',al +rea+men+.
;$
E0en ,n e7-er,men+al ),+!a+,on) .here male and (emale -er(orman'e ,)
ob9e'+,0el" e4!al# .omen are held +o h,*her )+andard)# and +he,r 'om-e+en'e ,) ra+ed lo.er.
;:

Moreo0er# (or .omen# e((e'+,0e -er(orman'e doe) no+ ne'e))ar,l" )!**e)+ leader)h,- -o+en+,al.
In one re'en+ )+!d" o( $>%% mana*er)# )!-er0,)or) .ho ra+ed (emale )!bord,na+e) )ome.ha+
h,*her +han men ,n '!rren+ 'om-e+en'e ra+ed +he .omen lo.er ,n lon*6+erm leader)h,-
-o+en+,al.
;<
A*a,n# .omen o(+en ,n+ernal,De +he)e )+ereo+"-e)G +he" *enerall" )ee +hem)el0e) a) le))
de)er0,n* +han men (or re.ard) (or +he )ame -er(orman'e and le)) 4!al,(,ed (or 1e" leader)h,-
-o),+,on).
;;
In male6dom,na+ed )e++,n*)# a)-,r,n* (emale leader) are al)o )!b9e'+ +o )-e',al
)'r!+,n" and -olar,Ded a))e))men+). Cender )+ereo+"-e) are -ar+,'!larl" )+ron* .hen .omen/)
re-re)en+a+,on doe) no+ e7'eed +o1en le0el)# and +oo (e. 'o!n+ere7am-le) are -re)en+ +o
'hallen*e 'on0en+,onal a))!m-+,on).
;&
A )mall n!mber o( )!-er)+ar) .,ll a++ra'+ )-e',al no+,'e
and re'e,0e h,*her e0al!a+,on) +han +he,r male 'o!n+er-ar+)# b!+ .omen .ho are 9!)+ belo. +ha+
8%
le0el +end +o *e+ d,)-ro-or+,ona+el" lo.er e0al!a+,on).
;?
A+ +he )ame +,me# +he -re)en'e o( a (e.
h,*hl" re*arded .omen a+ +he +o- 'rea+e) +he ,ll!),on +ha+ +he *la)) 'e,l,n* ha) been )ha++ered (or
e0er"one el)e. And .hen )!-er)+ar) (a,l or o-+ o!+# +he,r de-ar+!re) a++ra'+ -ar+,'!lar no+,'e and
re,n(or'e )+ereo+"-e) abo!+ .omen/) le))er 'a-ab,l,+,e) and 'omm,+men+.
;>
In6*ro!- (a0or,+,)m ,) al)o a--aren+ ,n +he ,n(ormal ne+.or1) o( men+or,n*# 'on+a'+)# and
)!--or+ +ha+ are 'r,+,'al (or ad0an'emen+. Peo-le *enerall" (eel mo)+ 'om(or+able .,+h +ho)e .ho
are l,1e +hem ,n ,m-or+an+ re)-e'+)# ,n'l!d,n* *ender. Women ,n +rad,+,onall" male6dom,na+ed
)e++,n*) o(+en rema,n o!+ o( +he loo- o( ad0,'e and -ro(e)),onal de0elo-men+ o--or+!n,+,e).
;B

Women o( 'olor al)o e7-er,en'e +he -ar+,'!lar d,((,'!l+,e) o( ,)ola+,on and e7'l!),on.
&%
S!r0e") o(
!--er6le0el Amer,'an mana*er) (,nd +ha+ almo)+ hal( o( .omen o( 'olor and 'lo)e +o a +h,rd o(
.h,+e .omen ',+e a la'1 o( ,n(l!en+,al men+or) a) a ma9or barr,er +o ad0an'emen+.
&8
A ),m,lar
-roblem 'on(ron+) -o+en+,al leader) ,n o+her -ro(e)),onal and -ol,+,'al )e++,n*) ,n +he 5n,+ed
S+a+e) and abroad.
&$
The rela+,0el" )mall n!mber o( .omen .ho are ,n -o),+,on) o( -o.er o(+en
la'1 +he +,me or +he le0era*e# or ,n )ome 'a)e) +he ,n'l,na+,on# +o a)),)+ all .ho ma" ho-e +o 9o,n
+hem. D,((eren'e) a'ro)) ra'e# e+hn,',+"# and '!l+!re 'om-o!nd +he -roblem. Wh,+e men .ho
.o!ld l,1e +o (,ll +he *a-) ,n men+or,n* o(+en la'1 +he 'a-a',+" +o do )o or are .orr,ed abo!+ +he
a--earan'e o( (orm,n* 'lo)e rela+,on)h,-) .,+h .omen# -ar+,'!larl" .omen o( 'olor.
&:
Al+ho!*h
a *ro.,n* n!mber o( or*an,Da+,on) are a++em-+,n* +o re)-ond b" e)+abl,)h,n* (ormal men+or,n*
-ro*ram) and .omen/) ne+.or1)# +he -la",n* (,eld ,) )+,ll (ar (rom le0el.
V. Gender Roles in Family Settings
Iron,'all"# +he home ,) no more an e4!al o--or+!n,+" em-lo"er +han ,) +he .or1-la'e:
onl" ,n dome)+,' ma++er) +he -re)!m-+,on) o( 'om-e+en'e are re0er)ed# .h,'h 'rea+e) !ne4!al
(am,l" b!rden). Women are# and are e7-e'+ed +o be# +he -r,mar" 'are*,0er)# e)-e',all" o( +he
88
0er" "o!n* and +he 0er" old. In -r,n',-le# mo)+ men )!--or+ *ender e4!al,+"# b!+ ,n -ra'+,'e# +he"
(a,l +o )+r!'+!re +he,r l,0e) +o -romo+e ,+. De)-,+e a ),*n,(,'an+ ,n'rea)e ,n men/) dome)+,' .or1
o0er +he la)+ +.o de'ade)# .omen 'on+,n!e +o )ho!lder +he ma9or b!rden.
&<
In one re-re)en+a+,0e
)!r0e" o( h,*h6a'h,e0,n* .omen# (o!r o( +en (el+ +ha+ +he,r h!)band) 'rea+ed more dome)+,' .or1
+han +he" 'on+r,b!+ed.
&;
Mo)+ male leader) ,n b!),ne)) and -ro(e)),onal -o),+,on) ha0e )-o!)e)
.ho are (!ll6+,me homema1er)# or .ho are .or1,n* -ar+6+,me. The )ame ,) no+ +r!e o( (emale
leader)# .ho# .,+h (e. e7'e-+,on)# are e,+her ),n*le or ha0e -ar+ner) .,+h (!ll6+,me 9ob).
&&
Fe. o(
+he)e h!)band) are .,ll,n* +o )!bord,na+e +he,r o.n 'areer) +o a)),)+ +he,r .,0e).
&?
Far more
mo+her) +han (a+her) are ),n*le -aren+)# and +ha+ ,) -ar+,'!larl" +r!e o( .omen o( 'olor .ho o(+en
a))!me add,+,onal 'are+a1,n* obl,*a+,on) (or +he,r e7+ended (am,l".
&>
Do!ble )+andard) ,n dome)+,' role) are dee-l" roo+ed ,n '!l+!ral a++,+!de) and .or1-la'e
-ra'+,'e). Wor1,n* mo+her) are held +o h,*her )+andard) +han .or1,n* (a+her) and are o(+en
'r,+,',Ded (or be,n* ,n)!((,',en+l" 'omm,++ed# e,+her a) -aren+) or -ro(e)),onal). Tho)e .ho )eem
.,ll,n* +o )a'r,(,'e (am,l" need) +o .or1-la'e demand) a--ear la'1,n* a) mo+her). Tho)e .ho
+a1e e7+ended lea0e) or red!'ed )'hed!le) a--ear la'1,n* a) leader). The)e m,7ed me))a*e)
lea0e man" .omen .,+h +he !n'om(or+able )en)e +ha+ .ha+e0er +he" are do,n*# +he" )ho!ld be
do,n* )ome+h,n* el)e.
&B
Ne,+her -!bl,' a++,+!de) nor .or1-la'e -ra'+,'e) )!--or+ re0er)al) o( +he +rad,+,onal
allo'a+,on o( dome)+,' role). Fe.er +han 8; -er'en+ o( Amer,'a/) For+!ne 8%% 'om-an,e) o((er
+he )ame -a,d -aren+al lea0e +o (a+her) a) +o mo+her)# and an e0en )maller -er'en+a*e o( men +a1e
an" e7+ended -er,od o( +,me a.a" (rom +he,r 9ob) (or (am,l" rea)on).
?%
S,m,lar -a++ern) -re0a,l
,n+erna+,onall" e7'e-+ ,n +he rela+,0el" (e. 'o!n+r,e) +ha+ manda+e 2!)e ,+ or lo)e ,+3 -a,d lea0e
(or men.
?8
Em-lo"er) +ha+ onl" *r!d*,n*l" a''ommoda+e mo+her) 'an be e0en more re),)+an+ +o
8$
(a+her). Dadd" +ra'1) are no+,'eable (or +he,r ab)en'e. Ye+ .or1-la'e -ol,',e) +ha+ d,)ad0an+a*e
men al)o d,)ad0an+a*e .omen. B" d,)'o!ra*,n* h!)band) (rom a))!m,n* an e4!al d,0,),on o(
ho!)ehold re)-on),b,l,+,e)# -re0a,l,n* -aren+al lea0e )+r!'+!re) re,n(or'e *ender role) +ha+ are
)e-ara+e and b" no mean) e4!al. A) lon* a) .or1E(am,l" ,))!e) are )een a) -roblem) -r,mar,l"
(or .omen# -o+en+,al )ol!+,on) are l,1el" +o re'e,0e ,nade4!a+e a++en+,on ,n leader)h,- ',r'le) )+,ll
dom,na+ed b" men.
The *ender ,mbalan'e ,n (am,l" role) re,n(or'e) *ender ,ne4!al,+,e) ,n 'areer
de0elo-men+. Women .,+h demand,n* .or1 and (am,l" 'omm,+men+) o(+en la'1 +,me (or +he
ne+.or1,n* and men+or,n* a'+,0,+,e) +ha+ are ne'e))ar" (or ad0an'emen+. A) (ormer =a+al")+
Pre),den+ She,la Well,n*+on no+e)# a+ +he end o( +he da"# man" 2men head (or dr,n1). Women (or
+he dr" 'leaner).3 Men -,'1 !- +,-)G .omen -,'1 !- 1,d)# la!ndr"# d,nner# and +he ho!)e.
?$

Al+ho!*h .omen on leader)h,- +ra'1) 'an o(+en a((ord +o b!" +he,r .a" o!+ o( dome)+,'
dr!d*er"# no+ all (am,l" obl,*a+,on) 'an be read,l" o!+)o!r'ed. When a)1ed ho. .omen 'an
)ol0e +he .or1E(am,l" 'on(l,'+# Clor,a S+e,nem a-+l" an).ered: 2Women 'an/+# !n+,l men are
a)1,n* +ha+ 4!e)+,on +oo.3 I( .omen are 'hoo),n* no+ +o r!n +he .orld# ,+/) -ar+l" be'a!)e men
are 'hoo),n* no+ +o r!n +he .a)herEdr"er.
VI. Inflexible Workplace Structures and Inadequate Public Policies
All o( +he)e -roblem) are 'om-o!nded b" ,nade4!a',e) ,n +he .or1-la'e and +he -!bl,'
-ol,',e) +ha+ addre)) +hem. Cender ,ne4!al,+,e) ,n (am,l" role) -o)e -ar+,'!lar 'hallen*e) (or
.omen ,n leader)h,- -o),+,on)# .h,'h +"-,'all" re4!,re h,*hl" demand,n* )'hed!le). Ho!rl"
re4!,remen+) ,n mo)+ -ro(e)),on) ha0e ,n'rea)ed drama+,'all" o0er +he la)+ +.o de'ade)# and
.ha+ ha) no+ 'han*ed ,) +he n!mber o( ho!r) ,n +he da".
?:
For leader) ,n b!),ne))# -ol,+,')# and
8:
+he -ro(e)),on)# all .or1 and no -la" ,) (a)+ be'om,n* +he norm ra+her +han +he e7'e-+,onG ),7+"6
ho!r .or1.ee1) are +"-,'al.
?<
Te'hnolo*,'al ,nno0a+,on) ha0e 'rea+ed a) man" -roblem) a) +he"
ha0e )ol0ed. Al+ho!*h +he" ma1e ,+ ,n'rea),n*l" -o)),ble (or .omen +o .or1 a+ home# +he" al)o
ma1e ,+ ,n'rea),n*l" ,m-o)),ble no+ +o. Man" h,*h6a'h,e0,n* .omen rema,n +e+hered +o +he,r
o((,'e +hro!*h ema,l)# (a7e)# bee-er)# and Bla'1berr,e). 5n)!r-r,),n*l"# mo)+ .omen ,n !--er6
le0el -ro(e)),onal and b!),ne)) -o),+,on) re-or+ +ha+ +he" do no+ ha0e )!((,',en+ +,me (or
+hem)el0e) or +he,r (am,l,e).
?;
Some (eel +he" 'anno+ mana*e a *old(,)h# m!'h le)) a 'h,ld.
?&

Man" a)-,r,n* leader)# -ar+,'!larl" .omen o( 'olor# e7-re)) (r!)+ra+,on .,+h .or1-la'e demand)
+ha+ 'om-e+e .,+h 'omm,+men+) +o 'omm!n,+"# rel,*,o!)# and o+her 0ol!n+ar" or*an,Da+,on) +ha+
are ,m-or+an+ ,n +he,r l,0e).
??
Par+ o( +he -roblem ,) +he .,de *a- be+.een (ormal -ol,',e) and a'+!al -ra'+,'e)
'on'ern,n* .or1E(am,l" 'on(l,'+). Al+ho!*h mo)+ .omen ,n +o- mana*er,al and -ro(e)),onal
-o),+,on) ha0e a''e)) +o red!'ed or (le7,ble )'hed!le)# (e. o( +he)e .omen (eel able +o +a1e
ad0an+a*e o( )!'h o-+,on). For e7am-le# o0er B% -er'en+ o( Amer,'an la. (,rm) re-or+ -ol,',e)
-erm,++,n* -ar+6+,me .or1# "e+ onl" abo!+ < -er'en+ o( la."er) a'+!all" !)e +hem.
?>
Mo)+ .omen
bel,e0e# .,+h *ood rea)on# +ha+ an" red!'+,on ,n ho!r) or a0a,lab,l,+" .o!ld 9eo-ard,De +he,r
'areer -ro)-e'+). A .,de 0ar,e+" o( re)ear'h (,nd) +ha+ e0en )hor+6+erm ad9!)+men+) ,n .or1,n*
)'hed!le) )!'h a) lea0e) or -ar+6+,me )+a+!) (or !nder a "ear re)!l+ ,n lon*6+erm red!'+,on) ,n
earn,n*) and ad0an'emen+.
?B
The )+re))# ,n(le7,b,l,+"# and !nmana*eable +,me demand) +ha+ re)!l+ (rom .or1-la'e
norm) -la" a ma9or role ,n .omen/) de',),on) +o )+e- o(( +he leader)h,- +ra'1 bo+h ,n +he 5n,+ed
S+a+e) and abroad.
>%
Al+ho!*h man" o( +he)e .omen re+!rn +o h,*h6-o.ered 'areer)# o+her) (,nd
+he,r reen+r" blo'1ed# le)) a--eal,n* +han 0ol!n+eer .or1# or )+ar+,n* +he,r o.n )mall6)'ale
8<
b!),ne)) ,n .h,'h +he" 'an 'on+rol +he,r o.n ho!r).
>8
Some o( +he)e al+erna+,0e) -re)en+
leader)h,- o--or+!n,+,e) o( ano+her )or+# b!+ (ar +oo m!'h +alen+ (all) b" +he .a"),de.
The (a'+ +ha+ 'are+a1,n* ,) )+,ll 'on),dered -r,mar,l" an ,nd,0,d!al ra+her +han a )o',al
re)-on),b,l,+" add) +o .omen/) .or1 ,n +he home and l,m,+) +he,r o--or+!n,+,e) ,n +he .orld
o!+),de ,+. The 5n,+ed S+a+e) ,) almo)+ alone amon* ,nd!)+r,al,Ded na+,on) ,n (a,l,n* +o *!aran+ee
-a,d -aren+al lea0e)# and onl" abo!+ a +en+h o( +ho)e el,*,ble (or +he lar*el" !n-a,d o-+,on)
'!rren+l" a0a,lable +a1e ad0an+a*e o( +hem.
>$
K!al,+"# a((ordable 'h,ld'are and elder 'are are al)o
!na0a,lable (or man" .omen a++em-+,n* +o .or1 +he,r .a" !- +he leader)h,- ladder. Wh,le +he)e
are no+ ),m-l" .omen/) ,))!e)# .omen ha0e -a,d +he h,*he)+ -r,'e (or o!r (a,l!re +o addre))
+hem.
E4!al o--or+!n,+" la.) ha0e al)o -ro0ed ,nade4!a+e +o en)!re e4!al,+" ,n leader)h,-
-o),+,on). Le*al remed,e) (or *ender b,a) *enerall" re4!,re e,+her -roo( o( ,n+en+,onal
d,)'r,m,na+,on or a -a++ern and -ra'+,'e +ha+ ha) broad d,)'r,m,na+or" ,m-a'+ and ,) no+ 9!)+,(,ed
b" b!),ne)) ne'e)),+".
>:
Ne,+her remed" ,) .ell )!,+ed (or +ho)e ,n !--er6le0el -ro(e)),onal and
mana*emen+ -o),+,on). The d,((,'!l+,e) o( -roo( and +he 'o)+) o( le*al -ro'eed,n*) -re0en+ mo)+
.omen .ho e7-er,en'e *ender b,a) (rom )ee1,n* le*al remed,e).
><
The)e remed,e) are e0en le))
a''e)),ble o!+),de +he 5n,+ed S+a+e)# be'a!)e mo)+ na+,on) la'1 an+,6d,)'r,m,na+,on en(or'emen+
)+r!'+!re) and 'la))6a'+,on -ro'ed!re) +ha+ -erm,+ 'o)+6e((e'+,0e re)-on)e) (or ro!+,ne
*r,e0an'e).
>;
E0en ,n 'o!n+r,e) l,1e +he 5n,+ed S+a+e)# .h,'h ha0e rela+,0el" .ell6de0elo-ed le*al
-ro+e'+,on)# (e. ,nd,0,d!al) .an+ +o ,n'!r +he r,)1) o( re+al,a+,on or +he re-!+a+,onal ,n9!r,e) +ha+
a''om-an" (ormal 'om-la,n+). 5nle)) l,ab,l,+" ,) 'lear and dama*e) are )!b)+an+,al#
d,)'r,m,na+,on 'la,m) are ),m-l" +oo e7-en),0e +o l,+,*a+e. Ye+ l,ab,l,+" ,) )eldom 'lear (or .omen
on leader)h,- +ra'1)# .here +he 'r,+er,a (or ad0an'emen+ are )!b9e'+,0e# and +he -ool o( ),m,lar
8;
em-lo"ee) ,) +oo )mall +o -erm,+ mean,n*(!l )+a+,)+,'al 'om-ar,)on). W,nn,n* )!'h 'a)e)
(re4!en+l" demand) (a,rl" e7-l,',+ e0,den'e o( b,a)# b!+ +ho)e .ho harbor ,n+en+,onal -re9!d,'e
*enerall" ha0e +he )en)e no+ +o e7-re)) ,+ -!bl,'l".
>&
To be )!re# a (e. h,*h6-ro(,le 'a)e)
,n0ol0,n* e*re*,o!) (a'+) 'on+,n!e +o ar,)e# and +he,r lar*e dama*e a.ard) ha0e -rom-+ed m!'h6
needed 'han*e)# -ar+,'!larl" ,n (,eld) )!'h a) (,nan',al )er0,'e).
>?
B!+ (or +he 0a)+ ma9or,+" o(
.omen .ho are )+"m,ed b" )!b+le b,a) and ,n(le7,ble )'hed!le)# la.)!,+) ma1e no )en)e. 2=areer
)!,',de3 ,) a 'ommon de)'r,-+,on.
>>
In )hor+# o!r -ro*re)) rema,n) -ar+,al. We ha0e had onl" l,m,+ed )!''e)) ,n mo0,n*
.omen ,n+o leader)h,- role) +rad,+,onall" o''!-,ed b" men# and e0en le)) ,n mo0,n* men ,n+o
dome)+,' role) +rad,+,onall" o''!-,ed b" .omen. And .e ha0e no+ "e+ ob+a,ned .or1-la'e and
)o',al -ol,',e) +ha+ a''ommoda+e +he need) o( bo+h )e7e) on (am,l"6rela+ed ,))!e).
VII. The Social Costs of Gender Inequalities
Equal Opportunity as a Public oo!
Women/) !ne4!al re-re)en+a+,on ,n leader)h,- -o),+,on) -o)e) m!l+,-le 'on'ern). Mo)+
ob0,o!)l"# +he barr,er) +o .omen/) ad0an'emen+ 'om-rom,)e (!ndamen+al -r,n',-le) o( e4!al
o--or+!n,+" and )o',al 9!)+,'e. The)e barr,er) ,m-o)e or*an,Da+,onal 'o)+) a) .ell. Re)ear'her)
'on),)+en+l" (,nd a -o),+,0e 'orrela+,on be+.een +he re-re)en+a+,on o( .omen ,n leader)h,-
-o),+,on) and b!),ne)) -er(oman'e mea)!re) )!'h a) mar1e+ )hare and re+!rn on ,n0e)+men+.
>B

Al+ho!*h 'orrela+,on doe) no+ al.a") ,m-l" 'a!)a+,on# +here are )+ron* rea)on) +o bel,e0e +ha+
d,0er),+" ,n leader)h,- ha) +an*,ble -a"o(().
The mo)+ ob0,o!) rea)on ,) demo*ra-h,'. Women are no. a ma9or,+" o( 'olle*e
*rad!a+e) and a *ro.,n* )hare o( +he +alen+ a0a,lable (or leader)h,-. Or*an,Da+,on) +ha+ 'rea+e a
'!l+!re o( e4!al o--or+!n,+" are be++er able +o a++ra'+# re+a,n# and mo+,0a+e +he mo)+ 4!al,(,ed
8&
,nd,0,d!al).
B%
Red!',n* +he ob)+a'le) +o .omen/) )!''e)) al)o red!'e) +he 'o)+) o( a++r,+,on. I+
,n'rea)e) em-lo"ee)/ morale# 'omm,+men+# and re+en+,on# and de'rea)e) +he e7-en)e) a))o',a+ed
.,+h re'r!,+,n*# +ra,n,n*# and men+or,n* re-la'emen+).
B8
A )e'ond ra+,onale (or ,n)!r,n* e4!al a''e)) +o leader)h,- -o),+,on) ,) +ha+ .omen ha0e
d,)+,n'+ -er)-e'+,0e) +o 'on+r,b!+e. In order +o -er(orm e((e'+,0el" ,n an ,n'rea),n*l" 'om-e+,+,0e
and m!l+,'!l+!ral en0,ronmen+# .or1-la'e) need ,nd,0,d!al) .,+h d,0er)e ba'1*ro!nd)#
e7-er,en'e)# and )+"le) o( leader)h,-.
B$
The -o,n+ ,) no+ +ha+ +here ,) )ome ),n*le2.oman/) -o,n+
o( 0,e.#3or .oman/) leader)h,- )+"le# b!+ ra+her +ha+ *ender d,((eren'e) do ma1e )ome d,((eren'e
+ha+ need) +o be re*,)+ered ,n -o),+,on) o( -o.er.
Womens Leadership Styles and Priorities
A))!m-+,on) abo!+ *ender d,((eren'e) ,n leader)h,- )+"le) and e((e'+,0ene)) are
.,de)-read# al+ho!*h +he e0,den'e (or )!'h a))!m-+,on) ,) .ea1er +han 'ommonl" )!--o)ed
bo+h ,n +he 5n,+ed S+a+e) and abroad.
B:
The 'on0en+,onal .,)dom ,) +ha+ (emale leader) are more
-ar+,',-a+or" and ,n+er-er)onall" or,en+ed +han male leader) and are more l,1el" +o ado-+
em-a+he+,'# )!--or+,0e# and 'ollabora+,0e a--roa'he).
B<
Th,) 0,e. ,) 'on),)+en+ .,+h .omen/)
)el(6re-or+) and )ome )mall6)'ale labora+or" )+!d,e).
B;
Ho.e0er# mo)+ re)ear'h doe) no+ re0eal
*ender d,((eren'e)# -ar+,'!larl" .hen ,+ ,n0ol0e) e0al!a+,on) o( leader) b" )!-er0,)or)#
)!bord,na+e)# and -eer) ,n real6.orld )e++,n*).
B&
Nor do mo)+ )!r0e") re0eal ),*n,(,'an+ *ender
d,((eren'e) ,n +he e((e'+,0ene)) o( leader). Indeed# 'on+rar" +o -o-!lar a))!m-+,on)# lar*e6)'ale
re)ear'h *enerall" (,nd) +ha+ .omen )l,*h+l" o!+-er(orm men on all b!+ a (e. mea)!re).
B?
Wha+ a''o!n+) (or +he ,n'on),)+en'" ,n (,nd,n*) and +he d,)'onne'+ be+.een 'on0en+,onal
.,)dom and re'en+ da+aF Cender )o',al,Da+,on and )+ereo+"-e) -la" an ob0,o!) roleG +he" -!)h
.omen +o beha0e# and +o de)'r,be +he,r beha0,or# ,n .a") +ha+ are 'on),)+en+ .,+h +rad,+,onal
8?
no+,on) o( (em,n,n,+". Ye+ +he (or'e o( +he)e '!l+!ral norm) ,) 'on)+ra,ned ,n or*an,Da+,on) .here
ad0an'emen+ re4!,re) 'on(orm,+" +o a''e-+ed ,ma*e) o( leader)h,-. I+ ,) no+ )!r-r,),n* +ha+
.omen/) )+"le) are ),m,lar +o +ho)e o( male 'o!n+er-ar+)# -ar+,'!larl" ),n'e re'en+ +rend) ,n
leader)h,- ed!'a+,on ha0e en'o!ra*ed bo+h )e7e) +o ado-+ more 'ollabora+,0e# ,n+er-er)onall"
)en),+,0e a--roa'he).
B>
Nor ,) ,+ )!r-r,),n* +ha+ )ome )+!d,e) (,nd )!-er,or -er(orman'e b"
.omen leader)# *,0en +he h!rdle) +ha+ +he" ha0e had +o )!rmo!n+ +o rea'h !--er6le0el -o),+,on)
and +he -re))!re) +ha+ +he" ha0e (a'ed +o 'on),)+en+l" e7'eed e7-e'+a+,on).
BB
Wha+e0er el)e 'an
be ,n(erred (rom +h,) re)ear'h# ,+ ,) 'lear +ha+ a )o',e+" 'an ,ll a((ord +o lo)e )o man" +alen+ed
.omen (rom ,+) leader)h,- -ool. To +he e7+en+ +ha+ (emale leader) *ra0,+a+e +o.ard a
'ollabora+,0e# ,n+er-er)onall" )en),+,0e a--roa'h# ,+ .,ll -ro0e an a))e+ ,n man" leader)h,-
)e++,n*).
S,m,lar -o,n+) are a--l,'able +o *ender d,((eren'e) ,n leader)h,- -r,or,+,e). The mo)+
)")+ema+,' re)ear'h ,n0ol0e) 'omm,+men+ +o .omen/) ,))!e)# and here a*a,n# +he (,nd,n*) are
m,7ed. For e7am-le# mo)+# al+ho!*h no+ all# e0,den'e ,nd,'a+e) +ha+ (emale 9!d*e) are more
)!--or+,0e +han +he,r male 'ollea*!e) on *ender6rela+ed ,))!e).
8%%
And man" .omen 9!d*e)# bo+h
+hro!*h ,nd,0,d!al r!l,n*) and 'olle'+,0e e((or+) ,n .omen L) 9!d,',al or*an,Da+,on)# ha0e
)-earheaded re)-on)e) +o .omen/) 'on'ern) ,n area) )!'h a) dome)+,' 0,olen'e# 'h,ld )!--or+#
and *ender b,a) +ra,n,n*.
8%8
The )ame ,) +r!e o( .omen ,n -!bl,' o((,'e# .ho ha0e o(+en
'ham-,oned 'a!)e) o( -ar+,'!lar 'on'ern +o .omen. Mo)+ re)ear'h on (emale -ol,+,',an) bo+h ,n
+he 5n,+ed S+a+e) and abroad (,nd) +ha+ +he" are more l,1el" +han +he,r male 'ollea*!e) +o )!--or+
and )-on)or le*,)la+,on deal,n* .,+h +he ,n+ere)+) o( .omen and (am,l,e)# and +o ran1 )!'h
le*,)la+,on amon* +he,r h,*he)+ -r,or,+,e).
8%$
Women head) o( )+a+e are al)o -ar+,'!larl" .,ll,n* +o
'on),der *ender ,n -ol,+,'al a--o,n+men+). A -rom,nen+ 'a)e ,n -o,n+ ,) =h,le/) Pre),den+#
8>
M,'helle Ba'hele+# .ho 1e-+ a 'am-a,*n -rom,)e +o (,ll hal( o( her 'ab,ne+ )ea+) .,+h 4!al,(,ed
.omen.
8%:

Ye+ no+ all (emale leader) )hare )!'h 'omm,+men+). E7am-le) )!'h a) Mar*are+
Tha+'her rem,nd !) +ha+ ele'+,n* .omen ,) no+ al.a") +he be)+ .a" +o ad0an'e .omen/)
'on'ern). E7+en),0e re)ear'h on Amer,'an le*,)la+!re) (,nd) +ha+ -ar+" a((,l,a+,on ,) more
,m-or+an+ +han *ender ,n -red,'+,n* 0o+e) on .omen/) ,))!e)# and +ha+ ,deolo*" ,) more
,m-or+an+ ,n -red,'+,n* )-on)or)h,- o( le*,)la+,on on +he)e ,))!e).
8%<
Some o( +he .or)+
'on*re)),onal 0o+,n* re'ord) on .omen/) r,*h+) belon* +o .omen# and rela+,0el" (e. (emale
)+a+ele*,)la+or) ma1e .omen/) 'on'ern) a +o- -r,or,+".
8%;
Some .omen ,n +he 5n,+ed S+a+e) and
abroad )+,ll r!n 'am-a,*n) .,+h +he )+ra+e*" +ha+ =al,(orn,a Sena+or Barbara Bo7er .r"l"
de)'r,bed a) +he +rad,+,onal .,)dom (or (emale 'and,da+e): 2Yo! ne0er men+,oned be,n* a .oman
. . . "o! ho-ed nobod" no+,'ed.3
8%&
The )ame -o,n+ 'o!ld be made abo!+ -ro(e)),onal and mana*er,al 'on+e7+). Man" .omen
leader) ha0e made a 'r!',al d,((eren'e ,n -romo+,n* .omen/) ,))!e) and ,n 'rea+,n* ,n)+,+!+,onal
)+r!'+!re) +ha+ .,ll do +he )ame. For e7am-le# (emale !n,0er),+" -re),den+) and mana*,n*
-ar+ner) o( la. (,rm) ha0e been a+ +he (ore(ron+ o( e((or+) +o -romo+e *ender e4!,+" +hro!*h (a,rer
e0al!a+,on -ro'e))e)# ,m-ro0ed .or1E(am,l" -ol,',e)# and rela+ed ,n,+,a+,0e).
8%?
Ye+ )!r0e") al)o
(,nd lar*e n!mber) o( .omen leader) .ho do no+ a'+,0el" ad0o'a+e .omen/) ,n+ere)+).
8%>

5nderl",n* +he)e d,((eren+ -r,or,+,e) are d,((eren'e) ,n -er)onal e7-er,en'e)# r,)1)# and ,n(l!en'e.
For )ome (emale leader)# +he,r o.n e7-er,en'e) o( d,)'r,m,na+,on# mar*,nal,Da+,on# or
.or1E(am,l" 'on(l,'+) lea0e +hem .,+h a de),re +o ma1e l,(e be++er (or +he,r )!''e))or).
8%B
O+her
.omen end !- a) ad0o'a+e) -ar+l" b" de(a!l+. The" ma" be a)1ed +o re-re)en+ +he 2.oman/)
0,e.3 or be enl,)+ed b" 'ollea*!e) +o )er0e +ha+ role.
88%
B!+ no+ all (emale leader) are .,ll,n* +o
8B
a''e-+ +ha+ re)-on),b,l,+". The" ha0e ,n+ernal,Ded +he 0al!e) o( +he '!l+!re ,n .h,'h +he" ha0e
)!''eeded and ha0e l,++le ,n+ere)+ ,n -romo+,n* o--or+!n,+,e) +ha+ +he" ne0er had. The" ha0e
2*o++en +here +he hard .a"#3 and +he" ha0e 2*,0en !- a lo+G3 ,( +he" mana*ed# )o 'an e0er"one
el)e.
888
Women/) .,ll,n*ne)) +o ra,)e .omen/) ,))!e) ma" al)o de-end on +he l,1el"
'on)e4!en'e). I+ ma++er) .he+her leader) (eel )e'!re ,n +he,r -o),+,on) and )a(e ,n ra,),n* *ender6
rela+ed 'on'ern)# and .he+her +he" e7-e'+ +o bene(,+ d,re'+l" (rom +he 'han*e) ,n -ol,'" or
'l,ma+e +ha+ ma" re)!l+.
88$
All +oo o(+en# +he r,)1) o!+.e,*h +he re.ard). S!r0e") o( -ro(e)),onal)#
-ol,+,',an)# and 'or-ora+e e7e'!+,0e) re(le'+ 'ommon 'on'ern) abo!+ be,n* branded a) a (em,n,)+
or .ha+ ,) 0,e.ed a) +he (!n'+,onal e4!,0alen+: 2e7+rem,)+#3 2m,l,+an+#3 2)+r,den+#3
2o0er)en),+,0e#3 2abra),0e#3 2d,)r!-+,0e#3 or 2d,((,'!l+ +o .or1 .,+h.3
88:
E0en ,( +he" e7-re))
*ender6rela+ed 'on'ern) ,n *en+le# non6'on(ron+a+,onal +erm)# .omen o(+en .orr" +ha+ +he" .,ll
be 0,e.ed a) 2)el(6)er0,n*3 2.h,ner)3 .ho are !nable +o 'om-e+e .,+ho!+ )-e',al +rea+men+.
88<

The)e r,)1) ma" no+ )eem .or+h +a1,n* ,( .omen la'1 'on(,den'e +ha+ +he,r e((or+) .,ll do m!'h
*ood.
In )hor+# +he d,((eren'e +ha+ *ender d,((eren'e ma1e) de-end) on 'on+e7+. P!++,n* .omen
,n -o),+,on) o( -o.er ,) no+ +he )ame a) em-o.er,n* .omen. B!+ +he ,n(l!en'e o( .omen
hold,n* leader)h,- -o),+,on) 'an ma1e a 'r!',al d,((eren'e ,n -romo+,n* *ender e4!al,+" and
,m-ro0,n* or*an,Da+,onal -er(orman'e. The 'hallen*e rema,n,n* ,) +o ,den+,(" )+ra+e*,e) +ha+ .,ll
a)),)+ and en'o!ra*e +hem +o -la" +ha+ role.
@III. S+ra+e*,e) (or =han*e
To rea'h *rea+er *ender e4!al,+" ,n leader)h,- .,ll re4!,re e7-and,n* o--or+!n,+,e) (or
+alen+ed .omen and enabl,n* +hem +o -er(orm e((e'+,0el" ,n -o),+,on) o( -o.er. A) ,) ob0,o!)
$%
(rom +he -re'ed,n* d,)'!)),on# )!'h a re(orm a*enda .,ll re4!,re )+ra+e*,e) on +he ,nd,0,d!al#
,n)+,+!+,onal# and )o',e+al le0el). Th,) .o!ld no+# ho.e0er# be ob0,o!) (rom 2leader)h,- l,+e3
-!bl,'a+,on) +ar*e+,n* a -o-!lar a!d,en'e. The" (o'!) almo)+ e7'l!),0el" on -er)onal )+ra+e*,e)G
+he need (or )+r!'+!ral 'han*e re'e,0e) a+ be)+ *lan',n* a++en+,on. From a mar1e+,n* )+and-o,n+#
+h,) ma1e) ob0,o!) )en)e. The +ar*e+ a!d,en'e# a)-,r,n* .omen leader)# ,) *enerall" ,n+ere)+ed ,n
-er)onal )ol!+,on)# no+ )")+em,' -roblem) and 'olle'+,0e re)-on)e). B!+ +he e((e'+,0ene)) o(
,nd,0,d!al )+ra+e*,e) o(+en de-end) on ,n)+,+!+,onal re(orm. For e7am-le# .omen re'e,0e endle))
ad0,'e +o (,nd +he r,*h+ men+or) and ma,n+a,n a heal+h" .or1El,(e balan'e# b!+ +he,r 'han'e) o(
do,n* )o ma" de-end -ar+l" on or*an,Da+,onal '!l+!re. Moreo0er# +he 9aDDedM!-# d!mbed6do.n
a--roa'h o( man" ho.6+o -!bl,'a+,on) ma" lead ,nd,0,d!al) +o (o'!) +oo m!'h a++en+,on on
(,7,n* +hem)el0e) and +oo l,++le on (,7,n* +he ,n)+,+!+,onal and )o',e+al )+r!'+!re) +ha+ are a+ +he
roo+ o( +he -roblem.
"n!i#i!ual $trategies
$el%&'wareness
Bo+h )el(6hel- -!bl,'a+,on) and )'holarl" re)ear'h !nder)'ore 'er+a,n ba),' )+ra+e*,e) (or
.omen .ho )ee1 leader)h,- -o),+,on). A ne'e))ar" (,r)+ )+e- ,n0ol0e) )el(6re(le'+,on. Women
need +o be 'lear abo!+ +he,r *oal) and 0al!e): Wha+ do +he" .an+# .h" do +he" .an+ ,+# and .ha+
are +he" -re-ared +o )a'r,(,'e +o *e+ ,+F
88;
=lar,(",n* +ho)e -r,or,+,e) 'an +hen hel- .omen ,den+,("
.here +he" .an+ +o be ,n +he )hor+ and lon* +erm and .ha+ ,+ .,ll +a1e +o *e+ +here. Ind,0,d!al)
al)o need +o 'on),der +he,r mana*er,al )+ren*+h) and .ea1ne))e) and +o ob+a,n ade4!a+e (eedba'1
(rom o+her) abo!+ ne'e))ar" ,m-ro0emen+).
(ea!ership $tyles an! )apabilities
$8
To rea'h +he,r de),red *oal)# .omen m!)+ demon)+ra+e leader)h,- ab,l,+,e). To +ha+ end#
+he" )ho!ld )ee1 'hallen*,n* a)),*nmen+)# a'4!,re a--ro-r,a+e 9ob e7-er,en'e# de0elo- ,n(ormal
rela+,on)h,-) .,+h ,n(l!en+,al 'ollea*!e) and 'l,en+)# and '!l+,0a+e a re-!+a+,on (or e((e'+,0ene))
+ha+ e7'eed) e7-e'+a+,on).
88&
The" al)o need an a!+hen+,' leader)h,- )+"le +ha+ (,+) +he,r
or*an,Da+,on.
88?
A''ord,n* +o a )!r0e" o( .omen mana*er) and -ro(e)),onal 'on)!l+an+)# +he
re4!,remen+ ,) *enerall" (,nd,n* a 2)+"le +ha+ men are 'om(or+able .,+h.3
88>
In man" 'on+e7+)#
-ro9e'+,n* a de',),0e and (or'e(!l manner .,+ho!+ )eem,n* arro*an+ or abra),0e ,) an e))en+,al
)1,ll. B!+ a) mo)+ e7-er+) em-ha),De# .omen al)o need a )+"le .,+h .h,'h +he" are 'om(or+able#
and ,( ,+ doe) no+ me)h .,+h +he,r .or1-la'e '!l+!re# ,+ ma" be -r!den+ +o (,nd a d,((eren+
.or1-la'e.
88B
Formal leader)h,- +ra,n,n* and 'oa'h,n* 'an )ome+,me) hel- ,n de0elo-,n* ,n+er-er)onal
)+"le) and 'a-ab,l,+,e) )!'h a) r,)16+a1,n*# 'on(l,'+ re)ol!+,on# and )+ra+e*,' 0,),on.
8$%
S!'h
a)),)+an'e 'an al)o hel- .,+h )el(6-romo+,on# Th,) -o)e) a )-e',al 'hallen*e (or .omen# .ho are
+"-,'all" )o',al,Ded +o 0,e. )el(6a**rand,D,n* beha0,or) a) !n(em,n,ne and !na++ra'+,0e.
8$8
Ye+
a)-,r,n* .omen leader) need +o be )!re +ha+ +he,r 'on+r,b!+,on) a'h,e0e ade4!a+e 0,),b,l,+" and
re'o*n,+,on# and +he" need +o a)1 (or )!--or+ and re.ard) 'ommen)!ra+e .,+h -er(orman'e.
Women .ho .a,+ -a)),0el" (or +he,r .or1 +o be 0al!ed ma" need e7-er+ ad0,'e on ho. be++er +o
h,*hl,*h+ +he,r ab,l,+,e) or +o (,nd o+her) .ho 'an do ,+ (or +hem.
Models, Mentors, and Networks
C!,dan'e 'an 'ome (rom bo+h role model) and men+or). The)e 'an# b!+ need no+ be +he
)ame ,nd,0,d!al). A)-,r,n* leader) need m!l+,-le )o!r'e) o( )!--or+# 'on+a'+)# and 'areer
de0elo-men+ o--or+!n,+,e) (rom bo+h men and .omen and (rom bo+h ,n),de and o!+),de +he,r
or*an,Da+,on).
8$$
Leader) +hem)el0e) 'an al)o bene(,+ (rom men+or,n* rela+,on)h,-). K!,+e a-ar+
$$
(rom +he )a+,)(a'+,on +ha+ 'ome) (rom a)),)+,n* +ho)e mo)+ ,n need o( a)),)+an'e# (emale leader)
ma" re'e,0e more +an*,ble -a"o(() (rom (re)h ,n),*h+) and (rom +he lo"al+" and ,n(l!en'e +ha+
+he,r e((or+) )e'!re. Talen+ed 9!n,or 'ollea*!e) *enerall" .an+ +o .or1 (or e((e'+,0e men+or) and
+o )!--or+ +hem ,n leader)h,- role). Women .ho don/+ )o',al,De or 2do l!n'h3 ,n order +o *e+
.or1 done need a broader de(,n,+,on o( .or1. Re)!l+) ma++er b!+ rela+,on)h,-) are -ar+ o( .ha+ ,)
ne'e))ar" +o a'h,e0e +hem.
8$:
The mo)+ e((e'+,0e men+or,n* rela+,on)h,-) +"-,'all" ar,)e na+!rall" amon* ,nd,0,d!al)
.ho )hare ,m-or+an+ ),m,lar,+,e)# )!'h a) )e7# ra'e# e+hn,',+"# ba'1*ro!nd# and ,n+ere)+). Th,)
-re)en+) -roblem) ,n or*an,Da+,on) +ha+ ha0e +oo (e. .omen ,n leader)h,- -o),+,on) +o a,d all
+ho)e )ee1,n* a)),)+an'e and +oo (e. -o.er(!l men .ho are 'om(or+able (,ll,n* +he *a-). The
-roblem) are 'om-o!nded .hen )en,or .omen are alread" o0ere7+ended .,+h .or1 and (am,l"
re)-on),b,l,+,e)# and .orr,ed abo!+ +he a--earan'e o( (a0or,+,)m ,( +he" d,re'+ all +he,r men+or,n*
+o 9!n,or .omen. The re)!l+ ,) o(+en a (orm o( 2mana*er,al 'lon,n*#3 ,n .h,'h a lar*el" .h,+e
male leader)h,- !nre(le'+,0el" re-l,'a+e) ,+)el(.
8$<
Some or*an,Da+,on) ha0e re)-onded +o +he)e 'hallen*e) .,+h .omen/) ne+.or1) and .,+h
(ormal men+or,n* -ro*ram) +ha+ ma+'h em-lo"ee) or allo. ,nd,0,d!al) +o )ele'+ +he,r o.n
-a,r,n*). A) d,)'!)),on belo. no+e)# )!'h ,n,+,a+,0e) )er0e a 0ar,e+" o( !)e(!l (!n'+,on) b!+ are no
)!b)+,+!+e (or men+or,n* +ha+ o''!r) more na+!rall" d!r,n* 'ollabora+,0e -ro9e'+) and )hared
a'+,0,+,e).
8$;
Nor are )!-er(,',al 'on+a'+) a+ .omen/) ne+.or1,n* e0en+) a re-la'emen+ (or dee-er
rela+,on)h,-) .,+h men a) .ell a) .omen .ho 'an o-en door) a+ )en,or leader)h,- le0el).
8$&
For
.omen 9!**l,n* 'om-e+,n* 'omm,+men+)# +he 1e" ,) +o be )+ra+e*,' ,n +he,r e((or+)# and +o
re'o*n,De +ha+ +ho)e (rom .hom +he" )ee1 a)),)+an'e are !nder ),m,lar -re))!re). The be)+
$:
men+or,n* *enerall" *oe) +o +he be)+ men+ee)# .ho are rea)onable and (o'!)ed ,n +he,r need) and
.ho ma1e )!re +he rela+,on)h,- ,) m!+!all" bene(,',al.
Time Management an! *ork+Family )hoices
Se++,n* -r,or,+,e) and mana*,n* +,me e((e'+,0el" are al)o 'r,+,'al leader)h,- )1,ll).
Al+ho!*h a 'en+ral +heme ,n +he )el(6hel- l,+era+!re ,n0ol0e) balan',n* .or1# (am,l"# and -er)onal
need)# d,)'!)),on rarel" )+ra") be"ond .ell6.orn hom,l,e): .omen need +o )e+ bo!ndar,e)# learn
+o )a" no# dele*a+e dome)+,' +a)1)# a''e-+ ,m-er(e'+,on# and ma1e +,me (or rela+,on)h,-)# bo+h
-er)onal and -ro(e)),onal.
8$?
The" al)o m!)+ learn .hen +o )a" "e) +o e0en+) +ha+ on +he )!r(a'e
)eem !nne'e))ar" b!+ +ha+ are ,n (a'+ ,m-or+an+ o--or+!n,+,e) +o 2)ee and be )een#3 2mee+ and
*ree+#3 and 2)ho. and +ell.3
8$>
Women .ho +em-orar,l" o-+ o!+ o( +he .or1(or'e need +o )+a"
,n0ol0ed ,n +he,r (,eld). Par+,',-a+,on ,n -ro(e)),onal a))o',a+,on) and de0elo-men+ o( e7-er+,)e
+hro!*h 'on+,n!,n* ed!'a+,on 'o!r)e) or 0ol!n+eer a'+,0,+,e) 'an hel- +he)e .omen +ran),+,on
ba'1 +o -a,d em-lo"men+.
8$B
In +rade -!bl,'a+,on)# )!''e)) )+or,e) abo!nd. Female leader) (re4!en+l" mana*e +o ha0e ,+
all# +ho!*h no+ al.a") a+ +he )ame +,me. B!+ m,)),n* (rom +he anal"),) are +he !nha--" end,n*):
+ho)e .omen .ho)e e((or+) +o ha0e a l,(e +a1e +hem o(( +he leader)h,- +ra'1 and lea0e no +,me (or
'olle'+,0e e((or+) +ha+ m,*h+ ma1e be++er 'ho,'e) a0a,lable. Tha+ *a- -o,n+) !- a broader
.ea1ne)) ,n +he ho.6+o l,+era+!reG ,+) (o'!) on ,nd,0,d!al) l,m,+) ,+) e((e'+,0ene)) ,n )ol0,n* +he
'hallen*e) ,+ ,den+,(,e).
(ea!ership (ite, The )ontributions an! (imits o% $el%&-elp
A) )el(6hel- l,+era+!re *oe)# mo)+ -!bl,'a+,on) on .omen/) leader)h,- )eem be++er +han
a0era*e. The" *enerall" o((er !)e(!l 'ommon )en)e ,n a''e)),ble -ro)e# .,+h eno!*h -er)onal
ane'do+e) and real6.orld e7am-le) +o ma1e +he )+ra+e*,e) 'on're+e. The be)+ o( +he l,+era+!re
$<
dra.) on rele0an+ re)ear'h and -,n-o,n+) re'!rren+ m,)+a1e) b" a)-,r,n* leader). Some o( +he
ad0,'e )eem) -a,n(!ll" ob0,o!): do no+ )lee- .,+h +he bo))# do no+ dre)) -ro0o'a+,0el"# do no+
ad0er+,)e m,)+a1e) or !n'er+a,n+". Ye+ +he 'on+,n!ed (re4!en'" o( )!'h ,m-r!den+ beha0,or) e0en
amon* .ell6ed!'a+ed -ro(e)),onal) )!**e)+) +ha+ -o,n+ed rem,nder) ma" )+,ll be !)e(!l.
There are# ho.e0er# )er,o!) l,m,+a+,on) ,n +h,) l,+era+!re. One )+em) (rom ,+) )+!nn,n*l"
*eneral,Ded a--roa'h +o 'om-le7 ,))!e). Mo)+ +rade -!bl,'a+,on) o((er all6-!r-o)e -re)'r,-+,on)
on +he a--aren+ a))!m-+,on +ha+ all leader)h,- 'on+e7+) are ba),'all" +he )ame. Some boo1) are
e7-l,',+ on +he -o,n+. L,nda =lar1/) (ea!ership Essentials %or *omen. a *!,de +ar*e+ed +o leader)
o( =hr,)+,an or*an,Da+,on)# be*,n): 2Thro!*h +h,r+" "ear) a) a .omen/) leader .or1,n* .,+h
.omen ,n lo'al 'h!r'he) . . . I ha0e 'ome +o real,De +ha+ .omen e0er".here ha0e +he )ame ba),'
need). . . . I+ doe)n/+ ma++er .he+her "o! are lead,n* a )'hool -ro9e'+# head,n* a +eam (or a
-!bl,',+" -re)en+a+,on a+ "o!r (,rm# or +ea'h,n* a .omen/) B,ble *ro!-. The )ame leader)h,-
)1,ll) a--l" +o an" leader)h,- role.3
8:%
O!r o.n e7-er,en'e o( almo)+ +h,r+" "ear) and re0,e. o(
leader)h,- re)ear'h )!**e)+ 9!)+ +he o--o),+e. To +he e7+en+ +ha+ an" !)e(!l *eneral,Da+,on 'an be
dra.n# ,+ ,) +ha+ 'on+e7+ ma++er). Leader) m!)+ ada-+ +o +he '!l+!re and e7-e'+a+,on) o( (ollo.er).
A rela+ed -roblem ,n0ol0e) +he )!-er(,',al 'a+e*or,Da+,on) and ),m-l,)+,' )o!nd b,+e) +ha+
ma" )ell boo1) b!+ are !nl,1el" +o )ol0e real leader)h,- 'hallen*e). For e7am-le# one -!bl,'a+,on
d,0,de) leader) ,n+o +h,n1er) and (eeler) .ho (,+ (o!r 'olor6'oded -er)onal,+" +"-e) and !)e e,*h+
leader)h,- )+"le).
8:8
Ano+her *!,de o((er) 2Se0en Se're+) o( S!''e))(!l Women3 and -a'1a*e)
e0er"+h,n* a)-,r,n* leader) need +o 1no. ,n+o (o!r 2-3 -r,n',-le): -er(orman'e# -er)e0eran'e#
-ra'+,'e# and -a+,en'e.
8:$
o!rnal,)+ Ca,l E0an) 'om-,le) a hal( doDen e7am-le) o( .ha+ 2men 'an
do a+ .or1 +ha+ .omen 'an/+3 H'r"# (,d*e+# "ell# be !*l"# ha0e )e7# or )ho. bad manner)I.
8::
I+ ,)
hard +o ,ma*,ne +ha+ ad0,'e o( +h,) )or+ .,ll -ro-el .omen ,n+o leader)h,- -o),+,on). The )ame ,)
$;
+r!e o( 'ommer',al leader)h,- de0elo-men+ 'on(eren'e) +ha+ l!re -ar+,',-an+) no+ .,+h
1no.led*eable e7-er+) b!+ .,+h med,a 'elebr,+,e) l,1e Broo1e Sh,eld) or re'rea+,onal add6on)
l,1e +a, 'h, and mo!n+a,n 'l,mb,n*.
8:<
On +he d,((,'!l+ 'hallen*e)# )!'h a) .ha+ +o do .hen 'on(ron+,n* e0,den'e o(
d,)'r,m,na+,on# ho.6+o -!bl,'a+,on) and .or1)ho-) are *enerall" ),len+ or e0a),0e. For e7am-le#
none o( +he 2Se0en Se're+)3 broa'h +h,) +o-,'. The be)+ +he boo1 'an m!)+er ,) +o no+e +ha+ 2+here
are 'er+a,nl" )e0eral a--roa'he) +o +he -roblem#3 and +o l,)+ +he mo)+ ob0,o!): 2,*nore ,+# (,*h+ ,+#
.or1 aro!nd ,+.3
8:;
No *!,dan'e ,) o((ered on 'hoo),n* amon* +hemG ra+her reader) are ),m-l"
ad0,)ed +o 2.or1 harder +han +he,r male 'o!n+er-ar+)#3 learn +o 2mo0e ,n a man/) .orld#3 2ha0e
+he r,*h+ ne+.or1)#3 and be 2+o- -er(ormer) b" an"one/) )+andard).3
8:&
The .omen .ho 'an
mana*e all +ha+ -robabl" aren/+ +he one) b!",n* +h,) boo1.
A (!r+her -roblem .,+h +he)e -o- -!bl,'a+,on) ,) +he,r !n4!e)+,oned a''e-+an'e o(
-re0a,l,n* de(,n,+,on) o( )!''e)). The a))!m-+,on ,) +ha+ .omen 0al!e# or )ho!ld 0al!e# +he )ame
+h,n*) a) men. Ca,l E0an)/ be)+ )ell,n* Play (ike a Man -!+) +he -o,n+ d,re'+l". 2To a *!"#
e0er"+h,n* 'o!n+). The ),De o( h,) o((,'e# +he ),De o( h,) )+a((# +he ),De o( h,) )alar"# +he ),De o(
an"+h,n* +ha+ 'an be mea)!red. And +he"/re al.a") 1ee-,n* )'ore.3 I( .omen don/+ do +he )ame#
+he" .,ll be 2-er'e,0ed a) lo)er).3 An"one .,ll,n* +o )e++le (or a 2'ram-ed o((,'e and d!m-"
(!rn,+!re3 doe)n/+ 21no. +he )'ore3 and .on/+ be +a1en )er,o!)l".
8:?
Lo,) Fran1el# ,n Nice irls
/on0t et the )orner O%%ice# ma1e) a ),m,lar 'la,m: 2Mone" ,) -o.er.3 And *,rl) .ho don/+ (,*h+
(or )alar,e) are no+ onl" !nder-a,d b!+ !nder0al!ed.
8:>
Almo)+ ne0er do +he)e -!bl,'a+,on)
a'1no.led*e +he -o)),b,l,+" +ha+ .omen 'o!ld# or )ho!ld# ha0e a d,((eren+ )e+ o( -r,or,+,e) +han
-a" and -er1): more h!mane ho!r)# be++er .or1E(am,l" and 'h,ld 'are -ol,',e)# *rea+er )!--or+
$&
(or 'omm!n,+" )er0,'e# and )o (or+h. Ra+her# +he em-ha),) ,) on enabl,n* .omen +o )'ore h,*her
!nder r!le) no+ o( +he,r o.n ma1,n*.
Women/) 'a-a',+" +o 'han*e +he r!le) +hro!*h 'olle'+,0e a'+,on *e+) a+ be)+ *lan',n*
a++en+,on ,n +he)e -!bl,'a+,on). The,r relen+le)) (o'!) on ,nd,0,d!al ad0an'emen+ d,0er+) a++en+,on
(rom ,n)+,+!+,onal re(orm. The leader)h,- l,+e ob9e'+,0e ,) *e++,n* more .omen ,n+o -o),+,on) o(
-o.er. Wha+ +he" do .hen +he" *e+ +here ,) a ma++er o( l,++le a--aren+ 'on'ern. Ye+ a) +he
(ollo.,n* d,)'!)),on )!**e)+)# ,+ ,) .omen/) leader)h,- on .omen/) ,))!e) +ha+ ,) o(+en 'r,+,'al ,n
o-en,n* +he o--or+!n,+,e) +ha+ -o- -!bl,'a+,on) e7al+.
*omen0s (ea!ership on *omen0s "ssues
Women on +he leader)h,- +ra'1 ha0e !n,4!e o--or+!n,+,e) and 'orre)-ond,n*
obl,*a+,on) +o -romo+e 'han*e) +ha+ .,ll ma1e leader)h,- a''e)),ble +o o+her). A) ',+,Den)#
.omen 'an )!--or+ -ol,',e)# -ol,+,',an)# and -ra'+,'e) +ha+ .,ll ad0an'e *ender e4!,+". A)
-ro(e)),onal) and 'omm!n,+" a'+,0,)+)# .omen 'an ma1e e4!al,D,n* leader)h,- o--or+!n,+,e) a
-r,or,+". And a) -aren+)# .omen 'an model e((e'+,0e leader)h,- and 'hallen*e +he 'h,ldrear,n*
-a++ern) +ha+ .or1 a*a,n)+ ,+.
An ob0,o!) e7am-le ,n0ol0e) da!*h+er) and doll). A+ 0er" earl" a*e)# 'h,ldren (orm
*ender6l,n1ed -re(eren'e) ,n +o"). A) leader)h,- e7-er+) no+e# +he '!l+!re ,n *eneral and -aren+)
,n -ar+,'!lar o(+en re,n(or'e +he)e -re(eren'e). C,0,n* )o-h,)+,'a+ed m,l,+ar" *ame) +o bo") and
Barb,e) +o *,rl) hel-) -er-e+!a+e +rad,+,onal *ender role) and *ender ,ne4!al,+,e). O0er a b,ll,on
Barb,e) ha0e been )old ,n 8;% 'o!n+r,e)# and +he mo)+ -o-!lar a''e))or,e) ,n'l!de 9e.elr"# re',-e
bo7e)# and 0a'!!m 'leaner).
8:B
A -arod" b" Onion ma*aD,ne o( a (,'+,onal =EO Barb,e )-ea1)
0ol!me) abo!+ +he me))a*e) be,n* )en+. The ma*aD,ne de)'r,be) a mo'1 -ro+e)+ a*a,n)+ Ma++ell
(or br,n*,n* o!+ a doll +ha+ (o)+er) 2r,d,'!lo!)l" !na++a,nable ,ma*e).3 The 'om-an"/) mo'1
$?
re)-on)e ,) a )+a+emen+ b" ,+) (o!r +o- male leader) 'la,m,n* +ha+ +he =EO doll re-re)en+) a
-o),+,0e ,ma*e and demon)+ra+e) +ha+ 2"o!n* *,rl) 'an be an"+h,n* +he" .an+. There ,) no+h,n*
)+and,n* ,n +he,r .a".3
8<%
The 'hallen*e (or -aren+) ,) +o re,n(or'e +he,r da!*h+er)/ a)-,ra+,on)
.h,le al)o -re-ar,n* +hem# a+ a--ro-r,a+e a*e)# (or +he ob)+a'le) +ha+# ,n (a'+# )+,ll )+and ,n +he
.a".
Organizational $trategies
)ommitment an! 'ccountability
The mo)+ ,m-or+an+ (a'+or ,n en)!r,n* e4!al a''e)) +o leader)h,- o--or+!n,+,e) ,) a
'omm,+men+ +o +ha+ ob9e'+,0e# .h,'h ,) re(le'+ed ,n .or1-la'e -r,or,+,e)# -ol,',e)# and re.ard
)+r!'+!re).
8<8
Tha+# ,n +!rn# re4!,re) a''o!n+ab,l,+". De',),on ma1er) need +o be held re)-on),ble
(or re)!l+) ,n re'r!,+men+# re+en+,on# and -romo+,on# a) .ell a) ,n -ra'+,'e) +ha+ ,n(l!en'e +ho)e
re)!l+)# )!'h a) e0al!a+,on# a)),*nmen+)# men+or,n*# and .or1E(am,l" a''ommoda+,on.
A ne'e))ar" (,r)+ )+e- ,) 'omm,+men+ (rom +he +o-. An or*an,Da+,on/) leader)h,- +eam
need) +o a'1no.led*e +he ,m-or+an'e o( d,0er),+" and e4!,+"# +o a))e)) ,+) -ro*re)) ,n a'h,e0,n*
+hem# and +o hold ,nd,0,d!al) a+ e0er" le0el o( +he or*an,Da+,on a''o!n+able (or ,m-ro0emen+.
8<$

The mo)+ )")+ema+,' e0,den'e a0a,lable +o da+e )!**e)+) +ha+ ha0,n* a d,0er),+" -lan and +he )+a((
and )+r!'+!re) +o ,m-lemen+ ,+ ,) +he mo)+ e((e'+,0e )+ra+e*" ,n ,n'rea),n* .omen/) a''e)) +o
mana*er,al -o),+,on).
8<:
Par+ o( +ha+ -lan )ho!ld ,n'l!de ma1,n* -er(orman'e on *ender6rela+ed
,))!e) -ar+ o( e0al!a+,on and 'om-en)a+,on )")+em). E7-er+) -!+ ,+ bl!n+l": 2H,+ N)!-er0,)or)O ,n
+he,r W6$)# and +he,r hear+) and m,nd) .,ll (ollo..3
8<<
Th,) ,) no+ +o )!**e)+ +ha+ ),m-l" +",n*
)alar,e) +o +he n!mber o( .omen ,n leader)h,- -o),+,on) ,) +he be)+ )+ra+e*". For e7am-le# one
'om-an" +ha+ a++em-+ed +o -ro0,de (,nan',al ,n'en+,0e) (or em-lo",n* .omen a+ )en,or le0el)
(o!nd +ha+ male em-lo"ee)/ re)en+men+ made +he 2*rab a *,rl"3 a--roa'h 'o!n+er-rod!'+,0e.
8<;

$>
B!+ a more 'om-rehen),0e a--roa'h# .h,'h hold) de',),on ma1er) re)-on),ble (or a ran*e o(
e((or+) and re)!l+)# ,) e))en+,al +o al,*n d,0er),+" -r,n',-le) .,+h or*an,Da+,onal -ra'+,'e).
Measuring and Monitoring Results
To ma1e )!'h -ro*re))# or*an,Da+,on) need 'on're+e a))e))men+) o( re)!l+). On +h,) -o,n+#
'on0en+,onal .,)dom ,) r,*h+: or*an,Da+,on) *e+ .ha+ +he" mea)!re. And +oo (e. or*an,Da+,on)
ade4!a+el" mea)!re *ender e4!,+".
8<&
Em-lo"er) )ho!ld 'om-,le ,n(orma+,on on re'r!,+men+#
h,r,n*# -romo+,on# and re+en+,on# bro1en do.n b" )e7# a) .ell a) ra'e and e+hn,',+". S!r0e") o(
'!rren+ and (ormer em-lo"ee) 'an al)o -ro0,de 0al!able ,n(orma+,on on e4!,+" and 4!al,+"6o(6l,(e
,))!e). De',),on ma1er) need +o 1no. .he+her men and .omen are ad0an',n* ,n e4!al n!mber)
and .he+her +he" (eel e4!all" .ell )!--or+ed ,n 'areer de0elo-men+.
8<?
Where -o)),ble#
em-lo"er) )ho!ld a))e)) +he,r o.n -ro*re)) ,n 'om-ar,)on .,+h ),m,lar or*an,Da+,on) and +he
be)+ -ra'+,'e) ,den+,(,ed b" e7-er+) and -ro(e)),onal or*an,Da+,on).
8<>
In )ome 'on+e7+)#
e7-er,en'ed d,0er),+" 'on)!l+an+) 'an hel- ,den+,(" barr,er) +o e4!al o--or+!n,+" and de),*n
a--ro-r,a+e re)-on)e).
8<B
Or*an,Da+,on) al)o need +o mon,+or +he e((e'+) o( *ender e4!,+" ,n,+,a+,0e) on .omen/)
leader)h,-. Man" or*an,Da+,on) ,n0e)+ )!b)+an+,al +,me and mone" ,n d,0er),+" +ra,n,n* -ro*ram)
+ha+ ha0e no mea)!rable ,m-a'+ on o!+'ome). Al+ho!*h )ome )mall6)'ale )+!d,e) (,nd +ha+ )!'h
-ro*ram) ma" ,m-ro0e a.arene)) and a++,+!de)# o+her) (,nd r,)1) o( ba'1la)h (rom .h,+e male
-ar+,',-an+).
8;%
And 0,r+!all" no e0,den'e do'!men+) ,m-ro0emen+) ,n +he re-re)en+a+,on o(
.omen ,n !--er6le0el -o),+,on) a) a re)!l+ o( )!'h +ra,n,n*.
8;8
O+her -ra'+,'e) +ha+ ma" a((e'+ leader)h,- o--or+!n,+,e) )ho!ld al)o be )!b9e'+ +o )'r!+,n".
One -ra'+,'e ,n0ol0e) +he -ro'e)) b" .h,'h ,nd,0,d!al) are e0al!a+ed (or -romo+,on and )ele'+ed
(or leader)h,- -o),+,on). De',),on ma1er) )ho!ld )'reen .r,++en e0al!a+,on) (or )+ereo+"-,'al
$B
'hara'+er,Da+,on)G de0elo- ob9e'+,0e# o!+'ome6rela+ed 'r,+er,a +o )!--lemen+ )!b9e'+,0e
a))e))men+)G re0,e. a)),*nmen+) +o ,n)!re e4!al o--or+!n,+,e) (or 'areer de0elo-men+G and
ed!'a+e ,nd,0,d!al) abo!+ ho. +o *,0e and re'e,0e e((e'+,0e -er(orman'e e0al!a+,on).
8;$
Quality of Life and Work-Family Initiatives
An" )er,o!) 'omm,+men+ +o e7-and .omen/) leader)h,- o--or+!n,+,e) re4!,re) a ),m,larl"
)er,o!) 'omm,+men+ +o addre)) .or1E(am,l" 'on(l,'+) +ha+ )+and ,n +he .a" o( ad0an'emen+. Be)+
-ra'+,'e) and model -ro*ram) are read,l" a0a,lable on ma++er) )!'h a) (le7,ble and red!'ed
)'hed!le)# +ele'omm!+,n*# lea0e -ol,',e)# and 'h,ld'are a)),)+an'e.
8;:
S!'h o-+,on) are 'r,+,'al ,n
re+a,n,n* -o+en+,al leader). In )!r0e") o( h,*h6a'h,e0,n* .omen# be+.een +.o6+h,rd) and (o!r6
(,(+h) ,den+,(" .or1E(am,l" ,))!e) a) a ma9or -ar+ o( +he -roblem and +he )ol!+,on (or .omen/)
ad0an'emen+.
8;<
Mo)+ o( +he)e .omen ra+e )'hed!le (le7,b,l,+" a) more ,m-or+an+ +han
'om-en)a+,on.
8;;
Al+ho!*h +he de+a,l) o( e((e'+,0e -ol,',e) 0ar" a'ro)) or*an,Da+,on)# +.o
,m-or+an+ (a'+or) are m!+!al 'omm,+men+ and (le7,b,l,+". Te'hnolo*,e) +ha+ bl!r +he bo!ndar,e)
be+.een home and .or1 'an hel-# b!+ no+ ,( ,nd,0,d!al) rema,n 'on)+an+l" on 'all# ho)+a*e +o
)'hed!le) no+ o( +he,r o.n ma1,n*.
Or*an,Da+,on) al)o need +o ,n)!re +ha+ .omen .ho )ee1 +em-orar" a''ommoda+,on) do
no+ -a" a -ermanen+ -r,'e. S+e--,n* o!+ )ho!ld no+ mean )+e--,n* do.n: ,nd,0,d!al) on red!'ed
or (le7,ble )'hed!le) )ho!ld no+ lo)e o--or+!n,+,e) (or 'hallen*,n* a)),*nmen+) or e0en+!al
-romo+,on. Nor )ho!ld .omen .ho +em-orar,l" o-+ o!+ lo)e all 'on+a'+ .,+h +he .or1-la'e. Par+6
+,me 'on)!l+,n* arran*emen+) and em-lo"er6)!--or+ed 'areer de0elo-men+ o--or+!n,+,e) 'an
b!,ld lo"al+" and a)),)+ +he +ran),+,on ba'1.
F,nall"# and mo)+ ,m-or+an+# (am,l" and 4!al,+" o( l,(e 'on'ern) need +o be )een no+ 9!)+
a) .omen/) ,))!e) b!+ al)o a) or*an,Da+,onal -r,or,+,e). O-+,on) l,1e -aren+al lea0e and (le7,ble
:%
)'hed!le) )ho!ld be *ender ne!+ral ,n (a'+ a) .ell a) ,n (orm# and men )ho!ld be en'o!ra*ed +o
+a1e ad0an+a*e o( +hem. T,me )ho!ld be a0a,lable (or bo+h )e7e) +o a'4!,re +he broad e7-er,en'e
+ha+ 'ome) (rom (am,l" and ',0,' -!r)!,+). Pol,',e) need +o be mon,+ored +o en)!re +ha+ o-+,on)
are a0a,lable ,n -ra'+,'e a) .ell a) ,n -r,n',-le# and +ha+ .omen a+ +he h,*he)+ leader)h,- le0el
(eel able +o +a1e ad0an+a*e o( +hem.
8;&
In )hor+# ,( em-lo"er) .an+ +he mo)+ able and d,0er)e
leader)h,- 'and,da+e) -o)),ble# +he .or1,n* en0,ronmen+ need) +o a++ra'+ and re+a,n +hem.
Mentoring Programs and Womens Networks
The ,m-or+an'e o( men+or) ha) lon* been re'o*n,Ded# b!+# a) no+ed earl,er# +he
,n)+,+!+,onal,Da+,on o( men+or,n* ha) la**ed beh,nd. Formal -ro*ram) 'an hel- (,ll +he *a-. O(
'o!r)e# rela+,on)h,-) +ha+ are a)),*ned are )eldom a) e((e'+,0e a) +ho)e +ha+ are 'ho)en.
8;?
B!+
)ome a''e)) +o ad0,'e and )!--or+ ma" be be++er +han none. A+ +he 0er" lea)+# )+r!'+!red
-ro*ram) 'an 1ee- +alen+ed b!+ !na))er+,0e .omen (rom (all,n* +hro!*h +he 'ra'1)# and remo0e
'on'ern) abo!+ a--earan'e) o( (a0or,+,)m or )e7!al ,m-ro-r,e+" +ha+ )ome+,me) ,nh,b,+ men+or,n*
rela+,on)h,-). Well6de),*ned ,n,+,a+,0e) +ha+ e0al!a+e and re.ard men+or,n* a'+,0,+,e) 'an
,m-ro0e -ar+,',-an+)/ )1,ll)# )a+,)(a'+,on# and re+en+,on ra+e).
8;>
The onl" )")+ema+,' lar*e6)'ale
)+!d" +o da+e ha) (o!nd +ha+ men+or,n* -ro*ram) are 'orrela+ed .,+h mode)+ *a,n) ,n (emale
re-re)en+a+,on ,n mana*er,al -o),+,on) and +ha+ .omen o( 'olor bene(,+ mo)+.
8;B
A rela+ed )+ra+e*" ,n0ol0e) )!--or+ (or .omen/) ne+.or1) ,n .or1-la'e)# -ro(e)),onal
a))o',a+,on)# and m,nor,+" or*an,Da+,on).
8&%
The)e ne+.or1) )-on)or a 0ar,e+" o( a'+,0,+,e)# )!'h
a) .or1)ho-)# )em,nar)# )-ea1er )er,e)# and ,n(ormal )o',al e0en+). =ommon *oal) ,n'l!de
l,n1,n* -ro(e)),onal) .,+h -o+en+,al 'l,en+) and '!)+omer)# de0elo-,n* 'areer ad0an'emen+ )1,ll)#
and re-re)en+,n* .omen/) )hared 'on'ern) ,n +he,r -ro(e)),on) or .or1-la'e). A((,n,+" *ro!-) (or
.omen o( 'olor are e)-e',all" 'r,+,'al ,n red!',n* -ar+,',-an+)/ )en)e o( ,)ola+,on.
8&8
B" br,n*,n*
:8
-o+en+,al leader) +o*e+her aro!nd 'ommon ,n+ere)+)# +he)e ne+.or1) 'an en'o!ra*e men+or,n*#
enhan'e re-!+a+,on)# and (or*e 'oal,+,on) on *ender6rela+ed ,))!e). Par+,',-an+) o(+en *a,n no+
onl" )1,ll) b!+ mo+,0a+,on +o !)e +hem on behal( o( o+her .omen. The onl" lar*e6)'ale )!r0e" o(
+he e((e'+,0ene)) o( )!'h ne+.or1) (o!nd +ha+ +he" had a mode)+ 'orrela+,on .,+h .omen/)
ad0an'emen+ ,n mana*emen+.
8&$
Small6)'ale -ro*ram e0al!a+,on) ha0e al)o demon)+ra+ed
-a"o(() ,n 'l,en+ de0elo-men+# 9ob )a+,)(a'+,on# and .or1-la'e re(orm).
8&:
The 2)mall .,n)3 +ha+
'olle'+,0e e((or+) 'an )e'!re o(+en la" +he (o!nda+,on) (or (!ndamen+al 'han*e.
8&<
Societal Strategies
Women/) a''e)) +o leader)h,- ,) ,n(l!en'ed b" a broad ran*e o( -!bl,' and -r,0a+e )e'+or
,n,+,a+,0e). Re*!la+or" a*en',e)# )+a1eholder or*an,Da+,on)# and -ro(e)),onal a))o',a+,on) )ho!ld
hold em-lo"er) more a''o!n+able (or -er(orman'e on *ender e4!,+" ,))!e). P!bl,' -ol,'" )ho!ld
do more +o red!'e .or1E(am,l" 'on(l,'+). Pro(e)),onal a))o',a+,on) )ho!ld +a1e add,+,onal )+e-)
+o ,den+,(" and re.ard be)+ -ra'+,'e)# )!--or+ member)/ 'areer de0elo-men+# and -re)) (or
)o',e+al and .or1-la'e re(orm). 5n,0er),+,e) )ho!ld ,m-ro0e 'o0era*e o( d,0er),+"6rela+ed +o-,')
,n +he,r '!rr,'!la and model be)+ -ra'+,'e) ,n +he,r o.n leader)h,-.
Government Regulation and Public Policy
One ob0,o!) .a" +o ,n'rea)e .omen/) re-re)en+a+,on ,n leader)h,- -o),+,on) ,) +o
)+ren*+hen e4!al o--or+!n,+" re4!,remen+) and e7-and re)o!r'e) (or en(or'emen+. A) earl,er
d,)'!)),on no+ed# a 'en+ral l,m,+a+,on o( '!rren+ o0er),*h+ )+r!'+!re) ,) +he ab)en'e o( )")+ema+,'#
-!bl,' ,n(orma+,on abo!+ *ender e4!,+" and +he rela+ed d,((,'!l+" o( -ro0,n* *ender b,a).
8&;

Iron,'all" eno!*h# '!rren+ l,ab,l,+" r!le) de+er )ome or*an,Da+,on) (rom 'om-,l,n* da+a +ha+ m,*h+
la" (o!nda+,on) (or )e7 d,)'r,m,na+,on la.)!,+). To ne!+ral,De +h,) de+erren+ and enhan'e
a''o!n+ab,l,+"# lead,n* e7-er+) ha0e re'ommended re4!,r,n* em-lo"er) o0er a 'er+a,n ),De +o
:$
d,)'lo)e da+a 'on'ern,n* re'r!,+men+# re+en+,on# and -romo+,on.
8&&
O+her 'o!n+r,e) ha0e
e((e'+,0el" ,m-o)ed re4!,remen+) alon* +he)e l,ne).
8&?
The a0a,lab,l,+" o( )!'h ,n(orma+,on (or
Amer,'an em-lo"er) .o!ld ma1e ,+ ea),er (or +hem +o ben'hmar1 +he,r -er(orman'e rela+,0e +o
o+her ),m,larl" ),+!a+ed or*an,Da+,on) and (or )+a1eholder) +o hold -oor -er(ormer) re)-on),ble.
Ano+her 'r!',al )+ra+e*" ,) +o ,n'rea)e an+,d,)'r,m,na+,on en(or'emen+ re)o!r'e). In +he
5n,+ed S+a+e)# ne,+her o( +he -r,mar" o0er),*h+ bod,e)# +he E4!al Em-lo"men+ O--or+!n,+"
=omm,)),on or +he De-ar+men+ o( Labor/) re0,e. o((,'e (or (ederal 'on+ra'+or)# ha) ade4!a+e
'a-a',+" +o mon,+or 'om-l,an'e .,+h *ender e4!,+" re4!,remen+). The )ame ,) *enerall" +r!e o(
)+a+e 'omm,)),on). Ye+ .hen )!'h a*en',e) do ,n+er0ene# +he re)!l+ ,) +"-,'all" a ),*n,(,'an+
,m-ro0emen+ ,n .omen/) re-re)en+a+,on ,n !--er6le0el -o),+,on).
8&>
To ,n'rea)e +he (re4!en'" o(
en(or'emen+ e((or+)# Amer,'an a*en',e) .,ll need add,+,onal (,nan',al )!--or+ and o+her
'o!n+r,e) .,ll need +o )+ren*+hen +he,r remed,al )+r!'+!re).
8&B
Tho)e re(orm) are ,) mo)+ l,1el" +o
o''!r onl" ,( ad0o'a+e) o( .omen/) r,*h+) e7er+ *rea+er -ol,+,'al -re))!re.
In'rea)ed -re))!re ,) al)o ne'e))ar" 'on'ern,n* 'h,ld'are# elder'are# -aren+al lea0e# and
rela+ed -ol,',e). S!'h ,n,+,a+,0e) are ne'e))ar" +o addre)) +he .or1E(am,l" 'on(l,'+) +ha+ o(+en
dera,l .omen on leader)h,- +ra'1). For e7am-le# e7-er,en'e ,n E!ro-ean 'o!n+r,e) )!**e)+) +ha+
o((er,n* men -a,d -aren+al lea0e 'an ,n'rea)e +he,r 'h,ldrear,n* ,n0ol0emen+ and +ha+ a''e)) +o
4!al,+"# a((ordable 'h,ld'are 'an ,n'rea)e .omen/) labor (or'e -ar+,',-a+,on.
8?%
Ho.e0er# +he)e
-ol,',e) are no+ ,n +hem)el0e) )!((,',en+ +o )e'!re *ender e4!al,+" ,n (am,l" obl,*a+,on) and
leader)h,- o--or+!n,+,e). =om-rehen),0e re(orm) are e))en+,al +o red!'e .or1E (am,l" 'on(l,'+)
and +o en'o!ra*e *rea+er n!mber) o( men +o a))!me )!b)+an+,al 'are*,0,n* re)-on),b,l,+,e).
8?8
::
Proportional 1epresentation
One re(orm +ha+ .o!ld ma1e o+her) more l,1el" ,) +o en)!re .omen/) *rea+er -ol,+,'al
re-re)en+a+,on. To +ha+ end# a *ro.,n* m,nor,+" o( 'o!n+r,e) ,) em-lo",n* 0ol!n+ar" or le*all"
manda+ed 4!o+a) (or .omen ,n -!bl,' o((,'e.
8?$
S!'h -re(eren+,al -ol,',e) +a1e a 0ar,e+" o( (orm).
The mo)+ .,de)-read b!+ +"-,'all" lea)+ e((e'+,0e )+ra+e*,e) are 0ol!n+ar" 4!o+a) or +ar*e+)
e)+abl,)hed b" -ol,+,'al -ar+,e) +o )-e',(" +he n!mber o( 'and,da+e) +ha+ )ho!ld be (emale. The
mo)+ e((e'+,0e b!+ lea)+ 'ommon a--roa'h ,) +o )e+ a),de a 'er+a,n n!mber o( -o),+,on) (or
.omen +hro!*h 'on)+,+!+,onal or )+a+!+or" re4!,remen+). An ,n+ermed,a+e a--roa'h ,) +o manda+e
+ha+ a 'er+a,n -ro-or+,on o( 'and,da+e) be .omen. Manda+or" )+ra+e*,e) ob0,o!)l" .or1 be)+ ,n
ele'+oral )")+em) +ha+ em-lo" -ro-or+,onal re-re)en+a+,onG 4!o+a) (or ele'+ed o((,',al) are no+
ea),l" ,m-lemen+ed ,n 'o!n+r,e) l,1e +he 5n,+ed S+a+e)# .h,'h rel" on ),n*le6member d,)+r,'+).
The .,)dom o( )!'h -re(eren+,al +rea+men+ ,) )!b9e'+ +o 'on),derable 'on+ro0er)".
O--onen+) 'la,m +ha+ 4!o+a) 0,ola+e mer,+o'ra+,' -r,n',-le) and )+,*ma+,De (emale re-re)en+a+,0e)
a) le)) 4!al,(,ed +han +he,r male 'o!n+er-ar+). Problem) are 'om-o!nded .here +he -ool o(
.omen .,+h ade4!a+e 'reden+,al) ,) ,n)!((,',en+# and +ho)e )ele'+ed are rele*a+ed +o -o),+,on) o(
lea)+ ,n(l!en'e. F!r+her d,((,'!l+,e) ar,)e .hen male -ar+" leader) )ele'+ .omen .ho are no+
ad0o'a+e) on .omen/) ,))!e). In bo+h 'a)e)# +he re)!l+ ma" be a )")+em ,n .h,'h .omen/)
,n'rea)ed -re)en'e ma1e) more o( a )"mbol,' +han )!b)+an+,0e d,((eren'e.
Ye+ ,n man" na+,on)# )ome (orm o( -re(eren+,al +rea+men+ ,) -re(erable +o +he al+erna+,0e#
a+ lea)+ ,n +he )hor+ +erm. In 'o!n+r,e) .here .omen ma1e !- a+ lea)+ hal( o( +he ele'+ora+e# +he"
de)er0e more +han +he +o1en re-re)en+a+,on +ha+ +rad,+,onal ele'+oral -ro'e))e) ha0e -rod!'ed. I(
4!o+a) a--ear ,n'on),)+en+ .,+h mer,+o'ra+,' -r,n',-le)# )o +oo doe) +he old6 bo" ne+.or1 +ha+
+he" re-la'e. Pre(eren+,al +rea+men+ ,) a (a'+ o( l,(e ,n -ol,+,') a) .e 1no. ,+G +he onl" ,))!e ,)
:<
.h,'h *ro!-) are be,n* -re(erred and ho. o-enl". A+ +he 0er" lea)+# e((or+) +o ,n'rea)e +he
re-re)en+a+,on o( .omen enhan'e +he le*,+,ma'" o( demo'ra+,' ,n)+,+!+,on) a) .ell a) d,0er),(,e)
+he -ool (rom .h,'h leader) are 'ho)en. I( +ha+ -ool ,n'l!de) +oo (e. 4!al,(,ed .omen# +he be)+
re)-on)e ,) +o ,m-ro0e +he re'r!,+men+# men+or,n*# and +ra,n,n* -ro'e))e). To be )!re# manda+or"
4!o+a) are no+ +he an).er (or e0er" -ol,+,'al )")+em# b!+ (,nd,n* .a") +o ,n'rea)e *ender balan'e
)ho!ld be a -r,or,+".
S,m,lar -o,n+) 'o!ld be made abo!+ -ro-or+,onal re-re)en+a+,on ,n o+her 'on+e7+).
=on),derable a++en+,on ha) (o'!)ed on Nor.a"/) re4!,remen+ +ha+ .omen 'on)+,+!+e <% -er'en+
o( +he board) o( d,re'+or) o( -!bl,'l" o.ned or -!bl,'l" +raded 'om-an,e).
8?:
S!'h re4!,remen+)
are ,m-la!),ble ,n na+,on) l,1e +he 5n,+ed S+a+e)# .here a ma9or,+" o( +he ele'+ora+e ,) o--o)ed +o
4!o+a) ,n mo)+ b!),ne)) )e++,n*).
8?<
B!+ e0en ,n +he)e 'o!n+r,e)# +here ,) o(+en )!((,',en+ )!--or+
(or *ender e4!,+" +o ma1e )ome (orm o( 0ol!n+ar" -re(eren+,al +rea+men+ a''e-+able.
Pro%essional. $takehol!er. an! Public "nterest Organizations
There are al)o a 0ar,e+" o( )+ra+e*,e) +ha+ -ro(e)),onal and -!bl,' ,n+ere)+ or*an,Da+,on)
'an -!r)!e +o -romo+e and -re-are .omen (or leader)h,- and +o en'o!ra*e o+her *ro!-) +o do +he
)ame. Na+,onal# )+a+e# and lo'al en+,+,e) 'an (ollo. +he lead o( or*an,Da+,on) )!'h a) =a+al")+ and
+he Amer,'an Bar A))o',a+,on =omm,)),on on Women ,n +he Pro(e)),on +ha+ ha0e )ho.'a)ed
model -ol,',e) and be)+ -ra'+,'e )+andard). Pro(e)),onal and )+a1eholder or*an,Da+,on) 'an al)o
mon,+or em-lo"er)/ -ro*re)) and enl,)+ +he,r 'omm,+men+ +o )-e',(,' *ender6e4!,+" *oal) and
+,me+able).
8?;
To*e+her .,+h -ro(e)),onal )'hool) and .omen/) or*an,Da+,on)# +he)e -ro(e)),onal
a))o',a+,on) 'an al)o -ro0,de more +ra,n,n*# men+or,n*# and ed!'a+,onal -ro*ram) on d,0er),+"6
rela+ed ,))!e) and 'an lobb" (or -!bl,' -ol,'" re(orm).
:;
In add,+,on# or*an,Da+,on) +ha+ -!bl,)h ,nde7e) (or )o',all" re)-on),ble ,n0e)+,n* and
'or-ora+e )o',al re)-on),b,l,+" )ho!ld ,n'l!de mea)!re) o( *ender e4!,+". Onl" a (e. -!bl,'a+,on)
no. ,n'l!de ,n(orma+,on alon* +he)e l,ne)# de)-,+e e0,den'e +ha+ .omen are ,n+ere)+ed ,n
re'e,0,n* ,+.
8?&
An E+h,'al In0e)+men+ Re)ear'h Ser0,'e )!r0e" (o!nd +ha+ a ma9or,+" o( .omen
.an+ +he,r -en),on (!nd) +o (a0or 'om-an,e) .,+h *ood re'ord) on e4!al o--or+!n,+".
8??
To ma1e
+ha+ -o)),ble# be++er ,n(orma+,on need) +o be a0a,lable. More or*an,Da+,on) )ho!ld (ollo. +he lead
o( +he =al0er+ Women/) Pr,n',-le)# +he (,r)+ *lobal 'or-ora+e 'ode o( 'ond!'+ (o'!),n* on *ender
e4!,+". =om-an,e) +ha+ a''e-+ +he)e Pr,n',-le) a*ree +o ,m-lemen+ and re-or+ on -roa'+,0e
-ol,',e) de),*ned +o el,m,na+e )e76ba)ed d,)'r,m,na+,on and +o re'r!,+ .omen (or !--er6le0el
mana*er,al -o),+,on).
8?>
The 1e" re-or+,n* re4!,remen+) )-e',(,ed ,n +he)e Pr,n',-le) )ho!ld
be'ome -ar+ o( +he )+andard 'r,+er,a (or mea)!r,n* 'or-ora+e )o',al re)-on),b,l,+". In +!rn# .o!ld
enable ,n0e)+or)# 'on)!mer)# and -!bl,'6,n+ere)+ or*an,Da+,on) +o -re))!re b!),ne))e) +o ad0an'e
more .omen +o leader)h,- -o),+,on).
E!ucational "nstitutions
5n,0er),+,e) ,n *eneral# and b!),ne))# -ro(e)),onal# and -!bl,' -ol,'" )'hool) ,n
-ar+,'!lar# 'o!ld do more +o 'on0e" +he ,m-or+an'e o( d,0er),+" and +o model +he )+ra+e*,e)
ne'e))ar" +o a'h,e0e ,+. A+ a m,n,m!m# +ha+ .,ll re4!,re *rea+er ,n+e*ra+,on o( d,0er),+"6rela+ed
,))!e) ,n 'ore '!rr,'!la and *rea+er e((or+) +o addre)) +he !nderre-re)en+a+,on o( .omen ,n
leader)h,- role).
8?B
Pro(e)),onal and MBA -ro*ram) 'o!ld al)o ,n'rea)e re)ear'h )!--or+ (or
)'holar)# and 'on+,n!,n* ed!'a+,on (or -ra'+,+,oner)# on *ender e4!,+" ,))!e). De',),on ma1er)
need +o 1no. m!'h more abo!+ .ha+ .or1) ,n +he .orld# and ed!'a+,onal ,n)+,+!+,on) ha0e a
!n,4!e o--or+!n,+" and 'orre)-ond,n* re)-on),b,l,+" +o hel- (,ll +he *a-.
IP. =on'l!),on
:&
I+ ha) lon* ),n'e 'ome +o m" a++en+,on +ha+ -eo-le o( a''om-l,)hmen+ rarel" . . .
N)+a"edO ba'1 and le+ +h,n*) ha--en +o +hem. The" .en+ o!+ and ha--ened +o
+h,n*).
JEl,nor Sm,+h
8>%
I+ ha) 'ome +o o!r a++en+,on ,n -re-ar,n* +h,) o0er0,e. +ha+ more and more .omen
)hare Sm,+h/) 'on'l!),on. Fe.er .omen are 'on+en+ +o )+a" ba'1# and +ho)e .ho ad0an'e are
'han*,n* +he land)'a-e o( leader)h,-. The e))a") +ha+ (ollo. are ,n+ended +o a)),)+ +ha+ )+r!**le.
The 'hallen*e) are )!b)+an+,al# b!+ )o +oo are +he +alen+) o( .omen leader) and +he men .ho
)!--or+ +hem.
:?

:>
8
ENDNOTES
.Ho.ard Cardner# Lead,n* M,nd) HNe. Yor1: Har-er =oll,n)# 8BB;I &G S!e .M. Freeman and
S!)an =. Bo!r4!e# Leader)h,- and Po.er: Ne. =on'e-+,on)# ,n S!e .M. Freeman# S!)an =.
Bo!r4!e# and =hr,)+,ne M. Shel+on# ed).# Women on Po.er: Leader)h,- Rede(,ned HBo)+on:
Nor+hea)+ern 5n,0er),+" Pre))# 8%%8I::# 8<. For +he d,0er),+" ,n de(,n,+,on)# )ee Nan'" . Adler#
Clobal Leader): Women o( In(l!en'e# ,n Car" N. Po.ell# Handboo1 o( Cender and Wor1
HTho!)and Oa1)# =A: Sa*e# 8BB;I:$::# $<8.
2
.Pamela Ke-har+ Q L,ll,an S'h!ma'her# Ha) +he LCla)) =e,l,n*/ =ra'1edF An E7-lora+,on o(
Women En+re-rene!r)h,-# o!rnal o( Leader)h,- and Or*an,Da+,onal S+!d,e) 8$ H$%%;I: $.
:
For e7am-le# ,+ ,) e)+,ma+ed +ha+ .omen a''o!n+ (or abo!+ hal( o( +he board member) and
or*an,Der) o( ,n+er(a,+h 'omm!n,+" *ro!-). Am" =a,aDDa# S,7 S+ra+e*,e) Tha+ En'o!ra*e Women/)
Pol,+,'al A'+,0,)m# Re)ear'h6 ,n 6Br,e(# In)+,+!+e (or Women/) Pol,'" Re)ear'h HWa)h,n*+on# D.=.I#
Ne.)le++er# A-r,l# $%%&# 8.
4
.Ne. Yor1 T,me)# abo!+.'om# h++-:EE!)*o0,n(o.abo!+.'omEl,brar"E.ee1l"Eaa8$88B>.h+m Hla)+
0,),+ed Feb. 8# $%%&IG =en+er (or Women ,n Co0ernmen+ and =,0,l So',e+"# Women ,n S+a+e Pol,'"
Leader)h,-# 8BB>6$%%; HAlban"# N.Y.: =en+er (or Women ,n Co0ernmen+ and =,0,l So',e+"# S+a+e
5n,0er),+" o( Ne. Yor1# $%%&I: l.
5
.5.S. De-ar+men+ o( Ed!'a+,on# Na+,onal =en+er (or Ed!'a+,on S+a+,)+,')# 8BB:68BB< Thro!*h
$%%:6$%%<: In+e*ra+ed Po)+)e'ondar" Ed!'a+,on Da+a S")+em Fall S+a(( S!r0e"# Table $<: HMar'h
$%%;IG The =hron,'le S!r0e" o( Pre),den+) o( <6Year =olle*e)# =hron,'le o( H,*her Ed!'a+,on#
No0ember <# $%%;# :>.
6
.=a+al")+# Women In +he For+!ne ;%% H$%%;I# a0a,lable a+
h++-:EE....'a+al")+.omen.or*E-re))roomE-re))Rrelea)e)E$68%6;S$%=a+al")+S$%FemaleS$%=EO)
S$%Fa'+S$%Shee+.-d(. 5n,+ed S+a+e) E4!al Em-lo"men+ O--or+!n,+" =omm,)),on# Cla)) =e,l,n*):
The S+a+!) o( Women a) O((,',al) and Mana*er) ,n +he Pr,0a+e Se'+or HWa)h,n*+on# D.=.: E4!al
O--or+!n,+" Em-lo"men+ =omm,)),on# $%%<IG All,an'e (or Board D,0er),+"# Women and M,nor,+,e)
on For+!ne 8%% Board)# a0a,lable a+ h++-:EE$8&.8??.&&EABDRe-or+.-d(.
7
.For =on*re))# )ee =en+er (or Amer,'an Women ,n Pol,+,') N=AWPO# Women o( =olor ,n Ele'+,0e
O((,'e $%%&: Fa'+ Shee+ HR!+*er)# N.: =AWP# Ea*le+on In)+,+!+e o( Pol,+,') $%%&I. For -ro(e))or)#
)ee 5.S. De-ar+men+ o( Ed!'a+,on# Po)+)e'ondar" In+e*ra+ed Da+a S")+em# Table $$>. For 'or-ora+e
o((,'er)# )ee L,)a Ta1e!'h, =!llen# Pa+h.a") +o Po.er: Ra'e# Cender# and Wor1# T,me# In),de
B!),ne))# De'ember# $%%;# A:G (or la."er)# Pa!la Pa++on# Women La."er): The,r S+a+!)# In(l!en'e#
and Re+en+,on ,n +he Le*al Pro(e)),on# W,ll,am and Mar" o!rnal o( Women and +he La. 88 H$%%<I:
8?:# 8?<G Amer,'an Bar A))o',a+,on =omm,)),on on Women ,n +he Pro(e)),on# =!rren+ Clan'e o(
Women and +he La. H=h,'a*o: ABA =omm,)),on on Women ,n +he Pro(e)),on# $%%:I# 8G
A))o',a+,on o( Amer,'an La. S'hool)# S+a+,)+,'al Re-or+ on La. S'hool Fa'!l+" and =and,da+e) (or
La. Fa'!l+" Po),+,on) H$%%<6$%%;I# h++-:EE....aal).or*E)+a+,)+,')E%<%;Eh+mlE%<%;RT<BR+,+.h+ml.G
El,Dabe+h =hambl,))# M,le) +o Co: Pro*re)) o( M,nor,+,e) ,n +he Le*al Pro(e)),on H=h,'a*o: ABA
=omm,)),on on Ra',al and E+hn,' D,0er),+" ,n +he Le*al Pro(e)),on# $%%;IG Na+,onal A))o',a+,on o(
La. Pla'emen+# NNALPO# Women and A++orne") o( =olor a+ La. F,rm) HWa)h,n*+on# D.=.: NALP#
$%%<I.
8
.In+er6Parl,amen+ar" 5n,on Web),+e# Women ,n Na+,onal Parl,amen+)# h++-:EE....,-!.or*E.mn6
eE'la)),(.h+m H-ro0,d,n* da+a on (emale re-re)en+a+,on ,n na+,onal le*,)la+!re)I. For d,)'!)),on# )ee
Anne E. Kornbl!+# A)'en+ o( a Woman# Ne. Yor1 T,me)# !ne 88# $%%&# A&G Mar,e W,l)on# =lo),n*
+he Leader)h,- Ca-# M).# S!mmer $%%<#8<.
B
P,--a Norr,)# O-en,n* +he Door: Women Leader) and =on)+,+!+,on B!,ld,n* ,n Ira4 and
A(*han,)+an# ,n(ra.
8%
P,--a Norr,)# Ele'+oral En*,neer,n* H=ambr,d*e# 5n,+ed K,n*dom: =ambr,d*e 5n,0er),+"
Pre))# $%%<I# 8>%. See Dr!de Dahler!-# K!o+a =on+ro0er),e): Clobal In,+,a+,0e) +o A++a,n Cender
Balan'e ,n Pol,+,')# ,n(ra.
88
See Y0onne Call,*an and Manon Trembla" Hed).I# Shar,n* Po.er: Women# Parl,amen+#
Demo'ra'" HLondon:A)h*a+e#$%%;23 Women ,n Pol,+,'): Be"ond N!mber)
Hh++-:EEar'h,0e.,dea.,n+E.omenE-arlE'h<'.h+mG A!*!)+o Lo-eD6=laro) and Saad,a Aah,d,# 2Women/)
Em-o.ermen+: Mea)!r,n* +he Clobal Cender Ca-#3 HCene0a# S.,+Derland: World E'onom,'
For!m# $%%;I.
8$
In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he Cla)) =e,l,n*: Women ,n
Mana*emen+ HCene0a: In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# $%%<IG Rana Foroohar# M"+h and Real,+":
For*e+ All +he Tal1 o( E4!al O--or+!n,+". E!ro-ean Women =an Ha0e a ob6 B!+ No+ a =areer#
Ne.).ee1 In+erna+,onal# Febr!ar" $?# $%%&.
8:
A Woman/) Pla'e . . . More Female Mana*er) Sho!ld Ha0e Sea+) on +he Board# F,nan',al
T,me)# O'+ober 8?# $%%;# $%G The =on!ndr!m o( +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# The E'onom,)+# !l" $:# $%%;#
&:. See al)o A''en+!re# The Ana+om" o( +he Cla)) =e,l,n*: Barr,er) +o Women/) Pro(e)),onal
Ad0an'emen+ HNe. Yor1: A''en+!re# $%%&I H'om-,l,n* da+a on e7e'!+,0e) ,n e,*h+ 'o!n+r,e) ,n
Nor+h Amer,'a# E!ro-e# and A),aI.
8<
The =on!ndr!m o( +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# &:.
8;
S!e Ha".ard# Women Lead,n* HHo!ndm,ll)# 5n,+ed K,n*dom: Pal*ra0e# Ma'm,llan# $%%;I#
8;8.
8&
In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# $%G Car" N. Po.ell
and La!ra M. Cra0e)# Women and Men ,n Mana*emen+ HTho!)and Oa1)# =A: Sa*e# $%%:I# :# $;
17
.L,)a Bel1,n# The O-+ O!+ Re0ol!+,on# Ne. Yor1 T,me) Ma*aD,ne# O'+. $&# $%%:# <$.
18
.L!'" Freeman# The Fem,n,ne M")+,4!e# Ne. Yor1 T,me)# A-r,l ?# 8B&:# <&.
19
.Bel1,n# The O-+ O!+ Re0ol!+,on# <$.
20
.S"l0,a Ann He.le++ and =arol"n B!'1 L!'e# O(( Ram-) and On Ram-): Kee-,n* Talen+ed
Women on +he Road +o S!''e))# Har0ard B!),ne)) Re0,e.# Mar'h $%%;# <:6<;.
21
.F,nd,n*) ran*e (rom 8$ +o ?; -er'en+. =om-are Na'h!m S,'herman# Cender D,((eren'e) ,n
De-ar+!re) (rom a Lar*e F,rm# Ind!)+r,al and Labor Rela+,on) Re0,e. <B H8BB&I: <B:# .,+h Mon,'a
M'Cra+h# Marla Dr,)'oll# and Mar" Cro))# Ba'1 ,n +he Came: Re+!rn,n* +o B!),ne)) A(+er a H,a+!):
E7-er,en'e and Re'ommenda+,on) (or Women# Em-lo"er)# and 5n,0er),+,e) HPh,ladel-h,a: Whar+on
=en+er (or Leader)h,- and =han*e and +he For+e Fo!nda+,on. $%%;I# ?. Ho.e0er# a 'on),)+en+
(,nd,n* ,) +ha+ (ar (e.er men re-or+ +h,) 'on'ern.
22
.=la!d,a Wall,)# The =a)e (or S+a",n* Home# T,me# Mar'h $$# $%%<# ;8# ;:.
23
.He.le++ and L!'e# O((6Ram-) and On Ram-)# <;6<?.
$<
In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# Foroohar# M"+h and
Real,+".
$;
In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# <?.
26
.=el,nda La1e and Kell"anne =on.a" .,+h =a+her,ne Wh,+ne"# Wha+ Women Reall" Wan+ >?
HNe. Yor1: Free Pre))# $%%;I.
27
.In +he )+!d" b" +he =en+er (or Wor16L,(e Pol,'"# onl" a +h,rd o( .omen# 'om-ared .,+h o0er hal(
o( men# de)'r,bed +hem)el0e) a) 2e7+remel"3 or 20er"3 amb,+,o!). S"l0,a Ann He.le++# =arol"n
B!'1 L!'e# Pe**" Sh,ller and Sandra So!+h.ell# The H,dden Bra,n Dra,n: O((6Ram-) and On6
Ram-) HNe. Yor1: =en+er (or Wor1 Wor16L,(e Pol,'" H$%%;I# <. In a )!r0e" o( )en,or e7e'!+,0e) ,n
m!l+,la+eral 'or-ora+,on)# 8B -er'en+ o( +he men# 'om-ared .,+h B -er'en+ o( .omen# .an+ed +he
=EO -o),+,on. Hel-,n* Women Ce+ +o +he To-# E'onom,)+# !l" $:# $%%<# 88. See al)o Pa+r,',a
Seller)# Po.er: Do Women Reall" Wan+ I+F# For+!ne# O'+. 8:# $%%:. H(,nd,n* +ha+ .omen had lo.er
'areer a)-,ra+,on) +han ),m,larl" ),+!a+ed menI. B" 'on+ra)+# a =a+al")+ )+!d" (o!nd no )!'h
d,((eren'e) ,n +he de),re (or +he 'h,e( e7e'!+,0e )lo+. oan S. L!blen# Women A)-,re +o be =h,e( a)
M!'h a) Men# Wall S+ree+ o!rnal# !ne $:# $%%<# D$G =a+al")+# Women and Men ,n 5n,+ed S+a+e)
=or-ora+,on): Same Wor1(or'e# D,((eren+ Real,+,e) HNe. Yor1: =a+al")+# $%%<I.

For .omen/) le))er
-ol,+,'al amb,+,on)# )ee R,'hard Fo7# Ta1,n* +he Pl!n*e: Cender and +he De',),on +o R!n (or
Ele'+,0e O((,'e# ,n(ra. B!+ (or a )+!d" (,nd,n* +ha+ .omen ele'+ed +o )+a+e le*,)la+,0e o((,'e ha0e
),m,lar amb,+,on) +o +he,r male 'ollea*!e)# )ee =en+er (or Amer,'an Women and Pol,+,')# Women ,n
S+a+e Le*,)la+!re): Pa)+# Pre)en+# F!+!re HR!+*er)# N..: =en+er (or Amer,'an Women and Pol,+,')G
Ea*le+on In)+,+!+e o( Pol,+,')# $%%8I# 86$.
$>
L,nda Bab'o'1 and Sara La)'he0er# Women Don/+ A)1: Ne*o+,a+,on and +he Cender D,0,de
HPr,n'e+on# N..: Pr,n'e+on 5n,0er),+" Pre))# $%%:I# 8688.
$B
In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# <?.
30
.=a+al")+# Women and Men ,n 5n,+ed S+a+e) =or-ora+,on)# :.
31
.The )+!d" ,n0ol0ed a'adem,') +.el0e "ear) a(+er re'e,-+ o( +he,r Ph.D). Mar" Ann Ma)on and
Mar' Co!lden# Marr,a*e and Bab" Bl!e): Rede(,n,n* Cender E4!,+" ,n +he A'adem"# Annal) o( +he
Amer,'an A'adem" ;B& H$%%<I: >&# B$.
32
.Pe+er Cl,'1 and S!)an F,)1# e+ al.# Amb,0alen+ Se7,)m ,n Mar1 P. Aanna# ed# Ad0an'e) ,n
E7-er,men+al So',al P)"'holo*"# :: HTho!)and Oa1): =al,(orn,a: A'adem,' Pre))# 8BBBI: 88;688>.
33
.M,'hael Rober+ Denn,) and Adr,anne Denn,) K!n1el# Per'e-+,on) o( Men# Women# and =EO):
The E((e'+) o( Cender Iden+,+"# So',al Beha0,or and Per)onal,+" :$ H$%%<I: 8;;# 8&&6&>. Al,'e H.
Ea*l"# A'h,e0,n* Rela+,onal A!+hen+,',+" ,n Leader)h,-: Doe) Cender Ma++erF# Leader)h,-
K!ar+erl" 8& H$%%;I: <;B# <&B. See al)o Sab,ne =. Ko'h# Rebe''a L!(+# and Lenel,) Kr!)e# Women
and Leader)h,-J$% Year) La+er: A Seman+,' =onno+a+,on S+!d"# So',al S',en'e In(orma+,on <<
H$%%;I: B H(,nd,n* de'l,ne ,n a))o',a+,on be+.een men and leader)h,-I.
34
.Ea*l"# A'h,e0,n* Rela+,onal A!+hen+,',+"# <&BG Al,'e H. Ea*l"# Mar" =. ohanne)en6S'hm,d+# and
Marloe) 0an En*en# Tran)(orma+,onal# Tran)a'+,onal# and La,))eD6Fa,re Leader)h,- S+"le): A Me+a6
anal"),) =om-ar,n* Women and Men# P)"'holo*,'al B!lle+,n 8$B H$%%:I:;&BG ohn Da0,d Yoder#
Ma1,n* Leader)h,- Wor1 More E((e'+,0el" (or Women# o!rnal o( So',al I))!e) ;? H$%%8I: >8;G
=r,)+,na Tr,n,dad and An+hon" H. Normore# Leader)h,- and Cender: A Dan*ero!) L,a,)onF#
Leader)h,- and Or*an,Da+,on De0elo-men+ o!rnal $& H$%%;I:;?<# ;>:. Th,) -o,n+ ,) (re4!en+l"
made ,n +rade -!bl,'a+,on). E)+her Wa'h) Boo1# Wh" +he Be)+ Man (or +he ob I) a Woman: The
5n,4!e Female K!al,+,e) o( Leader)h,- HNe. Yor1: Har-er B!),ne))# $%%%I.
35
.See )o!r'e) ',+ed ,n no+eG =a+al")+# Women Ta1e =are# Men Ta1e =har*e: S+ereo+"-,n* o(
B!),ne)) Leader) HNe. Yor1: =a+al")+# $%%;I.
36
.Al,'e Ea*l" and S+e0en Kara!# Role =on*r!,+" Theor" o( Pre9!d,'e To.ard Female Leader)#
P)"'holo*" Re0,e. 8%B H$%%$I: ;?<G Da.n L. Broo1) and L"nn M. Broo1)# Se0en Se're+) o(
S!''e))(!l Women HNe. Yor1: M'Cra. H,ll# 8BB?I 8B;G Ea*l"# A'h,e0,n* Rela+,onal A!+hen+,',+"#
<?%G Bab'o'1 and La)'he0er# Women Don/+ A)1# >?6>>.
37
.Neela Baner9ee# The Med,a B!),ne)): Some LB!ll,e)/ See1 Wa") +o So(+en 5-: To!*hne)) Ha)
R,)1) (or Women E7e'!+,0e)# Ne. Yor1 T,me)# A!*!)+ 8%# $%%8# =8.
38
.D. An+hon" B!++er(,eld and ame) P. Cr,nnell# Re0,e.,n* Cender Leader)h,-# and Mana*er,al
Beha0,or: Do The De'ade) o( Re)ear'h Tell 5) An"+h,n*F# ,n Car" N. Po.ell# Handboo1 o( Cender
and Wor1 HTho!)and Oa1): Sa*e# 8BB>I:$$:# $:;G Al,'e H. Ea*l"# Mona C. Ma1h,9an,# Q Br!'e C.
Klon)1"# Cender and The E0al!a+,on o( Leader)# P)"'holo*,'al B!lle+,n# 888 H8BB$I# 8?G eane++e
N. =le0eland# Mar*are+ S+o'1dale# Q Ke0,n R. M!r-h"# Women and Men ,n Or*an,Da+,on): Se7 and
Cender I))!e) a+ Wor1 H$%%%I: 8%&# 8%?G Ro'helle Shar-e# Ne. S+!d,e) F,nd +ha+ Female Mana*er)
O!+)h,ne The,r Male =o!n+er-ar+) ,n Almo)+ E0er" Mea)!re# B!),ne)).ee1 Onl,ne# No0. $%# $%%%#
h++-E....b!),ne)).ee1.'om.
39
.Am" .=. =!dd"# S!)an T. F,)1e# and Pe+er Cl,'1# When Pro(e)),onal) Be'ome Mo+her)# Warm+h
Doe)n/+ =!+ +he I'e# o!rnal So',al I))!e) &% H$%%<I: ?%8# ?%BG Ka+hleen F!e*en and Mon,'a
B,erna+# El,Dabe+h Ha,ne)# and Ka" Dea!7# Mo+her) and Fa+her) ,n +he Wor1-la'e: Ho. Cender
and Paren+al S+a+!) In(l!en'e !d*men+) o( ob6Rela+ed =om-e+en'e# o!rnal o( So',al I))!e) &%
H$%%<I: ?:?# ?<;. =la,re E+a!*h and Den,)e Fol*er# Per'e-+,on) o( Paren+) Who)e Wor1 and
Paren+,n* Beha0,or) De0,a+e (rom Role E7-e'+a+,on)# Se7 Role) :B H8BB>I: $8;.
40
.Ea*le" and Kara!# Role =on*r!,+" Theor" o( Pre9!d,'e To.ard Female Leader)# 888G Todd L.
P,++,n)1"# La!ra M. Ba'on# Br,an Welle# The Crea+ Women Theor" o( Leader)h,-: The Per,l) o(
Po),+,0e S+ereo+"-e) and Pre'ar,o!) Pede)+al)# ,n(ra.
<8
Bab'o'1 and Le)'he0er# Women Don/+ A)1# B<.
42
.=a+al")+# Women ,n =or-ora+e Leader)h,-: Pro*re)) and Pro)-e'+) HlBB&I# :?. See al)o
In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# a+ < Hd,)'!)),n* role o( )+ereo+"-e)I.
<:
A Woman (or Pre),den+# =BS Ne. Yor1 T,me) Poll# Febr!ar" ;# $%%&# d,)'!))ed ,n R!+h
Mandel# She/) ,n +he R!nn,n*# ,n(ra. For ob)+a'le) +o .omen ,n -ol,+,')# )ee R!+h Mandel and K,m
Fr,d1,n Kahn# The Pol,+,'al =on)e4!en'e) o( Be,n* a Woman HNe. Yor1: =ol!mb,a 5n,0er),+"
Pre))# 8BB&I.G and S!)an . =arroll# Hed.I Women and Amer,'an Pol,+,'): Ne. K!e)+,on)# Ne.
D,re'+,on) HNe. Yor1: O7(ord 5n,0er),+" Pre))# $%%:I.
<<
See In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# $# $<# ;>6;BG
Ha".ard# Women Lead,n*# 8;$6;>.
45
.Bab'o'1 and La)'he0er# Women Don/+ A)1# >>G =arol H"mo.,+D# Thro!*h The Cla)) =e,l,n*#
Wall S+ree+ o!rnal# No0ember ># $%%<# R8. Tha+ -o,n+ ,) .,del" a'1no.led*ed ,n +rade
-!bl,'a+,on) (ea+!r,n* ad0,'e (or a)-,r,n* .omen leader). See Donna L. Broo1) and L"nn M
Broo1)# Se0en Se're+) o( S!''e))(!l Women HNe. Yor1: M'Cra. H,ll# 8BB?I# &:6&;# 8<?68;:G
Ca,l E0an)# Pla" L,1e a Man W,n L,1e a Woman HNe. Yor1: Broad.a"# $%%%I# &>6>?.
46
.Bab'o'1 and La)'he0er# Women Don/+ A)1# 8688# <86<<.
<?
.Mel0,n . Lerner# The Bel,e( ,n a !)+ World HNe. Yor1: Plen!m Pre))# 8B>%I# 0,,60,,,G
@,r*,n,a @al,an# The =o*n,+,0e Ba),) o( Cender B,a)# Broo1l"n La. Re0,e. &; H8BBBI: 8%;B.
48
.Deborah L. Rhode# Balan'ed L,0e): =han*,n* +he =!l+!re o( Le*al Wor1-la'e)# H=h,'a*o:
Amer,'an Bar A))o',a+,on =omm,)),on on Women ,n +he Pro(e)),on# $%%$I# 8&G L,nda Kr,e*er# The
=on+en+ o( o!r =a+e*or,e): A =o*n,+,0e B,a) A--roa'h +o D,)'r,m,na+,on and E4!al Em-lo"men+
O--or+!n,+"# S+an(ord La. Re0,e. <? H8BB;I: :<.
49
.She,la Well,n*+on# Mar',a Br!m,+ Kro-(# and Pa!le++e Cer1o0,'h# Wha+/) Hold,n* Women Ba'1#
Har0ard B!),ne)) Re0,e.# H!ne# $%%:I: 8>G In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h
+he Cla)) =e,l,n*# ;?.
50
.@al,an# =o*n,+,0e Ba),)# 8%<>6<B.
51
.Mar,l"n B. Bre.er Q R!-er+ . Bro.n# In+er*ro!- Rela+,on) ,n Dan,el T. C,lber+# S!)an T. F,)1e#
and Cardner L,ndDe"# ed).# The Handboo1 o( So',al P)"'holo*" HNe. Yor1: M'Cra. H,ll# 8BB>I:
;;<6;B<G S!)an T. F,)1e# S+ereo+"-,n*# Pre9!d,'e and D,)'r,m,na+,on# ,n Dan,el T. C,lber+ e+ al.# ed)#
Handboo1 o( So',al P)"'holo*" HNe. Yor1: M'Cra. H,ll 8BB>I: :;?6<8<G Barbara Re)1,n#
Re+h,n1,n* Em-lo"men+ D,)'r,m,na+,on and ,+) Remed,e)# In Ma!ro C!,llen e+ al.# ed). ,n The Ne.
E'onom,' So',olo*": De0elo-men+) ,n an Emer*,n* F,eld HNe. Yor1: R!))ell Sa*e# $%%%I: $8>6
$<<G La!ra M. Cra0e)# Cender B,a) ,n In+er0,e.er)/ E0al!a+,on) o( A--l,'an+)# ,n Po.ell# Cender
and Wor1# 88<;# 8;<6;;..
52
.enn,(er =ro'1er# Brenda Ma9or and =la!de S+eel# So',al S+,*ma# ,n Dan,el T. C,lber+# S!)an T.
F,)1e# and Cardner L,ndDe"# ed).# Handboo1 o( So',al P)"'holo*" HNe. Yor1: M'Cra. H,ll#
8BB>I: ;%<6;;:G ohn F. Do0,d,o and Sam!el L. Caer+ner# S+ereo+"-e) and E0al!a+,0e In+er*ro!-
B,a)# ,n D,ane M. Ma'1,e and Da0,d L. Ham,l+on# ed).# A((e'+# =o*n,+,on# and S+ereo+"-,n* HSan
D,e*o: A'adem,' Pre))# 8BB:I: 8&?68B:G Mar+ha Fo)'h,# Do!ble S+andard) (or =om-e+en'e: Theor"
and Re)ear'h# Ann!al Re0,e. o( So',olo*" $& H$%%%I: $86<$G Kr,e*er# The =on+en+ o( O!r
=a+e*or,e)# 88&868$<>G =e',l,a L. R,d*e.a"# In+era'+,on and +he =on)er0a+,on o( Cender
Ine4!al,+": =on),der,n* Em-lo"men+# &$ =on+em-orar" So',olo*" H8BB?I: $8>.
53
.Mar+ha Fo)'h,# Do!ble S+andard) ,n +he E0al!a+,on o( Men and Women# So',al P)"'holo*" ;B
HlBB&I: $:?G a'4!el,ne Landa!# The Rela+,on)h,- o( Ra'e and Cender +o Mana*er)/ Ra+,n* O(
Promo+,on Po+en+,al# o!rnal Or*an,Da+,onal Beha0,or 8& H8BB;I: :B8.
54
.L,n =o!*hl,n# The T,me ,) No.: A Leader)/ Per)onal o!rne"# L,n =o!*hl,n# ed.# Enl,*h+ened
Po.er: Ho. Women Are Tran)(orm,n* +he Pra'+,'e o( Leader)h,- HSan Fran',)'o: o))e" Ba))#
$%%;I# 8# >.
;;
.@al,an# =o*n,+,0e Ba),)# 8%;%G Rhode# The D,((eren'e D,((eren'e Ma1e)# BG Fo7# Ta1,n* +he
Pl!n*e: Cender and +he De',),on +o R!n (or Ele'+,0e O((,'e# ,n(ra.
;&
;&. @,r*,n,a @al,an# Wh" So Slo.F The Ad0an'emen+ o( Women H=ambr,d*e: MIT Pre))#
8BBBI# :B6<%G Calen @. Bodenha!)en# =. Ne,l Ma'rae# and enn,(er Car)+# S+ereo+"-e) ,n Tho!*h+
and Deed: So',al =o*n,+,0e Or,*,n) o( In+er*ro!- D,)'r,m,na+,on# ,n =on)+an+,ne Sed,1,de)# .
S'ho-ler# and =. A. In)1o# ed).# In+er*ro!- =o*n,+,on and In+er*ro!- Beha0,or HMah.ah# N. .:
La.ren'e Erlba!m A))o',a+e)# 8BB>IG Rob,n El"# The Po.er ,n Demo*ra-h": Women/) So',al
=on)+r!'+,on o( Cender Iden+,+" a+ Wor1# A'adem" o( Mana*emen+ o!rnal# :> H8BB;I: ;>B6&:<.
57
.Mon,'a B,erna+ and D,ane Kobr"no.,'D# Cender and Ra'e6Ba)ed S+andard) o( =om-e+en'e:
Lo.er M,n,m!m S+andard) b!+ H,*her Ab,l,+" S+andard) (or De0al!ed Cro!-)# o!rnal o(
Per)onal,+" and So',al P)"'holo*" ?$ H8BB?I: ;;;G Madel,ne He,lman# De)'r,-+,on and
Pre)'r,-+,on: Ho. Cender S+ereo+"-e) Pre0en+ Women/) A)'en+ 5- +he Or*an,Da+,onal Ladder#
o!rnal o( So',al I))!e) ;? H$%%8I: &&&G Madel,ne He,lman e+ al.# The @a*ar,e) o( Se7 B,a)#
Or*an,Da+,onal Beha0,or and H!man De',),on Pro'e))e) <8 H8BB>I: B>6BB.
58
.Ale))andra S+anle"# For Women# To Soar ,) Rare: To Fa,l ,) H!man# Ne. Yor1 T,me)# !l" 8:#
$%%<: E8G Da0,d =arr# To Rea'h +he He,*h+)# F,r)+ Be Male# Ne. Yor1 T,me)# an!ar" B# $%%;: =8G
Ke-har+ and S'h!ma'her# Ha) +he LCla)) =e,l,n*/ =ra'1edF# B.
59
.Rhode# De(,n,+,on) o( D,((eren'eG Ida O. Abbo++# The La."er)/ C!,de +o Men+or,n* HWa)h,n*+on#
D.=.: Na+,onal A))o',a+,on (or La. Pla'emen+ NNALPO# $%%%IG Belle Ro)e Ra*,n)# Cender and
Men+or,n* Rela+,on)h,-): A Re0,e. and Re)ear'h A*enda (or +he Ne7+ De'ade# ,n Po.ell#
Handboo1 o( Cender and Wor1# :<?# :;%6&$G =a+al")+# Women ,n =or-ora+e Leader)h,-: Pro*re))
and Pro)-e'+) HNe. Yor1: =a+al")+# 8BB&IG T,mo+h" O/Br,en# 5- +he Do.n S+a,r'a)e# Ne. Yor1
T,me)# Mar'h 8B# $%%&# A<.
60
.Ella L. . Edmond)on Bell and S+ella M. N1omo# O!r Se-ara+e Wa"): Bla'1 Women and +he
S+r!**le (or Pro(e)),onal Iden+,+" H=ambr,d*e# MA: Har0ard 5n,0er),+" B!),ne)) Pre))# $%%8I# 8$:6
:$G Bernardo M. Feldman# The =olor and =!l+!re o( Cender ,n Or*an,Da+,on): A++end,n* +o Ra'e
and E+hn,',+"# ,n Po.ell# Handboo1 o( Cender and Wor1# 8?# 8>6$&G =a+al")+# Women o( =olor ,n
=or-ora+e Mana*emen+: D"nam,') o( =areer Ad0an'emen+# HNe. Yor1: =a+al")+# 8BBBI# 8;G Da0,d
W,l1,n) and C. M,+! C!la+,# Wh" Are There So Fe. Bla'1 La. F,rm): An In)+,+!+,onal Anal"),)#
5n,0er),+" o( =al,(orn,a La. Re0,e. >< H8BB&I: <B:G Deborah L. Rhode# The 5n(,n,)hed A*enda:
Women and +he Le*al Pro(e)),on# H=h,'a*o: ABA =omm,)),on on Women and +he Pro(e)),on#
$%%8I: 8&.
61
.=a+al")+# Women o( =olor HNe. Yor1: =a+al")+# $%%%I: 8:G =a+al")+# Women ,n =or-ora+e
Leader)h,-: :?.
62
. For +he 5n,+ed S+a+e)# )ee O/Br,en# 5- +he Do.n S+a,r'a)e# A<G Abbo++# The La."er)/ C!,de +o
Men+or,n*G =a+al")+# Women ,n La. HNe. Yor1: =a+al")+# $%%8IG Na+,onal A))o',a+,on (or La.
Pla'emen+# The La+eral La."er: Wh" The" Lea0e and Wha+ Ma1e) Them S+a" HWa)h,n*+on# D.=.:
NALP# $%%%I: <. For ,n+erna+,onal da+a# )ee In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he
Cla)) =e,l,n*# $%6$> and A''en+!re# The Ana+om" o( +he Cla)) =e,l,n*.
&:
See Karen Pro!d(ord# I)n/+ She Del,*h+(!l# ,n(raG Ra*,n)# Cender and Men+or,n*
Rela+,on)h,-)# :&86:&:.
64
.B!rea! o( Labor S+a+,)+,')# Amer,'an T,me 5)e S!r0e" HWa)h,n*+on# D.=.: B!rea! o( Labor
S+a+,)+,') $%%<I Hn.-.IG Donald C. M'Ne,l# Real Men Don/+ =lean Ba+hroom)# Ne. Yor1 T,me)#
Se-+ember 8B# $%%<# E:.
65
.S"l0,a Ann He.le++# H,*h A'h,e0,n* Women# =en+er (or Wor16L,(e Pol,'" H$%%8IG S"l0,a
He.le++# =rea+,n* a L,(e: Pro(e)),onal Women and +he K!e)+ (or =h,ldren HNe. Yor1: Tal1
M,rama7 Boo1)# $%%$I# 8<:.
66
.oan W,ll,am)# 5nbend,n* Cender# Wh" Fam,l" and Wor1 =on(l,'+ and Wha+ +o Do Abo!+ I+
H$%%%I# ?8.
67
.Mar1 W,ll,am)# So Where Are +he =or-ora+e H!)band)F# Ne. Yor1 T,me)# !ne $<# $%%8.
68
.S"l0,a Ann He.le++# =arol"n B!'1 L!'e# and =ornell We)+# Leader)h,- ,n Yo!r M,d)+: Ta--,n*
+he H,dden S+ren*+h o( M,nor,+" E7e'!+,0e)# Har0ard B!),ne)) Re0,e. HNo0. $%%;I: ?<# ?B.
69
.=ameron S+ra'her# All Aboard The Momm" Tra'1# Amer,'an La."er# Mar'h 8BBB# 8$&G
Mered,+h K. Wadman# Fam,l" and Wor1# Wa)h,n*+on La."er# HNo0.EDe'. 8BB>I: ::G Abb,e F.
W,llard and Pa!la A. Pa++on# Per'e-+,on) o( Par+ner)h,-: The All!re and A''e)),b,l,+" o( +he Bra))
R,n* HNALP# 8BBBIG ="n+h,a F!'h) E-)+e,n e+ al.# Cla)) =e,l,n*) and O-en Door)# :B86:BB.
70
.Rhode# The D,((eren'e D,((eren'e Ma1e)# 8;G Mar+ha B!r1e# =!l+ o( Po.er HNe. Yor1:
S'r,bner# $%%;I# $?8.
?8
See Forhoohar# M"+h) and Real,+,e). For d,)'!)),on o( S'and,na0,an lea0e -ol,',e)# )ee S!)an
Ma"ne# Em-lo"men+ La. ,n E!ro-e HO7(ord# 5.K.: B!++er.or+h6He,nemann $%%8IG Mar1 Landler#
K!o+h +he Ra0en: I Ba1e =oo1,e)# Too# Ne. Yor1 T,me)# A-r,l $:# $%%;# E;# and El,na P"l11anen
and N,na Sm,+h# =areer In+err!-+,on) D!e +o Paren+al Lea0e: A =om-ara+,0e S+!d" o( Denmar1 and
S.eden HPar,)# Fran'e: OE=D# Mar'h $%%:I .
72
.She,la Well,n*+on and =a+al")+# Be Yo!r O.n Men+or HNe. Yor1: Random Ho!)e# $%%8I# 88%.
73
.!l,e+ B. S'hor# The O0er.or1ed Amer,'an: The 5ne7-e'+ed De'l,ne o( Le,)!re H8BB:I# 86;# ?B6
>$.
74
.=la!d,a Wall,)# The =a)e (or S+a",n* Home# T,me# HMar'h $$# $%%<I: ;$G oan W,ll,am)#
5nbend,n* Cender# ?8G Arl,e R!))ell Ho'h)'h,ld# The T,me B,nd: When Wor1 Be'ome) Home and
Home Be'ome) Wor1 H8BB?I# ?%.
75
.Be+)" Morr,)# E7e'!+,0e Women =on(ron+ M,dl,(e =r,),)# For+!ne# Se-+.8># 8BB;G Rhode# The
D,((eren'e D,((eren'e Ma1e). 8;.
76
.Pa+r,'1 M'Ceehan# Wall S+ree+ H,*h(l,er +o O!+'a)+: A Woman/) S+or"# Ne. Yor1 T,me)#
Febr!ar" 8%# $%%$# 8 H4!o+,n* All,)on S'h,e((el,nI.
77
.He.le++# L!'e# and We)+# Leader)h,- ,n Yo!r M,d)+# ??.
78
.Pa!la Pa++on# Women La."er): The,r S+a+!)# In(l!en'e# and Re+en+,on ,n +he Le*al Pro(e)),on#
W,ll,am and Mar" o!rnal o( Women and +he La. 88 H$%%;I: 8?:# 8>B.
79
.Ann =r,++enden# The Pr,'e o( Mo+herhood HNe. Yor1: Me+ro-ol,+anEO.l Boo1)# $%%8I# B&G )ee
al)o E-)+e,n e+ al.# Par+6+,me Parado7.
80
.For +he 5n,+ed S+a+e)# )ee He.le++ and L!'e# O((6Ram-) and On6Ram-)# <;G Ke-har+ and
S'h!ma'her# Ha) +he LCla)) =e,l,n*3 =ra'1ed# 8%. For ,n+erna+,onal -a++ern) )ee Forhoohar# M"+h
and Real,+".
81
.He.le++ and L!'e# O((6Ram-) and On6Ram-)# <;G Ke-har+ and S'h!ma'her# Ha) +he LCla))
=e,l,n*3 =ra'1ed# 8%.
82
.Mar' Mor" and L,a P,)+,ll,# The Fa,l!re o( +he Fam,l" and Med,'al Lea0e A'+: Al+erna+,0e
Pro-o)al) (or =on+em-orar" Amer,'an Fam,l,e). Ho()+ra Labor and Em-lo"men+ La. o!rnal# 8>
H$%%8I: &>B.
83
.T,+le @II o( +he =,0,l R,*h+) A'+ o( 8B&<# <$ 5.S.=. TT $%%%$6$.
84
.Deborah L. Rhode and oan W,ll,am)# Le*al Per)-e'+,0e) on Em-lo"men+ D,)'r,m,na+,on# ,n
Fa"e =ro)b" ed.G Brenda Ma9or and =her"l Ka,)er# Per'e,0,n* and =la,m,n* D,)'r,m,na+,on# In
La!ra N,el)en and Rober+ Nel)on ed).# The Handboo1 on Em-lo"men+ D,)'r,m,na+,on Re)ear'h:
R,*h+) and Real,+,e). HThe Ne+herland): S-r,n*er# $%%;IG K. A. D,7on# D!1e S+oren# and =arl E. @an
Horn# A Wor1-la'e D,0,ded: Ho. Amer,'an) @,e. D,)'r,m,na+,on and Ra'e on +he ob. HNe.
er)e": R!+*er) 5n,0er),+" ohn . Heldr,'h =en+er (or Wor1-la'e De0elo-men+# H$%%$I# 8;.
>;
Forhoohar# M"+h and Real,+"G In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he Cla))
=e,l,n*.
86
.R,ordan 0. Kam,ner)# >:8 F. $d &B%# &B? H?+h =,r. 8B>?IG Rhode and W,ll,am)# Le*al
Per)-e'+,0e)
87
.Pa+r,'1 M'Ceehan# D,)'r,m,na+,on on Wall S+ree+F R!n +he N!mber) and Wee-# Ne. Yor1
T,me)# !l" 8<# $%%<# =8G Pa+r,'1 M'Ceehan# Mor*an S+anle" Se++le) B,a) S!,+ .,+h U;< M,ll,on#
Ne. Yor1 T,me)# !l" 8:# $%%<# A8.
88
.M'Ceehan# Wall S+ree+ H,*h Fl,er# =8G Reed Abel)on# I( Wall S+ree+ I) Dead End# Do Women
S+a" +o F,*h+ or Co K!,e+l"F# Ne. Yor1 T,me)# A!*!)+ :# 8BBB# =8.
>B
&>. =a+al")+# The Bo++om L,ne: =onne'+,n* =or-ora+e Per(orman'e and Cender D,0er),+"# HNe.
Yor1: =a+al")+# $%%<IG The S-e',al Re-or+# Women ,n B!),ne))# E'onom,)+# !l" $:. $%%;# &<G
=le0eland# S+o'1dale# and M!r-h"# Women and Men ,n Or*an,Da+,on)# :&:G B!),ne)) and
Pro(e)),onal Women Fo!nda+,on and Amer,'an Mana*emen+ A))o',a+,on# =om-en)a+,on and
Bene(,+): A Fo'!) on Cender H8BBBIG S!)an S+,+e)6Doe and ame) . =ord,ro# The Im-a'+ o( Women
Mana*er) on F,rm Per(orman'e: E0,den'e (rom Lar*e 5.S. F,rm)# In+erna+,onal Re0,e. o( Women
and Leader)h,-# H!l" 8BB?I.
90
.He.le++ and L!'e# O((6Ram-) and On6Ram-)# ;<G =a+al")+# Women ,n =or-ora+e Leader)h,-# ?%
Hre-or+,n* )!r0e" ,n .h,'h B> -er'en+ o( )en,or e7e'!+,0e .omen ',+ed demo*ra-h,' rea)on) +o
)!--or+ ,n,+,a+,0e) a,med a+ .omen/) ad0an'emen+I. =a+al")+# Women ,n =or-ora+e Mana*emen+G
Rob,n El" and Da0,d Thoma)# Ma1,n* D,((eren'e) Ma++er: A Ne. Parad,*m (or Mana*,n*
D,0er),+"G Har0ard B!),ne)) Re0,e.# HSe-+ember6O'+ober 8BB&I: ?B.
91
.W,ll,am)# 5nbend,n* Cender# ?86?:G Bo)+on Bar A))o',a+,on# Fa',n* +he Cra,l# :BG =a+al")+# A
Ne. A--roa'h +o Fle7,b,l,+": Mana*,n* +he Wor16T,me E4!a+,on HNe. Yor1: 8BB?I# $%6$8.
92
.All,an'e (or Board D,0er),+"# Women and M,nor,+,e) on For+!ne ;%% Board) HNe. Yor1: All,an'e
(or Board D,0er),+"# $%%;IG =a+al")+# Women ,n =or-ora+e Mana*emen+G El" and Thoma)# Ma1,n*
D,((eren'e) Ma++er# ?B.
93
.For +he 5n,+ed S+a+e)# )ee Al,'e H. Ea*l" and Wend" Wood# E7-la,n,n* Se7 D,((eren'e) ,n
So',al Beha0,or: A Me+a6Anal"+,' Per)-e'+,0e# Per)onal,+" and So',al P)"'holo*" B!lle+,n 8?
H8BB8I: :%&G Al,'e H. Ea*l" and Bla,r T. ohn)on# Cender and Leader)h,- S+"le: A Me+a6Anal"),)#
P)"'holo*" B!lle+,n 8%>H8BB%I: $::G Ea*l"# Ma1h,9an,# and Klon)1"# Cender and +he E0al!a+,on o(
Leader)G Ea*l"# Kara! Q Ma1h,9an,# Cender and +he E((e'+,0ene)) o( Leader). For ,n+erna+,onal
'on+e7+)# )ee Nan'" . Adler# Clobal Leader): Women o( In(l!en'e# ,n Po.ell# Handboo1 o( Cender
and Wor1# $:B. $;:.
94
.Be+)" Wan*en)+een# Mana*,n* S+"le: Wha+/) Cender Co+ +o Do W,+h I+F# =ra,n/) Ne. Yor1
B!),ne))# HSe-+ember $B# 8BB?I# $:G Terr" =ar+er# Pa+h) Need Pa0,n*# Amer,'an Bar A))o',a+,on
o!rnal# HSe-+ember $%%<I: :<G )ee al)o ean L,-man6Bl!men# =onne'+,0e Leader)h,-: Female
Leader)h,- S+"le) ,n +he $8)+ =en+!r" Wor1-la'e# So',al Per)-e'+,0e) :; H8BB$I: 8>:# $%%6$%8G
!d" Wa9'man# Mana*,n* L,1e A Man H8BB>I# &&.
95
.=le0eland# S+o'1dale Q M!r-h"# Cender and Leader)h,-# :%?G Ea*l" and ohn)on# Cender and
Leader)h,- S+"le# $::6$;&G Ea*l"# Kara!# and Ma1h,9an,# Cender and +he E((e'+,0ene)) o( Leader)#
8$;68<;: Kaba'o((# Cender D,((eren'e) ,n Or*an,Da+,onal Leader)h,-.
96
.Car" N. Po.ell# Women and Men ,n Mana*emen+ HNe. Yor1: Sa*e P!bl,'a+,on)# 8B>>I <;6<B#
8%;68%BG Kar,n Klen1e# Women and Leader)h,-: A =on+e7+!al Per)-e'+,0e# HNe. Yor1: S-r,n*er#
8BB&I 8&%G Kaba'o((# Cender D,((eren'e) H(,nd,n* no d,((eren'e ,n +a)1 or,en+a+,onIG Car" N.
Po.ell# One More T,me: Do Female and Male Mana*er) D,((erF# A'adem" o( Mana*emen+
E7e'!+,0e# < H8BB%I: &>G Ea*l" and ohn)on# Cender and Leader)h,- S+"le# $<&6<?G =her"l S,mrell
K,n*# Se7 Role Iden+,+" and De',),on S+"le# &&. See Ma+) Al0e))on and Y0onne D. B,ll,n*#
5nder)+and,n* Cender ,n Or*an,Da+,on) HNe. Yor1: Sa*e P!bl,'a+,on)# 8BB>I# 8<&# 8;8G L,nda
Molm and Mar1 Hedle"# Cender# Po.er and So',al E7'han*e# ,n =e',l,a L. R,d*e.a". ed.# Cender#
In+era'+,on and Ine4!al,+" HNe. Yor1: S-r,n*er# 8BB$I# >G B!r1e and Da0,d)on# Women ,n
Mana*emen+.G Rad'l,((e P!bl,' Pol,'" In)+,+!+e and The Bo)+on =l!b# S!,+,n* Them)el0e):
Women/) Leader)h,- S+"le) ,n Toda"/) Wor1-la'e H8BBBI.
97
.Br,an S. Mo)1al# Women Ma1e Be++er Mana*er)# Ind!)+r" Wee1# Febr!ar" :# 8BB?# 8?G Ro'helle
Shar-e# Ne. S+!d,e) F,nd +ha+ Female Mana*er) O!+)h,ne The,r Male =o!n+er-ar+) ,n Almo)+
E0er" Mea)!re# B!),ne)).ee1# No0ember $%# $%%%# h++-E....b!),ne)).ee1.'om.
98
.=le0eland# S+o'1dale# and M!r-h"# Women and Men ,n Or*an,Da+,on)# $B:6$BBG Kellerman#
Re,n0en+,n* Leader)h,-# 8<B. See al)o L,-man6Bl!men# =onne'+,0e Leader)h,-# 8>:6$%8.
99
.=a+al")+# Women ,n =or-ora+e Leader)h,-.
100
.There)a M. Be,ner# Wha+ W,ll D,0er),+" on +he Ben'h Mean (or !)+,'eF# M,'h,*an o!rnal o(
Cender and La. & HlBBBI: 88: H)!**e)+,n* )ome d,((eren'e) on ',0,l r,*h+) )!,+)IG S!e Da0,)# S!)an
Ha,re# and Donald R. Son*er# @o+,n* Beha0,or and Cender on +he 5.S. =o!r+ o( A--eal)# !d,'a+!re
?? H8BB:I: 8$B H(,nd,n* )ome d,((eren'e) ,n em-lo"men+ d,)'r,m,na+,on and )ear'h and )e,D!re
'a)e) b!+ no+ ob)'en,+" 'a)e)IG enn,(er L. Pere),e# Female !d*e) Ma++er: Cender and =olle*,al
De',),onma1,n* ,n +he Federal A--ella+e =o!r+)# Yale La. o!rnal 88< H$%%;I: 8?;B# 8??&# 8??>
H(,nd,n* (emale a--ella+e 9!d*e) more .,ll,n* +o r!le (or -la,n+,(() ,n )e7 hara))men+ and )e7
d,)'r,m,na+,on 'a)e) a(+er 'on+roll,n* (or (a'+or) )!'h a) ,deolo*"# ra'e# and -r,or em-lo"men+IG
Ela,ne Mar+,n and Barr" P"le# S+a+e H,*h =o!r+) and D,0or'e: The Im-a'+ o( !d,',al Cender#
5n,0er),+" o( Toledo La. Re0,e.# :& H$%%;I: B$: H(,nd,n* +ha+ .omen 9!d*e) .ere more
)!--or+,0e o( .omen ,n d,0or'e 'a)e) a(+er 'on+roll,n* (or -ar+" a((,l,a+,on)G enn,(er A. Se*al#
Re-re)en+a+,0e De',),on Ma1,n* on +he Federal Ben'h# =l,n+on/) D,)+r,'+ =o!r+ A--o,n+ee)# Pol,'"
Re)ear'h K!ar+erl" ;: H$%%%I: 8:?# 8<$68<& H(,nd,n* (e. *ender d,((eren'e) b!+ no+,n* +ha+ male
9!d*e) .ere )ome.ha+ more )!--or+,0e o( .omen/) ,))!e) +han (emale 9!d*e)G Donald Son*er e+
al.# A Rea--ra,)al o( D,0er),(,'a+,on ,n Federal =o!r+): Cender E((e'+) ,n +he =o!r+ o( A--eal#
o!rnal o( Pol,+,') ;& H8BB<I: <$; H(,nd,n* )ome *ender d,((eren'e) ,n )e7 d,)'r,m,na+,on 'a)e) b!+
'on'l!d,n* +ha+ mo)+ )+!d,e) (,nd (e. ,( an" d,((eren'e) ,n a--ella+e r!l,n*)I. For o0er0,e.) o( )!'h
)+!d,e)# )ee There)a Be,ner# Female !d*,n*# 5n,0er),+" o( Toledo La. Re0,e.# :& H$%%;I: >$8#
>$86>$BG Fred O. Sm,+h# r.# Cendered !)+,'e: Do Male and Female !d*e) R!le D,((eren+l" on
K!e)+,on) o( Ca" R,*h+)F S+an(ord La. Re0,e. H$%%;I: $%>?# $%>B6$%B8 H(,nd,n* d,((eren'e on
*a" r,*h+) ,))!e)I.
101
.Rhode# The D,((eren'e D,((eren'e Ma1e)#
102
.Karen L. Tamer,!)# Se7# Cender# and Leader)h,- ,n +he Re-re)en+a+,on o( Women# ,n Cender
Po.er# Leader)h,-# and Co0ernan'e# B:# 8%>G S!e Thoma)# Ho. Women Le*,)la+e H8BB<I: B$G
M,'hele S.er) and Am" =a,DDa# Tran)(orm,n* +he Pol,+,'al A*endaF: Cender D,((eren'e) ,n B,ll
S-on)or)h,- on Women/) I))!e)# re-r,n+ed ,n In)+,+!+e (or Women/) Pol,'" Re)ear'h# Re)ear'h6,n6
Br,e(# HO'+ober $%%%I: 8G !l,e Dolan# S!--or+ (or Women/) In+ere)+) ,n +he 8%:rd =on*re)): The
D,)+,n'+ Im-a'+ o( =on*re)),onal Women# Women and Pol,+,') 8> H8BB?I: >8G S!)an . =arroll# The
Pol,+,') o( D,((eren'e: Women P!bl,' O((,',al) a) A*en+) o( =han*e# S+an(ord La. and Pol,'"
Re0,e.# ; H8BB<I: 88G R!+h B. Mandel and Debra L. Dod)on# 8BB$# Do Women O((,'eholder) Ma1e
a D,((eren'eF# ,n Pa!la R,e) and Ann . S+one# ed)# The Amer,'an Women 8BB$68BB: H8BB$IG S!e
Thoma)# Women ,n S+a+e Le*,)la+!re): One S+e- a+ a T,me#. ,n El,Dabe+h Adell =oo1# S!e Thoma)#
and =l"de W,l'o7# ed).# The Year o( +he Woman: M"+h) and Real,+,e)# HBo!lder# =olorado:
We)+0,e. Pre))# 8BB&I# 8<86&%G =en+er (or Amer,'an Women ,n Pol,+,')# The Im-a'+ o( Women ,n
P!bl,' O((,'e: An O0er0,e. H8BB8I# ;.
8%:
T"ler Br,d*e)# In Amer,'a)# Women R,),n* +o +he To- ob)# M,am, Herald# Mar'h :# $%%&#
A8.
104
.Dolan# S!--or+ (or Women/) In+ere)+)# >&6>BG S.er) and =a,DDa# Tran)(orm,n* +he Pol,+,'al
A*enda# <G S!)an Cl!'1 MeDe"# In'rea),n* +he N!mber) o( Women ,n O((,'e: Doe) I+ Ma++erF# ,n
=oo1# Thoma)# and W,l'o7# The Year o( +he Woman# $;;6?%G Tamer,!)# Se7# Cender# and
Leader)h,-# 8%?.
105
.Tamer,!)# Se7# Cender and Leader)h,-# 8%?G =en+er (or Amer,'an Women ,n Pol,+,')# The
Im-a'+ o( Women ,n P!bl,' O((,'e# 8<.
106
.Barbara Bo7er# S!)an =oll,n)# e+ al.# N,ne and =o!n+,n*: The Women o( +he Sena+e# ,n Barbara
M,1!l)1,# e+ al.# HNe. Yor1: Perenn,al# $%%8I# 8%$ H4!o+,n* Bo7erI. A re'en+ 'a)e ,n -o,n+ ,n0ol0e)
An*ela Mer1el# .ho a0o,ded .omen/) ,))!e) (or m!'h o( her 'am-a,*n +o be'ome Cerman"/) (,r)+
.oman 'han'ellor. See Shada I)lam# The" Are Women# Hear Them Roar# The B!),ne)) T,me)#
S,n*a-ore# O'+ober 8B# $%%;# @,e.) and O-,n,on)# 8.
8%?
For a'adem,a# )ee Nannerl Keohane/) 2Women/) In,+,a+,0e3 a+ D!1e bro!*h+ )!b)+an+,al
,m-ro0emen+) (or (a'!l+"# )+a((# and )+!den+)# a) d,d Sh,rle" T,l*ham/) .or1E(am,l" -ol,',e)
,n,+,a+,0e) a+ Pr,n'e+on. ane S+an',ll# Keohane/) La)+ Coal 5n)e++led: Women/) In,+,a+,0e Fa',n*
Ne. Leader)# The Ne.) Q Ob)er0er HRale,*h# Nor+h =arol,naI# !ne $?# $%%<# A8G ohn He'h,n*er#
VThe T,*er Roar): 5nder T,l*hman# Pr,n'e+on Add) S+!den+)# Ba++le) S!,+# Ta1e) on Ea+,n* =l!b)V
,n WS# !l" 8?# $%%&# -. B8G Pa+r,',a @alda+a# The T,'1,n* o( +he B,olo*,'al and Ten!re =lo'1):
Pr,n'e+on 5n,0er),+" In)+,+!+e) Ne. Pol,'"# Pla',n* +he S'hool a+ +he Fore(ron+ o( Fam,l" Fr,endl"
Wor1-la'e)# D,0er)e I))!e) ,n H,*her Ed!'a+,on << HNo0ember 8?# $%%;I::<. For *ender ,n,+,a+,0e)
,n la. (,rm)# )ee Ka+her,ne Bar+le++ and Deborah L. Rhode# Cender and La.: Theor"# Do'+r,ne# and
=ommen+ar" HBo)+on: A)-en Pre))# $%%&I.
108
.No))el and We)+(all# Pre)!med E4!al# :%# 8>?# $&8# $&&6&?# :<B#:&;G Mar+,n and Me"er)on#
Women and Po.er# :<%G S!)an . A)h(ord# =ham-,on,n* =har*ed I))!e): The =a)e o( Cender
E4!,+" W,+h,n Or*an,Da+,on)# ,n Roder,'1 Kramer and Mar*are+ Neale# ed).# Po.er and In(l!en'e ,n
Or*an,Da+,on)# HNe. Yor1: Sa*e P!bl,'a+,on)# 8BB>I# :<B# :?;6?&.
109
.Ea*l" and Wood# E7-la,n,n* Se7 D,((eren'e) ,n So',al Beha0,or# :%&G Ea*l" and ohn)on#
Cender and Leader)h,- S+"le# $::G Ea*l"# Ma1h,9an,# and Klon)1"# Cender and +he E0al!a+,on o(
Leader)G Ea*l"# Kara! and Ma1h,9an,# Cender and +he E((e'+,0ene)) o( Leader).
110
.Be+)" Wan*en)+een. Mana*,n* S+"le: Wha+/) Cender Co+ +o Do W,+h I+F =ra,n/) =h,'a*o
B!),ne)) Se-+ember $B# 8BB?# $:G Terr" =ar+er# Pa+h) Need Pa0,n*# Amer,'an Bar A))o',a+,on
o!rnal# HSe-+ember $%%<I: :<. See al)o ean L,-man6Bl!men# =onne'+,0e Leader)h,-: Female
Leader)h,- S+"le) ,n +he $8
)+
=en+!r" Wor1-la'e# So',al Per)-e'+,0e) :; H8BB$I# 8>:# $%%6$%8G !d"
Wa9'man# Mana*,n* L,1e a Man H8BB>I# &&.
111
.No))el and We)+(all# Pre)!med E4!al# 8$&# $&8# $??.
112
.A)h(ord# =ham-,on,n* =har*ed I))!e)# :&;6:&&G Rhode# The D,((eren'e D,((eren'e Ma1e)# $<.
113
.A)h(ord# =ham-,on,n* =har*ed I))!e)# ,n =arroll# Re-re)en+,n* Women# B# 8%# :&B6:?%# :?;.
See al)o No))el and We)+(all# Pre)!med E4!al# a+ 8%;# 8%>G Handl,n# Wha+e0er Ha--ened +o +he
Year o( +he Woman# ;$.
114
.A)h(ord# =ham-,on,n* =har*ed I))!e)# :?%# :?;G )ee al)o enn,(er L. P,er'e# Cender Tr,al):
Emo+,onal L,0e) ,n =on+em-orar" La. F,rm)# H8BB;I 8?&68??G No))el and We)+(all# Pre)!med
E4!al# ;%# ;B# 8%;G Pe+er Cl,'1 and S!)an T. F,)1e# Ho)+,le and Bene0olen+ Se7,)m# P)"'holo*" o(
Women# $8 H8BB?I: 88B# 8$B .
115
.=arol Calla*her# .,+h S!)an Callan+# Co,n* +o +he To- HNe. Yor1: Pen*!,n# $%%%I# B# :;6:&G
Mar*are+ N. R!derman and Pa+r,',a . Ohlo++# S+and,n* a+ +he =ro))road): Ne7+ S+e-) (or H,*h
A'h,e0,n* Women HSan Fran',)'o: o))e"6Ba)) $%%$I# $<6$;.
116
.=a+al")+# Women ,n =or-ora+e Leader)h,-# 8;G Rhode# De(,n,+,on) o( D,((eren'e# ::G Ka+her,ne
C,)'omb# Ma1,n* =han*e (or Women ,n B!),ne))G Freeman # Bo!r4!e# and Shel+on# Leader)h,-
and Po.er# <>.
117
.R!derman and Ohlo++# S+and,n* a+ +he =ro))road)# $:6$<G Calla*her# Co,n* +o +he To-# 8;:6;;.
118
.=a+al")+# Women and Men ,n 5n,+ed S+a+e) =or-ora+,on)# =a+al")+# Women ,n =or-ora+e
Leader)h,-# 8;# $8G Eleanor =l,(+ and Tom BraDa,+,)# Madame Pre),den+# HNe. Yor1: Ro!+led*e#
$%%:I# :$8# :$<.
119
.Rhode# De(,n,+,on) o( D,((eren'e# :<G Calla*her# Co,n* +o +he To-# 8;:68;<.
120
.Klen1e# Women and Leader)h,-# $<$6<BG )ee Kellerman# Re,n0en+,n* Leader)h,-# 8?;68?>G
M,nor,+" =or-ora+e =o!n)el A))o',a+,on $%%% S!r0e".
121
.Pe**" Kla!)# Cood C,rl) Don/+ Bra*# Do The"F# ,n L,n =o!*hl,n# Enl,*h+ened Po.er# ::8G
E0an)# Pla" L,1e a Man# ?;G =arol H"mo.,+D# Women P!+ No)e) To +he Cr,nd)+one# and M,))
O--or+!n,+,e)# Wall S+. . Febr!ar" :# $%%<# B8. See *enerall" Pa+ He,m# Hardball (or Women:
Pla",n* a+ +he Came o( B!),ne)) HRCA P!bl,)h,n* Cro!-# In'.# 8BB$I.
122
.Ida O. Abbo++# La."er)/ C!,de +o Men+or,n*G Rhode# De(,n,+,on) o( D,((eren'e# $B6:%G
Calla*her# Co,n* +o +he To-# 8&<68?;G R!derman and Ohlo++# S+and,n* a+ +he =ro))road)# ;B6&>.
123
.Calla*her# Co,n* +o +he To-# ;8.
124
.Ro)abe+h Mo)) Kan+ner# :?6<8G Da.n H. Broo1) and L"nn M. Broo1)# Se0en Se're+) o(
S!''e))(!l Women HNe. Yor1: M'Cra. H,ll# 8BB?I# $B.
125
.Calla*her# Co,n* +o +he To-# 8&?G =le0eland# S+o'1dale and M!r-h"# Women and Men ,n
Or*an,Da+,on)# :?<G =a+al")+# Women ,n =or-ora+e Leader)h,-# $B.
126
.Calla*her# Co,n* +o +he To-# 8?B.
127
.Broo1) and Broo1)# Se0en Se're+) o( S!''e))(!l Women# 8:?68<?G Calla*her# Co,n* +o +he To-#
8>?68B;.
8$>
Lo,) P. Fran1el# N,'e C,rl) Don/+ Ce+ +he =orner O((,'e HNe. Yor1: Warner B!),ne))# $%%<I#
8o<.
129
. Fran1el# N,'e C,rl) Don/+ Ce+ +he =orner O((,'e# 88$. See al)o He.le++ and L!'e# ;$6;<.
130
.L,nda =lar1# Leader)h,- E))en+,al) (or Women HB,rm,n*ham# Alabama: Ne. Ho-e# $%%<I# 8%.
131
.Sho"a A,'h"# Women and +he Leader)h,- K HNe. Yor1: M'Cra. H,ll# $%%8I# 7,7# B68%# 8;# $>6
$B.
132
.Broo1) and Broo1)# Se0en Se're+)# ?# 8%.
133
.E0an)# Pla" L,1e a Man# 8$868:$.
134
.L,n1a*e# In'or-ora+ed/) Women ,n Leader)h,- S!mm,+# No0ember &6B# $%%; ,n San Fran',)'o
(ea+!red (,lm )+ar Broo1e Sh,eld)# 9o!rnal,)+ =harla"ne H!n+er6Ca!l+# and L,D M!rra"# +he )!b9e'+ o(
a +ele0,),on mo0,e 'hron,'l,n* her +ran),+,on (rom homele))ne)) +o Har0ard. For +a, 'h, .ee1end)#
)ee Sher"l Nan'e6Na)h# To Ca,n Cro!nd# Female E7e') Bea+ Re+rea+)# Women/) Ene.)# Ma" 8?#
$%%;# a0a,lable a+ .....omen/)en.e).or*.
135
.Broo1) and Broo1)# Se0en Se're+)# 8?$.
136
.Broo1) and Broo1)# Se0en Se're+)# 8?868?$.
137
.E0an)# Pla" L,1e a Man# ;&# ;># ;B.
138
.Lo,) P. Fran1el# N,'e C,rl) Don/+ Ce+ +he =orner O((,'e# ?$.
8:B
Po.ell and Cra0e)# Women and Men ,n Mana*emen+# :B.
8<%
=EO Barb,e =r,+,',Ded (or Promo+,n* 5nreal,)+,' =areer Ima*e)# Se-+ ?# $%%;.
141
.Klen1e# Women and Leader)h,-# 8?:G =a+al")+# Ad0an',n* Women ,n B!),ne))# a+ &# 8$68:G
=a+al")+# Women o( =olor ,n =or-ora+e Mana*emen+# a+ &BG Mar" =. Ma++,)# Or*an,Da+,onal
In,+,a+,0e) ,n +he 5SA (or Ad0an',n* Mana*er,al Women# ,n Da0,d)on and B!r1e# Women ,n
Mana*emen+# a+ $?;.
142
.Rhode# De(,n,+,on) o( D,((eren'e# $&6$?# Re,nhold# Sma)h,n* Cla)) =e,l,n*)# <&6;%G She,la
Well,n*+on# Mar',a Br!me+ Kro-(# and Pa!le++e R. Cer1o0,+'h# Wha+/) Hold,n* Women Ba'1F
Har0ard B!),ne)) Re0,e.# !ne# $%%:# 8>G =a+al")+# Ad0an',n* Women ,n B!),ne))# a+ ;6&# 8868$G
=a+al")+# Women o( =olor ,n =or-ora+e Mana*emen+# a+ &B6?<G =e',l,a L. R,d*e.a" and Shelle" .
=orrell# L,m,+,n* Ine4!al,+" +hro!*h In+era'+,on: The EndH)I o( Cender# =on+em-orar" So',olo*"#
$B H$%%%I: 88>G Car" N. Po.ell# Re(le'+,on) on +he Cla)) =e,l,n*: Re'en+ Trend) and F!+!re
Pro)-e'+)# ,n Po.ell# Handboo1 on Cender and Wor1# :<:..
143
.Ale7andra Kale0# Fran1 Dobb,n# and Er,n Kell"# Be)+ Pra'+,'e) or Be)+ C!e))e)F D,0er),+"
Mana*emen+ and Remed,a+,on o( Ine4!al,+" H5n-!bl,)hed Pa-er# $%%&I.
144
.Thoma) Ad'o'1# Per),)+en+ Problem# Women La."er) S+,ll La* Far Beh,nd The,r Peer) ,n O+her
Pro(e)),on) When I+ =ome) +o Ma1,n* Par+ner# Re-or+ F,nd)# Ne. Yor1 La. o!rnal# Febr!ar" 8%#
8%%;# A8 H4!o+,n* Welll,n*+onIG )ee al)o He.le++# L!'e# and We)+# Leader)h,- ,n Yo!r M,d)+# >%.
145
.!d" Wa9'man# Mana*,n* L,1e a Man# a+ BB.
146
.Well,n*+on# Kro-(# and Cer1o0,'h# Wha+/) Hold,n* Women Ba'1G Re,nhold# Sma)h,n* Cla))
=e,l,n*)# <&G Sandra C!"# Mo)+ =or-ora+,on) Don/+ Tell D,0er),+" Da+a# a0a,lable a+
.....omen)ene.).or*# De'ember :%# $%%;.
147
.=a+al")+# Ad0an',n* Women ,n B!),ne))# a+ &6?G In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n*
Thro!*h +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# $# &.
148
.=a+al")+# Women o( =olor# a+ :$6::# &&G Ma++,)# Or*an,Da+,onal In,+,a+,0e)# $?;.
149
.El" and Thoma)# Ma1,n* D,((eren'e) Ma++er.
150
.For -o),+,0e a((e'+) on a++,+!de)# )ee K,mberl" D. Kra.,e'# =o)me+,' =om-l,an'e and +he
Fa,l!re o( Ne*o+,a+ed Co0ernan'e# Wa)h,n*+on 5n,0er),+" La. K!ar+erl" >8 H$%%:I: <>?. For
ba'1la)h# )ee Mar1 Bend,'1# r.# Mar"6Lo! E*an# and S!Danne M. Lo(+he9elm# The Do'!men+a+,on
and E0al!a+,on o( An+,6D,)'r,m,na+,on Tra,n,n* ,n +he 5n,+ed S+a+e) HWa)h,n*+on# D.=. Bend,'1
and E*an E'onom,' =on)!l+an+)# 8BB>IG Thoma) E. Nel)on# M,'hele A'1er# and Man,) Mel0,n#
Irre-re)),ble S+ereo+"-e)# o!rnal o( E7-er,men+al So',al P)"'holo*" :$ H8BB&I: 8:G Kale0# Dobb,n#
and Kell"# Be)+ Pra'+,'e). For o!+'ome)# )ee Kale0# Dobb,n# and Kell"# Be)+ Pra'+,'e).
151
.Kale0# Dobb,n# and Kell"# Be)+ Pra'+,'e)G Kra.,e'# =o)me+,' =om-l,an'e. See al)o Bar
A))o',a+,on o( San Fran',)'o# Coal) and T,me+able)# :<6:?G R,d*e.a" and =orrell# L,m,+,n*
Ine4!al,+"# a+ 88>.
152
.Amer,'an Bar A))o',a+,on# =omm,)),on on Women ,n +he Pro(e)),on# Fa,r Mea)!re: To.ard
E((e'+,0e A++orne" E0al!a+,on)# B6$< H=h,'a*o: Amer,'an Bar A))o',a+,on =omm,)),on on Women
,n +he Pro(e)),on# 8BB?IG La!ra Cra0e)# Cender B,a) ,n In+er0,e.er)/ E0al!a+,on) o( A--l,'an+):
When and Ho. Doe) I+ O''!r# ,n Po.ell# Handboo1 on Cender and Wor1# 8<;6;;.
153
.Amer,'an Bar A))o',a+,on =omm,)),on on Women ,n +he Pro(e)),on# La."er) and Balan'ed
L,0e): A C!,de +o Dra(+,n* and Im-lemen+,n* Wor1-la'e Pol,',e) (or La."er): $; H8BB%IG =a+al")+#
A Ne. A--roa'h +o Fle7,b,l,+"G Bo)+on Bar A))o',a+,on Ta)1 For'e# Fa',n* +he Cra,l.
154
.He.le++ and L!'e# O((6Ram-) and On6Ram-)# ;%6;8G Well,n*+on# Kro-(# and Cer1o0,'h# Wha+/)
Hold,n* Women Ba'1# 8>.
155
.He.le++ and L!'e# O((6Ram-) and On6Ram-)# ;8.
8;&
Deborah L. Rhode# Balan'ed L,0e): =han*,n* +he =!l+!re o( Le*al Pra'+,'e H=h,'a*o:
Amer,'an Bar A))o',a+,on# $%%8I# 8;68&G $:6$<G Po.ell# Re(le'+,on) on +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# :<8.
157
.=le0eland# S+o'1dale Q M!r-h"# Women and Men ,n Or*an,Da+,on)# a+ :?<G =a+al")+# Women ,n
=or-ora+e Leader)h,-# a+ $B.
158
.=a+al")+# =or-ora+e Leader)h,-# a+ $BG Abbo++# The La."er/) C!,de +o Men+or,n*# a+ $;# :$6::.
159
.Kale0# Dobb,n# and Kell"# Be)+ Pra'+,'e).
160
.He.le++ and L!'e# O((6Ram-) and On6Ram-)# ;<G =a+al")+# =rea+,n* Women/) Ne+.or1): A
Ho. To C!,de (or Women and =om-an,e) ; H8BBBI.
161
.Calla*her# Co,n* +o +he To-# $<:6$<<G He.le++# L!'e# and We)+# Leader)h,- ,n Yo!r M,d)+# ?B#
>8.
162
.Kale0# Dobb,n# and Kell"# Be)+ Pra'+,'e).
163
.=a+al")+# Women/) Ne+.or1)G Pa+ Terr"# Mar1e+,n* Cro!-) Sha-e Ne. Ra,nma1er)#
Per)-e'+,0e)# Fall# $%%%# >G He.le++# L!'e# and We)+# >8G Sher"l Nan'e6Na)h# Wall S+ree+ Women:
Form,n* The,r O.n In),de =,r'le# h++-:EE.....omene)ene.).or*## A-r,l 8%# $%%&..
164
.For d,)'!)),on o( )mall .,n)# )ee Debra E. Me"er)on# A Mode)+ Man,(e)+o (or Sha++er,n* +he
Cla)) =e,l,n*# Har0ard B!),ne)) Re0,e.# an!ar" 8# $%%%# 8.
165
.Sandra C!"# Mo)+ =or-ora+,on) Don/+ Tell D,0er),+" Da+a# a0a,lable a+ .....omen)ene.).or*#
De'ember :%# $%%;.
166
.W,ll,am T. B,elb"# M,n,m,D,n* Wor1-la'e Cender and Ra',al B,a)# =on+em-orar" So',olo*" $B
H$%%%I: 8$%G S!)an S+!rm# Se'ond Cenera+,on Em-lo"men+ D,)'r,m,na+,on: A S+r!'+!ral A--roa'h#
=ol!mb,a La. Re0,e. 8%8 H$%%$I: <;>G Rhode and W,ll,am)# Le*al Per)-e'+,0e) on Em-lo"men+
D,)'r,m,na+,on.
167
.For d,)'!)),on o( +he A!)+ral,an le*,)la+,on# )ee Ka+e Cro))er and erem" Moon# Cender
Ma,n)+ream,n* and =or-ora+e So',al Re)-on),b,l,+": Re-or+,n* Wor1-la'e I))!e)# o!rnal o(
B!),ne)) E+h,') &$ H$%%;I: :$?# ::%.
168
.See Kale0# Dobb,n# and Kell"# Be)+ C!e))e). For +he 0al!e o( e7+ernal o0er),*h+ ,n en)!r,n*
,n+ernal 'om-l,an'e )+r!'+!re)# )ee S!)an S+!rm# Se'ond Cenera+,on Em-lo"men+ D,)'r,m,na+,on:
Emer*,n* S+r!'+!ral A--roa'he)# =ol!mb,a La. Re0,e.# 0ol. 8%8 H$%%8I: <;>. On )!''e))(!l
EEO= ,n+er0en+,on)# )ee Nan'" Kre,+er# E4!al Em-lo"men+ O--or+!n,+": EEO= and OF==P# ,n
R,*h+) a+ R,)1: E4!al,+" ,n an A*e o( Terror,)m 8;:68;B H=,+,Den)/ =omm,)),on on =,0,l R,*h+) ed.#
$%%$I# a0a,lable a+ h++-:EE....'''r.or*E=ha-+er8$.-d(.
8&B
In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# :G Foroohar# M"+h
and Real,+".
170
.See E.5. =o!n',l D,re'+,0e B&E:<EE=# !ne :# 8BB& Hon +he (rame.or1 a*reemen+ on -aren+al
lea0eIG )ee al)o Ann =r,++enden# The Pr,'e o( Mo+herhood: Wh" +he Mo)+ Im-or+an+ ob ,n +he
World ,) S+,ll +he Lea)+ @al!ed HO.l Boo1)# $%%$I. NCO) ha0e emer*ed +o )!--or+ 2!)e6,+6or6lo)e6
,+3 -a+ernal lea0e (or men. See# e.*.# Modern Men ,n Enlar*ed E!ro-e#
h++-:EE....dad'omehome.or*EenE.
8?8
For o0er0,e.)# )ee In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# $6
<G Foroohar# M"+h and Real,+"G Landler# K!o+h +he Ra0en# E;.
8?$
In+erna+,onal Labor Or*an,Da+,on# Brea1,n* Thro!*h +he Cla)) =e,l,n*# $;6$& Hno+,n* +ha+ ?;
'o!n+r,e) had )!'h 4!o+a)IG Dr!de Dahler!-# K!o+a =on+ro0er),e): Clobal In,+,a+,0e) +o A++a,n
Cender Balan'e ,n Pol,+,')G Norr,)# O-en,n* +he Door.
8?:
Dahler!-# K!o+a =on+ro0er),e)# ,n(ra.
8?<
For -oll,n* da+a# )ee Bar+le++ and Rhode# Cender and La.#
175
.For an e7am-le# )ee +he San Fran',)'o Bar A))o',a+,on) Cla)) =e,l,n* In,+,a+,0e# ane D, RenDo
and Sharon one)# Wal1,n* +he Tal1: =rea+,n* a La. F,rm =!l+!re Where Women S!''eed
H=h,'a*o: Amer,'an Bar A))o',a+,on =omm,)),on on Women ,n +he Pro(e)),on# $%%<I.
176
.Cro))er and Moon# Cender Ma,n)+ream,n*# :::6::;.
177
.Cro))er and Moon# Cender Ma,n)+ream,n*# ::;.
178
.The =al0er+ Women/) Pr,n',-le): A Clobal =ode o( =ond!'+ (or =or-ora+,on) HBe+he)da#
Mar"land: The =al0er+ Cro!-# $%%<I.
179
.For e7am-le# .omen a''o!n+ (or abo!+ hal( o( en+er,n* la. )'hool 'la))e)# b!+ onl" $;.: -er'en+
o( (!ll -ro(e))or) and 8B -er'en+ H:< o( 8?BI o( la. )'hool dean). See A))o',a+,on o( Amer,'an La.
S'hool)# S+a+,)+,'al Re-or+ on La. S'hool Fa'!l+" and =and,da+e) (or La. Fa'!l+" Po),+,on) H$%%<6
$%%;I# h++-:EE....aal).or*E)+a+,)+,')E%<%;Eh+mlE%<%;RT<BR+,+.h+ml H-re-ared b" R,'hard A. Wh,+eI.
8>%
El,nor Sm,+h# 4!o+ed ,n Ca,l E0an)# Pla" L,1e a Man# :;.