TM 5-811-6

TECHNICAL MANUAL
ELECTRIC POWER PLANT DESIGN
H E A D Q U A R T E R S , D E P A R T M E N T O F T H E A R M Y
20 JANUARY 1984
TM 5-811-6
REPRODUCTION AUTHORIZATION/RESTRICTIONS
Thi s manual has been prepared by or for the Government and, except to the extent i ndi cated bel ow, i s publ i c
property and not subject to copyri ght.
Copyri ghted materi al i ncl uded i n the manual has been used wi th the knowl edge and permi ssi on of the propri e-
tors and i s acknowl edged as such at poi nt of use. Anyone wi shi ng to make further use of any copyri ghted ma-
teri al , by itself and apart from this text, shoul d seek necessary permi ssi on di rectl y from the propri etors.
Repri nts or republ i cati ons of thi s manual shoul d i ncl ude a credi t substanti al l y as fol l ows: Department of the
Army, USA, Techni cal Manual TM 5-811-6, El ectri c Power Pl ant Desi gn.
I f the repri nt or republ i cati on i ncl udes copyrighted materi al , the credi t shoul d al so state: Anyone wi shi ng to
make further use of copyri ghted materi al , by itself and apart from this text, shoul d seek necessary permi ssi on
di rectl y from the propri etors.
A/(B blank)
TM 5-811-6
TE CH N I CAL M A N U A L HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
NO. 5-811-6 WASH I NGTON , DC 20 J anuary 1984
ELECTRI C POWER PLANT DESI GN
CHAPTER 1. I NTRODUCTI ON
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Desi gn phi l osophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Desi gn cri teri a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Economi c consi derati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 2. SI TE AND CI VI L FACI LI TI ES DESI GN
Sel ecti on I . Si te Sel ecti on
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Envi ronmental consi derati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water suppl y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel suppl y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Physi cal characteri sti cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Economi c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I I . Ci vi l Faci l i ti es, Bui l di ngs, Safety, and Securi ty
Soi l s i nvesti gati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Si te devel opment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bui l di ngs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 3. STEAM TURBI NE POWER PLANT DESI GN
Secti on I . Typi cal Pl ants and Cycl es
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pl ant functi on and purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam power cycl e economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cogenerati on cycl es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sel ecti on of cycl e steam condi ti ons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cycl e equi pment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam power pl ant arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I I . Steam Generators and Auxi l i ary Systems
Steam generator conventi on types and characteri sti cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other steam generator characteri sti cs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam generator speci al types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Major auxi l i ary systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mi nor auxi l i ary systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I I I . Fuel Handl i ng and Storage Systems
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal fuel oi l storage and handl i ng system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coal handl i ng and storage systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I V. Ash Handl i ng Systems
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Descri pti on of major components.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on V. Turbi nes and Auxi l i ary Systems
Turbi ne pri me movers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Turbi ne features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Governi ng and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Turni ng gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lubri cati on systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracti on features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I nstruments and speci al tool s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on VI . Condenser and Ci rcul ati ng Water System
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Descri pti on of major components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Envi ronmental concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on VI I . Feedwater System
Feedwater heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boi l er feed pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Feedwater suppl y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on VI I I . Servi ce Water and Cl osed Cool i ng Systems
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Descri pti on of major components.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Paragraph
1-1
1-2
1-3
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2-9
3-1
3-2
3-3
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3-8
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3-10
3-11
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3-14
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1-1
1-1
1-5
2-1
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3-1
3-1
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TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 3. STEAM TURBI NE POWER PLANT DESI GN (Conti nued)
Descri pti on of systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rel i abi l i ty of systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Testi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I X. Water Condi ti oni ng Systems
Water condi ti oni ng sel ecti on.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on X. Compressed Ai r Systems
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Descri pti on of major components.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Descri pti on of systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 4. GENERATOR AND ELECTRI CAL FACI LI TI ES DESI GN
Secti on I . Typi cal Vol tage Rati ngs and Systems
Vol tages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stati on servi ce power syetems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I I . Generators
General types and standards.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Features and acceesori es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exci tati on systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I I I . Generator Leads and Swi tchyard
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Generator l eads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Swi tchyard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I V. Transformers
Generator stepup transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Auxi l i ary transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Uni t substati on transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on V. Protecti ve Rel ays and Meteri ng
Generator, stepup transformer and swi tchyard rel ayi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Swi tchgear and MCC protecti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I nstrumentati on and meteri ng. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on VI . Stati on Servi ce Power Systems
General requi rements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Auxi l i ary power transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4160 vol t swi tchgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
480 vol t uni t substati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
480 vol t motor control centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foundati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Groundi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Condui t and tray systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Di stri buti on outsi de the power pl ant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on VI I . Emergency Power System
Battery and charger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emergency ac system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on VI I I . Motors
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I nsul ati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Groundi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Condui t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cabl e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motor detai l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I X. Communi cati on Systems
I ntrapl ant communi cati ons.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tel ephone communi cati ons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 5. GENERAL POWER PLANT FACI LI TI ES DESI GN
Secti on I . I nstruments and Control Systems
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control panel s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Automati c control systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moni tori ng i nstruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Al arm and annunci ator systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I I . Heati ng, Venti l ati ng and Ai r Condi ti oni ng Systems
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operati ons areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Servi ce areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Paragraph
3-34
3-35
3-36
3-37
3-38
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3-40
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4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-9
4-10
4-11
4-12
4-13
4-14
4-15
4-16
4-17
4-18
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4-20
4-21
4-22
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4-16
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4-19
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4-21
4-21
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4-23
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4-24
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4-24
4-26
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-1
5-1
5-5
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TM 5-811-6
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5-23
5-24
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6-1
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6-2
6-3
7-1
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CHAPTER 5. GENERAL POWER PLANT FACI LI TI ES DESI GN (Conti nued)
Secti on 111. Power and Servi ce Pi pi ng Systems
5-9
5-10
5-11
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pi pi ng desi gn fundamental s... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Speci fi c system desi gn consi derati ons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I V. Thermal I nsul ati on and Freeze Protecti on
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
5-13
5-14
5-15
5-16
5-17
5-18
5-19
I nsul ati on desi gn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I nsul ati on materi al s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control of useful heat l osses.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety i nsul ati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Col d surface i nsul ati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Economi c thi ckness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Freeze protecti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on V. Corrosi on Protecti on
5-20
General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on VI . Fi re Protecti on
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Desi gn consi derati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
CHAPTER 6.
5-21
5-22
5-23
Support faci l i ti es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GASTURBI NE POWER PLANT DESI GN
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Turbi ne-generator sel ecti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-6
Fuel s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pl ant arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Waste heat recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equi pment and auxi l i ary systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DI ESEL ENGI NE POWER PLANT DESI GN
Secti on I . Di esel Engi ne Generators
Engi nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel sel ecti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I I . Bal ance of Pl ant Systems
CHAPTER 7.
L
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
7-5
7-6
7-7
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cool i ng systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combusti on ai r i ntake and exhaust systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel storage and handl i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Engi ne room venti l ati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I I I . Foundati ons and Bui l di ng
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Engi ne foundati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-8
7-9
7-10 Bui l di ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COMBI NED CYCLE POWER PLANTS
Secti on I . Typi cal Pl ants and Cycl es
I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pl ant detai l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Secti on I I . General Desi gn Parameters
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Desi gn approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES
.
CHAPTRR 8.
8-1
8-2
.
8-3
8-4
APPENDI X A:
BI BLI OGRAPHY
LIST OF FiGURES
Figure No.
Fi gur e 1-1
1-2
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
Typi cal Metropol i tan Area Load Curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Annual Load Durati on Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Strai ght Condensi ng Cycl e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Turbi ne Effi ci enci es Vs.Capaci ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Condensi ngControl l ed Extracti on Cycl e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Smal 1 2-Uni t Power Pl ant "A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Smal 1 2-Uni t Power Pl ant B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cri ti cal Turbi ne Room Bay and Power Pl ant "BDi mensi ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fl ui di zed Bed Combusti on Boi l er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theorecti cal Ai r and Combusti on Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mi ni mum Metal Temperatures for Boi l er Heat Recovery Equi pment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TM 5-811-6
Page
3-10
3-11
3-12
3-13
3-14
3-15
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
5-1
6-1
7-1
8-1
Table No.
Tabl e 1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
3-10
3-11
3-12
3-13
3-14
3-15
4-1
4-2
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
Coal Handl i ng System Di agram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Coal Handl i ng System for Spreader Stoker Fi red Boi l er (wi th bucket el evator). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pneumati c Ash Handl i ng Systems-Vari ati ons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Ci rcul ati ng Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Compressed Ai r System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Arrangement of Ai r Compressor and Acceesori es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stati on Connecti onsTwo Uni t Stati on Common Bus Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stati on Connecti onsTwo Uni t Stati onUni t ArrangmentGenerator at Di stri buti on Vol tage. . . . . . . . . .
Stati on Connecti onsTwo Uni t Stati onUni t ArrangementDi stri buti on Vol tage Hi gher Than Genera-
ti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
One Lone Di agram-Typi cal Stati on Servi ce Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Synchroni zi ng Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Mai n and TransferBus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Ri ng Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Breaker and a Hal f Bus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Economi cal Thi ckness of Heat I nsul ati on (Typi cal Curves) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal I ndoor Si mpl e Cycl e Gas Turbi ne Generator PowerPl ant.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typi cal Di esel Generator Power Pl ant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combi ned Cycl e Di agram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LI ST OF TABLES
General Descri pti on of Type of Pl ant.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Di esel Cl ass and Operati onal Characteri sti cs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pl ant Si zes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deei gn Cri teri a Requi rements.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theoreti cal Steam Rates for Typi cal Steam Condi ti ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel Characteri sti cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I ndi vdual Burner Turndown Rati os . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emi ssi on Level s Al l owabl e, Nati onal Ambi ent Ai r Qual i ty Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Uncontrol l ed Emi ssi ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteri sti cs of Cycl ones for Parti cul ate Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteri sti cs of Scrubbers for Parti cul ate Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteri eti cs of El ectrostati c Preci pi tators (ESP) for Parti cul ate Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteri sti cs of Baghouses for Parti cul ate Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteri sti cs of Fl ue-Gas Desul furi zati on Systems for Parti cul ate Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Techni ques for Ni trogen Oxi de Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Condenser Tube Desi gn Vel oci ti es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Gui de for Raw Water Treatment of Boi l er Makeup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I nternal Chemi cal Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effecti veness of Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Motor Control Center Encl osures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Locati ons for I ntrapl ant Communi cati on System Devi ces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Li st of Typi cal I nstrumente and Devi ces for Boi l er-Turbi ne Mechani cal Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Li st of Typi cal I nstrument and Devi ces for Common Servi ces Mechani cal Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Li st of Typi cal I nstruments and Devi ces for El ectri cal (Generator and Swi tchgear) Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Li st of Typi cal I nstrument and Devi ces for Di esel Mechani cal Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sensi ng El ements for Control s and I nstruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pi pi ng Codes and Standards for Power Pl ants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteri sti cs of Thermal I nsul ati ons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-26
3-28
3-31
3-38
3-50
3-51
4-2
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-9
4-10
4-11
4-12
5-22
6-3
7-4
8-3
Page
1-2
1-3
1-3
1-3
3-4
3-10
3-14
3-17
3-18
3-19
3-20
3-21
3-22
3-23
3-24
3-36
3-47
3-48
3-49
4-22
4-25
5-1
5-4
5-6
5-8
5-10
5-16
5-18
i v
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1. Purpose
a. General: Thi s manual provi des engi neeri ng
data and cri teri a for desi gni ng el ectri c power pl ants
where the si ze and characteri sti cs of the el ectri c
power l oad and the economi cs of the parti cul ar faci l -
i t y justi fy on-si te generati on. Maxi mum si ze of
pl ant consi dered i n thi s manual i s 30,000 kW.
b. References: A l i st of references used i n thi s
manual i s contai ned i n Appendi x A. Addi ti onal l y, a
Bi bl i ography i s i ncl uded i denti fyi ng sources of ma-
teri al rel ated to thi s document.
1-2. Design philosophy
a. General. El ectri c power pl ants fal l i nto several
categori es and cl asses dependi ng on the type of
pri me mover. Tabl e 1-1 provi des a general descri p-
ti on of pl ant type and rel ated capaci ty requi re-
ments. For purposes of thi s i ntroducti on Tabl e 1-2
defi nes, i n more detai l , the di esel pl ant cl asses and
operati onal characteri sti cs; addi ti onal i nformati on
i s provi ded i n Chapter 7. No si mi l ar categori es have
been devel oped for gas turbi nes. Fi nal l y, for pur-
poses of thi s manual and to provi de a qui ck scal e for
the pl ants under revi ew here, several categori es
have been devel oped. These are shown i n Tabl e 1-3.
b. Reliability. Pl ant rel i abi l i ty standards wi l l be
equi val ent to a l -day generati on forced outage i n 10
years wi th equi pment qual i ty and redundancy se-
l ected duri ng pl ant desi gn to conform to thi s stand-
ar d.
c. Maintenance. Power pl ant arrangement wi l l
permi t reasonabl e access for operati on and mai nte-
nance of equi pment. Careful attenti on wi l l be gi ven
to the arrangement of equi pment, val ves, mechan-
i cal speci al ti es, and el ectri cal devi ces so that rotors,
tube bundl es, i nner val ves, top works, strai ners,
contractors, rel ays, and l i ke i tems can be mai ntai ned
or repl aced. Adequate pl atforms, stai rs, handrai l s,
and ki ckpl ates wi l l be provi ded so that operators
and mai ntenance personnel can functi on conven-
i entl y and safel y.
d. Future expansion. The speci fi c si te sel ected for
the power pl ant and the physi cal arrangement of the
pl ant equi pment, bui l di ng, and support faci l i ti es
such as coal and ash handl i ng systems, coal storage,
ci rcul ati ng water system, trackage, and access
roads wi l l be arranged i nsofar as practi cabl e to al l ow
for future expansi on.
1-3. Design c riteria
a. General requirements. The desi gn wi l l provi de
for a power pl ant whi ch has the capaci ty to provi de
the quanti ty and type of el ectri c power, steam and
compressed ai r requi red. Many of the requi rements
di scussed here are not appl i cabl e to each of the pl ant
categori es of Tabl e 1-1. A general overvi ew i s pro-
vi ded i n Tabl e 1-4.
b. Electric power loads. The fol l owi ng i nforma-
ti on, as appl i cabl e, i s requi red for desi gn:
(1) Forecast of annual di versi fi ed peak l oad to
be served by the project.
(2) Typi cal seasonal and dai l y l oad curves and
l oad durati on curves of the l oad to be served. Ex-
ampl e curves are shown i n Fi gures 1-1 and 1-2.
(3) I f the pl ant i s to operate i nterconnected wi th
the l ocal uti l i ty company, the desi gner wi l l need i n-
formati on such as capaci ty, rates, meteri ng, and i n-
terface swi tchgear requi rements.
(4) I f the pl ant i s to operate i n paral l el wi th
exi sti ng generati on on the base, the desi gner wi l l
al so need:
(a) An i nventory of major exi sti ng generati on
equi pment gi vi ng pri nci pal characteri sti cs such as
capaci ti es, vol tages, steam characteri sti cs, back
pressures, and l i ke parameters.
(b) I ncremental heat rates of exi sti ng boi l er-
turbi ne uni ts, di esel generators, and combusti on
turbi ne generator uni ts.
(c) Hi stori cal operati ng data for each exi sti ng
generati ng uni t gi vi ng energy generated, fuel con-
sumpti on, steam exported, and other rel ated i nfor-
mati on.
(5) Exi sti ng or recommended di stri buti on vol -
tage, generator vol tage, and i nterconnecti ng substa-
ti on vol tages.
(6) I f any of the above data as requi red for per-
formi ng the detai l ed desi gn i s unavai l abl e, the de-
si gner wi l l devel op thi s data.
c. Exports team loads.
(1) General requirements. I f the pl ant wi l l ex-
port steam, i nformati on si mi l ar to that requi red for
el ectri c power, as outl i ned i n subparagraph c above,
wi l l be needed by the desi gner.
(2) Coordination of steam and electric power
l oads. To the greatest extent possi bl e, peak, season-
al , and dai l y l oads for steam wi l l be coordi nated wi th
the el ectri c power l oads accordi ng to ti me of use.
1-1
Category
Primary
Standby
Tabl e 1-1. General Descri pti on of Type of Pl ant.
TYPE OF POWER
Capacity No Export Steam
Adequate to meet
requi rement .
Adequate with
mobilization
all peacet i me Purchased electric power to match
el ect ri c l oad.
Continuous duty diesel plant,
Class A diesel.
Straight condensing boilers and
and turbines matched in capacity
as units; enough units so plant
without largest unit can carry
emergency load.
prime source to match Purchased electric power.
needs; or alone to supply
emergency electric load and export
steam load in case of primary source Standby diesel plant, Class B
out age. di esel .
Equal to primary source . . . . . . . . . . . . Retired straight condensing plant.
Emergency To supply that part of emergency load Fixed emergency diesel plant,
that cannot be interrupted for mo r e Class C diesel.
than 4 hours. Mobile utilities support equipment.
With Export Steam
Purchased electric power and steam to
match electric load plus supplementary
boiler plant to match export steam load.
Automatic back pressure steam plant plus
automatic packaged firetube boiler to
supplement requirements of export steam
load.
Automatic extraction steam plant boilers
and turbines matched in capacity se units
and enough units installed so that plant
without largest unit can carry emergency
load.
Purchased electric power and steam to
match electric power load plus supple-
mentary boiler plant.
Standby diesel plant with supplementary
boiler plant.
Retired automatic extraction steam plant.
None.
None.
NAVFAC DM3
TM 5-811-6
Table 1-2. Diesel Class and Operational Characteristics.
Fu1l Load Rating
Capabi l i t y Expected Operating Hours
Minimum Operating
Cl ass Usage Hours Period
-
" "
A . . . . . . . . . Continuous . . . . . . . 8,000 . . . . . Yearly . . . . . . . 4,000 hours plus . . . . .
B . . . . . . . . . Standby . . . . . . . . . . 8,000 . . . . . Yearly . . . . . . . 1, 000 to 4, 000 hours .
c . . . . . . . . . Emergency . . . . . . . . 650 . . . . . Monthly* . . . . . Under 1,000 hours . . . .
*Based on a 30-day month.
U. S . Ar my Co r p s o f E n g i n e e r s
C a t e g o r y
S m a l l
M e d i u m
L a r g e
Table-3. Plant Sizes.
S i z e
o to 2 , 5 0 0 k W
2 , 5 0 0 k W t o 1 0 , 0 0 0 k W
1 0 , 0 0 0 k W t o 3 0 , 0 0 0 k W
U. S . Ar my Co r p s o f E n g i n e e r s
Table-4. Design Criteria Requirements.
C l a s s
( P l a n t C a t e g o r y )
A ( P r i ma r y )
B ( S t a n d b y )
C ( Eme r g e n c y )
E l e c t r i c
P o we r
L o a d s
A
A
c r i t i c a l
l o a d s o n l y
A= Ap p l i c a b l e
N / A
=
N o t A p p l i c a b l e
First Ten Years
40, 000 hours plus
20, 000 t o 40, 000 hours
Under 10,000 hours
E x p o r t
St earn
L o a d s
A
N/ A
N/ A
F u e l
S o u r c e
a n d Wa t e r S t a c k Wa s t e
C o s t
Suppl y
E mi s s i o n D i s p o s a l
A
A A A
A
N/ A N/ A
A
A N/ A N/ A N /A
Co u r t e s y o f P o p e , E v a n s a n d Ro b b i n s ( No n - Co p y r i g h t e d )
1-3
TM 5-811-6
Thi s type of i nformati on i s parti cul arl y i mportant i f
the project i nvol ves cogenerati on wi th the si mul -
taneous producti on of el ectri c power and steam.
d. Fuel source, and cost. The type, avai l abi l i ty,
and cost of fuel wi l l be determi ned i n the earl y
stages of desi gn; taki ng i nto account regul atory re-
qui rements that may affect fuel and fuel characteri s-
ti cs of the pl ant.
e. Water supply. Fresh water i s requi red for
thermal cycl e makeup and for cool i ng tower or cool -
i ng pond makeup where once through water for heat
rejecti on i s unavai l abl e or not usabl e because of
regul atory constrai nts. Quanti ty of makeup wi l l
vary wi th the type of thermal cycl e, amount of con-
densate return for any export steam, and the maxi -
mum heat rejecti on from the cycl e. Thi s heat rejec-
ti on l oad usual l y wi l l compri se the l argest part of
the makeup and wi l l have the l east stri ngent re-
qui rements for qual i ty.
f. Stack emissions. A steam el ectri c power pl ant
----- Sumner Load
Wi nter Load
Kw
1
wi l l be desi gned for the type of stack gas cl eanup
equi pment whi ch meets federal , state, and muni ci -
pal emi ssi on requi rements. For a sol i d fuel fi red boi l -
er, thi s wi l l i nvol ve an el ectrostati c preci pi tator or
bag house for parti cul ate, and a scrubber for sul fur
compounds unl ess fl ui di zed bed combusti on or com-
pl i ance coal i s empl oyed. I f desi gn i s based on com-
pl i ance coal , the desi gn wi l l i ncl ude space and other
requi red provi si on for the i nstal l ati on of scrubber
equi pment. Boi l er desi gn wi l l be speci fi ed as re-
qui red for NOx contr ol .
g. Waste disposal.
(1) I nternal combustion plants. Sol i d and l i q-
ui d wastes from a di esel or combusti on turbi ne gen-
erati ng stati on wi l l be di sposed of as fol l ows: Mi s-
cel l aneous oi l y wastes from storage tank areas and
sumps wi l l be di rected to an API separator. Suppl e-
mentary treati ng can be uti l i zed i f necessary to meet
the appl i cabl e requi rements for waste water di s-
charge. For pl ants of si ze l ess than 1,000 kW, l i qui d
.
URBAN
[NDUSTRI AL TRACTI ON
LOAD LOAD
1 2 6 1 2 6 1 2 6 1 2 6 1 2 6 1 2 6 1 2
AM PM AM PM AM PM
FROM POWER STATI ON ENGI NEERI NG AND ECONOMY BY SROTZKI AND LOPAT.
COPYRI GHT BY THE MC GRAW-HI LL BOOK COMPANY, I NC. USED WI TH THE
PERMI SSI ON OF MC GRAW-HI LL BOOK COMPANY.
Figure 1-1. Typical metropolitan area load curves.
1-4
TM 5-811-6
oi l y wastes wi l l be accumul ated i n sumps or smal l
tanks for removal . Resi dues from fi l ters and centri -
fuges wi l l be si mi l arl y handl ed.
(2) Steam electric stations. For steam el ectri c
generati ng stati ons uti l i zi ng sol i d fuel , both sol i d
and l i qui d wastes wi l l be handl ed and di sposed of i n
an envi ronmental l y acceptabl e manner. The wastes
can be categori zed general l y as fol l ows:
(a) Solid wastes. These i ncl ude both bottom
ash and fl y ash from boi l ers.
(b) Liquid wastes. These i ncl ude boi l er bl ow-
down, cool i ng tower bl owdown, aci d and causti c
water treati ng wastes, coal pi l e runoff, and vari ous
contami nated wastes from chemi cal storage areas,
sani tary sewage and yard areas.
h. Other environmental considerations. Other en-
vi ronmental consi derati ons i ncl ude noi se control
and aestheti c treatment of the project. The fi nal l o-
cati on of the project wi thi n the si te area wi l l be re-
vi ewed i n rel ati on to i ts proxi mi ty to hospi tal and
offi ce areas and the ci vi l i an nei ghborhood, i f appl i -
cabl e. Al so, the general archi tectural desi gn wi l l be
revi ewed i n terms of coordi nati on and bl endi ng wi th
I
the styl e of surroundi ng bui l di ngs. Any anti ci pated
noi se or aestheti cs probl em wi l l be resol ved pri or to
the ti me that fi nal si te sel ecti on i s approved.
1-4. Economic considerations
a. The sel ecti on of one parti cul ar type of desi gn
for a gi ven appl i cati on, when two or more types of
desi gn are known to be feasi bl e, wi l l be based on the
resul ts of an economi c study i n accordance wi th the
requi rements of DOD 4270.1-M and the Nati onal
Energy Conservati on Pol i cy Act (Publ i c Law
95-619,9 NOV 1978).
b. Standards for economi c studi es are contai ned
i n AR 11-28 and AFR 178-1, respecti vel y. Addi -
ti onal standards for desi gn appl i cati ons deal i ng
wi th energy/fuel consumi ng el ements of a faci l i ty
are contai ned i n the US Code of Federal Regul a-
ti ons, 20 CFR 436A. Cl ari fi cati on of the basi c stand-
ards and gui del i nes for a parti cul ar appl i cati on and
suppl ementary standards whi ch may be requi red for
speci al cases may be obtai ned through normal chan-
nel s from HQDA (DAEN-ECE-D), WASH DC
20314.
I
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 8760-
U.S. Army Corps of
Figure 1-2.
HOURS
Engi neer s
Typical annual load duration curve.
1-5
-
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 2
SITE AND CIVIL FACILITIES DESIGN
Sec tion 1. SITE SELECTION
2-1. Introduc tion
Si nce the sel ecti on of a pl ant si te has a si gni fi cant
i nfl uence on the desi gn, constructi on and operati ng
costs of a power pl ant, each potenti al pl ant si te wi l l
be eval uated to determi ne whi ch i s the most
economi cal l y feasi bl e for the type of power pl ant be-
i ng consi dered.
2-2. Environmental c onsiderations
a. Rules and regulations. Al l power pl ant desi gn,
regardl ess of the type of power pl ant, must be i n ac-
cordance wi th the rul es and regul ati ons whi ch have
been establ i shed by Federal , state and l ocal govern-
mental bodi es.
b. Extraordinary design features. To meet var-
i ous envi ronmental regul ati ons, i t i s often necessary
to uti l i ze desi gn features that wi l l greatl y i ncrease
the cost of the power pl ant wi thout i ncreasi ng i ts ef-
fi ci ency. For exampl e, the cost of the pol l uti on con-
trol equi pment that wi l l be requi red for each si te un-
der consi derati on i s one such i tem whi ch must be
careful l y eval uated.
2-3. Water supply
a. General requirements. Water suppl y wi l l be
adequate to meet present and future pl ant requi re-
ments. The suppl y maybe avai l abl e from a l ocal mu-
ni ci pal or pri vatel y owned system, or i t may be nec-
essary to uti l i ze surface or subsurface sources.
b. Quality. Water qual i ty and type of treatment
requi red wi l l be compati bl e wi th the type of power
pl ant to be bui l t.
c. Water rights. I f water ri ghts are requi red, i t wi l l
be necessary to i nsure that an agreement for water
ri ghts provi des suffi ci ent quanti ty for present and
future use.
d. Water wells. I f the makeup to the cl osed sys-
tem i s from water wel l s, a study to determi ne water
tabl e i nformati on and wel l drawdown wi l l be re-
qui red. I f thi s i nformati on i s not avai l abl e, test wel l
studi es must be made.
e. Once-through system. I f the pl ant has a once
through cool i ng system, the fol l owi ng wi l l be deter-
mi ned:
(1) The l i mi tati ons establ i shed by the appro-
pri ate regul atory bodi es whi ch must be met to ob-
tai n a permi t requi red to di scharge heated water to
the source.
(2) Maxi mum al l owabl e temperature ri se per-
mi ssi bl e as compared to system desi gn parameters.
I f system desi gn temperature ri se exceeds permi ssi -
bl e ri se, a suppl emental cool i ng system (cool i ng
tower or spray pond) must be i ncorporated i nto the
desi gn.
(3) Maxi mum al l owabl e temperature for ri ver
or l ake after mi xi ng of cool i ng system effl uent wi th
source. I f mi xed temperature i s hi gher than al l ow-
abl e temperature, a suppl emental cool i ng system
must be added. I t i s possi bl e to meet the condi ti ons
of (2) above and not meet the condi ti ons i n thi s sub-
par agr aph.
(4) I f extensi ve or repeti ti ve dredgi ng of wat-
erway wi l l be necessary for pl ant operati ons.
(5) The hi stori cal maxi mum and mi ni mum
water l evel and fl ow readi ngs. Check to see that ade-
quate water suppl y i s avai l abl e at mi ni mum fl ow
and i f si te wi l l fl ood at hi gh l evel .
2-4. Fuel supply
Si te sel ecti on wi l l take i nto consi derati on fuel stor-
age and the i ngress and egress of fuel del i very equi p-
ment.
2-5. Physic al c harac teristic s
Sel ecti on of the si te wi l l be based on the avai l abi l i ty
of usabl e l and for the pl ant, i ncl udi ng yard struc-
tures, fuel handl i ng faci l i ti es, and any future expan-
si on. Other consi derati ons that wi l l be taken i nto ac-
count i n si te sel ecti on are:
-Soi l i nformati on.
-Si te drai nage.
- Wi nd data.
-Sei smi c zone.
-I ngress and egress.
For economi c purposes and operati onal effi ci ency,
the pl ant si te wi l l be l ocated as cl ose to the l oad cen-
ter as envi ronmental condi ti ons permi t.
2-6. Ec onomic s
Where the choi ce of several si tes exi sts, the fi nal se-
l ecti on wi l l be based on economi cs and engi neeri ng
studi es.
2-1
.
TM 5-811-6
Sec tion Il. CIVIL FACILITIES, BUILDINGS, SAFETY, AND SECURITY
2-7. Soils investigation
An anal ysi s of exi sti ng soi l s condi ti ons wi l l be made
to determi ne the proper type of foundati on. Soi l s
data wi l l i ncl ude el evati on of each bori ng, water
tabl e l evel , descri pti on of soi l strata i ncl udi ng the
group symbol based on the Uni fi ed Soi l Cl assi fi ca-
ti on System, and penetrati on data (bl ow count). The
soi l s report wi l l i ncl ude recommendati ons as to type
of foundati ons for vari ous purposes; excavati on, de-
wateri ng and fi l l procedures; and sui tabi l i ty of on-
si te materi al for fi l l and earthen di kes i ncl udi ng data
on soft and organi c materi al s, rock and other perti -
nent i nformati on as appl i cabl e.
2-8. Site development
a. Grading and drainage.
(1) Basic criteria. Determi nati on of fi nal grad-
i ng and drai nage scheme for a new power pl ant wi l l
be based on a number of consi derati ons i ncl udi ng
si ze of property i n rel ati onshi p to the si ze of pl ant
faci l i ti es, desi rabl e l ocati on on si te, and pl ant access
based on topography. I f the power pl ant i s part of
an overal l compl ex, the gradi ng and drai nage wi l l be
compati bl e and i ntegrated wi th the rest of the com-
pl ex. To mi ni mi ze cut and fi l l , pl ant faci l i ti es wi l l be
l ocated on hi gh ground and storm water drai nage
wi l l be di rected away from the pl ant. Assumi ng on
si te soi l s are sui tabl e, gradi ng shoul d be based on
bal anced cut and fi l l vol ume to avoi d haul i ng of ex-
cess fi l l materi al to offsi te di sposal and repl acement
wi th expensi ve new materi al .
(2) Drainage. Storm water drai nage wi l l be
eval uated based on rai nfal l i ntensi ti es, runoff char-
acteri sti cs of soi l , faci l i ti es for recei vi ng storm
water di scharge, and l ocal regul ati ons. Storm water
drai ns or systems wi l l not be i ntegrated wi th sani -
tary drai ns and other contami nated water drai nage
systems.
(3) Erosion prevention. Al l graded areas wi l l be
stabi l i zed to control erosi on by desi gni ng shal l ow
sl opes to the greatest extent possi bl e and by means
of soi l stabi l i zati on such as seedi ng, sod, stone, ri p-
rap and retai ni ng wal l s.
b. Roadways.
(1) Basic roadway requirements. Layout of
pl ant roadways wi l l be based on vol ume and type of
traffi c, speed, and traffi c patterns. Type of traffi c or
vehi cl e functi ons for power pl ants can be catego-
ri zed as fol l ows:
-Passenger cars for pl ant personnel .
-Passenger cars for vi si tors.
-Trucks for mai ntenance materi al del i veri es.
-Trucks for fuel suppl y.
-Trucks for removal of ash, sl udge and other
waste materi al s.
(2) Roadway material and width. Asi de from
temporary constructi on roads, the l ast two catego-
ri es descri bed above wi l l govern most roadway de-
si gn, parti cul arl y i f the pl ant i s coal fi red. Roadway
materi al and thi ckness wi l l be based on economi c
eval uati ons of feasi bl e al ternati ves. Vehi cul ar park-
i ng for pl ant personnel and vi si tors wi l l be l ocated i n
areas that wi l l not i nterfere wi th the safe operati on
of the pl ant. Turni ng radi i wi l l be adequate to han-
dl e al l vehi cl e categori es. Refer to TM 5-803-5/
NAVPAC P-960/AFM 88-43; TM 5-818-2/
AFM 88-6, Chap. 4; TM 5-822-2/AFM 88-7, Chap.
7; TM 5-822-4/AFM 88-7, Ch ap. 4; TM
5-822 -5/AFM 88-7, Chap. 3; TM 5-822-6/AFM
88-7, Chap. 1; TM 5-822-7/AFM 88-6, Chap. 8; and
TM 5-822-8.
c. Railroads. I f a rai l road spur i s sel ected to han-
dl e fuel suppl i es and materi al and equi pment del i v-
eri es duri ng constructi on or pl ant expansi on, the de-
si gn wi l l be i n accordance wi th Ameri can Rai l way
Engi neeri ng Associ ati on standards. I f coal i s the
fuel , spur l ayout wi l l accommodate coal handl i ng fa-
ci l i ti es i ncl udi ng a storage track for empty cars. I f
l i qui d fuel i s to be handl ed, unl oadi ng pumps and
steam connecti ons for tank car heaters may be re-
qui red i n fri gi d cl i mates.
2-9. Buildings
a. Size and arrangement.
(1) Steam plant. Mai n bui l di ng si ze and ar-
rangement depend on the sel ected pl ant equi pment
and faci l i ti es i ncl udi ng whether steam generators
are i ndoor or outdoor type; coal bunker or si l o ar-
rangement; source of cool i ng water suppl y rel ati ve
to the pl ant; the rel ati onshi p of the swi tchyard to
the pl ant; provi si ons for future expansi on; and ,
aestheti c and envi ronmental consi derati ons. Gener-
al l y, the mai n bui l di ng wi l l consi st of a turbi ne bay
wi th travel i ng crane; an auxi l i ary bay for feedwater
heaters, pumps, and swi tchgear; a steam generator
bay (or fi ri ng ai sl e for semi -outdoor uni ts); and gen-
eral spaces as may be requi red for machi ne shop,
l ocker room, l aboratory and offi ce faci l i ti es. The
general spaces wi l l be l ocated i n an area that wi l l not
i nterfere wi th future pl ant expansi on and i sol ated
from mai n pl ant faci l i ti es to control noi se. For very
mi l d cl i mates the turbi ne generator sets and steam
generators may be outdoor type (i n a weather pro-
tected, wal k-i n encl osure) al though thi s arrange-
ment presents speci al mai ntenance probl ems. I f i n-
corporated, the el evator wi l l have access to the hi gh-
2-2
TM 5-811-6
est operati ng l evel of the steam generator (drum l ev-
el s).
(2) Diesel plant. The requi rements for a bui l d-
i ng housi ng a di esel generator pl ant are the same as
for a steam turbi ne pl ant except that a steam gener-
ator bay i s not requi red.
b. Architectural treatment.
(1) The archi tectural treatment wi l l be de-
vel oped to harmoni ze wi th the si te condi ti ons, both
natural and manmade. Dependi ng on l ocati on, the
envi ronmental compati bi l i ty y may be the determi n-
i ng factor. I n other cases the cl i mate or user prefer-
ence, tempered wi th aestheti c and economi c factors,
wi l l di ctate archi tectural treatment. Cl i mate i s a
control l i ng factor i n whether or not a total or parti al
cl osure i s sel ected. Semi -outdoor constructi on wi th
the bul k of the steam generator not encl osed i n a
boi l er room i s an acceptabl e desi gn.
(2) For speci al ci rcumstances, such as areas
where extended peri ods of very hi gh humi di ty, fre-
quentl y combi ned wi th desert condi ti ons gi vi ng ri se
to heavy dust and sand bl asti ng acti on, i ndoor con-
structi on wi th pressuri zed venti l ati on wi l l be re-
qui red not onl y for the mai n bui l di ng but al so, gen-
eral l y, for the swi tchyard. Gas encl osed swi tchyard
i nstal l ati ons may be consi dered for such ci rcum-
stances i n l i eu of that requi red above.
(3) Control rooms, offi ces, l ocker rooms, and
some out-bui l di ngs wi l l be encl osed regardl ess of en-
cl osure sel ected for mai n bui l di ng. Ci rcul ati ng water
pumps may be i nstal l ed i n the open, except i n the
most severe cl i mates. For semi -outdoor or outdoor
stati ons, encl osures for swi tchgear and motor con-
trol s for the auxi l i ary power system wi l l be encl osed
i n manufacturer suppl i ed wal k-i n metal housi ngs or
si te fabri cated cl osures.
c. Structural design.
(1) Building framing and turbine pedestals.
Thermal stati ons wi l l be desi gned uti l i zi ng conven-
ti onal structural steel for the mai n power stati on
bui l di ng and support of boi l er. The pedestal for sup-
porti ng the turbi ne generator (and turbi ne dri ven
boi l er feed pump i f uti l i zed) wi l l be of rei nforced con-
crete. Rei nforced concrete on masonry constructi on
may be used for the bui l di ng frami ng (not for boi l er
frami ng); speci al concrete i nserts or other provi si on
must be made i n such event for support of pi pi ng,
trays and condui ts. An economi c eval uati on wi l l be
made of these al ternati ves.
(2) Exterior walls. The exteri or wal l s of most
thermal power stati ons are constructed of i nsul ated
metal panel s. However, concrete bl ocks, bri cks, or
other materi al may be used dependi ng on the aes-
theti cs and economi cs of the desi gn.
(3) I nterior walls. Concrete masonry bl ocks wi l l
be used for i nteri or wal l s; however, some speci al i zed
areas, such as for the control room encl osure and for
offi ces, may uti l i ze factory fabri cated metal wal l s,
fi xed or moveabl e accordi ng to the appl i cati on.
(4) Roof decks. Mai n bui l di ng roof decks wi l l be
constructed of rei nforced concrete or ri bbed metal
deck wi th bui l t-up mul ti -pl y roofi ng to provi de wat-
erproofi ng. Roofs wi l l be sl oped a mi ni mum of 1/4,-
i nch per foot for drai nage.
(5) Floors. Except where grati ng or checkered
pl ate i s requi red for access or venti l ati on, al l fl oors
wi l l be desi gned for rei nforced concrete wi th a non-
sl i p fi ni sh.
(6) Live loads. Bui l di ngs, structures and al l
porti ons thereof wi l l be desi gned and constructed to
support al l l i ve and dead l oads wi thout exceedi ng
the al l owabl e stresses of the sel ected materi al s i n
the structural members and connecti ons. Typi cal
l i ve l oads for power pl ant fl oors are as fol l ows:
(a) Turbi ne generator fl oor 500 psf
(b) Basement and operati ng fl oors except
turbi ne generator fl oor 200 psf
(c) Mezzani ne, deaerator, and
mi scel l aneous operati ng fl oors 200 psf
(d) Offi ces, l aboratori es, i nstrument
shops, and other l i ghtl y l oaded areas 100 psf
Li ve l oads for actual desi gn wi l l be careful l y re-
vi ewed for any speci al condi ti ons and actual l oads
appl i cabl e.
(7) Other loads. I n addi ti on to the l i ve and dead
l oads, the fol l owi ng l oadi ngs wi l l be provi ded for:
(a) Wind loading. Bui l di ng wi l l be desi gned to
resi st the hori zontal wi nd pressure avai l abl e for the
si te on al l surfaces exposed to the wi nd.
(b) Seismic loading. Bui l di ngs and other
structures wi l l be desi gned to resi st sei smi c l oadi ng
i n accordance wi th the zone i n whi ch the bui l di ng i s
l ocated.
(c) Equipment loading. Equi pment l oads are
furni shed by the vari ous manufacturers of each
equi pment i tem. I n addi ti on to equi pment dead
l oads, i mpact l oads, short ci rcui t forces for genera-
tors, and other perti nent speci al l oads prescri bed by
the equi pment functi on or requi rements wi l l be i n-
cl uded.
d. Foundation design.
(1) Foundati ons wi l l be desi gned to safel y sup-
port al l structures, consi deri ng type of foundati on
and al l owabl e beari ng pressures. The two most com-
mon types of foundati ons are spread footi ngs and
pi l e type foundati ons, al though raft type of other
speci al approaches may be uti l i zed for unusual ci r-
cumstances.
(2) Pi l e type foundati ons requi re rei nforced
concrete pi l e caps and a system of rei nforced con-
crete beams to ti e the caps together. Pi l e l oad capa-
bi l i ti es may be devel oped ei ther i n fri cti on or poi nt
2-3
TM 5-811-6
beari ng. The al l owabl e l oad on pi l es wi l l be deter-
mi ned by an approved formul a or by a l oad test.
Pi l es can be ti mber, concrete, rol l ed structural steel
shape, steel pi pe, or steel pi pe concrete fi l l ed.
(3) Desi gn of the rei nforced concrete turbi ne
generator or di esel set foundati on, both mat and
pedestal , wi l l be such that the foundati on i s i sol ated
from the mai n bui l di ng foundati ons and structures
by expansi on joi nt materi al pl aced around i ts peri m-
eter. The desi gn wi l l al so i nsure that the resonance
of the foundati on at operati ng speed i s avoi ded i n
order to prevent cracki ng of the foundati on and
damage to machi nes caused by resonant vi brati on.
The foundati on wi l l be desi gned on the basi s of de-
fl ecti on. The l i mi ts of defl ecti on wi l l be sel ected to
avoi d val ues of natural frequency by at l east 30 per-
cent above or 30 percent bel ow operati ng speed.
(4) Vi brati on mounts or fl oati ng fl oor foun-
dati ons where equi pment or equi pment foundati on
i nerti a bl ocks are separated from the mai n bui l di ng
fl oor by spri ngs or precompressed materi al wi l l gen-
eral l y not be used i n power pl ants except for venti l a-
ti on fans and other bui l di ng servi ce equi pment. I n
these ci rcumstances where such i nerti a bl ocks are
consi dered necessary for equi pment not normal l y so
mounted, wri tten justi fi cati on wi l l be i ncl uded i n
the project desi gn anal ysi s supporti ng such a neces-
si ty.
(5) The l ocati on of turbi ne generators, di esel en-
gi ne sets, boi l er feed pumps, draft fans, compres-
sors, and other hi gh speed rotati ng equi pment on
el evated fl oors wi l l be avoi ded because of the di ffi -
cul ty or i mpossi bi l i ty of i sol ati ng equi pment foun-
dati ons from the bui l di ng structure.
2-10. Safety.
a. I ntroduction. The safety features descri bed i n
the fol l owi ng paragraphs wi l l be i ncorporated i nto
the power pl ant desi gn to assi st i n mai ntai ni ng a
hi gh l evel of personnel safety.
b. Design safety features. I n desi gni ng a power
pl ant, the fol l owi ng general recommendati ons on
safety wi l l be gi ven attenti on:
(1) Equi pment wi l l be arranged wi th adequate
access space for operati on and for mai ntenance.
Wherever possi bl e, auxi l i ary equi pment wi l l be ar-
ranged for mai ntenance handl i ng by the mai n tur-
bi ne room crane. Where thi s i s not feasi bl e, mono-
rai l s, wheel ed trucks, or portabl e A-frames shoul d
be provi ded i f di sassembl y of heavy pi eces i s re-
qui red for mai ntenance.
(2) Safety guards wi l l be provi ded on movi ng
parts of al l equi pment.
(3) Al l val ves, speci al ti es, and devi ces needi ng
mani pul ati on by operators wi l l be accessi bl e wi th-
out l adders, and preferabl y wi thout usi ng chai n
wheel s. Thi s can be achi eved by careful pi pi ng de-
si gn, but some access pl atforms or remote mechani -
cal operators may be necessary.
(4) I mpact type handwheel s wi l l be used for
hi gh pressure val ves and al l l arge val ves.
(5) Val ve centers wi l l be mounted approxi mate-
l y 7 feet above fl oors and pl atforms so that ri si ng
stems and bottom ri ms of handwheel s wi l l not be a
hazar d.
(6) Stai rs wi th conventi onal ri ser-tread propor-
ti ons wi l l be used. Verti cal l adders, i nstal l ed onl y as
a l ast resort, must have a safety cage i f requi red by .
the Occupati onal Safety and Heal th Act (OSHA).
(7) Al l fl oors, grati ngs and checkered pl ates wi l l
have non-sl i p surfaces.
(8) No pl atform or wal kway wi l l be l ess than 3
feet wi de.
(9) Toe pl ates, fi tted cl osel y to the edge of al l
fl oor openi ngs, pl atforms and stai rways, wi l l be pro-
vi ded i n al l cases.
(10) Adequate pi pi ng and equi pment drai ns to
waste wi l l be provi ded.
(11) Al l fl oors subject to washdown or l eaks wi l l
be sl oped to fl oor drai ns.
(12) Al l areas subject to l ube oi l or chemi cal
spi l l s wi l l be provi ded wi th curbs and drai ns,
(13) I f pl ant i s of semi -outdoor or outdoor con-
structi on i n a cl i mate subject to freezi ng weather,
weather protecti on wi l l be provi ded for cri ti cal
operati ng and mai ntenance areas such as the fi ri ng
ai sl e, boi l er steam drum ends and soot bl ower l oca-
ti ons.
(14) Adequate i l l umi nati on wi l l be provi ded
throughout the pl ant. I l l umi nati on wi l l compl y wi th
requi rements of the I l l umi nati ng Engi neers Soci ety
(I ES) Li ghti ng Handbook, as i mpl emented by DOD
4270.1-M.
(15) Comfort ai r condi ti oni ng wi l l be provi ded
throughout control rooms, l aboratori es, offi ces and
si mi l ar spaces where operati ng and mai ntenance
personnel spend consi derabl e ti me.
(16) Mechani cal suppl y and exhaust venti l ati on
wi l l be provi ded for al l of the power pl ant equi pment
areas to al l evi ate operator fati gue and prevent accu-
mul ati on of fumes and dust. Suppl y wi l l be ducted
to di rect ai r to the l owest l evel of the power pl ant
and to areas wi th l arge heat rel ease such as the tur-
bi ne or engi ne room and the boi l er feed pump area.
Evaporati ve cool i ng wi l l be consi dered i n l ow hu-
mi di ty areas. Venti l ati on ai r wi l l be fi l tered and
heated i n the wi nter al so, system ai r fl ow capaci ty
shoul d be capabl e of bei ng reduced i n the wi nter.
Battery room wi l l have separate exhaust fans to re-
move hydrogen emi tted by batteri es as covered i n
TM 5-811-2/AFM 88-9, Chap. 2.
(17) Noi se l evel wi l l be reduced to at l east the
2-4
TM 5-811-6
recommended maxi mum l evel s of OSHA. Use of fan
si l encers, compressor si l encers, muffl ers on i nternal
combusti on engi nes, and acousti cal materi al i s re-
qui r ed as di scussed i n TM 5-805-4/AFM
88-37/NAVFAC DM-3.1O and TM 5-805-9/AFM
88-20/NAVFAC DM-3.14. Consi derati on shoul d be
gi ven to l ocati ng forced draft fans i n acousti cal l y
treated fan rooms si nce they are usual l y the l argest
noi se source i n a power pl ant. Control val ves wi l l be
desi gned to l i mi t noi se emi ssi ons.
(18) A central vacuum cl eani ng system shoul d
be consi dered to permi t easy mai ntenance of pl ant.
(19) Col or schemes wi l l be psychol ogi cal l y rest-
ful except where danger must be hi ghl i ghted wi th
speci al bri ght pri mary col ors.
(20) Each equi pment i tem wi l l be cl earl y l a-
bel l ed i n bl ock l etters i denti fyi ng i t both by equi p
ment i tem number and name. A compl ete, coordi -
nated system of pi pe markers wi l l be used for i denti -
fi cati on of each separate cycl e and power pl ant serv-
i ce system. Al l swi tches, control s, and devi ces on al l
control panel s wi l l be l abel l ed usi ng the i denti cal
names shown on equi pment or remote devi ces bei ng
contr ol l ed.
2-5
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 3
STEAM TURBINE POWER PLANT DESIGN
Sec tion 1. TYPICAL PLANTS AND CYCLES
3-1. Introduc tion
a. Definition. The cycl e of a steam power pl ant i s
the group of i nterconnected major equi pment com-
ponents sel ected for opti mum thermodynami c char-
acteri sti cs, i ncl udi ng pressure, temperatures and ca-
paci ti es, and i ntegrated i nto a practi cal arrange-
ment to serve the el ectri cal (and someti mes by-prod-
uct steam) requi rements of a parti cul ar project. Se-
l ecti on of the opti mum cycl e depends upon pl ant
si ze, cost of money, fuel costs, non-fuel operati ng
costs, and mai ntenance costs.
b. Steam conditions. Typi cal cycl es for the prob-
abl e si ze and type of steam power pl ants at Army es-
tabl i shments wi l l be suppl i ed by superheated steam
generated at pressures and temperatures between
600 psi g (at 750 to 850F) and 1450 psi g (at 850 to
950 F). Reheat i s never offered for turbi ne genera-
tors of l ess than 50 MW and, hence, i s not appl i cabl e
i n thi s manual .
c. Steam turbine prime movers. The steam tur-
bi ne pri me mover, for rated capaci ty l i mi ts of 5000
kW to 30,000 kW, wi l l be a mul ti -stage, mul ti -val ve
uni t, ei ther back pressure or condensi ng. Smal l er
turbi nes, especi al l y under 1000 kW rated capaci ty,
may be si ngl e stage uni ts because of l ower fi rst cost
and si mpl i ci ty. Si ngl e stage turbi nes, ei ther back
pressure or condensi ng, are not equi pped wi th ex-
tracti on openi ngs.
d. Back pressure turbines. Back pressure turbi ne
uni ts usual l y exhaust at pressures between 250 psi g
and 15 psi g wi th one or two control l ed or uncon-
trol l ed extracti ons. However, there i s a si gni fi cant
pri ce di fference between control l ed and uncontrol l ed
extracti on turbi nes, the former bei ng more expen-
si ve. Control l ed extracti on i s normal l y appl i ed
where the bl eed steam i s exported to process or di s-
tri ct heat users.
e. Condensing turbines. Condensi ng uni ts ex-
haust at pressures between 1 i nch of mercury abso-
l ute (Hga) and 5 i nches Hga, wi th up to two con-
trol l ed, or up to fi ve uncontrol l ed, extracti ons.
3-2. Plant func tion and purpose
a. I ntegration into general planning. Gener al
pl ant desi gn parameters wi l l be i n accordance wi th
overal l cri teri a establ i shed i n the feasi bi l i ty study or
pl anni ng cri teri a on whi ch the techni cal and econom-
i c feasi bi l i ty i s based. The si zes and characteri sti cs
of the l oads to be suppl i ed by the power pl ant, i n-
cl udi ng peak l oads, l oad factors, al l owances for fu-
ture growth, the requi rements for rel i abi l i ty, and
the cri teri a for fuel , energy, and general economy,
wi l l be determi ned or veri fi ed by the desi gner and
approved by appropri ate authori ty i n advance of the
fi nal desi gn for the project.
b. Selection of cycle conditions. Choi ce of steam
condi ti ons, types and sizes of steam generators and
turbi ne pri me movers, and extracti on pressures de-
pend on the functi on or purpose for whi ch the pl ant
i s i ntended. General l y, these basi c cri teri a shoul d
have al ready been establ i shed i n the techni cal and
economi c feasi bi l i ty studi es, but i f al l such cri teri a
have not been so establ i shed, the desi gner wi l l sel ect
the parameters to sui t the i ntended use.
c. Coeneration plants. Back pressure and con-
trol l ed extracti on/condensi ng cycl es are attracti ve
and appl i cabl e to a cogenerati on pl ant, whi ch i s de-
fi ned as a power pl ant si mul taneousl y suppl yi ng
ei ther el ectri c power or mechani cal energy and heat
energy (para. 3-4).
d. Simple condensing cycles. Strai ght condensi ng
cycl es, or condensi ng uni ts wi th uncontrol l ed ex-
tracti ons are appl i cabl e to pl ants or si tuati ons
where securi ty or i sol ati on from publ i c uti l i ty power
suppl y i s more i mportant than l owest power cost.
Because of thei r hi gher heat rates and operati ng
costs per uni t output, i t i s not l i kel y that si mpl e con-
densi ng cycl es wi l l be economi cal l y justi fi ed for a
mi l i tary power pl ant appl i cati on as compared wi th
that associ ated wi th publ i c uti l i ty purchased power
costs. A schemati c di agram of a si mpl e condensi ng
cycl e i s shown on Fi gure 3-1.
3-3. Steam power c yc le ec onomy
a. I ntroduction. Maxi mum overal l effi ci ency and
economy of a steam power cycl e are the pri nci pal de-
si gn cri teri a for pl ant sel ecti on and desi gn. I n gener-
al , better effi ci ency, or l ower heat rate, i s accom-
pani ed by hi gher costs for i ni ti al i nvestment, opera-
ti on and mai ntenance. However, more effi ci ent
cycl es are more compl ex and may be l ess rel i abl e per
uni t of capaci ty or i nvestment cost than si mpl er and
3-1
TM 5-611-6
NAVFAC DM3
Figure 3-1. Typical straight condensing cycle.
l ess effi ci ent cycl es. Effi ci ency characteri sti cs can
be l i sted as fol l ows:
(1) Hi gher steam pressures and temperatures
contri bute to better, or l ower, heat rates.
(2) For condensi ng cycl es, l ower back pressures
i ncrease effi ci ency except that for each parti cul ar
turbi ne uni t there i s a crossover poi nt where l ower-
i ng back pressure further wi l l commence to decrease
effi ci ency because the i ncremental exhaust l oss ef-
fect i s greater than the i ncremental i ncrease i n avai l -
abl e energy.
(3) The use of stage or regenerati ve feedwater
cycl es i mproves heat rates, wi th greater i mprove-
ment correspondi ng to l arger numbers of such heat-
ers. I n a regenerati ve cycl e, there i s al so a thermody-
nami c crossover poi nt where l oweri ng of an extrac-
ti on pressure causes l ess steam to fl ow through the
extracti on pi pi ng to the feedwater heaters, reduci ng
the feedwater temperature. There i s al so a l i mi t to
the number of stages of extracti on/feedwater heat-
i ng whi ch may be economi cal l y added to the cycl e.
Thi s occurs when addi ti onal cycl e effi ci ency no l ong-
er justi fi es the i ncreased capi tal cost.
(4) Larger turbi ne generator uni ts are general l y
more effi ci ent that smal l er uni ts.
(5) Mul ti -stage and mul ti -val ve turbi nes are
more economi cal than si ngl e stage or si ngl e val ve
machi nes.
(6) Steam generators of more el aborate desi gn,
or wi th heat savi ng accessory equi pment are more
effi ci ent.
b. Heat rate units and definitions. The economy
or effi ci ency of a steam power pl ant cycl e i s ex-
3-2
pressed i n terms of heat rate, whi ch i s total thermal
i nput to the cycl e di vi ded by the el ectri cal output of
the uni ts. Uni ts are Btu/kWh.
(1) Conversi on to cycl e effi ci ency, as the rati o of
output to i nput energy, may be made by di vi di ng
the heat content of one kWh, equi val ent to 3412.14
Btu by the heat rate, as defi ned. Effi ci enci es are sel -
dom used to express overal l pl ant or cycl e perform-
ance, al though effi ci enci es of i ndi vi dual compo-
nents, such as pumps or steam generators, are com-
monl y used.
(2) Power cycl e economy for parti cul ar pl ants or
stati ons i s someti mes expressed i n terms of pounds
of steam per ki l owatt hour, but such a parameter i s
not readi l y comparabl e to other pl ants or cycl es and
omi ts steam generator effi ci ency.
(3) For mechani cal dri ve turbi nes, heat rates
are someti mes expressed i n Btu per hp-hour, excl ud-
i ng l osses for the dri ven machi ne. One horsepower
hour i s equi val ent to 2544.43 Btu.
c. Heat rate applications. I n rel ati on to steam
power pl ant cycl es, several types or defi ni ti ons of
heat rates are used:
(1) The turbi ne heat rate for a regenerati ve tur-
bi ne i s defi ned as the heat consumpti on of the tur-
bi ne i n terms of heat energy i n steam suppl i ed by
the steam generator, mi nus the heat i n the feedwa-
ter as warmed by turbi ne extracti on, di vi ded by
the el ectri cal output at the generator termi nal s.
Thi s defi ni ti on i ncl udes mechani cal and el ectri cal
l osses of the generator and turbi ne auxi l i ary sys-
tems, but excl udes boi l er i neffi ci enci es and pumpi ng
l osses and l oads. The turbi ne heat rate i s useful for
TM 5-811-6
performi ng engi neeri ng and economi c compari sons
of vari ous turbi ne desi gns. Tabl e 3-1 provi des theo-
reti cal turbi ne steam rates for typi cal steam throttl e
condi ti ons. Actual steam rates are obtai ned by di -
vi di ng the theoreti cal steam rate by the turbi ne effi -
ci ency. Typi cal turbi ne effi ci enci es are provi ded on
Fi gure 3-2.
ASR =
wher e: ASR = actual steam rate (l b/kWh)
TSR = theoreti cal steam rate (l /kWh)
n
t
= turbi ne effi ci ency
Turbi ne heat rate can be obtai ned by mul ti pl yi ng
the actual steam rate by the enthal py change across
the turbi ne (throttl e enthal py - extracti on or ex-
haust enthal py).
C
t
= ASR(h
l
h
2
)
where = turbi ne heat rate (Btu/kWh)
ASR = actual steam rate l b/kWh)
h
1
= throttl e enthal py
h
1
= extracti on or exhaust enthal py
TSR

FROM STANDARD HANDBOOK FOR MECHANICAL

ENGI NEERS BY MARKS. COPYRI GHT 1967,
.
MCGRAW-HILL BOOK CO. USED WITH THE
PERMISSION OF MCGRAW- HILL BOOK COMPANY.
Figure 3-2. Turbine efficiencies vs. capacity.
m
(2) Pl ant heat rates i ncl ude i neffi ci enci es and
l osses external to the turbi ne generator, pri nci pal l y
the i neffi ci enci es of the steam generator and pi pi ng
systems; cycl e auxi l i ary l osses i nherent i n power re-
qui red for pumps and fans; and rel ated energy uses
such as for soot bl owi ng, ai r compressi on, and si mi -
l ar servi ces.
(3) Both turbi ne and pl ant heat rates, as above,
are usual l y based on cal cul ati ons of cycl e perform-
ance at speci fi ed steady state l oads and wel l defi ned,
opti mum operati ng condi ti ons. Such heat rates are
sel dom achi eved i n practi ce except under control l ed
or test condi ti ons.
(4) Pl ant operati ng heat rates are l ong term
average actual heat rates and i ncl ude other such
l osses and energy uses as non-cycl e auxi l i ari es,
pl ant l i ghti ng, ai r condi ti oni ng and heati ng, general
water suppl y, startup and shutdown l osses, fuel de-
teri orati on l osses, and rel ated i tems. The gradual
and i nevi tabl e deteri orati on of equi pment, and fai l -
ure to operate at opti mum condi ti ons, are refl ected
i n pl ant operati ng heat rate data.
d. Plant economy calculations. Cal cul ati ons, esti -
mates, and predi cti ons of steam pl ant performance
wi l l al l ow for al l normal and expected l osses and
l oads and shoul d, therefore, refl ect predi cti ons of
monthl y or annual net operati ng heat rates and
costs. El ectri c and di stri ct heati ng di stri buti on
l osses are not usual l y charged to the power pl ant
but shoul d be recogni zed and al l owed for i n capaci ty
and cost anal yses. The desi gner i s requi red to devel -
op and opti mi ze a cycl e heat bal ance duri ng the con-
ceptual or prel i mi nary desi gn phase of the project.
The heat bal ance depi cts, on a si mpl i fi ed fl ow di a-
gram of the cycl e, al l si gni fi cant fl ui d mass fl ow
rates, fl ui d pressures and temperatures, fl ui d en-
thal pi es, el ectri c power output, and cal cul ated cycl e
heat rates based on these factors. A heat bal ance i s
usual l y devel oped for vari ous i ncrements of pl ant
l oad (i .e., 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% and VWO (val ves
wi de open)). Computer programs have been devel -
oped whi ch can qui ckl y opti mi ze a parti cul ar cycl e
heat rate usi ng i terati ve heat bal ance cal cul ati ons.
Use of such a program shoul d be consi dered.
e. Cogeneration performance. There i s no gener-
al l y accepted method of defi ni ng the energy effi -
ci ency or heat rates of cogenerati on cycl es. Vari ous
methods are used, and any rati onal method i s val i d.
The di fference i n val ue (per Btu) between pri me en-
ergy (i .e., el ectri c power) and secondary or l ow l evel
energy (heati ng steam) shoul d be recogni zed. Refer
to di scussi on of cogenerati on cycl es bel ow.
3-4. Cogeneration c yc les
a. Definition. I n steam power pl ant practi ce, co-
generati on normal l y descri bes an arrangement
whereby hi gh pressure steam i s passed through a
turbi ne pri me mover to produce el ectri cal power,
and thence from the turbi ne exhaust (or extracti on)
openi ng to a l ower pressure steam (or heat) di stri bu-
ti on system for general heati ng, refri gerati on, or
process use.
b. Common medium. Steam power cycl es are par-
ti cul arl y appl i cabl e to cogenerati on si tuati ons be-
cause the actual cycl e medi um, steam, i s al so a con-
veni ent medi um for area di stri buti on of heat.
(1) The choi ce of the steam di stri buti on pres-
sure wi l l be a bal ance between the costs of di stri bu-
ti on whi ch are sl i ghtl y l ower at hi gh pressure, and
the gai n i n el ectri cal power output by sel ecti on of a
l ower turbi ne exhaust or extracti on pressure.
(2) Often the earl y sel ecti on of a rel ati vel y l ow
3-3
TM 5-811-6
3-4
steam di stri buti on pressure i s easi l y accommodated
i n the desi gn of di stri buti on and uti l i zati on systems,
whereas the hasty selection of a rel ati vel y hi gh
steam di stri buti on pressure may not be recogni zed
as a di sti nct economi c penal ty on the steam power
pl ant cycl e.
(3) Hot water heat di stri buti on may al so be ap-
pl i cabl e as a di stri ct heati ng medi um wi th the hot
water bei ng cool ed i n the uti l i zati on equi pment and
returned to the power pl ant for reheati ng i n a heat
exchange wi th exhaust (or extracti on) steam.
c. Relative economy. When the exhaust (or ex-
tracti on) steam from a cogenerati on pl ant can be
uti l i zed for heati ng, refri gerati on, or process pur-
poses i n reasonabl e phase wi th the requi red el ectri c
power l oad, there i s a marked economy of fuel ener-
gy because the major condensi ng l oss of the conven-
ti onal steam power pl ant (Ranki ne) cycl e i s avoi ded.
I f a good bal ance can be attai ned, up to 75 percent of
the total fuel energy can be uti l i zed as compared
wi th about 40 percent for the best and l argest Ran-
ki ne cycl e pl ants and about 25 to 30 percent for
smal l Ranki ne cycl e systems.
d. Cycle types. The two major steam power cogen-
erati on cycl es, whi ch may be combi ned i n the same
pl ant or establ i shment, are:
TM 5-811-6
(1) Back pressure cycle. I n thi s type of pl ant,
the enti re fl ow to the turbi ne i s exhausted (or ex-
tracted) for heati ng steam use. Thi s cycl e i s the
more effecti ve for heat economy and for rel ati vel y
l ower cost of turbi ne equi pment, because the pri me
mover i s smal l er and si mpl er and requi res no con-
denser and ci rcul ati ng water system. Back pressure
turbi ne generators are l i mi ted i n el ectri cal output by
the amount of exhaust steam requi red by the heat
l oad and are often governed by the exhaust steam
l oad. They, therefore, usual l y operate i n el ectri cal
paral l el wi th other generators.
(2) Extraction-condensing cycles. Where the
el ectri cal demand does not correspond to the heat
demand, or where the el ectri cal l oad must be carri ed
at ti mes of very l ow (or zero) heat demand, then con-
densi ng-control l ed extracti on steam turbi ne pri me
movers as shown i n Fi gure 3-3 may be appl i cabl e.
Such a turbi ne i s arranged to carry a speci fi ed el ec-
tri cal capaci ty ei ther by a si mpl e condensi ng cycl e
or a combi nati on of extracti on and condensi ng.
Whi l e very fl exi bl e, the extracti on machi ne i s rel a-
ti vel y compl i cated, requi res compl ete condensi ng
and heat rejecti on equi pment, and must al ways pass
a cri ti cal mi ni mum fl ow of steam to i ts condenser to
cool the l ow pressure buckets.
.
.
NAVFAC DM3
Figure 3-3. Typical condensing-controlled extinction cycle.
3-5
TM 5-811-6
e. Criteria for cogeneration. For mi ni mum eco-
nomi c feasi bi l i ty, cogenerati on cycl es wi l l meet the
fol l owi ng cri teri a:
(1) Load balance. There shoul d be a reasonabl y
bal anced rel ati onshi p between the peak and normal
requi rements for el ectri c power and heat. The
peak/normal rati o shoul d not exceed 2:1.
(2) Load coincidence. There shoul d be a fai rl y
hi gh coi nci dence, not l ess than 70%, of ti me and
quanti ty demands for el ectri cal power and heat.
(3) Size. Whi l e there i s no absol ute mi ni mum
si ze of steam power pl ant whi ch can be bui l t for co-
generati on, a conventi onal steam (cogenerati on)
pl ant wi l l be practi cal and economi cal onl y above
some mi ni mum si ze or capaci ty, bel ow whi ch other
types of cogenerati on, di esel or gas turbi ne become
more economi cal and conveni ent.
(4) Distribution medium. Any cogener ati on
pl ant wi l l be more effecti ve and economi cal i f the
heat di stri buti on medi um i s chosen at the l owest
possi bl e steam pressure or l owest possi bl e hot water
temperature. The power energy del i vered by the tur-
bi ne i s hi ghest when the exhaust steam pressure i s
l owest. Substanti al cycl e i mprovement can be made
by sel ecti ng an exhaust steam pressure of 40 psi g
rather than 125 psi g, for exampl e. Hot water heat
di stri buti on wi l l al so be consi dered where practi cal
or conveni ent, because hot water temperatures of
200 to 240 F can be del i vered wi th exhaust steam
pressure as l ow as 20 to 50 psi g. The bal ance be-
tween di stri buti on system and heat exchanger
costs, and power cycl e effecti veness wi l l be opti -
mi zed.
3-5. Selec tion of c yc le steam c onditions
a. Balanced costs and economy. For a new or i so-
l ated pl ant, the choi ce of i ni ti al steam condi ti ons
shoul d be a bal ance between enhanced operati ng
economy at hi gher pressures and temperatures, and
general l y l ower fi rst costs and l ess di ffi cul t opera-
ti on at l ower pressures and temperatures. Real i sti c
projecti ons of future fuel costs may tend to justi fy
hi gher pressures and temperatures, but such factors
as l ower avai l abi l i ty y, hi gher mai ntenance costs,
more di ffi cul t operati on, and more el aborate water
treatment wi l l al so be consi dered.
b. Extension of existing plant. Wher e a new
steam power pl ant i s to be i nstal l ed near an exi sti ng
steam power or steam generati on pl ant, careful con-
si derati on wi l l be gi ven to extendi ng or paral l el i ng
the exi sti ng i ni ti al steam generati ng condi ti ons. I f
exi sti ng steam generators are si mpl y not usabl e i n
the new pl ant cycl e, i t may be appropri ate to reti re
them or to retai n them for emergency or standby
servi ce onl y. I f boi l ers are retai ned for standby serv-
i ce onl y, steps wi l l be taken i n the project desi gn for
protecti on agai nst i nternal corrosi on.
c. Special considerations. Where the speci al ci r-
cumstances of the establ i shment to be served are
si gni fi cant factors i n power cycl e sel ecti on, the fol -
l owi ng consi derati ons may appl y:
(1) Electrical isolation. Where the proposed
pl ant i s not to be i nterconnected wi th any l ocal el ec-
tri c uti l i ty servi ce, the sel ecti on of a si mpl er, l ower
pressure pl ant may be i ndi cated for easi er operati on
and better rel i abi l i ty y.
(2) Geographic isolation. Pl ants to be i nstal l ed
at great di stances from sources of spare parts, mai n-
tenance servi ces, and operati ng suppl i es may re-
qui re speci al consi derati on of si mpl i fi ed cycl es, re-
dundant capaci ty and equi pment, and hi ghest prac-
ti cal rel i abi l i ty. Speci al mai ntenance tool s and faci l -
i ti es may be requi red, the cost of whi ch woul d be af-
fected by the basi c cycl e desi gn.
(3) Weather conditions. Pl ants to be i nstal l ed
under extreme weather condi ti ons wi l l requi re spe-
ci al consi derati on of weather protecti on, rel i abi l i ty,
and redundancy. Heat rejecti on requi res speci al de-
si gn consi derati on i n ei ther very hot or very col d
weather condi ti ons. For arcti c weather condi ti ons,
ci rcul ati ng hot water for the heat di stri buti on medi -
um has many advantages over steam, and the use of
an anti freeze sol uti on i n l i eu of pure water as a di s-
tri buti on medi um shoul d recei ve consi derati on.
3-6. Cyc le equipment
a. General requirements. I n addi ti on to the pri me
movers, al ternators, and steam generators, a com-
pl ete power pl ant cycl e i ncl udes a number of second-
ary el ements whi ch affect the economy and perform-
ance of the pl ant.
b. Major equipment. Refer to other parts of thi s
manual for detai l ed i nformati on on steam turbi ne
dri ven el ectri c generators and steam generators.
c. Secondary cycle elements. Other equi pment
i tems affecti ng cycl e performance, but subordi nate
to the steam generators and turbi ne generators, are
al so descri bed i n other parts of thi s chapter.
3-7. Steam power plant arrangement
a. General. Smal l uni ts uti l i ze the transverse ar-
rangement i n the turbi ne generator bay whi l e the
l arger uti l i ty uni ts are very l ong and requi re end-to-
end arrangement of the turbi ne generators.
b. Typical small plants. Fi gures 3-4 and 3-6 show
typi cal transverse smal l pl ant arrangements. Smal l
uni ts l ess than 5000 kW may have the condensers at
the same l evel as the turbi ne generator for economy
as shown i n Fi gure 3-4. Fi gure 3-6 i ndi cates the
cri ti cal turbi ne room bay di mensi ons and the basi c
overal l di mensi ons for the smal l power pl ants shown
i n Fi gure 3-5.
TM 5-811-6
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
Figure 3-4. Typical small 2-unit powerplant A.
3-7
TM 5-811-6
a
3-8
TM 5-811-6
Sec tion Il. STEAM GENERATORS AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS.
tors for a steam power pl ant can be cl assi fi ed by
type of fuel , by uni t si ze, and by fi nal steam condi -
ti on. Uni ts can al so be cl assi fi ed by type of draft, by
method of assembl y, by degree of weather protec-
ti on and by l oad factor appl i cati on.
(1) Fuel, general. Type of fuel has a major i m-
pact on the general pl ant desi gn i n addi ti on to the
steam generator. Fuel sel ecti on may be di ctated by
consi derati ons of pol i cy and external ci rcumstances
3-8. S t e a m ge ne ra t or c onve nt i ona l
types and c harac teristic s
a. I ntroduction. Number, si ze, and outl et steam-
i ng condi ti ons of the steam generators wi l l be as de-
termi ned i n pl anni ng studi es and confi rmed i n the fi -
nal project cri teri a pri or to pl ant desi gn acti vi ti es.
Note general cri teri a gi ven i n Secti on I of thi s chap
ter under di scussi on of typi cal pl ants and cycl es.
b. Types and classes. Conventi onal steam genera-
.!
.
AND CONDENSER SUPPLIERS SELECTED.
36
43
31
16
6
11.3
7 . 5
3 . 7
1. 2
5 . 5
5
17.5
5
8
11
NOTE:
U S .
DI MENSI ONS I N TABLE ARE APPLI CABLE TO FI G. 3-5
Army Corps of Engi neers
Figure 3-6. Critical turbine room bay and power plant B dimensions.
3-9
TM 5-811-6
unrel ated to pl ant costs, conveni ence, or l ocati on.
Uni ts desi gned for sol i d fuel s (coal , l i gni te, or sol i d
waste) or desi gned for combi nati ons of sol i d, l i qui d,
and gaseous fuel are l arger and more compl ex than
uni ts desi gned for fuel oi l or fuel gas onl y.
(2) Fuel coal. The qual i ti es or characteri sti cs of
parti cul ar coal fuel s havi ng si gni fi cant i mpact on
steam generator desi gn and arrangement are: heat-
i ng val ue, ash content, ash fusi on temperature, fri -
abi l i ty, gri ndabi l i ty, moi sture, and vol ati l e content
as shown i n Tabl e 3-2. For spreader stoker fi ri ng,
the si ze, gradati on, or mi xture of parti cl e si zes affect
Table 3-2.
Ch a r a cter i s ti c
stoker and grate sel ecti on, performance, and mai n-
tenance. For pul veri zed coal fi ri ng, gri ndabi l i ty i s a
major consi derati on, and moi sture content before
and after l ocal preparati on must be consi dered. Coal
burni ng equi pment and rel ated parts of the steam
generator wi l l be speci fi ed to match the speci fi c
characteri sti cs of a presel ected coal fuel as wel l as
they can be determi ned at the ti me of desi gn.
(3) Unit sizes. Larger numbers of smal l er steam
generators wi l l tend to i mprove pl ant rel i abi l i ty and
fl exi bi l i ty for mai ntenance. Smal l er numbers of l arg-
er steam generators wi l l resul t i n l ower fi rst costs
Fuel Characteristcs.
Effects
Coal
Heat bal ance.
Handl i ng and effi ci ency l oss.
I gn i ti on an d th eor eti cal ai r .
Fr ei gh t, s tor age, h an dl i n g, ai r pol l u ti on .
Sl aggi n g, al l owabl e h eat r el eas e,
al l owabl e fur nace exi t gas temper atur e.
Heat bal ance, fuel cost.
Handl i ng and stor age.
Cr ushi ng and pul ver i zi ng.
Cr ushi ng , segr egati on, and spr eadi ng
over fuel bed.
Al l owabl e temp. of metal contacti ng
fl ue gas; r emoval fr om fl ue gas.
Oi l
Heat bal ance.
Fu el cos t.
Pr eheati ng, pumpi ng, fi r i ng.
Pumpi ng and meteri ng.
Vapor l ocki ng of pump sucti on.
Heat bal ance, fuel cost.
Al l owabl e temp. of metal contacti ng
fl ue gas; r emoval fr om fl ue gas.
Gas
Heat bal ance.
Pr essur e, f i r i n g, f u e l cos t .
Meter i ng.
Heat bal ance, fuel cost.
I n s i gn i fi can t.
NAVFAC DM3
3-10
TM 5-811-6
per uni t of capaci ty and may permi t the use of de-
si gn features and arrangements not avai l abl e on
smal l er uni ts. Larger uni ts are i nherentl y more effi -
ci ent, and wi l l normal l y have more effi ci ent draft
fans, better steam temperature control , and better
control of steam sol i ds.
(4) Final steam conditions. Desi red pressure
and temperature of the superheater outl et steam
(and to a l esser extent feedwater temperature) wi l l
have a marked effect on the desi gn and cost of a
steam generator. The hi gher the pressure the heav-
i er the pressure parts, and the hi gher the steam tem-
perature the greater the superheater surface area
and the more costl y the tube materi al . I n addi ti on to
thi s, however, boi l er natural ci rcul ati on probl ems i n-
crease wi th hi gher pressures because the densi ti es
of the saturated water and steam approach each oth-
er. I n consequence, hi gher pressure boi l ers requi re
more hei ght and general l y are of di fferent desi gn
than boi l ers of 200 psi g and l ess as used for general
space heati ng and process appl i cati on.
(5) Type of draft.
(a) Bal anced draft. Steam generators for el ec-
tri c generati ng stati ons are usual l y of the so cal l ed
bal anced draft type wi th both forced and i nduced
draft fans. Thi s type of draft system uses one or
more forced draft fans to suppl y combusti on ai r un-
der pressure to the burners (or under the grate) and
one or more i nduced draft fans to carry the hot com-
busti on gases from the furnace to the atmosphere; a
sl i ghtl y negati ve pressure i s mai ntai ned i n the fur-
nace by the i nduced draft fans so that any gas l eak-
age wi l l be i nto rather than out of the furnace. Nat-
ural draft wi l l be uti l i zed to take care of the chi mney
or stack resi stance whi l e the remai nder of the draft
fri cti on from the furnace to the chi mney entrance i s
handl ed by the i nduced draft fans.
(b) Choi ce of draft. Except for speci al cases
such as for an overseas power pl ant i n l ow cost fuel
areas, bal anced draft, steam generators wi l l be spec-
i fi ed for steam el ectri c generati ng stati ons.
(6) Method of assembly. A major di vi si on of
steam generators i s made between packaged or fac-
tory assembl ed uni ts and l arger fi el d erected uni ts.
Factory assembl ed uni ts are usual l y desi gned for
conveni ent shi pment by rai l road or motor truck,
compl ete wi th pressure parts, supporti ng structure,
and encl osure i n one or a few assembl i es. These
uni ts are characteri sti cal l y bottom supported, whi l e
the l arger and more compl ex power steam gener-
ators are fi el d erected, usual l y top supported.
(7) Degree of weather protection. For al l types
and si zes of steam generators, a choi ce must be
made between i ndoor, outdoor and semi -outdoor i n-
stal l ati on. An outdoor i nstal l ati on i s usual l y l ess ex-
pensi ve i n fi rst cost whi ch permi ts a reduced general
bui l di ng constructi on costs. Aestheti c, envi ronmen-
tal , or weather condi ti ons may requi re i ndoor i nstal -
l ati on, al though outdoors uni ts have been used SUC-
cessful l y i n a vari ety of col d or otherwi se hosti l e cl i -
mates. I n cl i mates subject to col d weather, 30 F. for
7 conti nuous days, outdoor uni ts wi l l requi re el ectri -
cal l y or steam traced pi pi ng and appurtenances to
prevent freezi ng. The fi ri ng ai sl e wi l l be encl osed
ei ther as part of the mai n power pl ant bui l di ng or as
a separate weather protected encl osure; and the
ends of the steam drum and retractabl e soot bl owers
wi l l be encl osed and heated for operator conveni ence
and mai ntenance.
(8) Load factor application. As wi th al l parts of
the pl ant cycl e, the l oad factor on whi ch the steam
generator i s to be operated affects desi gn and cost
factors. Uni ts wi th l oad factors exceedi ng 50% wi l l
be sel ected and desi gned for rel ati vel y hi gher effi -
ci enci es, and more conservati ve parameters for fur-
nace vol ume, heat transfer surface, and numbers
and types of auxi l i ari es. Pl ants wi th l oad factors
l ess than 50% wi l l be served by rel ati vel y l ess ex-
pensi ve, smal l er and l ess durabl e equi pment.
3-9. Other steam generator c harac teris-
tic s
a. Water tube and waterwell design. Power pl ant
boi l ers wi l l be of the water wel l ed or water cool ed
furnace types, i n whi ch the enti re i nteri or surface of
the furnace i s l i ned wi th steam generati ng heati ng
surface i n the form of cl osel y spaced tubes usual l y
al l wel ded together i n a gas ti ght encl osure.
b. Superheated steam. Dependi ng on manufac-
turers desi gn some power boi l ers are desi gned to
del i ver superheated steam because of the requi re-
ments of the steam power cycl e. A certai n porti on of
the total boi l er heati ng surface i s arranged to add
superheat energy to the steam fl ow. I n superheater
desi gn, a bal ance of radi ant and convecti ve super-
heat surfaces wi l l provi de a reasonabl e superheat
characteri sti c. Wi th hi gh pressure - hi gh temper-
ature turbi ne generators, i t i s usual l y desi rabl e to
provi de superheat control s to obtai n a fl at charac-
teri sti c down to at l east 50 to 60 percent of l oad.
Thi s i s done by i nstal l i ng excess superheat surface
and then attemperati ng by means of spray water at
the hi gher l oads. I n some i nstances, boi l ers are de-
si gned to obtai n superheat control by means of ti l t-
i ng burners whi ch change the heat absorpti on pat-
tern i n the steam generator, al though suppl emen-
tary attemperati on i s al so provi ded wi th such a con-
trol system.
c. Balanced heating surface and volumetric de-
sign parameters. Steam generator desi gn requi res
adequate and reasonabl e amounts of heati ng surface
3-11
TM 5-811-6
and furnace vol ume for acceptabl e performance and
l ongevi ty.
(1) Evaporative heating surface. For i ts rated
capaci ty output, an adequate total of evaporati ve or
steam generati ng heat transfer surface i s requi red,
whi ch i s usual l y a combi nati on of furnace wal l ra-
di ant surface and boi l er convecti on surface. Bal -
anced desi gn wi l l provi de adequate but not exces-
si ve heat fl ux through such surfaces to i nsure effec-
ti ve ci rcul ati on, steam generati on and effi ci ency.
(2) Superheater surface. For the requi red heat
transfer, temperature control and protecti on of met-
al parts, the superheater must be desi gned for a bal -
ance between total surface, total steam fl ow area,
and rel ati ve exposure to radi ant convecti on heat
sources. Superheaters may be of the drai nabl e or
non-drai nabl e types. Non-drai nabl e types offer cer-
tai n advantages of cost, si mpl i ci ty, and arrange-
ment, but are vul nerabl e to damage on startup.
Therefore, uni ts requi ri ng frequent cycl es of shut-
down and startup operati ons shoul d be consi dered
for ful l y drai nabl e superheaters. Wi th some boi l er
desi gns thi s may not be possi bl e.
(3) Furnace volume. For a gi ven steam gener-
ator capaci ty rati ng, a l arger furnace provi des l ower
furnace temperatures, l ess probabi l i ty of hot spots,
and a l ower heat fl ux through the l arger furnace wal l
surface. Fl ame i mpi ngement and sl aggi ng, parti c-
ul arl y wi th pul veri zed coal fuel , can be control l ed or
prevented wi th i ncreased furnace si ze.
(4) General criteria. Steam generator desi gn
wi l l speci fy conservati ve l ower l i mi ts of total heat-
i ng surface, furnace wal l surface and furnace vol -
ume, as wel l as the l i mi ts of superheat temperature
control range. Furnace vol ume and surfaces wi l l be
si zed to i nsure troubl e free operati on.
(5) Specific criteria. Steam generator speci fi ca-
ti ons set mi ni mum requi rements for Btu heat re-
l ease per cubi c foot of furnace vol ume, for Btu heat
rel ease per square foot of effecti ve radi ant heati ng
surface and, i n the case of spreader stokers, for Btu
per square foot of grate. Such parameters are not set
forth i n thi s manual , however, because of the wi de
range of fuel s whi ch can affect these equi pment de-
si gn consi derati ons. The establ i shment of arbi trary
l i mi tati ons whi ch may handi cap the geometry of
furnace desi gns i s i nappropri ate. Pri or to setti ng
furnace geometry parameters, and after the type
and grade of fuel are establ i shed and the parti cul ar
servi ce condi ti ons are determi ned, the power pl ant
desi gner wi l l consul t boi l er manufacturers to i nsure
that steam generator speci fi cati ons are capabl e of
bei ng met.
d. Single unit versus steam header system. For
cogenerati on pl ants, especi al l y i n i sol ated l ocati ons
or for uni ts of 10,000 kW and l ess, a paral l el boi l er or
steam header system may be more rel i abl e and more
economi cal than uni t operati on. Where a group of
steam turbi ne pri me movers of di fferent types; i .e.,
one back pressure uni t pl us one condensi ng/extrac-
ti on uni t are i nstal l ed together, overal l economy can
be enhanced by a header (or paral l el ) boi l er arrange-
ment.
3-10. Steam generator spec ial types
a. Circulation. Water tube boi l ers wi l l be speci fi ed
to be of natural ci rcul ati on. The excepti on to thi s
rul e i s for wasteheat boi l ers whi ch frequentl y are a . .
speci al type of extended surface heat exchanger de-
si gned for forced ci rcul ati on.
b. Fludized bed combustion. The fl ui di zed bed
boi l er has the abi l i ty to produce steam i n an envi ron-
mental l y accepted manner i n control l i ng the stack
emi ssi on of sul fur oxi des by absorpti on of sul fur i n
the fuel bed as wel l as ni trogen oxi des because of i ts
rel ati vel y l ow fi re box temperature. The fl ui di zed
bed boi l er i s a vi abl e al ternati ve to a spreader stoker
uni t. A fl ui di zed bed steam generator consi sts of a
fl ui di zed bed combustor wi th a more or l ess conven-
ti onal steam generator whi ch i ncl udes radi ant and
convecti on boi l er heat transfer surfaces pl us heat re-
covery equi pment, draft fans, and the usual array of
steam generator auxi l i ari es. A typi cal fl ui di zed bed
boi l er i s shown i n Fi gure 3-7.
3-11. Major auxiliary systems.
a. Burners.
(1) Oil burners. Fuel oi l i s i ntroduced through
oi l burners, whi ch del i ver fi nel y di vi ded or atomi zed
l i qui d fuel i n a sui tabl e pattern for mi xi ng wi th com-
busti on ai r at the burner openi ng. Atomi zi ng meth-
ods are cl assi fi ed as pressure or mechani cal type, ai r
atomi zi ng and steam atomi zi ng type. Pressure
atomi zati on i s usual l y more economi cal but i s al so
more compl ex and presents probl ems of control ,
poor turndown, operati on and mai ntenance. The
range of fuel fl ows obtai nabl e i s more l i mi ted wi th
pressure atomi zati on. Steam atomi zati on i s si mpl e
to operate, rel i abl e, and has a wi de range, but con-
sumes a porti on of the boi l er steam output and adds
moi sture to the furnace gases. General l y, steam
atomi zati on wi l l be used when makeup water i s rel a-
ti vel y i nexpensi ve, and for smal l er, l ower pressure
pl ants. Ai r atomi zati on wi l l be used for pl ants burn-
i ng l i ght l i qui d fuel s, or when steam reacts ad-
versel y wi th the fuel , i .e., hi gh sul fur oi l s.
(2) Gas and coal burners. Natural gas or pul ver-
i zed coal wi l l be del i vered to the burner for mi xi ng
wi th combusti on ai r suppl y at the burner openi ng.
Pul veri zed coal wi l l be del i vered by heated, pressur-
i zed pri mary ai r.
(3) Burner accessories. Oi l , gas and pul veri zed
3-12
coal burners wi l l be equi pped wi th adjustabl e ai r
gui de regi sters desi gned to control and shape the ai r
fl ow i nto the furnace, Some burner desi gns al so pro-
vi de for automati c i nserti on and wi thdrawal of vary-
i ng si ze oi l burner nozzl es as l oad and operati ng con-
di ti ons requi re.
(4) Number of burners. The number of burners
requi red i s a functi on both of l oad requi rements and
boi l er manufacturer desi gn. For the former, the i ndi -
vi dual burner turndown rati os per burner are pro-
vi ded i n Tabl e 3-3. Turndown rati os i n excess of
those l i sted can be achi eved through the use of mul -
ti pl e burners. Manufacturer desi gn l i mi ts capaci ty
of each burner to that compati bl e wi th furnace fl ame
and gas fl ow patterns, exposure and damage to
STEAM OUTLET TO
SUPERHEATER IN BED
TM 5-811-6
heati ng surfaces, and conveni ence of operati on and
control .
(5) Burner managerment systems. Pl ant safety
practi ces requi re power pl ant fuel burners to be
equi pped wi th comprehensi ve burner control and
safety systems to prevent unsafe or dangerous con-
di ti ons whi ch may l ead to furnace expl osi ons. The
pri mary purpose of a burner management system i s
safety whi ch i s provi ded by i nterl ocks, furnace
purge cycl es and fai l safe devi ces.
b. Pulverizes. The pul veri zers (mi l l s) are an essen-
ti al part of powdered coal burni ng equi pment, and
are usual l y l ocated adjacent to the steam generator
and burners, but i n a posi ti on to recei ve coal by
gravi ty from the coal si l o. The coal pul veri zers gri nd
k 1111111 rlu- SPREAOER
U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers
Figure 3-7. Fluidized bed combustion boiler.
3-13
TM 5-811-6
and classify the coal fuel to specific particle sizes for
rapid and efficient burning. Reliable and safe pulver-
izing equipment is essential for steam generator op-
eration. Pulverized coal burning will not be specified
for boilers smaller than 150,000 lb/hour.
c. Stokers and grates. For small and medium
sized coal burning steam generators, less than
150,000 lb/hour, coal stokers or fluidized bed units
will be used. For power boilers, spreader stokers
with traveling grates are used. Other types of
stokers (retort, underfeed, or overfeed types) are
generally obsolete for power plant use except per-
haps for special fuels such as anthracite.
(1) Spreader stokers typically deliver sized coal,
with some proportion of fines, by throwing it into
the furnace where part of the fuel burns in suspen-
sion and the balance falls to the traveling grate for
burnout. Stoker fired units will have two or more
spreader feeder units, each delivering fuel to its own
separate grate area. Stoker fired units are less re-
sponsive to load changes because a large proportion
of the fuel burns on the grate for long time periods
(minutes). Where the plant demand is expected to in-
clude sudden load changes, pulverized coal feeders
are to be used.
(2) Grate operation requires close and skillful
operator attention, and overall plant performance is
sensitive to fuel sizing and operator experience.
Grates for stoker fired units occupy a large part of
the furnace floor and must be integrated with ash re-
moval and handling systems. A high proportion of
stoker ash must be removed from the grates in a
wide range of particle sizes and characteristics al-
though some unburned carbon and fly ash is carried
out of the furnace by the flue gas. In contrast, a
larger proportion of pulverized coal ash leaves the .
furnace with the gas flow as finely divided particu-
late,
(3) Discharged ash is allowed to COOl i n the ash
hopper at the end of the grate and is then sometimes
put through a clinker grinder prior to removal in the
vacuum ash handling system described elsewhere in
this manual.
d. Draft fans, ducts and flues.
(1) Draft fans.
(a) Air delivery to the furnace and flue gas re-
Tabl e 3-3. I ndi vi dual Burner Turndown Rati os.
Burner Type
Turndown Ratio
NATURAL GM
Spud or Ring Type
HEAVY FUEL OI L
Steam Atomizing
Mechanical Atomizing
COAL
Pul ver i zed
Spreader-Stoker
Fluidized Bed (single bed)
5: 1 to 10: 1
5: 1 to 10: 1
3: 1 to 10: 1
3:1
2: 1 t o 3: 1
2: 1 t o 3: 1
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
3-14
I
I
.
.
moval wi l l be provi ded by power dri ven draft fans
desi gned for adequate vol umes and pressures of ai r
and gas flow. Typi cal theoreti cal ai r requi rements
are shown i n Fi gure 3-8 to whi ch must be added ex-
cess ai r whi ch vari es wi th type of fi ri ng, pl us fan
margi ns on both vol umetri c and pressure capaci ty
for rel i abl e ful l l oad operati on. Oxygen and carbon
di oxi de i n products of combusti on for vari ous
amounts of excess ai r are al so shown i n Fi gure 3-8.
(b) Cal cul ati ons of ai r and gas quanti ti es and
pressure drops are necessary. Si nce fans are heavy
power consumers, for l arger fans consi derati on
shoul d be gi ven to the use of back pressure steam
turbi ne dri ves for economy, rel i abi l i ty and thei r abi l -
i t y to provi de speed vari ati on. Mul ti pl e fans on each
boi l er uni t wi l l add to fi rst costs but wi l l provi de
more fl exi bi l i ty and rel i abi l i ty . Type of fan dri ves
and number of fans wi l l be consi dered for cost effec-
ti veness. Fan speed wi l l be conservati vel y sel ected,
and si l encers wi l l be provi ded i n those cases where
noi se by fans exceeds 80 deci bel s.
(c) Power pl ant steam generator uni ts de-
si gned for coal or oi l wi l l use bal anced draft desi gn
wi th both forced and i nduced draft fans arranged for
cl osel y control l ed negati ve furnace pressure.
(2) Ducts and flues. Ai r ducts and gas fl ues wi l l
be adequate i n si ze and structural strength and de-
si gned wi th provi si on for expansi on, support, corro-
TM 5-811-6
si on resi stance and overal l gas ti ghtness. Adequate
space and wei ght capaci ty wi l l be al l owed i n overal l
pl ant arrangement to avoi d awkward, noi sy or mar-
gi nal fan, duct and fl ue systems. Fi nal steam gener-
ator desi gn wi l l i nsure that fan capaci ti es (especi al l y
pressure) are matched properl y to real i sti c ai r and
gas path l osses consi deri ng operati on wi th di rty
boi l ers and under abnormal operati ng condi ti ons.
Damper durabi l i ty and control characteri sti cs wi l l
be careful l y desi gned; dampers used for control pur-
poses wi l l be of opposed bl ade constructi on.
e. Heat recovery. Overal l desi gn cri teri a requi re
hi ghest fuel effi ci ency for a power boi l er; therefore,
steam generators wi l l be provi ded wi th heat recov-
ery equi pment of two pri nci pal types: ai r pre-
heater and economi zers.
(1) Effi ci ency effects. Both pri nci pal types of
heat recovery equi pment remove rel ati vel y l ow l evel
heat from the fl ue gases pri or to fl ue gas di scharge
to the atmosphere, usi ng boi l er fl ui d medi a (ai r or
water) whi ch can effecti vel y absorb such l ow l evel
energy. Such equi pment adds to the cost, compl ex-
i ty and operati onal ski l l s requi red, whi ch wi l l be bal -
anced by the pl ant desi gner agai nst the l i fe cycl e
fuel savi ngs.
(2) Ai r preheater. Si mpl e tubul ar surface
heaters wi l l be speci fi ed for smal l er uni ts and the re-
generati ve type heater for l arger boi l ers. To mi ni -
3-15
TM 5-811-6
mi ze corrosi on and aci d/moi sture damage, especi al l y
wi th di rty and hi gh sul phur fuel s, speci al al l oy steel
wi l l be used i n the l ow temperature heat transfer
surface (repl aceabl e tubes or baskets) of ai r pre-
heater. Steam coi l ai r heaters wi l l be i nstal l ed to
mai ntai n certai n mi ni mum i nl et ai r (and metal ) tem-
peratures and thus protect the mai n preheater from
corrosi on at l ow l oads or l ow ambi ent ai r tempera-
tures. Fi gure 3-9 i l l ustrates the usual range of mi ni -
mum metal temperatures for heat recovery equi p-
ment.
(3) Economizers. Ei ther an economi zer or an ai r
heater or a bal anced sel ecti on of both as i s usual i n a
power boi l er wi l l be provi ded, al l owi ng al so for tur-
bi ne cycl e feedwater stage heati ng.
f. Stacks.
(1) Del i very of fl ue gases to the atmosphere
through a fl ue gas stack or chi mney wi l l be pro-
vi ded.
(2) Stacks and chi mneys wi l l be desi gned to di s-
charge thei r gases wi thout adverse l ocal effects. Di s-
persi on patterns and consi derati ons wi l l be treated
duri ng desi gn.
(3) Stacks and chi mneys wi l l be si zed wi th due
regard to natural draft and stack fri cti on wi th
290
NAVFAC DM3
Figure 3-9. Minimum metal temperatures for boiler heat
recovery equipment.
hei ght someti mes l i mi ted by aestheti c or other non-
economi c consi derati ons. Draft i s a functi on of den-
si t y di fference between the hot stack gases and am-
bi ent ai r, and a number of formul as are avai l abl e for
cal cul ati ng draft and fri cti on. Uti l i ze draft of the
stack or chi mney onl y to overcome fri cti on wi thi n
the chi mney wi th the i nduced draft fan(s) suppl yi ng
stack or chi mney entrance. Mai ntai n rel ati vel y hi gh
gas exi t vel oci ti es (50 to 60 feet per second) to eject
gases as hi gh above ground l evel as possi bl e. Reheat
(usual l y by steam) wi l l be provi ded i f the gases are
treated (and cool ed) i n a fl ue gas desul furi zati on
scrubber pri or to enteri ng the stack to add buoy-
ancy and prevent thei r settl i ng to the ground after
ejecti on to the atmosphere. I nsure that downwash
due to wi nd and bui l di ng effects does not dri ve the
fl ue gas to the ground.
g. Flue gas cleanup. The requi rements for fl ue gas
cl eanup wi l l be determi ned duri ng desi gn.
(1) Design considerations. The extent and na-
ture of the ai r pol l uti on probl em wi l l be anal yzed
pri or to speci fyi ng the envi ronmental control sys-
tem for the steam generator. The system wi l l meet
al l appl i cabl e requi rements, and the appl i cati on wi l l
be the most economi cal l y feasi bl e method of accom-
pl i shment. Al l al ternati ve sol uti ons to the probl em
wi l l be consi dered whi ch wi l l sati sfy the gi ven l oad
and whi ch wi l l produce the l east objecti onabl e
wastes. Pl ant desi gn wi l l be such as to accommodate
future addi ti ons or modi fi cati ons at mi ni mum cost.
Questi ons concerni ng unusual probl ems, uni que ap-
pl acati ons or margi nal and future requi rements wi l l
be di rected to the desi gn agency havi ng juri sdi cti on
over the project. Tabl e 3-4 shows the emi ssi on l ev-
el s al l owabl e under the Nati onal Ambi ent Ai r
Qual i ty Standards.
(2) Particulate control. Removal of fl ue gas par-
ti cul ate materi al i s broadl y di vi ded i nto mechani cal
dust col l ectors, el ectrostati c preci pi tators, bag fi l -
ters, and gas scrubbi ng systems. For power pl ants
of the si ze range here consi dered esti mated uncon-
trol l ed emi ssi on l evel s of vari ous pol l utants are
shown i n Tabl e 3-5. Envi ronmental regul ati ons re-
qui re control of parti cul ate, sul fur oxi des and ni tro-
gen oxi des. For reference purposes i n thi s manual ,
typi cal control equi pment performance i s shown i n
Tabl e 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-9, 3-10 and 3-11. These onl y
provi de general gui dance. The desi gner wi l l refer to
TM 5-815-l /AFR 19-6/NAVFAC DM-3.15 for de-
tai l s of thi s equi pment and rel ated computati onal
requi rements and desi gn cri teri a.
(a) Mechanical collectors. For oi l fi red steam
generators wi th output steami ng capaci ti es l ess
than 200,000 pounds per hour, mechani cal (centri fu-
gal ) type dust col l ectors may be effecti ve and eco-
nomi cal dependi ng on the appl i cabl e emi ssi on stand-
3-16
ards. For a coal fi red boi l er wi th a spreader stoker, a
mechani cal col l ector i n seri es wi th an el ectrostati c
preci pi tator or baghouse al so mi ght be consi dered.
Performance requi rements and techni cal envi ron-
mental standards must be careful l y matched, and
ul ti mate performance warranti es and tests requi re
careful and expl i ci t defi ni ti ons. Col l ected dust from
a mechani cal col l ector contai ni ng a l arge proporti on
of combusti bl es may be rei nfected i nto the furnace
for fi nal burnout; thi s wi l l i ncrease steam generator
TM 5-811-6
effi ci ency sl i ghtl y but al so wi l l i ncrease col l ector
dust l oadi ng and carryover. Ul ti mate col l ected
dust materi al must be handl ed and di sposed of sys-
temati cal l y to avoi d objecti onabl e envi ronmental ef-
fects.
(b) El ectrostati c precipitators. For pul veri zed
coal fi ri ng, adequate parti cul ate control wi l l requi re
el ectrostati c preci pi tators (ESP). ESP systems are
wel l devel oped and effecti ve, but add substanti al
capi tal and mai ntenance costs. Very hi gh percent-
3-17
Pol l utant
Pa r t i cu l a t e
Sul fur Oxi des
Ni tr ogen Oxi des
COAL FI RED
(Lb of Pol l utant/Ton
Table3-5. Uncontrolled Emissions.
OI L FI RED
of Coal ) (Lb of Pol l utant/1000 Gal )
Pul ver i zed Stoker s or
NATURAL GAS
( L b o f P o l l u t a n t /1 0
6
F t
3
)
1. The l etter A i ndi cates that the wei ght per centage of ash i n the coal shoul d be mul ti pl i ed by
the val ue gi ven. Exampl e: I f the factor i s 16 and the ash content i s 10 per cent, the par ti cul ate
emi ssi ons befor e the contr ol equi pment woul d be 10 ti mes 16, or 160 pounds of par ti cul ate per ton
of coal .
2. Wi thout fl y ash r ei nfecti on. Wi th fl y ash r ei nfecti on use 20A.
3. S equal s the sul fur content, use l i ke the factor A (see Note 1 above) for esti mate emi ssi ons.
U.S. Envi r onmental Pr otecti on Agency
2-6
50-70
50
90-95 Industrial a nd
ut i l i t y boi l er
Particulate control.
U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers
Table 3-2! Characteristics of Scrubbers for Particulate Control.
Pa r t i cl e
Col l ecti on Water Usage
E f f i ci e n cy Per 1000 Gal /Mi n
80 3-5
I nter nal
Vel oci ty
Ft/Sec
Pressure Drop
I n. H O
3-8
Gas Fl ow
Ft /Mi n Scrubber Type Energy Type
Low Energy Centr i fugal
Scr ubber
1,000-
20,000
50-150
I mpi ngement &
Entrai nment
Low Energy 4-20 500-
50,000
50-150 60-90 10-40
Ventur i Hi gh Energy 4-200 200-
150,000
200-600 95-99 5-7
Ej ector Ventur i Hi gh Energy 10-50 500- 200-500 90-98 70-145
10,000
U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers
Ty p e
Hot ESP
Col d ESP
Wet ESP
Table 3-8. Characteristics of Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) for Particulate Control.
Operati ng , R e s i s t i v i t y
Temper a tu r e at 300 F
F ohm-cm
600+ Gr ea ter Th a n
1 0
1 2
300 L es s Th a n
1 0
1 0
3 0 0 - Gr e a t e r Th a n
1 0
1 2
b e l o w
1 0
4
U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers
Pr e s s u r e
Gas Dr op
Fl ow I n . o f
F t /M i n Water
100, 000+ Less Than
1"
Table 3-9. Characteristics of Baghouses for Particulate Control.
Pr essur e Loss Fi l ter Rati o
(I nches of (cfm/ft
System Type Water ) E f f i ci e n cy Cl oth Type Cl oth Ar ea) Recommended Appl i cati on
Shaker 3-6 99+% Woven 1-5 Dust wi th good fi l ter
cl ean i n g pr oper ti es ,
i n ter mi tten t col l ecti on .
Reverse Fl ow 3-6 99+% Woven 1-5 Dust wi th good fi l ter cl eani ng
pr oper ti es, hi gh temper atur e
col l ecti on (i n ci n er a tor f l y -
ash) wi th gl ass bags.
Pul se Jet
Rever se Jet
Envel ope
3-6
3-8
3-6
U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers
99+% Fel ted
99+% Fel ted
99+% Woven
4-20
10-30
1-5
Effi ci en t for coal an d oi l fl y
a s h col l ecti on .
Col l ecti on of fi ne dusts and
fumes.
Col l ecti on of h i gh l y abr as i v e
dust .
Table 3-10. Characteristics of Flue-Gas Desulfurization Systems for Particulate Control.
Retrofi t to
Exi sti ng
I nstal l ati ons
Yea
Pressure Drop
(I nches of Water)
SO Removal Recover y and
Regener ati on
No Recover y
of Li mestone
No Recover y
of Li me
No Recover y
of Li me
Recovery of MgO
and Sul furi c Aci d
Recovery of NaS0
3
Oper ati onal
Rel i abi l i ty Effi ci ency (%)
30-40%
System Type
Hi gh
Hi gh
Low
Low
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
1) Li mestone Boi l er
I njecti on Type
Less Than 6
Greater Than 6
Greater Than 6
Greater Than 6
Greater Than 6
Yea
2) Li mestone, Srubber
I njecti on Type
30-40%
Yea
3) Li me, Scrubber,
I njecti on Type
90%+
Yea
4) Magnesi um Oxi de
90%+ 5) Wel l man-Lord
and El emental Sul fur
6) Catal yti c
oxi dati on
Recover y of 80%
H
2
S0
4
No 85% May be as hi gh as 24
Tr ay Tower Pr essur e
Drop 1.6-2.0 i n.
H
2
O/tray, w/Venturi
add 10-14 i n. H
2
O
Li ttl e Recovery
of Sodi um Carbonate
Yea
7) Si ngl e Al kal i
Systems
90%+
Yea
8) Dual Al kal i 90-95%+ Regenerati on of
Sodi um Hydroxi de
and Sodi um Sul fi tes
U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers
g
Tabble 3-11. Techniques for Nitrogen Oxide Control.
Techni que
Load Reducti on
Low Excess Ai r Fi ri ng
Two Stage Conbusti on
Coal
Oi l
Gas
Potenti al
Off-Stoi chi ometri c Combusti on
Coal
Reduced Combusti on Ai r
Pr eheat
NO Reducti on (%)
Fl ue Gas Reci rcul ati on
15 to 40
30
40
50
45
10-50
20-50
U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers
Advantages Di sadvantages
Easi l y i mpl emented; no addi ti onal
Reducti on i n generati ng capaci ty;
equi pment requi red; reduced parti cu- possi bl e reducti on i n boi l er thermal
l ate and SO
X
emi ssi ons. thermal effi ci ency.
I ncreased boi l er thermal effi ci ency; A combusti on control system whi ch
possi bl e reducti on i n parti cul ate cl osel y moni tors and control s fuel /
emi ssi ons may be combi ned wi th a l oad ai r rati os i s requi red.
reducti on to obtai n addi ti onal NO
x
emi ssi on decrease; reducti on i n hi gh
temperature corrosi on and ash deposi ti on.
- - - Boi l er wi ndboxes must be desi gned for
thi s appl i cati on.
- --
- - -
- - -
Possi bl e i mprovement i n combusti on
effi ci ency end reducti on i n parti cu-
l ate emi ssi ons.
Furnace corrosi on and parti cul ate
emi ssi ons may i ncrease.
Control of al ternate fuel ri ch/and
fuel l ean burners may be a probl em
duri ng transi ent l oad condi ti ons.
Not appl i cabl e to coal or oi l fi red
uni ts; reducti on i n boi l er thermal
effi ci ency; i ncrease i n exi t gas
vol ume and temperature; reducti on i n
boi l er l oad.
Boi l er wi ndbox must be modi fi ed to
handl e the addi ti onal gas vol ume;
ductwork, fans and Control s requi red.
TM 5-811-6
ages of parti cul ate removal can be attai ned (99 per-
cent, pl us) but preci pi tators are sensi ti ve to ash
composi ti on, fuel addi ti ves, fl ue gas temperatures
and moi sture content, and even weather condi ti ons.
ESPs are frequentl y used wi th and ahead of fl ue
gas washi ng and desul furi zati on systems. They may
be ei ther hot preci pi tators ahead of the ai r preheater
i n the gas path or col d preci pi tators after the ai r pre-
heater. Hot preci pi tators are more expensi ve be-
cause of the l arger vol ume of gas to be handl ed and
temperature i nfl uence on materi al s. But they are
someti mes necessary for l ow sul fur fuel s where col d
preci pi tators are rel ati vel y i neffi ci ent.
(c) Bag filters. Effecti ve parti cul ate removal
may be obtai ned wi th bag fi l ter systems or bag
houses, whi ch mechani cal l y fi l ter the gas by passage
through speci al l y desi gned fi l ter fabri c surfaces.
Bag fi l ters are especi al l y effecti ve on very fi ne parti -
cl es, and at rel ati vel y l ow fl ue gas temperatures.
They may be used to i mprove or upgrade other par-
ti cul ate col l ecti on systems such as centri fugal col -
l ectors. Al so they are probabl y the most economi c
choi ce for most medi um and smal l si ze coal fi red
steam generators.
(d) Flue gas desulfurization. Whi l e vari ous
gaseous pol l utants are subject to envi ronmental
control and l i mi tati on, the pol l utants whi ch must be
removed from the power pl ant fl ue gases are the ox-
i des of sul fur (SO
2
and SO
3
). Many fl ue gas desul furi -
zti on (FGD) scrubbi ng systems to control SO
2
and
SO
3
stack emi ssi on have been i nstal l ed and oper-
ated, wi th wi de vari ati ons i n effecti veness, rel i abi l -
i ty, l ongevi ty and cost. For smal l or medi um si zed
power pl ants, FGD systems shoul d be avoi ded i f
possi bl e by the use of l ow sul fur fuel . I f the parame-
ters of the project i ndi cate that a FGD system i s re-
qui red, adequate al l owances for redundancy, capi tal
cost, operati ng costs, space, and envi ronmental i m-
pact wi l l be made. Al ternati vel y, a fl ui di zed bed
boi l er (para. 3-10 c) may be a better economi c choi ce
for such a project.
(1) Wet scrubbers uti l i ze ei ther l i mestone,
l i me, or a combi nati on of l i me and soda ash as sor-
bents for the SO
2
and SO
3
i n the boi l er fl ue gas
stream. A mi xed sl urry of the sorbent materi al i s
sprayed i nto the fl ue gas duct where i t mi xes wi th
and wets the parti cul ate i n the gas stream. The S0
2
and S0
9
reacts wi th the cal ci um hydroxi de of the
sl urry to form cal ci um sul fate. The gas then conti n-
ues to a separator tower where the sol i ds and excess
sol uti on settl e and separate from the water vapor
saturated gas stream whi ch vents to the atmosphere
through the boi l er stack. Wet scrubbers permi t the
use of coal wi th a sul fur content as hi gh as 5 percent.
(2) Dry scrubbers general l y uti l i ze a di l uted
sol uti on of sl aked l i me sl urry whi ch i s atomi zed by
compressed ai r and i njected i nto the boi l er fl ue gas
stream. SO
2
and SO
3
i n the fl ue gas i s absorbed by
the sl urry dropl ets and reacts wi th the cal ci um hy-
droxi de of the sl urry to form cal ci um sul fi te. Evapo-
rati on of the water i n the sl urry dropl ets occurs si -
mul taneousl y wi th the reacti on. The dry fl ue gas
then travel s to a bag fi l ter system and then to the
boi l er stack. The bag fi l ter system col l ects the boi l er
exi t sol i d parti cl es and the dri ed reacti on products.
Addi ti onal remai ni ng SO
2
and SO
3
are removed by
the fl ue gas fi l teri ng through the accumul ati on on
the surface of the bag fi l ters, Dry scrubbers permi t
the use of coal wi th a sul fur content as hi gh as 3 per-
cent.
(3) I nduced draft fan requirements. I nduced
draft fans wi l l be desi gned wi th suffi ci ent capaci ty
to produce the requi red fl ow whi l e overcomi ng the
stati c pressure l osses associ ated wi th the ductwork,
economi zer, ai r preheater, and ai r pol l uti on control
equi pment under al l operati ng (cl ean and di rt y) con-
di ti ons.
(4) Waste removal. Fl ue gas cl eanup systems
usual l y produce substanti al quanti ti es of waste
products, often much greater i n mass than the sub-
stances actual l y removed from the exi t gases. De-
si gn and arrangement must al l ow for dewateri ng
and stabi l i zati on of FGD sl udge, removal , storage
and di sposal of waste products wi th due regard for
envi ronmental i mpacts.
3-12. Minor auxiliary systems
Vari ous mi nor auxi l i ary systems and components
are vi tal parts of the steam generator.
a. Piping and valves. Vari ous pi pi ng systems are
defi ned as parts of the compl ete boi l er (refer to the
ASME Boi l er Code), and must be desi gned for safe
and effecti ve servi ce; thi s i ncl udes steam and feed-
water pi pi ng, fuel pi pi ng, bl owdown pi pi ng, safety
and control val ve pi pi ng, i sol ati on val ves, dri ps,
drai ns and i nstrument connecti ons.
b. Controls and instruments. Superheater and
burner management control s are best purchased
al ong wi th the steam generator so that there wi l l be
i ntegrated steam temperature and burner systems.
c. Soot blowers. Conti nuous or frequent on l i ne
cl eani ng of furnace, boi l er economi zer, and ai r pre-
heater heati ng surfaces i s requi red to mai ntai n per-
formance and effi ci ency. Soot bl ower systems,
steam or ai r operated, wi l l be provi ded for thi s pur-
pose. The sel ecti on of steam or ai r for soot bl owi ng
i s an economi c choi ce and wi l l be eval uated i n terms
of steam and makeup water vs. compressed ai r costs
wi th due al l owance for capi tal and operati ng cost
components.
3-25
k
TM 5-811-6
Sec tion Ill. FUEL HANDLING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS
3-13. Introduc tion
a. Purpose. Fi gure 3-10 i s a bl ock di agram i l l us-
trati ng the vari ous steps and equi pment requi red
for a sol i d fuel storage and handl i ng system.
b. Fuels for consideration. Equi pment requi red
for a system depends on the type of fuel or fuel s
burned. The three major types of fuel s uti l i zed for
steam rai si ng are gaseous, l i qui d and sol i d.
3-14. Typic al fuel oil storage and han-
dling system
The usual power pl ant fuel oi l storage and handl i ng
system i ncl udes:
a. Unloading and storage.
(1) Unl oadi ng pumps wi l l be suppl i ed, as re-
qui red for the type of del i very system used, as part
of the power pl ant faci l i ti es. Ti me for unl oadi ng wi l l
be anal yzed and unl oadi ng pump(s) opti mi zed for
the ci rcumstances and oi l quanti ti es i nvol ved.
Heavi er fuel oi l s are l oaded i nto transport tanks hot
and cool duri ng del i very. Steam suppl y for tank car
heaters wi l l be provi ded at the pl ant i f i t i s expected
that the temperature of the oi l del i vered wi l l be be-
l ow the 120 to 150F. range.
(2) Storage of the fuel oi l wi l l be i n two tanks so
as to provi de more versati l i ty for tank cl eanout i n-
specti on and repai r. A mi ni mum of 30 days storage
capaci ty at maxi mum expected power pl ant l oad
(maxi mum steami ng capaci ty of al l boi l ers wi th
maxi mum expected turbi ne generator output and
maxi mum export steam, i f any) wi l l be provi ded.
Factors such as rel i abi l i ty of suppl y and whether
Figure 3-10. Coal handling system diagram.
3-26
backup power i s avai l abl e from other sources may
resul t i n addi ti onal storage requi rements. Space for
future tanks wi l l be al l ocated where addi ti onal boi l -
ers are pl anned, but storage capaci ty wi l l not be pro-
vi ded i ni ti al l y.
(3) Storage tank(s) for heavy oi l s wi l l be heated
wi th a sucti on type heater, a conti nuous coi l extend-
i ng over the bottom of the tank, or a combi nati on of
both types of surfaces. Steam i s usual l y the most
economi cal heati ng medi um al though hot water can
be consi dered dependi ng on the temperatures at
whi ch l ow l evel heat i s avai l abl e i n the power pl ant.
Tank exteri or i nsul ati on wi l l be provi ded.
b. Fuelpumps and heaters.
(1) Fuel oi l forwardi ng pumps to transfer oi l
from bul k storage to the burner pumps wi l l be pro-
vi ded. Both forwardi ng and burner pumps shoul d be
sel ected wi th at l east 10 percent excess capaci ty
over maxi mum burni ng rate i n the boi l ers. Si zi ng
wi l l consi der addi ti onal pumps for future boi l ers and
pressure requi rements wi l l be sel ected for pi pe fri c-
ti on, control val ves, heater pressure drops, and
burners. A reasonabl e sel ecti on woul d be one pump
per boi l er wi th a common spare i f the system i s de-
si gned for a common suppl y to al l boi l ers. For hi gh
pressure mechani cal atomi zi ng burners, each boi l er
may al so have i ts own meteri ng pump wi th spare.
(2) Pumps may be ei ther centri fugal or posi ti ve
di spl acement. Posi ti ve di spl acement pumps wi l l be
speci fi ed for the heavi er fuel oi l s. Centri fugal pumps
wi l l be speci fi ed for crude oi l s. Where absol ute rel i a-
abi l i ty i s requi red, a spare pump dri ven by a steam
turbi ne wi th gear reducer wi l l be used. For bl ack
starts, or where a steam turbi ne may be i nconven-
i ent, a dc motor dri ver may be sel ected for use for
rel ati vel y short peri ods.
(3) At l east two fuel oi l heaters wi l l be used for
rel i abi l i ty and to faci l i tate mai ntenance. Typi cal
heater desi gn for Bunker C! fuel oi l wi l l provi de for
temperature i ncreases from 100 to 230 F usi ng
steam or hot water for heati ng medi um.
c. Piping system.
(1) The pi pi ng system wi l l be desi gned to mai n-
tai n pressure by reci rcul ati ng excess oi l to the bul k
storage tank. The burner pumps al so wi l l ci rcul ate
back to the storage tank. A reci rcul ati on connecti on
wi l l be provi ded at each burner for startup. I t wi l l be
manual l y val ved and shut off after burner i s suc-
cessful l y l i t off and operati ng smoothl y.
(2) Pi pi ng systems wi l l be adapted to the type
of burner uti l i zed. Steam atomi zi ng burners wi l l
have bl owback connecti ons to cl eanse burners of
fuel wi th steam on shutdown. Mechani cal atomi zi ng
burner pi pi ng wi l l be desi gned to sui t the requi re-
ments of the burner.
d. I nstruments and control. I nstr uments and
TM 5-811-6
control s i ncl ude combusti on control s, burner man-
agement system, control val ves and shut off val ves.
3-15. Coal handling and storage systems
a. Available systems. The fol l owi ng pri nci pal sys-
tems wi l l be used as appropri ate for handl i ng, stor-
i ng and recl ai mi ng coal :
(1) Relatively small to intermediate system;
coal purchases si zed and washed. A system wi th a
track or truck (or combi ned track/truck) hopper,
bucket el evator wi th feeder, coal si l o, spouts and
chutes, and a dust col l ecti ng system wi l l be used.
El evator wi l l be arranged to di scharge vi a cl osed
chute i nto one or two si l os, or spouted to a ground
pi l e for movi ng i nto dead storage by bul l dozer. Re-
cl ai m from dead storage wi l l be by means of bul l doz-
er to track/truck hopper.
(2) I ntermediate system; coal purchased si zed
and washed. Thi s wi l l be si mi l ar to the system de-
scri bed i n (1) above but wi l l use an encl osed ski p
hoi st i nstead of a bucket el evator for conveyi ng coal
to top of si l o.
(3) I ntermediate system alternatives. For more
than two boi l ers, an overbunker fl i ght or bel t con-
veyor wi l l be used. I f mi ne run, uncrushed coal
proves economi cal , a crusher wi th feeder wi l l be i n-
stal l ed i n associ ati on wi th the track/truck hopper.
(4) Larger systems, usually with mine run coal.
A l arger system wi l l i ncl ude track or truck (or com-
bi ned track/truck) unl oadi ng hopper, separate dead
storage recl ai m hoppers, i ncl i ned bel t conveyors
wi th appropri ate feeders, transfer towers, vi brati ng
screens, magneti c separators, crusher(s), overbunk-
er conveyor(s) wi th automati c tri pper, wei ghi ng
equi pment, sampl i ng equi pment, si l os, dust col l ect-
i ng system(s), fi re protecti on, and l i ke i tems. Where
two or more types of coal are burned (e.g., hi gh and
l ow sul phur), bl endi ng faci l i ti es wi l l be requi red.
(5) For cold climates. Al l systems, regardl ess of
si ze, whi ch recei ve coal by rai l road wi l l requi re car
thawi ng faci l i ti es and car shakeouts for l ooseni ng
frozen coal . These faci l i ti es wi l l not be provi ded for
truck unl oadi ng because truck runs are usual l y
shor t.
b. Selection of handling capacity. Coal handl i ng
system capaci ty wi l l be sel ected so that ul ti mate
pl anned 24-hour coal consumpti on of the pl ant at
maxi mum expected power pl ant l oad can be unl oad-
ed or recl ai med i n not more than 7-1/2 hours, or wi thi n
the ti me span of one shi ft after al l owance of a 1/2-hour
margi n for preparati on and cl eanup ti me. The hand-
l i ng capaci ty shoul d be cal cul ated usi ng the worst
(l owest heati ng val ue) coal whi ch may be burned i n
the future and a maxi mum steam capaci ty boi l er ef-
fi ci ency at l east 3 percent l ess than guaranteed by
boi l er manufacturer.
3-27
TM 5-811-6
c. Outdoor storage pile. The si ze of the outdoor
storage pi l e wi l l be based on not l ess than 90 days of
the ul ti mate pl anned 24-hour coal consumpti on of
the pl ant at maxi mum expected power pl ant l oad.
Some power pl ants, parti cul arl y exi sti ng pl ants
whi ch are bei ng rehabi l i tated or expanded, wi l l have
outdoor space l i mi tati ons or are si tuated so that i t i s
envi ronmental l y i nadvi sabl e to have a substanti al
outdoor coal pi l e.
d. Plant Storage.
(1) For smal l or medi um si zed spreader stoker
fi red pl ants, grade mounted si l o storage wi l l be spe-
ci fi ed wi th a l i ve storage shel f above and a reserve
storage space bel ow. Usual l y arranged wi th one si l o
per boi l er and the si l o l ocated on the outsi de of the
fi ri ng ai sl e opposi te the boi l er, the l i ve storage shel f
wi l l be pl aced hi gh enough so that the spout to the
stoker hopper or coal scal e above the hopper
emerges at a poi nt hi gh enough for the spout angl e
to be not l ess than 60 degrees from the hori zontal .
The reserve storage bel ow the l i ve storage shel f wi l l
be arranged to reci rcul ate back to the l oadi ng poi nt
of the el evator so that coal can be rai sed to the top of
the l i ve storage shel f as needed. Fi gure 3-11 shows a
typi cal bucket el evator grade mounted si l o arrange-
ment for a smal l or medi um si zed steam generati ng
faci l i ty.
(2) For l arge si zed spreader stoker fi red pl ants,
si l o type overhead constructi on wi l l be speci fi ed. I t
wi l l be fabri cated of structural steel or rei nforced
concrete wi th stai nl ess steel l i ned coni cal bottoms.
(3) For smal l or medi um si zed pl ants combi ned
l i ve and reserve storage i n the si l o wi l l be not l ess
than 3 days at 60 percent of maxi mum expected
l oad of the boi l er(s) bei ng suppl i ed from the si l o so
that reserves from the outsi de storage pi l e need not
be drawn upon duri ng weekends when operati ng
staff i s reduced. For l arge si zed pl ants thi s storage
requi rement wi l l be 1 day.
e. Equipment and systems.
(1) Bucket elevators. Bucket el evators wi l l be
chai n and bucket type. For rel ati vel y smal l i nstal l a-
ti ons the bel t and bucket type i s feasi bl e al though
not as rugged as the chai n and bucket type. Typi cal
bucket el evator system i s shown i n Fi gure 3-11.
(2) Skip hoists. Because of the requi rement for
dust suppressi on and equi pment cl osure di ctated by
envi ronmental consi derati ons, ski p hoi sts wi l l not
be speci fi ed.
(3) Belt conveyors. Bel t conveyors wi l l be se-
l ected for speeds not i n excess of 500 to 550 feet per
mi nute. They wi l l be speci fi ed wi th rol l er beari ngs
for pul l eys and i dl ers, wi th heavy duty bel ts, and
wi th rugged hel i cal or herri ngbone gear dri ve uni ts.
(4) Feeders. Feeders are requi red to transfer
coal at a uni form rate from each unl oadi ng and i nter-
medi ate hopper to the conveyor. Such feeders wi l l be
of the reci procati ng pl ate or vi brati ng pan type wi th
si ngl e or vari abl e speed dri ve. Reci procati ng type
feeders wi l l be used for smal l er i nstal l ati ons; the vi -
brati ng type wi l l be used for l arger systems.
(5) Miscellaneous. The fol l owi ng i tems are re-
qui red as noted
(a) Magneti c separators for removal of tramp
i ron from mi ne run coal .
(b) Wei gh scal e at each boi l er and, for l arger
i nstal l ati ons, for wei ghi ng i n coal as recei ved. Scal es
wi l l be of the bel t type wi th temperature compensat-
ed l oad cel l . For very smal l i nstal l ati ons, a l ow cost
di spl acement type scal e for each boi l er wi l l be used.
(c) Coal crusher for mi ne run coal ; for l arge i n-
stal l ati ons the crusher wi l l be preceded by vi brati ng
(scal pi ng) screens for separati ng out and by-passi ng
fi nes around the crusher.
(d) Travel i ng tri pper for overbunker conveyor
servi ng a number of bunkers i n seri es.
(e) One or more coal sampl ers to check as re-
TM 5-811-6
cei ved and as fi red sampl es for l arge systems.
(f) Chutes, hoppers and ski rts, as requi red,
fabri cated of conti nuousl y wel ded steel for dust
ti ghtness and wi th weari ng surfaces l i ned wi th
stai nl ess steel . Vi brators and poke hol es wi l l be pro-
vi ded at al l poi nts subject to coal stoppage or hang-
up.
(g) Car shakeout and a thaw shed for l oosen-
i ng frozen coal from rai l road cars.
(h) Dust control systems as requi red through-
out the coal handl i ng areas. Al l handl i ng equi p-
menthoppers, conveyors and gal l eri es-wi l l be en-
cl osed i n dust ti ght casi ngs or bui l di ng shel l s and
provi ded wi th negati ve pressure venti l ati on com-
pl ete wi th heated ai r suppl y, exhaust bl owers, sepa-
rators, and bag fi l ters for removi ng dust from ex-
hausted ai r. I n addi ti on, hi gh dust concentrati on
areas l ocated outsi de whi ch cannot be encl osed, such
as unl oadi ng and recl ai m hoppers, wi l l be provi ded
wi th spray type dust suppressi on equi pment.
(i) Fi re protecti on system of the spri nkl er
type.
(j) Freeze protecti on for any water pi pi ng l o-
cated outdoors or i n unheated cl osures as provi ded
for dust suppressi on or fi re protecti on systems.
(k) A vacuum cl eani ng system for mai nte-
nance of coal handl i ng systems havi ng gal l eri es and
equi pment encl osures.
(l) System of control s for sequenci ng and
moni tori ng enti re coal handl i ng system.
Sec tion IV. ASH HANDLING SYSTEMS
3-16. Introduc tion
a. Background.
(1) Most gaseous fuel s burn cl eanl y, and the
amount of i ncombusti bl e materi al i s so smal l that i t
can be safel y i gnored. When l i qui d or sol i d fuel i s
fi red i n a boi l er, however, the i ncombusti bl e materi -
al , or ash, together wi th a smal l amount of unburned
carbon chi efl y i n the form of soot or ci nders, col l ects
i n the bottom of the furnace or i s carri ed out i n a
l i ghtwei ght, fi nel y di vi ded form usual l y known
l oosel y as fl y ash. Col l ecti on of the bottom ash
from combusti on of coal has never been a probl em as
the ash i s heavy and easi l y di rected i nto hoppers
whi ch may be dry or fi l l ed wi th water,
(2) Current ash col l ecti on technol ogy i s capabl e
of removi ng up to 99 percent or more of al l fl y ash
from the furnace gases by uti l i zi ng a preci pi tator or
baghouse, often i n combi nati on wi th a mechani cal
col l ector. Heavi er fl y ash parti cl es col l ected from
the boi l er gas passages and mechani cal col l ectors of-
ten have a hi gh percentage of unburned carbon con-
tent, parti cul arl y i n the case of spreader stoker fi red
boi l ers; thi s heavi er materi al may be rei nfected i nto
the furnace to reduce unburned carbon l osses and i n-
crease effi ci ency, al though thi s procedure does i n-
crease the dust l oadi ng on the col l ecti on equi pment
downstream of the l ast hopper from whi ch such ma-
teri al i s rei nfected.
(3) I t i s mandatory to i nstal l preci pi tators or
baghouses on al l new coal fi red boi l ers for fi nal
cl eanup of the fl ue gases pri or to thei r ejecti on to at-
mosphere. But i n most regi ons of the Uni ted States,
mechani cal col l ectors al one are adequate for heavy
oi l fi red boi l ers because of the conventi onal l y l ow
ash content of thi s type of fuel . An i nvesti gati on i s
requi red, however, for each parti cul ar oi l fi red uni t
bei ng consi dered.
b. Purpose. I t i s the purpose of the ash handl i ng
system to:
(1) Col l ect the bottom ash from coal -fi red
spreader stoker or AFBC boi l ers and to convey i t
dry by vacuum or hydraul i cal l y by l i qui d pressure
to a temporary or permanent storage termi nal . The
l atter may be a storage bi n or si l o for ul ti mate trans-
fer to rai l or truck for transport to a remote di sposal
area, or i t maybe an on-si te fi l l area or storage pond
for the l arger systems where the power pl ant si te i s
3-29
TM 5-811-6
adequate and envi ronmental l y acceptabl e for thi s
pur pose.
(2) Col l ect fl y ash and to convey i t dry to tem-
porary or permanent storage as descri bed above for
bottom ash. Fl y ash, bei ng very l i ght, wi l l be wetted
and i s mi xed wi th bottom ash pri or to di sposal to
prevent a severe dust probl em.
3-17. Desc ription of major c omponents
a. Typical oil fired system. Oi l fi red boi l ers do not
requi re any bottom ash removal faci l i ti es, si nce ash
and unburned carbon are l i ght and carri ed out wi th
the furnace exi t gas. A mechani cal col l ector may be
requi red for smal l or i ntermedi ate si zed boi l ers hav-
i ng steami ng rates of 200,000 pounds per hour or
l ess. The fl y ash from the gas passage and mechani -
cal col l ector hoppers can usual l y be handl ed manu-
al l y because of the smal l amount of fl y ash (soot) col -
l ected. The soot from the fuel oi l i s greasy and can
coagul ate at atmospheri c temperatures maki ng i t
di ffi cul t to handl e. To overcome thi s, hoppers
shoul d be heated wi th steam, hot water, or el ectri c
power. Hoppers wi l l be equi pped wi th an outl et
val ve havi ng an ai r l ock and a means of attachi ng
di sposabl e paper bags si zed to permi t manual hand-
l i ng. Each hopper wi l l be sel ected so that i t need not
be evacuated more than once every few days. I f boi l -
er si ze and esti mated soot/ash l oadi ng i s such that
manual handl i ng becomes burdensome, a vacuum or
hydraul i c system as descri bed bel ow shoul d be con-
si der ed.
b. Typical ash handling system for small or inter
mediate sized coal fired boilers;
(1) Pl ant fuel burni ng rates and ash content of
coal are cri ti cal i n si zi ng the ash handl i ng system.
Si zi ng cri teri a wi l l provi de for sel ecti ng hoppers and
handl i ng equi pment so that ash does not have to be
removed more frequentl y than once each 8-hour
shi ft usi ng the hi ghest ash content coal anti ci pated
and wi th boi l er at maxi mum conti nuous steami ng
capaci ty. For the smal l er, non-automati c system i t
may be cost effecti ve to sel ect hoppers and equi p
ment whi ch wi l l permi t operati ng at 60 percent of
maxi mum steam capaci ty for 3 days wi thout remov-
i ng ash to faci l i tate operati ng wi th a mi ni mum
weekend crew.
(2) For a typi cal mi l i tary power pl ant, the most
economi cal sel ecti on for both bottom and fl y ash di s-
posal i s a vacuum type dry system wi th a steam jet
or mechani cal
(Fi gure 3-12).
exhauster for creati ng the vacuum
Thi s typi cal pl ant woul d probabl y
have a travel i ng grate spreader stoker, a mechani cal
col l ector, and a baghouse; i n al l l i kel i hood, no on-si te
ash di sposal area woul d be avai l abl e.
(3) The ash system for the typi cal pl ant wi l l i n-
cl ude the fol l owi ng for each boi l er:
(a) A refractory l i ned bottom ash hopper to
recei ve the di scharge from the travel i ng grate. A
cl i nker gri nder i s not requi red for a spreader stoker
al though adequate poke hol es shoul d be i ncorpor-
ated i nto the outl et secti ons of the hopper.
(b) Gas passage fl y ash hoppers as requi red
by the boi l er desi gn for boi l er proper, economi zer,
and ai r heater.
(c) Col l ector fl y ash hoppers for the mechani -
cal col l ector and baghouse.
(d) Ai r l ock val ves, one at each hopper outl et,
manual l y or automati cal l y operated as sel ected by
the desi gn engi neer.
(4) And the fol l owi ng i tems are common to al l
boi l ers i n the pl ant:
(a) Ash col l ecti ng pi pi ng fabri cated of speci al
hardened ferro-al l oy to transfer bottom and fl y ash
to Storage.
(b) Vacuum produci ng equi pment, steam or
mechani cal exhauster as may prove economi cal . For
pl ants wi th substanti al export steam and wi th l ow
qual i ty, rel ati vel y i nexpensi ve makeup requi re-
ments, steam wi l l be the choi ce. For pl ants wi th
hi gh qual i ty, expensi ve makeup requi rements,
consi derati on shoul d be gi ven to the hi gher cost me-
chani cal exhauster.
(c) Pri mary and secondary mechani cal (centri -
fugal ) separators and baghouse fi l ter are used to
cl ean the dust out of the ash handl i ng system ex-
haust pri or to di scharge to the atmosphere. Thi s
equi pment i s mounted on top of the si l o.
(d) Rei nforced concrete or vi tri fi ed ti l e over-
head si l o wi th separator and ai r l ock for l oadi ng si l o
wi th a dustl ess unl oader desi gned to dampen
ashes as they are unl oaded i nto a truck or rai l road
car for transport to remote di sposal .
(e) Automati c control system for sequenci ng
operati on of the system. Usual l y the manual i ni ti a-
ti on of such a system starts the exhauster and then
removes bottom and fl y ash from each separator col -
l ecti on poi nt i n a predetermi ned sequence. Ash un-
l oadi ng to vehi cl es i s separatel y control l ed.
Sec tion V. TURBINES AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
3-18. Turbine prime movers
generator and i ts associ ated el ectri cal accessori es,
The fol l owi ng paragraphs on turbi ne generators di s- refer to Chapter 4.
cuss si ze and other overal l characteri sti cs of the tur- a. Size and type ranges. Steam turbi ne gener-
bi ne generator set. For detai l ed di scussi on of the ators for mi l i tary i nstal l ati ons wi l l fal l i nto the fol -
3-30
Figure 3-12. Pneumatic ash handling systemsvariations.
TM 5-811-6
l owi ng si ze ranges:
(1) Small turbine generators. From 500 to about
2500 kW rated capaci ty, turbi ne generators wi l l
usual l y be si ngl e stage, geared uni ts wi thout extrac-
ti on openi ngs for ei ther back pressure or condensi ng
servi ce. Rated condensi ng pressures for si ngl e stage
turbi nes range from 3 to 6 i nches Hga. Exhaust
pressures for back pressure uni ts i n cogenerati on
servi ce typi cal l y range from 15 psi g to 250 psi g.
(2) I ntermediate turbine generators. F r om
about 2500 to 10,000 kW rated capaci ty, turbi ne
generators wi l l be ei ther mul ti -stage, mul ti -val ve
machi nes wi th two pol e di rect dri ve generators turn-
i ng at 3600 rpm, or hi gh speed turbi nes wi th gear re-
ducers may al so be used i n thi s si ze range. Uni ts are
equi pped wi th ei ther uncontrol l ed or control l ed (au-
tomati c) extracti on openi ngs. Bel ow 4000 kW, there
wi l l be one or two openi ngs wi th steam pressures up
to 600 psi g and 750F. From 4000 kW to 10,000
kW, turbi nes wi l l be provi ded wi th two to four un-
control l ed extracti on openi ngs, or one or two auto-
mati c extracti on openi ngs. These turbi nes woul d
have i ni ti al steam condi ti ons from 600 psi g to 1250
psi g, and 750F to 900F. Typi cal i ni ti al steam con-
di ti ons woul d be 600 psi g, 825 For 850 psi g, 900F.
(3) Large turbine generators. I n the capaci ty
range 10,000 to 30,000 kW, turbi ne generators wi l l
be di rect dri ve, mul ti -stage, mul ti -val ve uni ts. For
el ectri c power generator appl i cati ons, from two to
fi ve uncontrol l ed extracti on openi ngs wi l l be re-
qui red for feedwater heati ng. I n cogenerati on appl i -
cati ons whi ch i ncl ude the provi si on of process or
heati ng steam al ong wi th power generati on, one au-
tomati c extracti on openi ng wi l l be requi red for each
l evel of processor heati ng steam pressure speci fi ed,
al ong wi th uncontrol l ed extracti on openi ngs for
feedwater heati ng. I ni ti al steam condi ti ons range up
to 1450 psi g and 950 F wi th condensi ng pressures
from 1 1/2 to 4 i nches Hga.
b. Turbine features and accessories. I n al l si ze
ranges, turbi ne generator sets are suppl i ed by the
manufacturer wi th basi c accessori es as fol l ows:
(1) Generator wi th cool i ng system, exci tati on
and vol tage regul ator, coupl i ng, and speed reduc-
ti on gear, i f used.
(2) Turbi ne and generator (and gear) l ubri cati on
system i ncl udi ng tank, pumps, pi pi ng, and control s.
(3) Load speed governor, emergency overspeed
governor, and emergency i nl et steam tri p val ve wi th
rel ated hydraul i c pi pi ng.
(4) Ful l ri gi d base pl ate i n smal l si zes or sepa-
rate mounti ng sol e pl ates for i nstal l ati on i n concrete
pedestal for l arger uni ts.
(5) I nsul ati on and jacketi ng, i nstruments, turn-
i ng gear and speci al tool s.
3-19. Generators
For purposes of thi s secti on, i t i s noted that the gen-
erator must be mechani cal l y compati bl e wi th the
dri vi ng turbi ne, coupl i ng, l ubri cati on system, and
vi brati on characteri sti cs (see Chapter 4 for gener-
ator detai l s).
3-20. Turbine features
a. General. Turbi ne constructi on may be general -
l y cl assi fi ed as hi gh or l ow pressure, si ngl e or mul ti -
stage, back pressure on condensi ng, di rect dri ve or
gear reducer dri ve, and for el ectri c generator or for
mechani cal dri ve servi ce.
(1) Shell pressures. Hi gh or l ow pressure con-
structi on refers general l y to the i nternal pressures
to be contai ned by the mai n shel l or casi ng parts.
(2) Single us. multi-stage. Si ngl e or mul ti -stage
desi gns are sel ected to sui t the general si ze,
enthal py drops and performance requi rements of
the turbi ne. Mul ti -stage machi nes are much more
expensi ve but are al so consi derabl y more effi ci ent.
Si ngl e stage machi nes are al ways l ess expensi ve,
si mpl er and l ess effi ci ent. They may have up to
three vel oci ty wheel s of bl adi ng wi th reentry sta-
ti onary vanes between wheel s to i mprove effi ci ency.
As casi ng pressure of si ngl e stage turbi nes are equal
to exhaust pressures, the desi gn of seal s and bear-
i ngs i s rel ati vel y si mpl e.
(3) Back pressure vs. condensing. Sel ecti on of a
back pressure or a condensi ng turbi ne i s dependent
on the pl ant functi on and cycl e parameters. (See
Chapter 3, Secti on I for di scussi on of cycl es.) Con-
densi ng machi nes are l arger and more compl ex wi th
hi gh pressure and vacuum seal i ng provi si ons, steam
condensers, stage feedwater heati ng, extensi ve l ube
oi l systems and val ve gear, and rel ated auxi l i ary fea-
tur es.
(4) Direct drive vs. geared sets. Di rect dri ve tur-
bi nes generators turn the turbi ne shaft at generator
speed. Uni ts 2500 kW and l arger are normal l y di rect
connected. Smal l , and especi al l y si ngl e stage, tur-
bi nes may be gear dri ven for compactness and for
si ngl e stage economy. Gear reducers add compl ex-
i ty and energy l osses to the turbi ne and shoul d be
used onl y after careful consi derati on of overal l econ-
omy and rel i abi l i ty.
(5) Mechanical drive. Mai n turbi ne uni ts i n
power pl ants dri ve el ectri cal generators, al though
l arge pumps or ai r compressors may al so be dri ven
by l arge turbi nes. I n thi s event, the turbi nes are
cal l ed mechani cal dri ve turbi nes. Mechani cal
dri ve turbi nes are usual l y vari abl e speed uni ts wi th
speci al governi ng equi pment to adapt to best econ-
omy bal ance between dri ver (turbi ne) and dri ven ma-
chi ne. Smal l auxi l i ary turbi nes for cycl e pumps,
3-32
fans, or ai r compressor dri ves are usual l y si ngl e
stage, back pressure, di rect dri ve type desi gned for
mechani cal si mpl i ci ty and rel i abi l i ty. Both constant
speed and vari abl e speed governors are used de-
pendi ng on the appl i cati on.
b. Arrangement. Turbi ne generators are hori zon-
tal shaft type wi th hori zontal l y spl i t casi ngs. Rel a-
ti vel y smal l mechani cal dri ve turbi nes may be bui l t
wi th verti cal shafts. Turbi ne rotor shaft i s usual l y
supported i n two sl eeve type, sel f al i gni ng beari ngs,
seal ed and protected from i nternal casi ng steam
condi ti ons. Output shaft i s coupl ed to the shaft of
the generator whi ch i s provi ded wi th i ts own encl o-
sure but i s al ways mounted on the same foundati on
as the turbi ne.
(1) Balance. Bal anced and i ntegrated desi gn of
the turbi ne, coupl i ng and generator movi ng parts i s
i mportant to successful operati on, and freedom
from torsi onal or l ateral vi brati ons as wel l as pre-
venti on of expansi on damage are essenti al .
(2) Foundations. Foundati ons and pedestal s for
turbi ne generators wi l l be careful l y desi gned to ac-
commodate and protect the turbi ne generator, con-
denser, and associ ated equi pment. Strength, mass,
sti ffness, and vi brati on characteri sti cs must be con-
si dered. Most turbi ne generator pedestal s i n the
Uni ted States are constructed of massi ve concrete.
3-21. Governing and c ontrol
a. Turbine generators speed/ load control. El ectri -
cal generator output i s i n the form of synchroni zed
ac el ectri cal power, causi ng the generator and dri v-
i ng turbi ne to rotate at exactl y the same speed (or
frequency) as other synchroni zed generators con-
nected i nto the common network. Basi c speed/l oad
governi ng equi pment i s desi gned to al l ow each uni t
to hol d i ts own l oad steady at constant frequency, or
to accept i ts share of l oad vari ati ons, as the common
frequency ri ses and fal l s. Very smal l machi nes may
use di rect mechani cal governors, but the bul k of the
uni ts wi l l use ei ther mechani cal -hydraul i c governi ng
systems or el ectrohydraul i c systems. Non-reheat
condensi ng uni ts 5000 kW and l arger and back pres-
sure uni ts wi thout automati c extracti on wi l l be
equi pped wi th mechani cal -hydraul i c governi ng. For
automati c extracti on uni ts l arger than 20,000 kW,
governi ng wi l l be speci fi ed ei ther wi th a mechani cal -
hydraul i c or an el ectro-hydraul i c system.
b. Overspeed governors. Al l turbi nes requi re sep-
arate safety or overspeed governi ng systems to i n-
sure i nl et steam i nterrupti on i f the machi ne exceeds
a safe speed for any reason. The emergency gover-
nor cl oses a speci al l y desi gned stop val ve whi ch not
onl y shuts off steam fl ow but al so tri ps vari ous safe-
ty devi ces to prevent overspeed by fl ash steam i n-
TM 5-811-6
ducti on through the turbi ne bl eed (extracti on)
poi nts.
c. Single and multi-valve arrangements. What-
ever type of governor i s used, i t wi l l modul ate the
turbi ne i nl et val ves to regul ate steam fl ow and tur-
bi ne output. For machi nes expected to operate ex-
tensi vel y at l ow or parti al l oads, mul ti -val ve ar-
rangements i mprove economy. Si ngl e val ve tur-
bi nes, i n general , have equal economy and effi ci ency
at rated l oad, but l ower part l oad effi ci enci es.
3-22. Turning gear
a. General. For turbi nes si zed 10,000 kW and
l arger, a motor operated turni ng gear i s requi red to
prevent the bowi ng of the turbi ne rotor created by
the temperature di fferenti al exi sti ng between the
upper and l ower turbi ne casi ngs duri ng the l ong pe-
ri od after shutdown i n whi ch the turbi ne cool s down.
The turbi ne cannot be restarted unti l i t has com-
pl etel y cool ed down wi thout ri sk of damage to i nter-
state packi ng and decrease of turbi ne effi ci ency,
causi ng del ays i n restarti ng. The turni ng gear i s
mounted at the exhaust end of the turbi ne and i s
used to turn the rotor at a speed of 1 to 4 rpm when
the turbi ne i s shut down i n order to permi t uni form
cool i ng of the rotor. Turni ng gear i s al so used duri ng
startup to evenl y warm up the rotor before rol l i ng
the turbi ne wi th steam and as a jacki ng devi ce for
turni ng the rotor as requi red for i nspecti on and
mai ntenance when the turbi ne i s shut down.
b. Arrangement and controls. The turni ng gear
wi l l consi st of a hori zontal el ectri c motor wi th a set
of gear chai ns and a cl utchi ng arrangement whi ch
engages a gear ri ng on the shaft of the turbi ne. I ts
control s are arranged for l ocal and/or remote start-
i ng and to automati cal l y di sengage when the tur-
bi ne reaches a predetermi ned speed duri ng startup
wi th steam. I t i s al so arranged to automati cal l y en-
gage when the turbi ne has been shut down and de-
cel erated to a suffi ci entl y sl ow speed. I ndi cati ng
l i ghts wi l l be provi ded to i ndi cate the di sengaged or
engaged status of the turni ng gear and an i nterl ock
provi ded to prevent the operati on of the turni ng
gear i f the pressure i n the turbi ne l ubri cati on oi l sys-
tem i s bel ow a predetermi ned safe setti ng.
3-23. Lubric ation systems
a. General. Every turbi ne and i ts dri ven machi ne
or generator requi res adequate l ubri cati ng oi l sup
pl y i ncl udi ng pressuri zati on, fi l trati on, oi l cool i ng,
and emergency provi si ons to i nsure l ubri cati on i n
the event of a fai l ure of mai n oi l suppl y. For a typ-
i cal turbi ne generator, an i ntegrated l ube oi l storage
tank wi th bui l t i n normal and emergency pumps i s
usual l y provi ded. Oi l cool i ng may be by means of an
3-33
TM 5-811-6
external or i nternal water cool ed heat exchanger. Oi l
temperatures shoul d be moni tored and control l ed,
and heati ng may be requi red for startup.
b. Oil Pumps. Two ful l capaci ty mai n l ube oi l
pumps wi l l be provi ded. One wi l l be di rectl y dri ven
from the turbi ne shaft for mul ti -stage machi nes.
The second ful l si ze pump wi l l be ac el ectri c motor
dri ven. An emergency dc motor dri ven or turbi ne-
dri ven backup pump wi l l be speci fi ed to al l ow or-
derl y shutdown duri ng normal startup and shut-
down when the shaft dri ven pump cannot mai ntai n
pressure, or after mai n pump fai l ure, or i n the event
of fai l ure of the power suppl y to the ac el ectri c mo-
tor dri ven pumps.
c. Filtration. Strai ners and fi l ters are necessary
for the protecti on and l ongevi ty of l ubri cated parts.
Fi l ters and strai ners shoul d be arranged i n pai rs for
on l i ne cl eani ng, i nspecti on, and mai ntenance. Larg-
er turbi ne generator uni ts are someti mes equi pped
wi th speci al off base l ubri cati on systems to provi de
separate, hi gh qual i ty fi l teri ng.
3-24. Extrac tion features
a. Uncontrolled extraction systems. Uncontrol l ed
bl eed or extracti on openi ngs are merel y nozzl es i n
the turbi ne shel l between stages through whi ch rel a-
ti vel y l i mi ted amounts of steam may be extracted
for stage feedwater heati ng. Such openi ngs add
l i ttl e to the turbi ne cost as compared wi th the cost
of feedwater heaters, pi pi ng, and control s. Turbi nes
so equi pped are usual l y rated and wi l l have effi ci en-
ci es and performance based on normal extracti on
pressures and regenerati ve feedwater heati ng cal cu-
l ati ons. Uncontrol l ed extracti on openi ng pressures
wi l l vary i n proporti on to turbi ne steam fl ow, and
extracted steam wi l l not be used or routed to any
substanti al uses except for feedwater heati ng.
b. Automatic extraction. Control l ed or automati c
extracti on turbi nes are more el aborate and equi pped
wi th vari abl e i nternal ori fi ces or val ves to modul ate
i nternal steam fl ows so as to mai ntai n extracti on
pressures wi thi n speci fi ed ranges. Automati c ex-
tracti on machi ne governors provi de automati c sel f-
contai ned modul ati on of the i nternal fl ow ori fi ces or
val ves, usi ng hydraul i c operators. Automati c ex-
tracti on governi ng systems can al so be adapted to
respond to external control s or cycl e parameters to
permi t extracti on pressures to adjust to changi ng
cycl e condi ti ons.
c. Extraction turbine selection. Any automati c
extracti on turbi ne i s more expensi ve than i ts
strai ght uncontrol l ed extracti on counterpart of si m-
i l ar si ze, capaci ty and type; i ts sel ecti on and use re-
qui re comprehensi ve pl anni ng studi es and economi c
anal ysi s for justi fi cati on. Someti mes the same ob-
jecti ve can be achi eved by sel ecti ng two uni ts, one of
whi ch i s an uncontrol l ed extracti on-condensi ng ma-
chi ne and the other a back pressure machi ne.
3-25. Instruments and spec ial tools
a. Operating instruments. Each turbi ne wi l l be
equi pped wi th appropri ate i nstruments and al arms
to moni tor normal and abnormal operati ng condi -
ti ons i ncl udi ng speed, vi brati on, shel l and rotor ex-
pansi ons, steam and metal temperatures, rotor
strai ghtness, turni ng gear operati on, and vari ous
steam, oi l and hydraul i c system pressures.
b. Special took. Parti cul arl y for l arger machi nes,
compl ete sets of speci al tool s, l i fti ng bars, and re-
l ated speci al i tems are requi red for organi zed and ef-
fecti ve erecti on and mai ntenance.
Sec tion VI. CONDENSER AND CIRCULATING WATERSYSTEM
3-26. Introduc tion
a. Purpose.
(1) The pri mary purpose of a condenser and ci r-
cul ati ng water system i s to remove the l atent heat
from the steam exhausted from the exhaust end of
the steam turbi ne pri me mover, and to transfer the
l atent heat so removed to the ci rcul ati ng water
whi ch i s the medi um for di ssi pati ng thi s heat to the
atmosphere. A secondary purpose i s to recover the
condensate resul ti ng from the phase change i n the
exhaust steam and to reci rcul ate i t as the worki ng
fl ui d i n the cycl e.
(2) Practi cal l y, these purposes are accom-
pl i shed i n two steps. I n the fi rst step, the condenser
i s suppl i ed wi th ci rcul ati ng water whi ch serves as a
medi um for absorbi ng the l atent heat i n the con-
densi ng exhaust steam. The source of thi s ci rcul at-
i ng water can be a natural body of water such as an
ocean, a ri ver, or a l ake, or i t can be from a reci rcu-
l ated source such as a cool i ng tower or cool i ng pond.
I n the second step, the heated ci rcul ati ng water i s
rejected to the natural body of water or reci rcul ated
source whi ch, i n turn, transfers the heat to the at-
mosphere, pri nci pal l y by evaporati ve cool i ng effect.
b. Equipment requiredgeneral. Equi pment re-
qui red for a system depends on the type of system
uti l i zed. There are two basi c types of con-
densers: surface and di rect contact.
There are al so two basi c types of cool i ng sys-
tems:
Once through; and
Reci rcul ati ng type, i ncl udi ng cool i ng ponds, me-
chani cal draft cool i ng towers, natural draft cool i ng
towers, or a combi nati on of a pond and tower.
3-34
TM 5-811-6
3-27. Desc ription of major c omponents
a. Surface condensers.
(1) General description. These uni ts are de-
si gned as shel l and tube heat exchangers. A surface
condenser consi sts of a casi ng or shel l wi th a cham-
ber at each end cal l ed a water box. Tube sheets
separate the two water boxes from the center steam
space. Banks of tubes connect the water boxes by
pi erci ng the tube sheets; the tubes essenti al l y fi l l
the shel l or steam space. Ci rcul ati ng water pumps
force the cool i ng (ci rcul ati ng] water through the wa-
ter boxes and the connecti ng tubes. Uncontami -
.
nated condensate i s recovered i n surface condensers
si nce the cool i ng water does not mi x wi th the con-
densi ng steam. Steam pressure i n a condenser (or
*
vacuum) depends mai nl y on the fl ow rate and tem-
perature of the cool i ng water and on the effecti ve-
ness of ai r removal equi pment.
(2) Passes and water boxes.
(a) Tubi ng and water boxes may be arranged
for si ngl e pass or two pass fl ow of water through the
shel l . I n si ngl e pass uni ts, water enters the water
box at one end of the tubes, fl ows once through al l
the tubes i n paral l el , and l eaves through the outl et
water box at the opposi te end of the tubes. I n two
pass uni ts, water fl ows through the bottom hal f of
the tubes (someti mes the top hal f) i n one di recti on,
L
reverses i n the far end water box, and returns
through the upper or l ower hal f of the tubes to the
near water box. Water enters and l eaves through the
near water box whi ch i s di vi ded i nto two chambers
by a hori zontal pl ate. The far end water box i s undi -
vi ded to permi t reversal of fl ow.
(b) For a rel ati vel y l arge cool i ng water source
and l ow ci rcul ati ng water pump heads (hence l ow
uni t pumpi ng energy costs), si ngl e pass uni ts wi l l be
.
used. For l i mi ted cool i ng water suppl i es and hi gh
ci rcul ati ng water pump heads (hence hi gh uni t
pumpi ng energy costs), two pass condensers wi l l be
<
speci fi ed. I n al l cases, the overal l condenser-ci rcul at-
i ng water system must be opti mi zed by the desi gner
to arri ve at the best combi nati on of condenser sur-
face, temperature, vacuum, ci rcul ati ng water
pumps, pi pi ng, and ul ti mate heat rejecti on equi p-
ment.
(c) Most l arge condensers, i n addi ti on to the
i nl et waterbox hori zontal di vi si on, have verti cal par-
ti ti ons to gi ve two separate paral l el fl ow paths
through the shel l . Thi s permi ts taki ng hal f the con-
densi ng surface our of servi ce for cl eani ng whi l e wa-
ter fl ows through the other hal f to keep the uni t run-
ni ng at reduced l oad.
(3) Hot well. The hot wel l stores the condensate
L
and keeps a net posi ti ve sucti on head on the conden-
sate pumps. Hot wel l wi l l have a capaci ty of at l east
3 mi nutes maxi mum condensi ng l oad for surges and
to permi t vari ati ons i n l evel for the condensate con-
trol system.
(4) Air removal offtakes. One or more ai r off-
takes i n the steam space l ead accumul ati ng ai r to
the ai r removal pump.
(5) Tubes.
(a) The tubes provi de the heat transfer sur-
face i n the condenser are fastened i nto tube sheets,
usual l y made of Muntz metal . Modern desi gns have
tubes rol l ed i nto both tube sheets; for ul tra-ti ght-
ness, al l oy steel tubes may be wel ded i nto tube
sheets of appropri ate materi al . Admi ral ty i s the
most common tube materi al and frequentl y i s sati s-
factory for once through systems usi ng fresh water
and for reci rcul ati ng systems. Tube materi al i n the
off gas secti on of the condenser shoul d be stai n-
l ess steel because of the hi ghl y corrosi ve effects of
carbon di oxi de and ammoni a i n the presence of
moi sture and oxygen. These gases are most concen-
trated i n thi s secti on. Other typi cal condenser tube
materi al s i ncl ude:
(1) Cuproni ckel
(2) Al umi num bronze
(3) Al umi ni m brass
(4) Vari ous grades of stai nl ess steel
(b) Condenser tube water vel oci ti es range
from 6 to 9 feet per second (Tabl e 3- 12). Hi gher fl ow
rates rai se pumpi ng power requi rements and erode
tubes at thei r entrances, thus shorteni ng thei r l i fe
expectancy. Lower vel oci ti es are i neffi ci ent from a
heat transfer poi nt of vi ew. Tubes are general l y i n-
stal l ed wi th an upwardl y bowed arc. Thi s provi des
for thermal expansi on, ai ds drai nage i n a shutdown
condenser, and hel ps prevent tube vi brati on.
b. Direct contact condensers. Di rect contact con-
densers wi l l not be speci fi ed.
c. Condenser auxiliaries.
(1) General. A condenser needs equi pment and
condui ts to move cool i ng water through the tubes,
remove ai r from the steam space, and extract con-
densate from the hotwel l . Such equi pment and con-
dui ts wi l l i ncl ude:
(a) Ci rcul ati ng water pumps.
(b) Condensate or hotwel l pumps.
(c) Ai r removal equi pment and pi pi ng.
(d) Pri mi ng ejectors.
(e) Atmospheri c rel i ef val ve.
(f) I nlet water tunnel , pi pi ng, canal , or com-
bi nati on of these condui ts.
(g) Di scharge water tunnel , pi pi ng or canal ,
or combi nati on of these condui ts.
(2) Circulating water pumps. A condenser uses
75 to 100 pounds of ci rcul ati ng water per pound of
steam condensed. Hence, l arge uni ts need substan-
ti al water fl ows; to keep pump work to a mi ni mum,
top of condenser water boxes i n a cl osed system wi l l
3-35
TM 5-811-6
Table 3-12. Condenser Tube Design Velocities.
Mater i al Des i gn Vel oci ti es fps
Fresh Water Bracki sh Water Sal t Water
Admi r al ty Metal 7.0 (1) (1)
Al umi num Br ass
(2)
8.0 7.0 7.0
Copper -Ni ck el Al l oys:
90-10 8.0 8.0 7.0 to 7.5
80-20 8.0 8.0 7.0 to 7.5
70-30 9.0 9.0 8.0 to 8.5
Stai n l es s Steel 9.0 to 9.5 8 . 0
( 3 )
8 . 0
( 3 )
Al umi num
(4)
8.0 7.0 6.8
NOTES :
(1) Not nor mal l y used, but i f u s ed, v el oci ty s h al l n ot ex ceed 6.0 fps .
(2) For sal t and br ack i sh water , v el oci ti es i n ex ces s of 6.8 fps ar e
not recommended.
(3) Mi n i mu m vel oci ty of 5.5 fps to pr event chl or i de attack .
(4) Not r ecommended for ci r cul ati ng water contai ni ng hi gh concentr ati on
of heavy metal sal ts.
U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers
not be hi gher than approxi matel y 27 feet above mi n-
i mum water source l evel whi ch permi ts si phon oper-
ati on wi thout i mposi ng stati c head. Wi th a si phon
system, ai r bubbl es tend to mi grate to the top of the
system and must be removed wi th vacuum-produc-
i ng equi pment. The ci rcul ati ng pumps then need to
devel op onl y enough head to overcome the fl ow re-
si stance of the ci rcul ati ng water ci rcui t. Ci rcul ati ng
pumps for condensers are general l y of the centri f-
ugal type for hori zontal pumps, and ei ther mi xed
fl ow or propel l er type for verti cal pumps. Verti cal
pumps wi l l be speci fi ed because of thei r adaptabi l i ty
for i ntake structures and thei r abi l i ty to handl e hi gh
capaci ti es at rel ati vel y l ow heads. Pump materi al
wi l l be sel ected for l ong l i fe.
(3) Condensate pumps. Condensate (or hotwel l )
pumps handl e much smal l er fl ows than the ci rcul at-
i ng water pumps. They must devel op heads to push
water through atmospheri c pressure, pi pe and con-
trol val ve fri cti on, cl osed heater water ci rcui t fri c-
ti on, and the el evati on of the deaerator storage tank.
These pumps take sucti on at l ow pressure of two
i nches Hg absol ute or l ess and handl e water at sat-
urati on temperature; to prevent fl ashi ng of the con-
densate, they are mounted bel ow the hotwel l to re-
cei ve a net posi ti ve sucti on head. Modern verti cal
can type pumps wi l l be used. Speci al l y desi gned
pump gl ands prevent ai r l eakage i nto the conden-
sate, and vents from the pump connecti ng to the va-
por space i n the condenser prevent vapor bi ndi ng.
(4) Spare pumps. Two 100 percent pumps for
both ci rcul ati ng water and condensate servi ce wi l l
be speci fi ed. I f the ci rcul ati ng water system serves
more than one condenser, there wi l l be one ci rcul at-
i ng pump per condenser wi th an extra pump as a
common spare. Condensate pump capaci ty wi l l be
si zed to handl e the maxi mum condenser l oad under
any condi ti on of operati on (e.g., wi th automati c ex-
tracti on to heati ng or process shutoff and i ncl udi ng
al l feedwater heater drai ns and mi scel l aneous dri ps
recei ved by the condenser.)
(5) Air removal.
(a) Non-condensabl e gases such as ai r, carbon
di oxi de, and hydrogen mi grate conti nuousl y i nto
the steam space of a condenser i nasmuch as i t i s the
l owest pressure regi on i n the cycl e. These gases may
enter through l eakage at gl ands, val ve bonnets, por-
ous wal l s, or may be i n the throttl e steam. Those
gases not di ssol ved by the condensate di ffuse
throughout the steam space of the condenser. As
these gases accumul ate, thei r parti al pressure rai ses
the condenser total pressure and hence decreases ef-
fi ci ency of the turbi ne because of l oss of avai l abl e
energy. The total condenser pressure i s:
P
c
= P
S
+ P
a
where P
s
= steam saturati on pressure cor-
respondi ng to steam tempera-
tur e
Pa = ai r pressure (moi sture free)
L
Thi s equati on shows that ai r l eakage must be re-
moved constantl y to mai ntai n l owest possi bl e vac-
uum for the equi pment sel ected and the parti cul ar
exhaust steam l oadi ng. I n removi ng thi s ai r, i t wi l l
al ways have some entrai ned vapor. Because of i ts
subatmospheri c pressure, the mi xture must be com-
pressed for di scharge to atmosphere.
(b) Al though the mass of ai r l eakage to the
condenser may be rel ati vel y smal l because of i ts
.
very l ow pressure, i ts removal requi res handl i ng of a
l arge vol ume by the ai r removal equi pment. The ai r
offtakes wi thdraw the ai r-vapor moi sture from the
.
steam space over a col d secti on of the condenser
tubes or through an external cool er, whi ch con-
denses part of the moi sture and i ncreases the ai r-to-
steam rati o. Steam jets or mechani cal vacuum
pumps recei ve the mi xture and compress i t to at-
mosphere pressure.
(6) Condenser cl eanl i ness. Surface condenser
performance depends greatl y on the cl eanl i ness of
the tube water si de heat transfer surface. When
di rty fresh water or sea water i s used i n the ci rcul at-
i ng water system, automati c backfl ush or mechan-
i cal cl eani ng systems wi l l be speci fi ed for on l i ne
cl eani ng of the i nteri or condenser tube surfaces.
d. Circulating water systemonce through
(1) System components. A typi cal once through
ci rcul ati ng water system, shown i n fi gure 3-13, con-
si sts of the fol l owi ng components:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
TM 5-811-6
I ntake structure.
Di scharge, or outfal l .
Trash racks.
Travel i ng screens.
Ci rcul ati ng water pumps.
Ci rcul ati ng water pump structure (i ndoor
or outdoor).
(g) Ci rcul ati ng water canal s, tunnel s, and
pi pewor k.
(2) System operation.
(a) The ci rcul ati ng water system functi ons as
fol l ows. Water from an ocean, ri ver, l ake, or pond
fl ows ei ther di rectl y from the source to the ci rcul at-
i ng water structure or through condui ts whi ch bri ng
water from offshore; the i nl et condui ts di scharge
i nto a common pl enum whi ch i s part of the ci rcul at-
i ng water pump structure. Water fl ows through bar
trash racks whi ch protect the travel i ng screens from
damage by heavy debri s and then through travel i ng
screens where smal l er debri s i s removed. For l arge
systems, a motor operated trash rake can be i n-
stal l ed to cl ear the bar trash racks of heavy debri s.
I n case the travel i ng screens become cl ogged, or to
prevent cl oggi ng, they are peri odi cal l y backwashes
by a hi gh pressure water jet system. The backwash
i s returned to the ocean or other body of water. Each
separate screen wel l i s provi ded wi th stop l ogs and
sl ui ce gates to al l ow dewateri ng for mai ntenance
pur poses.
(b) The water for each screen fl ows to the suc-
ti on of the ci rcul ati ng water pumps. For smal l sys-
tems, two 100-percent capaci ty pumps wi l l be se-
l ected whi l e for l arger systems, three 50-percent
pumps wi l l be used. At l east one pump i s requi red
for standby. Each pump wi l l be equi pped wi th a mo-
tori zed butterfl y val ve for i sol ati on purposes. The
pumps di scharge i nto a common ci rcul ati ng water
tunnel or suppl y pi pe whi ch may feed one or more
condensers. Al so, a branch l i ne del i vers water to the
booster pumps servi ng the cl osed cool i ng water ex-
changer s.
(c) Both i nl et and outl et water boxes of the
mai n condensers wi l l be equi pped wi th butterfl y
val ves for i sol ati on purposes and expansi on joi nts.
As menti oned above, the system may have the capa-
bi l i ty to reverse fl ow i n each of the condenser hal ves
for cl eani ng the tubes. The frequency and durati on
of the condenser reverse fl ow or back wash opera-
ti on i s di ctated by operati ng experi ence.
(d) The warmed ci rcul ati ng water from the
condensers and cl osed cool i ng water exchangers i s
di scharged to the ocean, ri ver, l ake, or pond vi a a
common di scharge tunnel .
(3) Circulating water pump setting. The ci rcu-
l ati ng water pumps are desi gned to remai n operabl e
wi th the water l evel at the l owest anti ci pated el eva-
3-37
TM 5-811-6
I
NAVFAC DM3
Figure 3-13. Types of circulating water systems.
ti on of the sel ected source. Thi s l evel i s a functi on of
the neap ti de for an ocean source and seasonal l evel
vari ati ons for a natural l ake or ri ver. Cool i ng ponds
are usual l y man-made wi th the l evel control l ed wi th-
i n modest l i mi ts. The pump motors and val ve motor
operators wi l l be l ocated so that no el ectri cal parts
wi l l be i mmersed i n water at the hi ghest anti ci pated
el evati on of the water source.
(4) System pressure control. On shutdown of a
ci rcul ati ng water pump, water hammer i s avoi ded
by ensuri ng that the pumps coast down as the pump
i sol ati on val ves cl ose. System hydraul i cs, ci rcul at-
i ng pump coastdown ti mes, and system i sol ati on
val ve cl osi ng ti mes must be anal yzed to precl ude
damage to the system due to water hammer. The
condenser tubes and water boxes are to be desi gned
for a pressure of approxi matel y 25 psi g whi ch i s wel l
above the ordi nary maxi mum di scharge pressure of
the ci rcul ati ng water pumps, but al l equi pment
must be protected agai nst surge pressures caused
by sudden col l apse of system pressure.
(5) I nspection and testing. Al l acti ve compo-
nents of the ci rcul ati ng water system wi l l be accessi -
bl e for i nspecti on duri ng stati on operati on.
e. Circulating water systemrecirculating type
(1) General discussion.
(a) Wi th a once-through system, the evapora-
ti ve l osses responsi bl e for rejecti ng heat to the at-
mosphere occur i n the natural body of water as the
warmed ci rcul ati ng water i s mi xed wi th the resi dual
water and i s cool ed over a peri od of ti me by evapora-
ti on and conducti on heat transfer. Wi th a reci rcul a-
ti on system, the same water constantl y ci rcul ates;
evaporati ve l osses responsi bl e for rejecti ng heat to
the atmosphere occur i n the cool i ng equi pment and
must be repl eni shed at the power pl ant si te. Reci rcu-
l ati ng systems can uti l i ze one of the fol l owi ng for
heat rejecti on:
(1) A natural draft, hyperbol i c cool i ng tow-
er .
(2) A mechani cal draft cool i ng tower, us-
ual l y i nduced draft.
(3) A spray pond wi th a network of pi pi ng
servi ng banks of spray nozzl es.
(b) Very l arge, man-made ponds whi ch take
advantage of natural evaporati ve cool i ng may be
consi dered as reci rcul ati ng systems, al though for
desi gn purposes of the ci rcul ati ng water system
3-38
TM 5-811-6
they are once through and hence consi dered as such
i n paragraph d above.
(c) To avoi d foggi ng and pl umes whi ch are
characteri sti c of cool i ng towers under certai n at-
mospheri c condi ti ons i n humi d cl i mates, so cal l ed
wet-dry cool i ng towers may be used. These towers
use a combi nati on of fi nned heat transfer surface
and evaporati ve cool i ng to el i mi nate the fog and vi s-
i bl e pl ume. The wet-dry types of towers are expen-
si ve and not consi dered i n thi s manual . Hyperbol i c
towers al so are expensi ve and are not appl i cabl e to
uni ts l ess than 300-500 M W; whi l e spray ponds
have l i mi ted appl i cati on (for smal l er uni ts) because
of the l arge ground area requi red and the probl em of
excessi ve dri ft. Therefore, the fol l owi ng descri pti ve
materi al appl i es onl y to conventi onal i nduced draft
cool i ng towers whi ch, except for very speci al ci r-
cumstances, wi l l be the choi ce for a mi l i tary power
pl ant requi ri ng a reci rcul ati ng type system.
(2) System components. A typi cal reci rcul ati ng
system wi th a mechani cal draft cool i ng tower con-
si sts of the fol l owi ng components:
(a) I ntake structure whi ch i s usual l y an ex-
tensi on of the cool i ng tower basi n.
(b) Ci rcul ati ng water pumps.
(c) Ci rcul ati ng water pi pi ng or tunnel s to con-
densers and from condensers to top of cool i ng tower.
(d) Cool i ng tower wi th makeup and bl owdown
systems.
(3) System operation.
(a) The reci rcul ati ng system functi ons as fol -
l ows. Cool ed water from the tower basi n i s di rected
to the ci rcul ati ng water pump pi t. The pi t i s si mi l ar
to the i ntake structure for a once through system ex-
cept i t i s much si mpl er because trash racks or trav-
el i ng screens are not requi red, and the pi t setti ng
can be desi gned wi thout reference to l evel s of a nat-
ural body of water. The ci rcul ati ng water pumps
pressure the water and di rect i t to the condensers
through the ci rcul ati ng water di scharge pi pi ng. A
stream of ci rcul ati ng water i s taken off from the
mai n condenser suppl y and by means of booster
pumps further pressuri zed as requi red for beari ng
cool i ng, generator cool i ng, and turbi ne generator oi l
cool i ng. From the outl et of the condensers and mi s-
cel l aneous cool i ng servi ces, the warmed ci rcul ati ng
water i s di rected to the top of the cool i ng tower for
rejecti on of heat to the atmosphere.
(b) Ci rcul ati ng water pump and condenser
val vi ng i s si mi l ar to that descri bed for a typi cal
once-through system, but no automati c back fl ush-
i ng or mechani cal cl eani ng system i s requi red for
the condenser. Al so, due to the hi gher pumpi ng
heads commonl y requi red for el evati ng water to the
top of the tower and the break i n water pressure at
that poi nt whi ch precl udes a si phon, hi gher pressure
rati ngs for the pumps and condensers wi l l be speci -
fi ed.
(4) Cooling tower design.
(a) I n an i nduced draft mechani cal cool i ng
tower, atmospheri c ai r enters the l ouvers at the bot-
tom peri meter of the tower, fl ows up through the
fi l l , usual l y counterfl ow to the fal l i ng water drop
l ets, and i s ejected to the atmosphere i n saturated
condi ti on thus carryi ng off the operati ng l oad of
heat pi cked up i n the condenser. Pl acement and ar-
rangement of the tower or towers on the power sta-
ti on si te wi l l be careful l y pl anned to avoi d reci rcul a-
ti on of saturated ai r back i nto the tower i ntake and
to prevent dri ft from the tower deposi ti ng on el ec-
tri cal buses and equi pment i n the swi tchyard, road-
ways and other areas where the dri ft coul d be detri -
mental .
(b) Hot ci rcul ati ng water from the condenser
enters the di stri buti on header at the top of the tow-
er. I n conventi onal towers about 75 percent of the
cool i ng takes pl ace be evaporati on and the re-
mai nder by heat conducti on; the rati o depends on
the humi di ty of the enteri ng ai r and vari ous factors.
(5) Cooling tower performance. The pri nci pal
performance factor of a cool i ng tower i s i ts approach
to the wet bul b temperature; thi s i s the di fference
between the col d water temperature l eavi ng the tow-
er and the wet bul b temperature of the enteri ng ai r.
The smal l er the approach, the more effi ci ent and ex-
pensi ve the tower. Another cri ti cal factor i s the cool -
i ng range. Thi s i s the di fference between the hot wa-
ter temperature enteri ng the tower and the col d wa-
ter temperature l eavi ng i t i s essenti al l y the same as
the ci rcul ati ng water temperature ri se i n the conden-
ser. Practi cal l y, tower approaches are 8 to 15F wi th
ranges of 18 to 22F. Sel ecti on of approach and
range for a tower i s the subject for an economi c opti -
mi zati on whi ch shoul d i ncl ude si mul taneous sel ec-
ti on of the condensers as these two major i tems of
equi pment are i nterdependent.
(6) Cooling tower makeup.
(a) Makeup must be conti nuousl y added to
the tower col l ecti ng basi n to repl ace water l ost by
evaporati on and dri ft. I n many cases, the makeup
water must be softened to prevent scal i ng of heat
transfer surfaces; thi s wi l l be accompl i shed by
means of col d l i me softeni ng. Al so the ci rcul ati ng
water must be treated wi th bi oxi des and i nhi bi tors
whi l e i n use to ki l l al gae, preserve the fi l l , and pre-
vent metal corrosi on and foul i ng. Al gae control i s
accompl i shed by means of chl ori ne i njecti on; aci d
and phosphate feeds are used for pH control and to
keep heat surfaces cl ean.
(b) The ci rcul ati ng water system must be
bl own down peri odi cal l y to remove the accumul ated
sol i d concentrated by evaporati on.
3-39
TM 5-811-6
3-28. Environmental c onc erns
a. Possible problems. Some of the envi ronmental
concerns whi ch have an i mpact on vari ous types of
power pl ant waste heat rejecti on systems are as fol -
l ows:
(1) Compati bi l i ty of ci rcul ati ng water system
wi th type of l and use al l ocated to the surroundi ng
area of the power pl ant.
(2) Atmospheri c ground l evel foggi ng from
cool i ng tower.
(3) Cool i ng tower pl umes.
(4) I ce formati on on adjacent roads, bui l di ngs
and structures i n the wi nter.
(5) Noi se from cool i ng tower fans and ci rcul at-
i ng water pumps.
(6) Sal ts deposi ti on on the conti guous country-
si de as the evaporated water from the tower i s ab-
sorbed i n the atmosphere and the entrai ned chemi -
cal s i njected i n the ci rcul ati ng water system fal l out.
(7) Effect on aquati c l i fe for once though sys-
tems:
(a) Entrapment or fi sh ki l l .
(b) Mi grati on of aquati c l i fe.
(c) Thermal di scharge.
(d) Chemi cal di scharge.
(e) Effect of pl ankton.
(8) Effect on ani mal and bi rd l i fe.
(9) Possi bl e obstructi on to ai rcraft (usual l y onl y
a probl em for tal l hyperbol i c towers).
(10) Obstructi on to shi p and boat navi gati on
(for once through system i ntakes or navi gabl e
streams or bodi es of water).
b. Solutions to problems. Judi ci ous sel ecti on of
the type of ci rcul ati ng water system and opti mum
ori entati on of the power pl ant at the si te can mi ni -
mi ze these probl ems. However, many mi l i tary proj-
ects wi l l i nvol ve cogenerati on faci l i ti es whi ch may
requi re use of exi sti ng areas where constructi on of
cool i ng towers may present seri ous on base prob-
l ems and, hence, wi l l requi re i nnovati ve desi gn sol u-
ti ons.
Sec tion VII. FEEDWATER SYSTEM
3-29. Feedwater heaters
a. Open typedeaerators.
(1) Purpose. Open type feedwater heaters are
used pri mari l y to reduce feedwater oxygen and oth-
er noncondensabl e gases to essenti al l y zero and thus
decrease corrosi on i n the boi l er and boi l er feed sys-
tem. Secondari l y, they are used to i ncrease thermal
effi ci ency as part of the regenerati ve feedwater heat-
i ng cycl e.
(2) Types.
(a) There are two basi c types of open deaerat-
i ng heaters used i n steam power pl antstray type
and spray type. The tray or combi nati on spray/tray
type uni t wi l l be used. I n pl ants where heater tray
mai ntenance coul d be a probl em, or where the feed-
water has a hi gh sol i ds content or i s corrosi ve, a
spray type deaerator wi l l be consi dered.
(b) Al l types of deaerators wi l l have i nternal
or external vent condensers, the i nternal parts of
whi ch wi l l be protected from corrosi ve gases and
oxi dati on by chl ori de stress resi stant stai nl ess steel .
(c) I n cogenerati on pl ants where l arge
amounts of raw water makeup are requi red, a deaer-
ati ng hot process softener wi l l be sel ected dependi ng
on the steam condi ti ons and the type of raw water
bei ng treated (Secti on I X, paragraph 3-38 and
3-39).
(3) Location. The deaerati ng heater shoul d be
l ocated to mai ntai n a pressure hi gher than the
NPSH requi red by the boi l er feed pumps under al l
condi ti ons of operati on. Thi s means provi di ng a
margi n of stati c head to compensate for sudden fal l
off i n deaerator pressure under an upset condi ti on.
Access wi l l be provi ded for heater mai ntenance and
for readi ng and mai ntai ni ng heater i nstrumenta-
ti on.
(4) Design criteria.
(a) Deaerati ng heaters and storage tanks wi l l
compl y wi th the l atest revi si ons of the fol l owi ng
standar ds:
(1) ASME Uni fi ed Pressure Vessel Code.
(2) ASME Power Test Code for Deaerators.
(3) Heat Exchanger I nsti tute (HE I ).
(4) Ameri can Nati onal Standards I nsti tute
(ANSI ).
(b) Steam pressure to the deaerati ng heater
will not be l ess than three psi g.
(c) Feedwater l eavi ng the deaerator wi l l con-
tai n no more than 0.005 cc/l i ter of oxygen and zero
resi dual carbon di oxi de. Resi dual content of the di s-
sol ved gases wi l l be consi stent wi th thei r rel ati ve
vol ubi l i ty and i oni zati on.
(d) Deaerator storage capaci ty wi l l be not l ess
than ten mi nutes i n terms of maxi mum desi gn fl ow
through the uni t.
(e) Deaerator wi l l have an i nternal or external
oi l separator i f the steam suppl y may contai n oi l ,
such as from a reci procati ng steam engi ne.
(f) Deaerati ng heater wi l l be provi ded wi th
the fol l owi ng mi ni mum i nstrumentati on: rel i ef
val ve, thermometer, thermocoupl e and test wel l at
feedwater i nl et and outl et, and steam i nl et; pressure
gauge at feedwater and steam i nl ets; and a l evel con-
trol system (paragraph c).
3-40
TM 5-811-6
b. Closed type.
(1) Purpose. al ong wi th the deaerati ng heater,
cl osed feedwater heaters are used i n a regenerati ve
feedwater cycl e to i ncrease thermal effi ci ency and
thus provi de fuel savi ngs. An economi c eval uati on
wi l l be made to determi ne the number of stages of
feedwater heati ng to be i ncorporated i nto the cycl e.
Condensi ng type steam turbi ne uni ts often have
both l ow pressure heaters (sucti on si de of the boi l er
feed pumps) and hi gh pressure heaters (on the di s-
charge si de of the feed pumps). The economi c anal -
ysi s of the heaters shoul d consi der a desuperheater
secti on when there i s a hi gh degree of superheat i n
the steam to the heater and an i nternal or external
drai n cool er (usi ng enteri ng condensate or boi l er
feedwater) to reduce drai ns bel ow steam saturati on
temper atur e.
(2) Type. The feedwater heaters wi l l be of the U-
tube type.
(3) Location. Heaters wi l l be l ocated to al l ow
easy access for readi ng and mai ntai ni ng heater i n-
strumentati on and for pul l i ng the tube bundl e or
heater shel l . Hi gh pressure heaters wi l l be l ocated to
provi de the best economi c bal ance of hi gh pressure
feedwater pi pi ng, steam pi pi ng and heater drai n pi p
i ng.
(4) Design criteria
(a) Heaters wi l l compl y wi th the l atest revi -
si ons of the fol l owi ng standards:
(1) ASME Unfi red Pressure Vessel Code.
(2) ASME Power Test Code for Feedwater
Heater s.
(3) Tubul ar Exchanger Manufacturers As-
soci ati on (TEMA).
(4) Heat Exchanger I nsti tute (HE I ).
(5) Ameri can Nati onal Standards I nsti tute
(ANSI ).
(b) Each feedwater heater wi l l be provi ded
wi th the fol l owi ng mi ni mum i nstrumentati on: shel l
and tube rel i ef val ves; thermometer, thermocoupl e
and test wel l at feedwater i nl et and outl et; steam i n-
l et and drai n outl et; pressure gauge at feedwater i n-
l et and outl et, and steam i nl et; and l evel control sys-
tem.
c. Level control systems.
(1) Purpose. Level control systems are requi red
for al l open and cl osed feedwater heaters to assure
effi ci ent operati on of each heater and provi de for
protecti on of other rel ated power pl ant equi pment.
The l evel control system for the feedwater heaters i s
an i ntegrated part of a pl ant cycl e l evel control sys-
tem whi ch i ncl udes the condenser hotwel l and the
boi l er l evel control s, and must be desi gned wi th thi s
i n mi nd. Thi s paragraph sets forth desi gn cri teri a
whi ch are essenti al to a feedwater heater l evel con-
trol system. Modi fi cati ons may be requi red to fi t the
actual pl ant cycl e.
(2) Closed feedwater heaters.
(a) Cl osed feedwater heater drai ns are usual l y
cascaded to the next l owest stage feedwater heater
or to the condenser, A normal and emergency drai n
l i ne from each heater wi l l be provi ded. At hi gh l oads
wi th hi gh extracti on steam pressure, the normal
heater drai n val ve cascades drai n to the next l owest
stage heater to control i ts own heater l evel . At l ow
l oads wi th l ower extracti on steam pressure and l ow-
er pressure di fferenti al between successi ve heaters,
suffi ci ent pressure may not be avai l abl e to al l ow the
drai ns to fl ow to the next l owest stage heater. I n
thi s case, an emergency drai n val ve wi l l be provi ded
to cascade to a l ower stage heater or to the conden-
ser to hol d the predetermi ned l evel .
(b) The fol l owi ng mi ni mum i nstrumentati on
wi l l be suppl i ed to provi de adequate l evel control at
each heater: gauge gl ass; l evel control l er to modu-
l ate normal drai n l i ne control val ve (i f emergency
drai n l i ne control val ve i s used, control l er must
have a spl i t range); and hi gh water l evel al arm
swi tch.
(3) Open feedwater heaters-deaerators. The fol -
l owi ng mi ni mum i nstrumentati on wi l l be suppl i ed
to pr ovi de adequate l evel contr ol at the
heater: gauge gl ass, l evel control l er to control feed-
water i nl et control wai ve (i f more than one feedwater
i nl et source, control l er must have a spl i t range); l ow
water l evel al arm swi tch; l ow-l ow water l evel
al arm swi tch to sound al arm and tri p boi l er feed
pumps, or other pumps taki ng sucti on from heater;
hi gh water l evel al arm swi tch; and hi gh-hi gh wa-
ter l evel control l er to remove water from the deaer-
ator to the condenser or fl ash tank, or to di vert feed-
water away from the deaerator by openi ng a di vert-
i ng val ve to dump water from the feedwater l i ne to
the condenser or condensate storage tank.
(4) Reference. The fol l owi ng papers shoul d be
consul ted i n desi gni ng feedwater l evel control sys-
tems, parti cul arl y i n regard to the preventi on of wa-
ter i nducti on through extracti on pi pi ng
(a) ASMD Standard TWDPS-1, Jul y 1972,
Recommended Practi ces for the Preventi on of Wa-
ter Damage to Steam Turbi nes Used for El ectri c
Power Generati on (Part 1- Fossi l Fuel ed Pl ants).
(b) General El ectri c Company Standard
GEK-25504, Revi si on D, Desi gn and Operati ng
Recommendati ons to Mi ni mi ze Water I nducti on i n
Large Steam Turbi nes.
(c) Westi nghouse Standard, Recommenda-
ti on to Mi ni mi ze Water Damage to Steam Tur-
bi nes.
3-30. Boiler feed pumps.
a. General. Boi l er feed pumps are used to pressur-
3-41
TM 5-811-6
i ze water from the deaerati ng feedwater heater or
deaerati ng hot process softener and feed i t through
any hi gh pressure cl osed feedwater heaters to the
boi l er i nl et. Di scharge from the boi l er superheated
steam i n order to mai ntai n proper mai n steam tern-
perature to the steam turbi ne generator.
b. Types. There are two types of centri fugal
mul ti -stage boi l er feed pumps commonl y used i n
steam power pl antshori zontal l y spl i t case and bar-
rel type wi th hori zontal or verti cal (segmented) spl i t
i nner case. The hori zontal spl i t case type wi l l be
used on boi l ers wi th rated outl et pressures up to 900
psi g. Barrel type pumps wi l l be used on boi l ers wi th
rated outl et pressure i n excess of 900 psi g.
c. Number of pumps. I n al l cases, at l east one
spare feed pump wi l l be provi ded.
(1) For power pl ants where one battery of boi l er
feed pumps feeds one boi l er.
(a) I f the boi l er i s base l oaded most of the
ti me at a hi gh l oad factor, then use two pumps each
at 110-125 percent of boi l er maxi mum steami ng ca-
paci ty.
(b) I f the boi l er i s subject to dai l y wi de range
l oad swi ngs, use three pumps at 55-62.5 percent of
boi l er maxi mum steami ng capaci ty. Wi th thi s ar-
rangement, two pumps are operated i n paral l el be-
tween 50 and 100 percent boi l er output, but onl y one
pump i s operated bel ow 50 percent capaci ty. Thi s ar-
rangement al l ows for pump operati on i n i ts most ef-
fi ci ent range and al so permi ts a greater degree of
fl exi bi l i ty.
(2) For power pl ants where one battery of pump
feeds more than one boi l er through a header system,
the number of pumps and rati ng wi l l be chosen to
provi de opti mum operati ng effi ci ency and capi tal
costs. At l east three 55-62.5 percent pumps shoul d
be sel ected based on maxi mum steami ng capaci ty of
al l boi l ers served by the battery to provi de the fl exi -
bi l i ty requi red for a wi de range of total feedwater
fl ows.
d. Location. The boi l er feed pumps wi l l be l ocated
at the l owest pl ant l evel wi th the deaerati ng heater
or softener el evated suffi ci entl y to mai ntai n pump
sucti on pressure hi gher than the requi red NPSH of
the pump under al l operati ng condi ti ons. Thi s
means a substanti al margi n over the theoreti cal l y
cal cul ated requi rements to provi de for pressures col -
l apses i n the dearator under abnormal operati ng
condi ti ons. Deaerator l evel wi l l never be decreased
for structural or aestheti c reasons, and sucti on pi pe
connecti ng deaerator to boi l er feed pumps shoul d be
si zed so that fri cti on l oss i s negl i gi bl e.
e. Recirculation control system.
(1) To prevent overheati ng and pump damage,
each boi l er feed pump wi l l have i ts own reci rcul ati on
control system to mai ntai n mi ni mum pump fl ow
whenever the pump i s i n operati on. The control sys-
tem wi l l consi st off
(a) Fl ow el ement to be i nstal l ed i n the pump
sucti on l i ne.
(b) Fl ow control l er.
(c) Fl ow control val ve.
(d) Breakdown ori fi ce.
(2) Whenever the pump fl ow decreases to mi ni -
mum requi red fl ow, as measured by the fl ow el e-
ment i n the sucti on l i ne, the fl ow control l er wi l l be
desi gned to open the fl ow control val ve to mai ntai n
mi ni mum pump fl ow. The reci rcul ati on l i ne wi l l be
di scharge to the deaerator. A breakdown ori fi ce wi l l
be i nstal l ed i n the reci rcul ati on l i ne just before i t en-
ters the deaerator to reduce the pressure from boi l er
feed pump di scharge l evel to deaerator operati ng
pressure.
f. Design criteria.
(1) Boi l er feed pumps wi l l compl y wi th the l at-
est revi si ons of the fol l owi ng standards:
(a) Hydraul i cs I nsti tute (HI ).
(b) Ameri can Nati onal Standards I nsti tute
(ANSI ).
(2) Pump head characteri sti cs wi l l be maxi mum
at zero fl ow wi th conti nuousl y decreasi ng head as
fl ow i ncreases to i nsure stabl e operati on of one
pump, or mul ti pl e pumps i n paral l el , at al l l oads.
(3) Pumps wi l l operate qui etl y at al l l oads wi th-
out i nternal fl ashi ng and operate conti nuousl y wi th-
out overheati ng or objecti onabl e noi ses at mi ni mum
reci rcul ati on fl ow.
(4) Provi si on wi l l be made i n pump desi gn for
expansi on of
(a) Casi ng and rotor rel ati ve to one another.
(b) Casi ng rel ati ve to the base.
(c) Pump rotor rel ati ve to the shaft of the
dr i ver .
(d) I nner and outer casi ng for doubl e casi ng
pumps.
(5) Al l rotati ng parts wi l l be bal anced stati cal l y
-
and dynami cal l y for al l speeds.
(6) Pump desi gn wi l l provi de axi al as wel l as ra-
di al bal ance of the rotor at al l outputs.
(7) One end of the pump shaft wi l l be accessi bl e
for portabl e tachometer measurements.
(8) Each pump wi l l be provi ded wi th a pump
warmup system so that when i t i s used as a standby
i t can be hot, ready for qui ck startup. Thi s i s done
by connecti ng a smal l bl eed l i ne and ori fi ce from the
common di scharge header to the pump di scharge i n-
si de of the stop and check val ve. Hot water can then
fl ow back through the pump and open sucti on val ve
to the common sucti on header, thus keepi ng the
pump at operati ng temperature.
(9) Pump wi l l be desi gned so that i t wi l l start
safel y from a col d start to ful l l oad i n 60 seconds i n
TM 5-811-6
an emergency, al though i t wi l l normal l y be warmed
before starti ng as descri bed above.
(10) Other desi gn cri teri a shoul d be as forth i n
Mi l i tary Speci fi cati on MI L-P-17552D.
g. Pump drives. For mi l i tary pl ants, one steam
turbi ne dri ven pump may be justi fi ed under certai n
condi ti ons; e.g., i f the pl ant i s i sol ated, or i f i t i s a co-
generati on pl ant or there i s otherwi se a need for sub-
stanti al quanti ti es of exhaust steam. Usual l y, how-
ever, adequate rel i abi l i ty can be i ncorporated i nto
the feed pumps by other means, and from a pl ant ef-
fi ci ency poi nt of vi ew i t i s al ways better to bl eed
steam from the pri me mover(s) rather than to use
steam from an i neffi ci ent mechani cal dri ve turbi ne.
3-31. Feedwater supply
a. General description.
(1) I n general terms, the feedwater suppl y i n-
cl udes the condensate system as wel l as the boi l er
feed system.
(2) The condensate system i ncl udes the conden-
sate pumps, condensate pi pi ng, l ow pressure cl osed
heaters, deaerator, and condensate system l evel and
makeup control s. Cycl e makeup may be i ntroduced
ei ther i nto the condenser hotwel l or the deaerator.
For l arge quanti ti es of makeup as i n cogenerati on
pl ants, the deaerator maybe preferred as i t contai ns
a l arger surge vol ume. The condenser, however, i s
better for thi s purpose when makeup i s of hi gh pur-
i ty and corrosi ve (demi neral i zed and undeaerated).
Wi th thi s arrangement, corrosi ve demi neral i zed wa-
ter can be deaerated i n the condenser hotwel l ; the
excess not i mmedi atel y requi red for cycl e makeup i s
extracted and pumped to an atmospheri c storage
tank where i t wi l l be passi ve i n i ts deaerated state.
As hotwel l condensate i s at a much l ower tempera-
ture than deaerator condensate, the heat l oss i n the
atmospheri c storage tank i s much l ess wi th thi s ar-
r angement.
(3) The feedwater system i ncl udes the boi l er
feed pumps, hi gh pressure cl osed heaters, boi l er feed
sucti on and di scharge pi pi ng, feedwater l evel con-
trol s for the boi l er, and boi l er desuperheater water
suppl y wi th i ts pi pi ng and control s.
b. Unit vs. common system. Mul ti pl e uni t cogen-
erati on pl ants produci ng export steam as wel l as
el ectri c wi l l al ways have ti es for the hi gh pressure
Sec tion Vlll. SERVICE WATER
3-32. Introduc tion
a. Definitions and purposes. Servi ce water suppl y
systems and subsystems can be categori zed as fol -
l ows:
(1) For stati ons wi th sal t ci rcul ati ng water or
steam, the extracti on steam, and the hi gh pressure
feedwater system. I f there are l ow pressure cl osed
heaters i ncorporated i nto the pri me movers, the con-
densate system usual l y remai ns i ndependent for
each such pri me mover; however, the deaerator and
boi l er feed pumps are frequentl y common for al l
boi l ers al though paral l el i ng of i ndependent hi gh
pressure heater trai ns (i f part of the cycl e) on the
feedwater si de maybe i ncorporated i f hi gh pressure
bl eeds on the pri mer movers are uncontrol l ed. Each
cogenerati on feedwater system must careful l y be de-
si gned to sui t the basi c parameters of the cycl e. Lev-
el control probl ems can become compl ex, parti cu-
l arl y i f the cycl e i ncl udes mul ti pl e deaerators operat-
i ng i n paral l el .
c. Feedwater controls. Condensate pumps, boi l er
feed pumps, deaerator, and cl osed feedwater heaters
are descri bed as equi pment i tems under other head-
i ngs i n thi s manual . Feedwater system control s wi l l
consi st of the fol l owi ng
(1) Condenser hotwel l l evel control s whi ch con-
trol hotwel l l evel by reci rcul ati ng condensate from
the condensate pump di scharge to the hotwel l , by
extracti ng excess fl ui d from the cycl e and pumpi ng
i t to atmospheri c condensate storage (surge) tanks,
and by i ntroduci ng makeup (usual l y from the same
condensate storage tanks) i nto the hotwel l to repl en-
i sh cycl e fl ui d.
(2) Condensate pump mi ni mum fl ow control s to
reci rcul ate suffi ci ent condensate back to the con-
denser hotwel l to prevent condensate pumps from
over heati ng.
(3) Deaerator l evel control s to regul ate amount
of condensate transferred from condenser hotwel l to
deaerator and, i n an emergency, to overfl ow excess
water i n the deaerator storage tank to the conden-
sate storage tank(s).
(4) Numerous di fferent control systems are pos-
si bl e for al l three of the above categori es. Regardl ess
of the method sel ected, the hotwel l and the deaer-
ator l evel control s must be cl osel y coordi nated and
i ntegrated because the hotwel l and deaerator tank
are both surge vessel s i n the same fl ui d system.
(5) Other detai l s on i nstruments and control s
for the feedwater suppl y are descri bed under Secti on
1 of Chapter 5, I nstruments and Control s.
heavi l y contami nated or sedi mented fresh ci rcul at-
i ng water.
(a) Most power stati ons, other than those
wi th cool i ng towers, fal l i nto thi s category. Ci rcul at-
i ng water booster pumps i ncrease the pressure of a
(smal l ) part of the ci rcul ati ng water to a l evel ade-
3-43
TM 5-811-6
quate to ci rcul ate through cl osed cool i ng water ex-
changers. I f the source i s fresh water, these pumps
may al so suppl y water to the water treati ng system.
Suppl ementary sources of water such as the area
publ i c water suppl y or wel l water may be used for
potabl e use and/or as a suppl y to the water treati ng
system. I n some cases, parti cul arl y for l arger sta-
ti ons, the servi ce water system may have i ts pumps
di vorced from the ci rcul ati ng water pumps to pro-
vi de more fl exi bi l i ty y and rel i abi l i ty.
(b) The cl osed cool i ng water exchangers
transfer rejected heat from the turbi ne generator
l ube oi l and generator ai r (or hydrogen) cool ers, bear-
i ngs and i nci dental use to the ci rcul ati ng water si de-
stream pressuri zed by the booster pumps. The medi -
um used for thi s transfer i s cycl e condensate whi ch
reci rcul ates between the cl osed cool i ng exchangers
and the ul ti mate equi pment where heat i s removed.
Thi s cl osed cool i ng cycl e has i ts own ci rcul ati ng
(cl osed cool i ng water) pumps, expansi on tank and
temperature control s.
(2) For stati ons wi th cool i ng towers. Ci rcul at-
i ng water booster pumps (or separate servi ce water
pumps). may al so be used for thi s type of power
pl ant. I n the case of cool i ng tower systems, how-
ever, the treated cool i ng tower ci rcul ati ng water can
be used di rectl y i n the turbi ne generator l ube oi l and
generator ai r (or hydrogen) cool ers and vari ous other
servi ces where a condensate qual i ty cool i ng medi um
i s unnecessary. Thi s substanti al l y reduces the si ze
of a cl osed cool i ng system because the turbi ne gen-
erator auxi l i ary cool i ng requi rements are the l argest
heat rejecti on l oad other than that requi red for the
mai n condenser. I f a cl osed cool i ng system i s used
for a stati on wi th a cool i ng tower, i t shoul d be de-
si gned to serve equi pment such as ai r compressor
cyl i nder jackets and after cool ers, exci tati on system
cool ers, hydraul i c system fl ui d cool ers, boi l er TV
cameras, and other si mi l ar more or l ess del i cate
servi ce. I f avai l abl e, ci ty water, hi gh qual i ty wel l
water, or other cl ean water source mi ght be used for
thi s del i cate equi pment cool i ng servi ce and thus
el i mi nate the cl osed cool i ng water system.
b. Equipment requiredgeneral. Equi pment re-
qui red for each system i s as fol l ows:
(1) Servi ce water system
(a) Ci rcul ati ng water booster pumps (or sepa-
rate servi ce water pumps).
(b) Pi pi ng components, val ves, speci al i ti es
and i nstrumentati on.
(2) Cl osed cool i ng water system.
(a) Cosed cool i ng water ci rcul ati ng pumps.
(b) Cl osed cool i ng water heat exchangers.
(c) Expansi on tank.
(d) Pi pi ng components, val ves, speci al i ti es
and i nstrumentati on. Adequate i nstrumentati on
(thermometers, pressure gages, and fl ow i ndi cators)
shoul d be i ncorporated i nto the system to al l ow
moni tori ng of equi pment cool i ng.
3-33. Desc ription of major c omponents
a. Service water systerm.
(1) Circulating water booster (or service water)
pumps. These pumps are motor dri ven, hori zontal
(or verti cal ) centri fugal type. Ei ther two 100-per-
cent or three 50-percent pumps wi l l be sel ected for
thi s duty. Three pumps provi de more fl exi bi l i ty; de-
pendi ng upon heat rejecti on l oad and desi red water
temperature, one pump or two pumps can be oper-
.
ated wi th the thi rd pump standi ng by as a spare. A
pressure swi tch on the common di scharge l i ne
al arms hi gh pressure, and i n the case of the booster
pumps a pressure swi tch on the sucti on header or i n-
terl ocks wi th the ci rcul ati ng water pumps provi des
permi ssi ve to prevent starti ng the pumps unl ess
the ci rcul ati ng water system i s i n operati on.
(2) Temperature control. I n the event the sys-
tem serves heat rejecti on l oads di rectl y, temper-
ature control for each equi pment where heat i s re-
moved wi l l be by means of ei ther automati c or man-
ual l y control l ed val ves i nstal l ed on the cool i ng wa-
ter di scharge l i ne from each pi ece of equi ment, or by
usi ng a by-pass arrangement to pass vari abl e
amounts of water through the equi pment wi thout
upsetti ng system hydraul i c bal ance.
b. Closed cooling water system.
(1) Closed cooling water pumps. The cl osed
cool i ng water pumps wi l l be motor dri ven, hori zon-
tal , end sucti on, centri fugal type wi th two 100-per-
cent or three 50-percent pumps as recommended for
the pumps descri bed i n a above.
(2) Closed cooling water heat exchangers. The
cl osed cool i ng water exchangers wi l l be hori zontal
shel l and tube test exchangers wi th the treated
pl ant cycl e condensate on the shel l si de and ci rcul at-
i ng (servi ce) water on the tube si de. Two 100-per-
cent capaci ty exchangers wi l l be sel ected for thi s
servi ce, al though three 50-percent uni ts may be se-
l ected for l arge systems.
(3) Temperature control. Temperature control
for each equi pment i tem rejecti ng heat wi l l be si mi -
l ar to that descri bed above for the servi ce water sys-
tem.
3-34. Desc ription of systems
a. Service water system.
(1) The servi ce water system heat l oad i s the
sum of the heat l oads for the cl osed cool i ng water
system and any other stati on auxi l i ary systems
whi ch may be i ncl uded. The system i s desi gned to
mai ntai n the cl osed cool i ng water system suppl y
temperature at 950 For l ess duri ng normal operati on
TM 5-811-6
wi th maxi mum heat rejecti on l oad. The system wi l l
al so be capabl e of bei ng control l ed or manual l y ad-
justed so that a mi ni mum cl osed cool i ng water sup
pl y temperature of approxi matel y 55 F can be
mai ntai ned wi th the ul ti mate heat si nk at i ts l owest
temperature and mi ni mum head l oad on the cl osed
cool i ng water system. The servi ce water system wi l l
be desi gned wi th adequate backup and other rel i -
abi l i ty features to provi de the requi red cool i ng to
components as necessary for emergency shutdown
of the pl ant. I n the case of a system wi th ci rcul ati ng
water booster pumps, thi s may mean a crossover
from a ci ty or wel l water system or a speci al smal l
ci rcul ati ng water pump.
(2) Where cool i ng towers are uti l i zed, means
wi l l be provi ded at the cool i ng tower basi n to permi t
the servi ce water system to remai n i n operati on
whi l e the cool i ng tower i s down for mai ntenance or
repai rs.
(3) The system wi l l be desi gned such that opera-
ti onal transi ents (e.g., pump startup or water ham-
mer due to power fai l ure) do not cause adverse ef-
fects i n the system. Where necessary, sui tabl e val v-
i ng or surge control devi ces wi l l be provi ded.
b. Closed cooling water system.
(1) The cl osed cool i ng water cool ant tempera-
ture i s mai ntai ned at a constant val ue by automati c
control of the servi ce water fl ow through the heat
exchanger. Thi s i s achi eved by control val ve modu-
l ati on of the heat exchanger by-pass fl ow. Al l equi p-
ment cool ed by the cool i ng system i s i ndi vi dual l y
temperature control l ed by ei ther manual or auto-
mati c val ves on the cool ant di scharge from, or by
by-pass control around each pi ece of equi pment. The
quanti ty of cool ant i n the system i s automati cal l y
mai ntai ned at a predetermi ned l evel i n the expan-
si on tank by means of a l evel control l er whi ch oper-
ates a control val ve suppl yi ng makeup from the
cycl e condensate system. The head tank i s provi ded
wi th an emergency overfl ow. On a fai l ure of a run-
ni ng cl osed cool i ng water pump, i t i s usual to pro-
vi de means to start a standby pump automati cal l y.
(2) The system wi l l be desi gned to ensure ade-
quate heat removal based on the assumpti on that al l
servi ce equi pment wi l l be operati ng at maxi mum de-
si gn condi ti ons.
3-35. Arrangement
a. Service water system. The ci rcul ati ng water
booster pumps wi l l be l ocated as cl ose as possi bl e to
the cool i ng l oad center whi ch general l y wi l l be near
the turbi ne generator uni ts. Al l servi ce water pi pi ng
l ocated i n the yard wi l l be buri ed bel ow the frost
l i ne.
b. Closed cooling water system. The cl osed cool -
i ng water system exchangers wi l l be l ocated near
the turbi ne generators.
3-36. Reliability of systems
I t i s of utmost i mportance that the servi ce and
cl osed cool i ng water systems be mai ntai ned i n serv-
i ce duri ng emergency condi ti ons. I n the event power
from the normal auxi l i ary source i s l ost, the motor
dri ven pumps and el ectri cal l y actuated devi ces wi l l
be automati cal l y suppl i ed by the emergency power
source (Chapter 4, Secti on VI I ). Each standby pump
wi l l be desi gned for manual or automati c startup
upon l oss of an operati ng pump wi th sui tabl e al arms
i ncorporated to warn operators of l oss of pressure i n
ei ther system.
3-37. Testing
The systems wi l l be desi gned to al l ow appropri ate
i ni ti al and peri odi c testi ng to:
u. Permi t i ni ti al hydrostati c testi ng as requi red i n
the ASME Boi l er and Pressure Vessel Code.
b. Assure the operabi l i ty and the performance of
the acti ve components of the system.
c. Permi t testi ng of i ndi vi dual components or
subsystems such that pl ant safety i s not i mpai red
and that undesi rabl e transi ents are not present.
Sec tion IX. WATER CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
3-38. Water Conditioning Selec tion sure boi l er used i n power generati on.
a. Purpose. (2) The purpose of the water condi ti oni ng sys-
(1) Al l natural l y occuri ng waters, whether sur- tems i s to puri fy or condi ti on raw water to the re-
face water or wel l water, contai n di ssol ved and pos-
qui red qual i ty for al l phases of power pl ant opera-
si bl y suspended i mpuri ti es (sol i ds) whi ch may be i n-
ti on. Today, most hi gh pressure boi l ers (600 psi g or
juri ous to steam boi l er operati on and cool i ng water
above) requi re hi gh qual i ty makeup water whi ch i s
servi ce. Fresh water makeup to a cool i ng tower, de- usual l y produced by i on exchange techni ques. Tore-
pendi ng on i ts qual i ty, usual l y requi res l i ttl e or no duce the undesi rabl e concentrati ons of turbi di ty and
pretreatment. Fresh water makeup to a boi l er sys-
tem ranges from possi bl y no pretreatment (i n the
organi c matter found i n most surface waters, the
raw water wi l l normal l y be cl ari fed by coagul ati on
case of soft wel l water used i n l ow pressure boi l er) to and fi l trati on for pretreatment pri or to passi ng to
ul tra-puri fi cati on requi red for a typi cal hi gh pres- the i on exchangers (demi neral i zers). Such pretreat-
3-45
TM 5-811-6
ment, whi ch may al so i ncl ude some degree of soften-
i ng, wi l l normal l y be adequate wi thout further treat-
ment for cool i ng tower makeup and other general
pl ant use.
b. Methods of conditioning.
(1) Water condi ti oni ng can be general l y cate-
gori zed as external treatment or i nternal treat-
ment. External treatment cl ari fi es, softens, or puri -
fi es raw water pri or to i ntroduci ng i t i nto the power
pl ant fl ui d streams (the boi l er feed water, cool i ng
tower system, and process water) or pri or to uti l i z-
i ng i t for potabl e or general washup purposes. I nter-
nal treatment methods i ntroduce chemi cal s di rectl y
i nto the power pl ant fl ui d stream where they coun-
teract or moderate the undesi rabl e effects of water
i mpuri ti es. Bl owdown i s used i n the evaporati ve
processes to control the i ncreased concentrati on of
di ssol ved and suspended sol i ds at manageabl e l ev-
el s.
(2) Some of the methods of water condi ti oni ng
are as fol l ows:
(a) Removal of suspended matter by sedi men-
tati on, coagul ati on, and fi l trati on (cl ari fi cati on).
(b)
of gases.
(c)
(d)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Deaerati on and degasi fi cati on for removal
Col d or hot l i me softeni ng.
Sodi um zeol i te i on exchange.
Chori de cycl e deal kal i zati on.
Demi neral i zati on (ul ti mate i on exchange).
I nternal chemi cal treatment.
(i) Bl owdown to remove sl udge and concen-
trati on bui l dups.
c. Treatment Selection. Tabl es 3-13, 3-14, and
3-15 provi de general gui del i nes for sel ecti on of
treatment methodol ogi es. The choi ce among these i s
an economi c one dependi ng vi tal l y on the actual con-
sti tuents of the i ncomi ng water. The desi gner wi l l
make a thorough l i fe cycl e of these techni ques i n
conjuncti on wi th the pl ant data. Water treatment
experts and manufacturer experi ence data wi l l
cal l ed upon.
Sec tion X. COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
3-39. Introduc tion
a. Purpose. The purpose of the compressed ai r
systems i s to provi de al l the compressed ai r requi re-
ments throughout the power pl ant. The compressed
ai r systems wi l l i ncl ude servi ce ai r and i nstrument
ai r systems.
b. Equipment required-general. Equi pment re-
qui red for a compressed ai r system i s shown i n Fi g-
ures 3-14 and 3-15. Each system wi l l i ncl ude
(1) Ai r compressors.
(2) Ai r aftercool ers.
(3) Ai r recei ver.
(4) Ai r dryer (usual l y for i nstrument ai r system
onl y).
(5) Pi pi ng, val ves and i nstrumentati on.
c. Equipment served by the compressed air sys-
tems.
(1) Servi ce (or pl ant) ai r system for operati on of
tool s, bl owi ng and cl eani ng.
(2) I nstrument ai r system for i nstrument and
control purposes.
(3) Soot bl ower ai r system for boi l er soot bl ow-
i ng operati ons.
3-40. Desc ription of major c omponents
a. Air compressors. Typi cal servi ce and i nstru-
ment ai r compressor? for power pl ant servi ce are
si ngl e or two stage, reci procati ng pi ston type wi th
el ectri c motor dri ve, usual l y rated for 90 to 125 psi g
di scharge pressure. They may be verti cal or hori zon-
tal and, for i nstrument ai r servi ce, al ways have oi l -
l ess pi stons and cyl i nders to el i mi nate oi l carryover.
3-46
Non-l ubri cated desi gn for servi ce ai r as wel l as i n-
strument ai r wi l l be speci fi ed so that when the for-
mer i s used for backup of the l atter, oi l carryover
wi l l not be a probl em. Sl ow speed hori zontal uni ts
for servi ce and i nstrument ai r wi l l be used. Soot
bl ower servi ce requi rements cal l for pressures whi ch
requi re mul ti -stage desi gn. The i nl et ai r fi l ter-si l enc-
er wi l l be a repl aceabl e dry fel t cartri dge type. Each
compressor wi l l have compl etel y separate and i nde-
pendent control s. The compressor control s wi l l per-
mi t ei ther constant speed-unl oaded cyl i nder control
or automati c start-stop control . Means wi l l be pro-
vi ded in a mul ti -compressor system for sel ecti on of
the l ead compressor.
b. Air aftercooler. The ai r aftercool er for each
compressor wi l l be of the shel l and tube type, de-
si gned to handl e the maxi mum rated output of the
compressor. Water cool i ng i s provi ded except for
rel ati vel y smal l uni ts whi ch may be ai r cool ed.
Water for cool i ng i s condensate from the cl osed cool -
i ng system whi ch i s routed counter-fl ow to the ai r
through the aftercool er, and then through the cyl i n-
der jackets. Standard aftercool ers are rated for
95 F. maxi mum i nl et cool i ng water. Permi ssi ve
can be i nstal l ed to prevent compressor startup un-
l ess cool i ng water i s avai l abl e and to shut compress-
or down or sound an al arm (or both) on fai l ure of
water when uni t i s i n operati on.
c. Air receiver. Each compressor wi l l have i ts own
recei ver equi pped wi th an automati c drai ner for re-
moval of water.
d. I nstrument air dryer. The i nstrument ai r dryer
TM5-811-6
Table 3-13. General Guide for Raw Water Treatment of BoilerMakeup
St earn
Pr essur e Si l i ca Al k a l i n i ty
-
(p s i g) r eg./l . r eg./l . (as CaCO
3
) Water Treatment
up to 450 Under 15 Under 50 Sodi um i on exchange.
Over 50 Hot l i me-h ot zeol i te,
or col d l i me zeol i te,
or hot l i me soda, or
sodi um i on exchange pl us
chl or i de ani on exchange.
Over 15
4 5 0 t o 600 Under 5
Over 50
Under 50
Over 50
Hot l i me-h ot zeol i te,
or col d l i me-zeol i te,
or hot l i me soda.
Sodi um i on exchange pl us
chl or i de ani on exchange,
or h ot l i me-h ot zeol i te.
Sodi um pl us hydrogen i on
exchange, or col d l i me-
zeol i te or h ot l i me-h ot
z e ol i t e .
Above 5 Demi ner al i zer , or hot
l i me-h ot zeol i te.
600 to 1000 ------- An y Water
- - - - - - -
Demi ner al i zer .
1000 & Hi gher ------- An y Water
- - - - - - -
Demi ner al i zer .
NOTES :
(1) Gui de i s based on boi l er water concentr ati ons r ecommended i n the
Amer i can Boi l er and Affi l i ated I ndustr i es Manual of I ndustr y
Standar ds and Engi neer i ng I nfor mati on.
(2) Add fi l ter s wh en tu r bi di ty ex ceeds 10mg./l .
(3) See Tabl e 3-15 for effecti v en es s of tr eatmen ts .
(4) r eg./l . = p.p.m.
Sour ce: Adapted from NAVFAC DM3
3-47
TM 5-811-6
Table 3-14. I nternal Chemical Treatment.
Cor r osi ve Tr eatment Requi r ed
Mai ntenance of feedwater pH and boi l er water
al k al i n i ty for s cal e an d cor r os i on con tr ol .
.
Pr ev en ti on of boi l er s cal e by i n ter n al s often i n g
of the boi l er water .
Condi ti oni ng of boi l er sl udge to pr event adher ence
to i n ter n al boi l er s u r faces .
Pr eventi on of scal e fr om hot water i n pi pel i nes,
stage heater s, and economi zer s.
Pr eventi on of oxygen cor r osi on by chemi cal
deaer ati on of boi l er feedwater .
Pr ev en ti on of cor r os i on by pr otecti v e fi l m
for mati on.
Pr eventi on of cor r osi on by condensate.
Pr eventi on of foam i n boi l er water .
I n h i bi ti on of cau s ti c embr i ttl emen t.
U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers
Chemi cal
Causti c Soda
Soda Ash
Sul fur i c Aci d
Phosphates
Soda Ash
Sodi um Al umi nate
Al gi nates
Sodi um Si l i cate
Tanni ns
Li gni n Der i vati ves
Star ch
Gl ucose Der i vati ves
Pol yphosphates
Tanni ns
Li gni n Der i vati ves
Gl ucose Der i vati ves
Su l f i t e s
Tanni ns
Fer r us hydr oxi de
Gl ucose Der i vati ves
Hydrazi ne
Ammoni a
Tanni ns
Li gni n Der i vati ves
Gl ucose Der i vati ves
Ami ne Compounds
Ammoni a
Pol yami des
Pol yal k yl ene Gl ycol s
Sodi um Sul fate
Phosphates
Tanni ns
Ni tr ates
3-48
Treatment
Col d Li me-
Zeol i te
TM 5-811-6
Table 3-15. Effectiveness of Water Treatment
Aver age Anal ysi s of Effl uent
Har dness Al k a l i n i ty co Di ssol ved
(as CaCO )
Hot Li me Soda
Hot Li me-
Hot Zeol i te
Sodi um Zeol i te
Sodi um Pl us
Hydr ogen Zeol i te
Sodi um Zeol i te
Pl us Chl or i de
Ani on Exchanger
Demi ner al i zer
E v a por a tor
o to 2
17 to 25
o to 2
o to 2
o to 2
o to 2
o to 2
o to 2
(as CaCO )
mg./1.
75
35 to 50
20 to 25
Unchanged
10 to 30
15 to 35
o to 2
o to 2
Medi um Hi gh
Low
Low to Hi gh
Low
Low
o to 5
o to 5
Sol i ds
Reduced
Reduced
Reduced
Unchanged
Reduced
Unchanged
o t o 5
o t o 5
Si l i ca
8
3
3
Unchanged
Unchanged
Unchanged
Bel ow 0.15
Bel ow 0.15
NOTE : (1) r eg./l . = p.p.m.
Source: NAWFAC DM3
3-49
WET AIR
ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATOR
Cour tesy of Pope, Evans and Robbi ns (Non-Copyr i ghted)
Figure 3-14. Typical compressed airsystem.
wi l l be of the automati c heat reacti vati ng, dual
chamber, chemi cal desi ccant, downfl ow type. I t wi l l
contai n a prefi l ter and afterfi l ter to l i mi t parti cul ate
si ze i n the outl et dri ed ai r. Reacti vati ng heat wi l l be
provi ded by steam heaters.
3-41. Desc ription of systems
a. General. The servi ce (or pl ant) ai r and the i n-
strument ai r systems may have separate or common
compr essor s. Regardl ess of compressor arrange-
ment, servi ce and i nstrument ai r systems wi l l each
have thei r own ai r recei vers. There wi l l be i sol ati on
i n the pi pi ng system to prevent upsets i n the servi ce
ai r system from carryi ng over i nto the vi tal i nstru-
ment ai r system.
b. Service air system. The servi ce ai r system
capaci ty wi l l meet normal system usage wi th one
compressor out of servi ce. System capaci ty wi l l i n-
cl ude emergency i nstrument ai r requi rements as
wel l as servi ce ai r requi rements for mai ntenance
duri ng pl ant operati on. Servi ce ai r suppl y wi l l i n-
3-50
el ude work shops, l aboratory, ai r hose stati ons for
mai ntenance use, and l i ke i tems. Ai r hose stati ons
shoul d be spaced so that ai r i s avai l abl e at each
pi ece of equi pment by usi ng an ai r hose no l onger
than 75 feet. Excepti ons to thi s wi l l be as fol l ows:
(1) The turbi ne operati ng fl oor wi l l have servi ce
ai r stati ons every 50 feet to handl e ai r wrenches
used to tensi on the turbi ne hood bol ts.
(2) No servi ce ai r stati ons are requi red i n the
control room and i n areas devoted sol el y to swi tch-
gear and motor control centers.
(3) Servi ce ai r stati ons wi l l be provi ded i nsi de
bui l di ngs at doors where equi pment or suppl i es may
be brought i n or out.
c. I nstrument air sys tern. A detai l ed anal ysi s wi l l
be performed to determi ne system requi rements.
The anal ysi s wi l l be based on:
(1) The number of ai r operated val ves and
dampers i ncl uded i n the mechani cal systems.
(2) The number of ai r transmi tters, control l ers
and converters.
TM 5-811-6
Cour tesy of Pope, Evans and Robbi ns (Non-Copyr i ghted)
Figure 3-15. Typical arrangement of air compressor and accessories.
(3) A l i st of another esti mated ai r usage not i n-
(2) I nstrument air reserve. I n i nstances where
el uded i n the above i tems. short term, l arge vol ume ai r fl ow i s requi red, l ocal
d. Piping system. ai r recei vers can be consi dered to meet such needs
(1) Headers. Each separate system wi l l have a and thereby el i mi nate i nstal l ati on of excessi ve com-
l ooped header to di stri bute the compressed ai r, and pressor capaci ty. However, compressor must be
for l arge stati ons a l ooped header wi l l be provi ded at si zed to recharge the recei vers whi l e conti nui ng to
each of the fl oor l evel s. suppl y normal ai r demands.
3-51
.
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 4
GENERATOR AND ELECTRICAL FACILITIES DESIGN
Sec tion 1. TYPICAL VOLTAGE RATINGS AND SYSTEMS
4-1. Voltages
a. General. Refer to ANSI Standard C84. 1 for
vol tage rati ngs for 60 Hz el ectri c power systems
and equi pment. I n addi ti on, the standard l i sts appl i -
cabl e motor and motor control namepl ate vol tage
ranges up to nomi nal system vol tages of 13.8 kV.
b. Generators. Termi nal vol tage rati ngs for power
pl ant generators depend on the si ze of the genera-
tors and thei r appl i cati on. General l y, the l arger the
generator, the hi gher the vol tage. Generators for a
power pl ant servi ng an Army i nstal l ati on wi l l be i n
the range from 4160 vol ts to 13.8 kV to sui t the si ze
of the uni t and pri mary di stri buti on system vol tage.
Generators i n thi s si ze range wi l l be offered by the
manufacturer i n accordance wi th i ts desi gn, and i t
woul d be di ffi cul t and expensi ve to get a di fferent
vol tage rati ng. I nsofar as possi bl e, the generator
vol tage shoul d match the di stri buti on vol tage to
avoi d the i nstal l ati on of a transformer between the
generator and the di stri buti on system.
c. Power plant station service power systems.
(1) Vol tages for stati on servi ce power suppl y
wi thi n steam el ectri c generati ng stati ons are rel ated
to motor si ze and, to a l esser extent, di stances of ca-
bl e runs. Motor si zes for draft fans and boi l er feed
pumps usual l y control the sel ecti on of the hi ghest
stati on servi ce power vol tage l evel . Rul es for sel ect-
i ng motor vol tage are not ri gi d but are based on rel a-
ti ve costs. For i nstance, i f there i s onl y one motor
l arger than 200 hp and i t i s, say, onl y 300 hp, i t
mi ght be a good choi ce to sel ect thi s one l arger mo-
tor for 460 vol ts so that the enti re auxi l i ary power
system can be desi gned at the l ower vol tage.
(2) Stati on servi ce power requi rements for com-
busti on turbi ne and i nternal combusti on engi ne gen-
erati ng pl ants are such that 208 or 480 vol ts wi l l be
used.
d. Distribution system. The pri mary di stri buti on
system for an Army i nstal l ati on wi th central i n-
house generati on shoul d be sel ected i n accordance
wi th TM 5-811 -l /AFM 88-9.
4-2. Station servic e power systems.
a. General. Two types of stati on servi ce power
systems are general l y i n use i n steam el ectri c pl ants
and are di scussed herei n. They are desi gnated as a
common bus system and a uni t system. The di sti nc-
ti on i s based on the rel ati onshi p between the gener-
ati ng uni t and the auxi l i ary transformer suppl yi ng
power for i ts auxi l i ary equi pment.
(1) I n the common bus system the auxi l i ary
transformer wi l l be connected through a ci rcui t
breaker to a bus suppl i ed by a number of uni ts and
other sources so that the suppl y has no rel ati onshi p
to the generati ng uni t whose auxi l i ary equi pment i s
bei ng served. I n the uni t system the auxi l i ary trans-
former wi l l be connected sol i dl y to the generator
l eads and i s swi tched wi th the generator. I n ei ther
case, the auxi l i ary equi pment for each generati ng
uni t usual l y wi l l be suppl i ed by a separate transfor-
mer wi th appropri ate i nterconnecti ons between the
secondary si de of the transformers.
(2) The uni t type system has the di sadvantage
that i ts stati on servi ce power requi rements must be
suppl i ed by a startup transformer unti l the generat-
i ng uni t i s synchroni zed wi th the system. Thi s start-
up transformer al so serves as the backup suppl y i n
case of transformer fai l ure. Thi s arrangement re-
qui res that the stati on servi ce power suppl y be
transferred from the startup source to the uni t
source wi th the auxi l i ary equi pment i n operati on as
apart of the procedure of starti ng the uni t.
(3) The advantages of the uni t system are that
i t reduces the number of breakers requi red and that
i ts source of energy i s the rotati ng generati ng uni t
so that, i n case of system troubl e, the generati ng
uni t and i ts auxi l i ari es can easi l y be i sol ated from
the rest of the system. For appl i cati on to Army i n-
stal l ati ons, the advantage of swi tchi ng the gener-
ator and i ts auxi l i ary transformer as a uni t i s not
very i mportant, so the common bus system wi l l nor-
mal l y be used.
b. Common bus system. I n thi s system, gener-
ators wi l l be connected to a common bus and the
auxi l i ary transformers for al l generati ng uni ts wi l l
be fed from that common bus. Thi s bus may have
one or more other power sources to serve for stati on
star tup.
(1) Fi gure 4-1 i s a typi cal one-l i ne di agram for
such a system. Thi s type system wi l l be used for
di esel generati ng pl ants wi th al l stati on servi ce sup-
pl i ed by two stati on servi ce transformers wi th no
4-1
TM 5-811-6
4-2
TM 5-811-6
i sol ati on between auxi l i ari es for di fferent generat-
i ng uni ts. I t al so wi l l be used for steam turbi ne and
gas turbi ne generati ng pl ants. For steam turbi ne
generati ng pl ants the auxi l i ary l oads for each uni t i n
the pl ant wi l l be i sol ated on a separate bus fed by a
separate transformer. A standby transformer i s i n-
cl uded and i t serves the l oads common to al l uni ts
such as bui l di ng servi ces.
(2) The buses suppl yi ng the auxi l i ari es for the
several uni ts wi l l be operated i sol ated to mi ni mi ze
faul t current and permi t use of l ower i nterrupti ng
rati ng on the feeder breakers. Provi si on wi l l be made
for the standby transformer to suppl y any auxi l i ary
bus.
c. Unit type system.
(1) The uni t type stati on servi ce power system
wi l l be used for a steam el ectri c or combusti on tur-
bi ne generati ng stati on servi ng a uti l i ty transmi s-
si on network. I t wi l l not be, as a rul e, used for a
di esel generati ng stati on of any ki nd si nce the sta-
ti on servi ce power requi rements are mi ni mal .
(2) The di sti ngui shi ng feature of a uni t type sta-
ti on power system i s that the generator and uni t
auxi l i ary transformer are permanentl y connected to-
gether at generator vol tage and the stati on servi ce
power requi rements for that generati ng uni t, i ncl ud-
i ng boi l er and turbi ne requi rements, are normal l y
suppl i ed by the auxi l i ary transformer connected to
the generator l eads. Thi s i s shown i n Fi gure 4-2. I f
the uni t i s to be connected to a system vol tage that i s
hi gher than the generator vol tage, the uni t concept
can be extended to i ncl ude the step-up transformer
by tyi ng i ts l ow si de sol i dl y to the generator l eads
and usi ng the hi gh si de breaker for synchroni zi ng
the generator to the system. Thi s arrangement i s
shown i n Fi gure 4-3.
d. Station service switchgear. A stati on servi ce
swi tchgear l i neup wi l l be connected to the l ow si de
of the auxi l i ary transformer; ai r ci rcui t breakers wi l l
be used for control of l arge auxi l i ary motors such as
boi l er feed pumps, fans and ci rcul ati ng water pumps
whi ch use the hi ghest stati on servi ce vol tage, and
for di stri buti on of power to vari ous uni t substati ons
and motor control centers to serve the remai ni ng
stati on servi ce requi rements. Fi gure 44 i s a typi cal
one-l i ne di agram of thi s arrangement. I f the hi ghest
l evel of auxi l i ary vol tage requi red i s more than 480
vol ts, say 4.16 kV, the auxi l i ary swi tchgear ai r ci r-
cui t breakers wi l l onl y serve motors 250 hp and l arg-
er and feeders to uni t substati ons. Each uni t substa-
ti on wi l l i ncl ude a transformer to reduce vol tage
from the hi ghest auxi l i ary power l evel to 480 vol ts
together wi th ai r ci rcui t breakers i n a l i neup for
starti ng of motors 100 to 200 hp and for servi ng
480-vol t motor control centers. The motor control
centers wi l l i ncl ude combi nati on starters and feed-
ers breakers to serve motors l ess than 100 hp and
other smal l auxi l i ary ci rcui ts such as power panel s.
e. Startup auxiliary transformer. I n addi ti on to
the above i tems, the uni t auxi l i ary type system wi l l
i ncorporate a common or startup arrangement
whi ch wi l l consi st of a startup and standby auxi l -
i ary transformer connected to the swi tchyard bus or
other rel i abl e source, pl us a l ow vol tage swi tchgear
and motor control center arrangement si mi l ar to
that descri bed above for the uni t auxi l i ary system.
The common bus system may have a si mi l ar ar-
rangement for the standby transformer.
(1) Thi s common system has three pri nci pal
functi ons:
(a) To provi de a source of normal power for
power pl ant equi pment and servi ces whi ch are com-
mon to al l uni ts; e.g., water treati ng system, coal
and ash handl i ng equi pment, ai r compressors, l i ght-
i ng, shops and si mi l ar i tems.
(b) To provi de backup to each auxi l i ary power
system segment i f the transformer suppl yi ng that
segment fai l s or i s bei ng mai ntai ned.
(c) I n the case of the uni t system, to provi de
startup power to each uni t auxi l i ary power system
unti l the generator i s up to speed and vol tage and i s
synchroni zed wi th the di stri buti on system.
(2) The startup and standby transformer and
swi tchgear wi l l be si zed to accompl i sh the above
three functi ons and, i n addi ti on, to al l ow for possi bl e
future addi ti ons to the pl ant. I nterconnecti ons wi l l
be provi ded between the common and uni t swi tch-
gear. Appropri ate i nterl ocks wi l l be i ncl uded so that
no more than one auxi l i ary transformer can feed any
swi tchgear bus at one ti me.
4-3. General types and standards
Sec tion Il. GENERATORS
a. Type. Generators for power pl ant servi ce can
be general l y grouped accordi ng to servi ce and si ze.
(1) Generators for steam turbi ne servi ce rated
5000-32,000 kVA, are revol vi ng fi el d, non-sal i ent,
two-pol e, total l y encl osed, ai r cool ed wi th water
cool i ng for ai r cool ers, di rect connected, 3600 rpm
for 60 Hz frequency (someti mes connected through
a gear reducer up to 10,000 kVA or more). Sel f-ven-
ti l ati on i s provi ded for generators l arger than 5000
kVA by some manufacturers, but thi s i s not recom-
mended for steam power pl ant servi ce.
(2) Si mi l ar generators rated 5000 kVA and be-
l ow are revol vi ng fi el d, non-sal i ent or sal i ent pol e,
sel f-venti l ated, open dri p-proof type, someti mes
connected through a gear reducer to the turbi ne
4-3
TM 5-811-6
w
LEGEND
Courtesy of Pope, Evans and Robbins (Non-Copyrighted)
Figure 4-3. Station connections, two unit station unit arrangement-distribution voltage higher than generation.
TM 5-811-6
wi th the number of pol es dependent on the speed se-
l ected whi ch i s the resul t of an economi c eval uati on
by the manufacturer to opti mi ze the best combi na-
ti on of turbi ne, gear and generator.
(3) Generators for gas turbi ne servi ce are re-
vol vi ng fi el d, non-sal i ent or sal i ent pol e, sel f-venti -
l ated, open dri p-proof type, someti mes connected
through a gear reducer, dependi ng on manufactur-
ers gas turbi ne desi gn speed, to the gas turbi ne
power takeoff shaft. Non-sal i ent pol e generators are
two-pol e, 3600 rpm for 60 Hz, al though manufactur-
ers of machi nes smal l er than 1500 kVA may uti l i ze
1800 rpm, four-pol e, or 1200 rpm, si x-pol e, sal i ent
4-6
pol e generators. Generators may be obtai ned total l y
encl osed wi th water cool i ng i f desi red because of
hi gh ambi ent temperatures or pol l uted atmosphere.
(4) Generators for di esel servi ce are revol vi ng
fi el d, sal i ent pol e, ai r cool ed, open type, di rect con-
nected, and wi th amorti sseur wi ndi ngs to dampen
pul sati ng engi ne torque. Number of pol es i s si x or
more to match l ow speeds typi cal of di esel s,
b. Standards. Generators wi l l meet the requi re-
ments of ANSI C50. 10, C50. 13 and C50.14 i s appl i c-
abl e as wel l as the requi rements of NEMA SM 12
and SM 13.
(1) ANSI C84.1 desi gnates standard vol tages
TM 5-811-6
as di scussed i n secti on I .
(2) Generator kVA rati ng for steam turbi ne
generati ng uni ts i s standardi zed as a mul ti pl i er of
the turbi ne kW rati ng. Turbi ne rati ng for a condens-
i ng steam turbi ne wi th control l ed extracti on for
feedwater heati ng i s the kW output at desi gn i ni ti al
steam condi ti ons, 3.5-i nches hg absol ute exhaust
pressure, three percent cycl e makeup, and al l feed-
water heaters i n servi ce. Turbi ne rati ng for a non-
condensi ng turbi ne wi thout control l ed or uncon-
trol l ed extracti on i s based on output at desi gn i ni -
ti al steam condi ti ons and desi gn exhaust pressure.
Turbi ne standard rati ngs for automati c extracti on
uni ts are based on desi gn i ni ti al steam condi ti ons
and exhaust pressure wi th zero extracti on whi l e
mai ntai ni ng rated extracti on pressure. However,
automati c extracti on turbi ne rati ngs are compl i cat-
ed by the uni que steam extracti on requi rements for
each machi ne speci fi ed. For ai r cool ed generators up
to 15,625 kVA, the mul ti pl i er i s 1.25 ti mes the tur-
bi ne rati ng, and for 18,750 kVA ai r cool ed and hy-
drogen cool ed generators, 1.20. These rati ngs are for
water cool ed generators wi th 95 F maxi mum i nl et
water to the generator ai r or hydrogen cool ers.
Open, sel f-venti l ated generator rati ng vari es wi th
ambi ent ai r temperature; standard rati ng usual l y i s
at 104 F ambi ent.
(3) Generator rati ngs for gas turbi ne generat-
i ng uni ts are sel ected i n accordance wi th ANSI
Standards whi ch requi re the generator rati ng to be
the base capaci ty whi ch, i n turn, must be equal to or
greater than the base rati ng of the turbi ne over a
speci fi ed range of i nl et temperatures. Non-standard
generator rati ngs can be obtai ned at an addi ti onal
pr i ce.
(4) Power factor rati ngs of steam turbi ne dri ven
generators are 0.80 for rati ngs up to 15,625 kVA
and 0.85 for 17,650 kVA ai r cool ed and 25,600 kVA
to 32,000 kVA ai r/water cool ed uni ts. Standard pow-
er factor rati ngs for gas turbi ne dri ven ai r cool ed
generators usual l y are 0.80 for machi nes up to 9375
kVA and 0.90 for 12,500 to 32,000 kVA. Changes i n
ai r densi ty, however, do not affect the capabi l i ty of
the turbi ne and generator to the same extent so that
kW based on standard condi ti ons and generator
kVA rati ngs show vari ous rel ati onshi ps. Power fac-
tors of l arge hydrogen cool ed machi nes are stand-
ardi zed at 0.90. Power factor for sal i ent pol e gener-
ators i s usual l y 0.80. Power factor l ower than stand-
ard, wi th i ncreased kVA rati ng, can be obtai ned at
an extra pri ce.
(5) Generator short ci rcui t rati o i s a rough i ndi -
cati on of generator stabi l i ty; the hi gher the short
ci rcui t rati o, the more stabl e the generator under
transi ent system l oad changes or faul ts. However,
fast acti ng vol tage regul ati on can al so assi st i n
achi evi ng generator stabi l i ty wi thout the heavy ex-
pense associ ated wi th the hi gh cost of bui l di ng hi gh
short ci rcui t rati os i nto the generator. Generators
have standard short ci rcui t rati os of 0.58 at rated
kVA and power factor. I f a generator has a fast act-
i ng vol tage regul ator and a hi gh cei l i ng vol tage
stati c exci tati on system, thi s standard short ci rcui t
rati o shoul d be adequate even under severe system
di sturbance condi ti ons. Hi gher short ci rcui t rati os
are avai l abl e at extra cost to provi de more stabi l i ty
for undul y fl uctuati ng l oads whi ch may be anti ci pat-
ed i n the system to be served.
(6) Maxi mum wi ndi ng temperature, at rated
l oad for standard generators, i s predi cated on oper-
ati on at or bel ow a maxi mum el evati on of 3300 feet;
thi s may be upgraded for hi gher al ti tudes at an ad-
di ti onal pri ce.
4-4. Features and ac c essories
The fol l owi ng features and accessori es are avai l abl e
i n accordance wi th NEMA standards SM 12 and
SM 13 and wi l l be speci fi ed as appl i cabl e for each
gener ator .
a. Voltage variations. Uni t wi l l operate wi th vol t-
age vari ati ons of pl us or mi nus 5 percent of rated
vol tage at rated kVA, power factor and frequency,
but not necessari l y i n accordance wi th the stand-
ards of performance establ i shed for operati on at rat-
ed vol tage; i .e., l osses and temperature ri ses may ex-
ceed standard val ues when operati on i s not at rated
vol tage.
b. Thermal variations.
(1) Starti ng from stabi l i zed temperatures and
rated condi ti ons, the armature wi l l be capabl e of
operati ng, wi th bal anced current, at 130 percent of
i ts rated current for 1 mi nute not more than twi ce a
year; and the fi el d wi ndi ng wi l l be capabl e of operat-
i ng at 125 percent of rated l oad fi el d vol tage for 1
mi nute not more than twi ce a year.
(2) The generator wi l l be capabl e of wi thstand-
i ng, wi thout i njury, the thermal effects of unbal -
anced faul ts at the machi ne termi nal s, i ncl udi ng the
decayi ng effects of fi el d current and dc component
of stator current for ti mes up to 120 seconds, provi d-
ed the i ntegrated product of generator negati ve
phase sequence current squared and ti me (1
2
2
t) does
not exceed 30. Negati ve phase sequence current i s
expressed i n per uni t of rated stator current, and
ti me i n seconds. The thermal effect of unbal anced
faul ts at the machi ne termi nal s i ncl udes the decay-
i ng effects of fi el d current where protecti on i s pro-
vi ded by reduci ng fi el d current (such as wi th an ex-
ci ter fi el d breaker or equi val ent) and dc component
of the stator current.
c. Mechanical withstand. Generator wi l l be cap-
abl e of wi thstandi ng wi thout mechani cal i njury any
4-7
TM 5-811-6
type of short ci rcui t at i ts termi nal s for ti mes not ex-
ceedi ng i ts short ti me thermal capabi l i ti es at rated
kVA and power factor wi th 5 percent over rated
vol tage, provi ded that maxi mum phase current i s
l i mi ted external l y to the maxi mum current obtai ned
from the three-phase faul t. Stator wi ndi ngs must
wi thstand a normal hi gh potenti al test and show no
abnormal deformati on or damage to the coi l s and
connecti ons.
d. Excitation voltage. Exci tati on system wi l l be
wi de range stabi l i zed to permi t stabl e operati on
down to 25 percent of rated exci tati on vol tage on
manual control . Exci tati on cei l i ng vol tage on man-
ual control wi l l not be l ess than 120 percent of rated
exci ter vol tage when operati ng wi th a l oad resi st-
ance equal to the generator fi el d resi stance, and ex-
ci tati on system wi l l be capabl e of suppl yi ng thi s
cei l i ng vol tage for not l ess than 1 mi nute. These cri -
teri a, as set for manual control , wi l l permi t oper-
ati on when on automati c control . Exci ter response
rati o as defi ned i n ANSI /I EEE 100 wi l l not be l ess
than 0.50.
e. Wave shape. Devi ati on factor of the open ci r-
cui t termi nal vol tage wave wi l l not exceed 10 per-
cent.
f. Telephone influence factor. The bal anced tel e-
phone i nfl uence factor (TI F) and the resi dual compo-
nent TI F wi l l meet the appl i cabl e requi rements of
ANSI C50.13.
4-5. Exc itation systems
Rotati ng commutator exci ters as a source of dc pow-
er for the ac gener ator fi el d gener al l y have been r e-
pl aced by si l i con di ode power recti fi er systems of
the stati c or brushl ess type.
a. A typi cal brushl ess system i ncl udes a rotati ng
permanent magnet pi l ot exci ter wi th the stator con-
nected through the exci tati on swi tchgear to the sta-
ti onary fi el d of an ac exci ter wi th rotati ng armature
and a rotati ng si l i con di ode recti fi er assembl y,
whi ch i n turn i s connected to the rotati ng fi el d of the
generator. Thi s arrangement el i mi nates both the .
commutator and the col l ector ri ngs. Al so, part of
the system i s a sol i d state automati c vol tage regul a-
tor, a means of manual vol tage regul ati on, and nec-
essary control devi ces for mounti ng on a remote
panel . The exci ter rotati ng parts and the di odes are
mounted on the generator shaft; vi ewi ng duri ng
operati on must uti l i ze a strobe l i ght.
b. A typi cal stati c system i ncl udes a three-phase
exci tati on potenti al transformer, three si ngl e-phase
current transformers, an exci tati on cubi cl e wi th
fi el d breaker and di scharge resi stor, one automati c
and one manual stati c thyri stor type vol tage regul a-
tors, a ful l wave stati c recti fi er, necessary devi ces
for mounti ng on a remote panel , and a col l ector as-
sembl y for connecti on to the generator fi el d.
Sec tion Ill. GENERATOR LEADS AND SWITCHYARD
4-6. General
The connecti on of the generati ng uni ts to the di stri -
buti on system can take one of the fol l owi ng pat-
ter ns:
a. Wi th the common bus system, the generators
are al l connected to the same bus wi th the di stri bu-
ti on feeders. I f thi s bus operates at a vol tage of 4.16
kV, thi s arrangement i s sui tabl e up to approxi mate-
l y 10,000 kVA. I f the bus operates at a vol tage of
13.8 kV, thi s arrangement i s the best for stati ons up
to about 25,000 or 32,000 kVA. For l arger stati ons,
the faul t duty on the common bus reaches a l evel
that requi res more expensi ve feeder breakers and
the bus shoul d be spl i t.
b. The bus and swi tchgear wi l l be i n the form of a
factory fabri cated metal cl ad swi tchgear as shown
i n Fi gure 4-1. For pl ants wi th mul ti pl e generators
and outgoi ng ci rcui ts, the bus wi l l be spl i t for rel i -
abi l i ty y usi ng a bus ti e breaker to permi t separati on
of approxi matel y one-hal f of the generators and
l i nes on each si de of the spl i t.
c. A l i mi ti ng factor of the common type bus sys-
tem i s the i nterrupti ng capaci ty of the swi tchgear.
The swi tchgear breakers wi l l be capabl e of i nter-
rupti ng the maxi mum possi bl e faul t current that
wi l l fl ow through them to a faul t. I n the event that
the possi bl e faul t current exceeds the i nterrupti ng
capaci ty of the avai l abl e breakers, a synchroni zi ng
bus wi th current l i mi ti ng reactors wi l l be requi red.
Swi tchi ng arrangement sel ected wi l l be adequate to
handl e the maxi mum cal cul ated short ci rcui t cur-
rents whi ch can be devel oped under any operati ng
routi ne that can occur. Al l possi bl e sources of faul t
current; i .e., generators, motors and outsi de uti l i ty
sources, wi l l be consi dered when cal cul ati ng short
ci rcui t currents. I n order to cl ear a faul t, al l sources
wi l l be di sconnected. Fi gure 4-5 shows, i n si mpl i fi ed
si ngl e l i ne format, a typi cal synchroni zi ng bus ar-
rangement. The i nterrupti ng capaci ty of the break-
ers i n the swi tchgear for each set of generators i s
l i mi ted to the contri buti on to a faul t from the gener-
ators connected to that bus secti on pl us the contri -
buti on from the synchroni zi ng bus and l arge (l oad)
motors. Si nce the contri buti on from generators con-
nected to other bus secti ons must fl ow through two
reactors i n seri es faul t current wi l l be reduced ma-
teri al l y.
d. I f the pl ant i s 20,000 kVA or l arger and the
4-8
I
TM 5-811-6
Figure 4-5. Typical synchronizing bus.
.
area covered by the di stri buti on system requi res
di stri buti on feeders i n excess of 2 mi l es, i t may be
advantageous to connect the generators to a hi gher
vol tage bus and feed several di stri buti on substa-
ti ons from that bus wi th step-down substati on
transformers at each di stri buti on substati on as
shown i n Fi gure 4-3.
e. The confi gurati on of the hi gh vol tage bus wi l l
be sel ected for rel i abi l i ty and economy. Al ternati ve
bus arrangements i ncl ude mai n and transfer bus,
ri ng bus and breaker and a hal f schemes. The mai n
and transfer arrangement, shown i n Fi gure 4-6, i s
the l owest cost al ternati ve but i s subject to l oss of
al l ci rcui ts due to a bus faul t. The ri ng bus arrange-
ment, shown i n Fi gure 4-7, costs onl y sl i ghtl y more
than the mai n and transfer bus arrangement and
L
el i mi nates the possi bi l i ty of l osi ng al l ci rcui ts from a
bus faul t si nce each bus secti on i s i ncl uded i n the
protected area of i ts ci rcui t. Normal l y i t wi l l not be
used wi th more than ei ght bus secti ons because of
the possi bi l i ty of si mul taneous outages resul ti ng i n
the bus bei ng spl i t i nto two parts. The breaker and a
hal f arrangement, shown i n Fi gure 4-8, i s the hi gh-
est cost al ternati ve and provi des the hi ghest rel i a-
bi l i ty wi thout l i mi tati on on the number of ci rcui ts.
4-7. Generator leads
a. Cable.
(1) Connecti ons between the generator and
swi tchgear bus where di stri buti on i s at generator
vol tage, and between generator and stepup trans-
former where di stri buti on i s at 34.5 kV and hi gher,
wi l l be by means of cabl e or bus duct. I n most i n-
stances more than one cabl e per phase wi l l be neces-
sary to handl e the current up to a practi cal maxi -
mum of four conductors per phase. General l y, cabl e
i nstal l ati ons wi l l be provi ded for generator capac-
i ti es up to 25 MVA. For l arger uni ts, bus ducts wi l l
4-9
TM 5-811-6
LOAD LOAD
be eval uated as an al ternati ve.
(2) The power cabl es wi l l be run i n a cabl e tray,
separate from the control cabl e tray; i n steel con-
dui t; suspended from cei l i ng or on wal l hangers; or
i n ducts dependi ng on the i nstal l ati on requi rements.
(3) Cabl e termi nati ons wi l l be made by means of
potheads where l ead covered cabl e i s appl i ed, or by
compressi on l ugs where neoprene or si mi l arl y jack-
eted cabl es are used. Stress cones wi l l be used at
4.16 kV and above.
(4) For most appl i cati ons uti l i ti zi ng condui t,
cross-l i nked pol yethyl ene wi th approved type fi l l er
or ethyl ene-propyl ene cabl es wi l l be used. For appl i -
cati ons where cabl es wi l l be suspended from hangers
or pl aced i n tray, armored cabl e wi l l be used to pro-
vi de physi cal protecti on. I f the cabl e current rati ng
does not exceed 400 amperes, the three phases wi l l
4-10
be tri -pl exed; i .e., al l run i n one steel armored encl o-
sure. I n the event that si ngl e phase cabl es are re-
qui red, the armor wi l l be nonmagneti c.
(5) I n no event shoul d the current carryi ng ca-
paci ty of the power cabl es emanati ng from the gen-
erator be a l i mi ti ng factor on turbi ne generator out-
put. As a rul e of thumb, the cabl e current carryi ng
capaci ty wi l l be at l east 1.25 ti mes the current asso-
ci ated wi th kVA capaci ty of the generator (not the
kW rati ng of the turbi ne).
b. Segregated phase bus.
(1) For gas turbi ne generator i nstal l ati ons the
connecti ons from the generator to the si de wal l or
roof of the gas turbi ne generator encl osure wi l l have
been made by the manufacturer i n segregated phase
bus confi gurati on. The three phase conductors wi l l
be fl at copper bus, ei ther i n si ngl e or mul ti pl e con-
TM 5 - 8 1 1 - 6
ductor per phase pattern. External connecti on to
swi tchgear or transformer wi l l be by means of segre-
gated phase bus or cabl e. I n the segregated phase
bus, the three bare bus-phases wi l l be physi cal l y sep-
arated by non-magneti c barri ers wi th a si ngl e encl o-
sure around the three buses.
(2) For appl i cati ons i nvol vi ng an outdoor gas
turbi ne generator for whi ch a rel ati vel y smal l l i neup
of outdoor metal cl ad swi tchgear i s requi red to han-
dl e the di stri buti on system, segregated phase bus
wi l l be used. For mul ti pl e gas turbi ne generator i n-
stal l ati ons, the swi tchgear wi l l be of i ndoor con-
structi on and i nstal l ed i n a control /swi tchgear bui l d-
i ng. For these i nstal l ati ons, the several generators
wi l l be connected to the swi tchgear vi a cabl es.
(3) Segregated bus current rati ngs may fol l ow
the rul e of thumb set forth above for generator ca-
Typical ring bus.
bl es but fi nal sel ecti on wi l l be based on expected
fi el d condi ti ons.
c. I solated phase bus.
(1) For steam turbi ne generator rati ngs of 25
MVA and above, the use of i sol ated phase bus for
connecti on from generator to stepup transformer
wi l l be used. At such generator rati ngs, di stri buti on
sel dom i s made at generator vol tage. An i sol ated
phase bus system, uti l i zi ng i ndi vi dual phase copper
or al umi num, hol l ow square or round bus on i nsul a-
tors i n i ndi vi dual non-magneti c bus encl osures, pro-
vi des maxi mum rel i abi l i ty by mi ni mi zi ng the possi -
bi l i ty of phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase faul ts.
(2) I sol ated phase bus current rati ngs shoul d
fol l ow the rul e of thumb set forth above for gener-
ator cabl es.
4-11
TM 5-811-6
4-12
AD
b
D
TM 5-811-6
I
4-8. Switc hyard
a. Outdoor vs. indoor. Wi th normal atmospheri c
condi ti ons, swi tchyards wi l l be of the outdoor type
as descri bed bel ow. I t i s possi bl e that a pl ant wi l l be
l ocated on a tropi cal desert area where al ternate
sand bl asti ng and corrosi on or contami nati on i s a
probl em or i n an arcti c area where i ci ng i s a probl em.
I n such an event, an i ndoor swi tchyard or i nstal l a-
ti on empl oyi ng total l y encl osed metal cl ad swi tch-
gear wi th SF6 i nsul ati on wi l l be provi ded.
b. Structures and buses.
(1) I n the event di stri buti on for a l arge i nstal l a-
ti on i s at hi gher than generator vol tage; e.g., 34.5
kV, or i n the event an i nterconnecti on wi th a l ocal
uti l i ty i s necessary, a swi tchyard wi l l be requi red.
The swi tchi ng structure wi l l be erected to support
the bus i nsul ators, di sconnecti ng swi tches, poten-
ti al and current transformers, and the termi nati ons
for the generator stepup transformer and transmi s-
si on l i nes.
(2) Structures of gal vani zed steel or al umi num
are most often used. Where the swi tchyard i s l o-
cated cl ose to an ocean, the sal t l aden atmosphere
may be extremel y corrosi ve to al umi num requi ri ng
the use of gal vani zed steel .
(3) Ei ther copper or al umi num, tubul ar buses
wi l l be empl oyed dependi ng upon the atmosphere,
wi th al umi num general l y bei ng l ess expensi ve. Cop-
per bus connecti ons wi l l be bol ted; al umi num con-
necti ons must be wel ded. Speci al procedures are re-
qui red for al umi num wel di ng, and care shoul d be
taken to assure that wel ders certi fi ed for thi s type of
wel di ng are avai l abl e. For i sol ated or overseas es-
tabl i shments, onl y copper buses shoul d be used. A
corrosi ve atmosphere wi l l precl ude the use of al umi -
num.
c. Disconnect switches; insulators
(1) Two three-phase di sconnect swi tches wi l l be
used for each oi l ci rcui t breaker, one on each si de of
the breaker. I f the ri ng bus arrangement i s used, a
di sconnect swi tch wi l l al so be used i n the ci rcui t
take-off so the ri ng can be recl osed wi th the ci rcui t
out for mai ntenance. I f onl y one bus i s used, a di s-
connect swi tch wi l l be i nstal l ed as a by-pass around
the ci rcui t breaker so i t can be mai ntai ned.
(2) Li ne di sconnect swi tches at al l vol tage rat-
i ngs wi l l have arci ng horns. Above 69 kV, al l di scon-
nect swi tches wi l l have arci ng horns.
(3) Current carryi ng capaci ty of each di scon-
nect swi tch wi l l be at l east 25 percent above that of
the l i ne or transformer to whi ch i t i s connected. The
swi tches are avai l abl e i n 600, 1200 and 2000 ampere
r ati ngs.
(4) Vol tage rati ngs of swi tches and bus support
i nsul ators wi l l match the system vol tage. I n par-
ti tul arl y pol l uted atmospheres, the next hi gher vol t-
age rati ng than that of the system wi l l be used. I n
some i nstances, the manufacturer can furni sh cur-
rent carryi ng parts desi gned for the system vol tage
and wi l l i ncrease phase spaci ng and i nsul ator stack
l ength to the next hi gher vol tage rati ng i n order to
i ncrease the l eakage paths i n the pol l uted atmos-
phere. I n such i nstal l ati ons, the normal rel ati onshi p
between fl ashover across the open swi tch and fl ash-
over to ground must be mai ntai ned.
(5) Al l di sconnect swi tches wi l l be operabl e
from ground l evel by means of ei ther a l ever or rotat-
i ng crank mechani sm. The crank type mechani sm i s
preferred because i t i s more posi ti ve and takes l ess
strength to operate. Operati ng mechani sms wi l l be
capabl e of bei ng l ocked by padl ock i n both the open
and cl osed posi ti ons. A swi tchpl ate wi l l be provi ded
at each operati ng mechani sm for the operator to
stand on when operati ng the swi tch. Each pl ate wi l l
be approxi matel y 2 feet, 6 i nches wi de by 4 feet
l ong, made of gal vani zed steel , and wi th two ground
l ugs permanentl y attached to the undersi de of each
pl ate on the si de next to the operati ng mechani sm.
The swi tchpl ates wi l l be connected to the operati ng
handl e and to the swi tchyard ground gri d at two
separate poi nts by means of a 2/0 stranded bare cop-
per wi re.
d. Oil circuit breakers.
(1) For outdoor servi ce, from nomi nal 13.8 kV
through 69 kV, si ngl e tank oi l ci rcui t breakers
(ocbs) havi ng one operati ng mechani sm attached to
the tank wi l l be used. Above 69 kV, three tanks are
used, al l permanentl y mounted on a si ngl e channel
base, wi th a si ngl e operati ng mechani sm attached to
one of the end tanks.
(2) Operati ng
mechani sms can be spri ng
charged usi ng a motor to charge the spri ng, pneu-
mati c empl oyi ng a motor dri ven compressor i n each
operati ng mechani sm; or pneudraul i c, a combi na-
ti on pneumati c and hydraul i c mechani sm. The 69
kV and bel ow appl i cati ons uti l i ze the spri ng charged
mechani sm because of l ower cost whi l e above 69 kV,
ei ther of the other two work sati sfactori l y. Both an
ac and a dc auxi l i ary source must be made avai l abl e
to each breaker operati ng mechani sm.
(3) Up to two doughnut type mul ti -rati o current
transformers (600:5, wi th taps; or 1200:5, wi th taps)
can be obtai ned on each bushi ng. These are mounted
i nsi de the tanks wi th al l l eads brought to termi nal
bl ocks i n the mechani sm cabi nets. Si nce i t i s a major
task to add current transformers, the two wi l l be
purchased i ni ti al l y for each bushi ng.
(4) A consi derabl e range of both current carry-
i ng and current i nterrupti ng capaci ty i s avai l abl e
for each system operati ng vol tage l evel . Careful
study must be made of the conti nuous l oad current
4-13
TM 5-811-6
and faul t current requi rements before sel ecti ng oi l
ci rcui t breakers. Short ci rcui t cal cul ati ons must be
made for any power system, but for extensi ve power
systems operati ng i n paral l el wi th a uti l i ty, a sys-
tem study wi l l be performed pri or to sel ecti ng the oi l
ci rcui t breakers. Power networks anal yzers or com-
puter programs wi l l be uti l i zed i n such work.
e. Potential and current transformers.
(1) For power systems through 69 kV, potenti al
transformers are general l y used to provi de vol tages
i n the 69- and 120-vol t ranges for vol tmeters, watt-
meters, varmeters, watt-hour meters, power factor
meters, synchroscopes, vari ous recorders, and for
certai n protecti ve rel ays and control s. Above 69 kV,
the cost becomes prohi bi ti ve and capaci tor potenti al
devi ces are used. The l atter do not have as much
vol t-ampere capaci ty as potenti al transformers so
care must be taken not to overl oad the potenti al de-
vi ces by pl aci ng too many i nstruments or devi ces i n
the ci rcui t.
(2) Both the potenti al transformers (pts) and
capaci tor potenti al devi ces (cpds) wi l l be purchased
wi th dual 120 vol t secondari es, each tapped at 69
vol ts for ci rcui t fl exi bi l i ty y. Al l shoul d be for si ngl e
phase-to-ground appl i cati on on the hi gh vol tage
si de.
(3) Three l i ne-to-ground pts or cpds wi l l be em-
pl oyed on each mai n hi gh vol tage bus. General l y,
onl y one pt or cpd i s needed on each feeder for syn-
chroni zi ng or hot l i ne i ndi cati on; but for ti es to the
outsi de uti l i ty or for speci al energy meteri ng for bi l l -
i ng purposes or other energy accounti ng, or for re-
l ayi ng, three devi ces wi l l be necessary.
(4) Current transformers (ets) of the through
type, where the pri mary wi ndi ng i s connected i n the
ci rcui t, wi l l sel dom be used. I n the usual case, there
are suffi ci ent bushi ng type cts i n the oi l ci rcui t
breakers and power transformers. Mul ti -rati o uni ts
wi l l be empl oyed, as descri bed under d above, for
control , i ndi cati on and protecti ve rel ayi ng. Shoul d
bi l l i ng meteri ng be needed, more accurate meteri ng
type bushi ng type cts wi l l be used.
(5) Current transformer rati os do not necessar-
i l y have a di rect rel ati onshi p wi th the conti nuous
current capaci ty of the ci rcui t breaker or transform-
er bushi ng on whi ch they are mounted. The hi gh cur-
rent porti on of the rati o shoul be sel ected so that
the ci rcui t ful l l oad current wal l beat approxi matel y
70-80 percent of i nstrument ful l scal e for best accu-
racy. Rati os for protecti ve rel ayi ng wi l l be speci al l y
sel ected to fi l l the parti cul ar rel ays bei ng appl i ed.
(6) Joi nt use of a parti cul ar set of ets for both
i nstrumentati on and protecti ve rel ayi ng wi l l be
avoi ded because the two rati o requi rements may be
di fferent and testi ng or repai r of i nstrument ci rcui ts
may requi re those ci rcui ts to be out of servi ce for a
ti me. Power ci rcui ts can be operated for extended,
peri ods wi th a part of the i nstrumentati on and me-
teri ng out of servi ce; they shoul d not be operated for
extended peri ods wi thout the protecti ve devi ces.
f. Duct system.
(1) Except as otherwi se descri bed herei n, duct
systems wi l l be i n accordance wi th TM 5-811-1/
AFM 88-9.
(2) Power and control cabl es wi l l be run i n un-
derground condui t i n a concrete duct system be-
tween the generati ng stati on and swi tchyard; the
two types of cabl e maybe run i n the same duct bank
but i n separate condui ts. I f i n the same duct bank,
the manhol es wi l l be di vi ded wi th a concrete barri er
between the power and control cabl e secti ons. The
mai n power cabl es wi l l be run i n thei r own duct
system and wi l l termi nate at the power transform-
ers whi ch are usual l y pl aced i n a si ngl e row.
(3) At the poi nt of entrance i nto the swi tchyard,
the control cabl e duct system wi l l empty i nto a con-
crete cabl e trench system, ei ther poured i n pl ace or
assembl ed from prefabri cated runs. The U-shaped
trench wi l l be of suffi ci ent si ze i n wi dth and depth to
accommodate control and auxi l i ary power cabl es for
pr esent tr ansfor mer s, br eaker s, di sconnect
swi tches, pts and ct s, ac and dc auxi l i ary power ca-
bl es and l i ghti ng ci rcui ts, pl us provi si on of at l east
25 percent for expansi on of the swi tchyard.
(4) Checkered pl ate or secti onal i zed prefabri -
cated concrete covers wi l l be pl aced on the trench,
compl ete wi th hol es or ti l t-up recessed handl es for
assi stance i n removal of each cover secti on.
(5) Control cabl es wi l l be run through sl eeves
from the trench then through gal vani zed steel con-
dui t buri ed 18 i nches deep to the poi nt of ri si ng to
the ci rcui t breaker mechani sm housi ng or other ter-
mi nati on. Ri sers wi l l be attached securel y to the ter-
mi nati ng devi ce.
g. Ac and dc distribution. One or more 120/208
Vat, 24 or 40 ci rcui t di stri buti on panl boards and
one 125 Vdc, 24-ci rcui t di stri buti on panel wi l l be
provi ded i n weatherproof encl osures i n a central l o-
cati on i n the swi tchyard. Oi l ci rcui t breakers requi re
125 Vdc for cl osi ng, tri ppi ng and i ndi cati on. Com-
pressor motors or spri ng wi ndi ng motors for the oi l
ci rcui t breakers wi l l requi re 120 or 208 vol ts ac, as
wi l l the radi ator cool i ng fans for the power trans-
formers. Stri p heaters for the ocb transformer
mechani sm housi ngs wi l l operate at 208 Vat. Li ght-
i ng ci rcui ts wi l l requi re 120 Vat. Weatherproof,
groundi ng type conveni ence outl ets at 120 vol ts and
208 vol ts wi l l be provi ded for el ectri cal l y operated
tool s and mai ntenance equi pment needed to mai n-
tai n the swi tchyard.
h. Grading and fencing.
(1) The enti re swi tchyard area wi l l be at the
4-14
TM 5-811-6
same grade except for enough sl ope to provi de
drai nage. The concrete pads and foundati ons for al l
ocbs and transformers; for al l bus, pt and ct sup-
porti ng structures; and for the swi tchyard struc-
tures wi l l be desi gned for the same top el evati on,
and fi nal rough grade wi l l set some 9 i nches bel ow
top of concrete.
(2) Three i nches of coarse gravel and 3 i nches of
fi ne gravel wi l l be provi ded on the rough grade
whi ch wi l l al l ow the top of the concrete to be ex-
posed 3 i nches above the fi nal crushed rock grade.
The rough grade wi l l be sl oped at 1 i nch per hundred
feet to provi de drai nage, but the fi nal crushed rock
course wi l l be dead l evel . Crushed rock wi l l extend 3
feet outsi de the fence l i ne.
(3) Al l concrete foundati ons wi l l have a l -i nch,
45-degree chamfer so the edges wi l l not chi p.
(4) An 8-foot gal vani zed steel chai n l i nk fence
wi th round l i ne and corner posts wi l l encl ose the en-
ti re substati on. The fence wi l l be angl e braced i n
both di recti ons. End posts for personnel and vehi cl e
gates wi l l be si mi l arl y braced. Posts wi l l be mounted
i n poured concrete footi ngs, havi ng the top cap
rounded for drai nage.
(5) Two 36-i nch wi de personnel gates wi l l be
pl aced i n di agonal l y opposi te l ocati ons; one l ocated
for conveni ence for operator and mai ntenance regu-
l ar access, and the other to provi de an emergency
exi t. The gate for regul ar access wi l l be padl ockabl e.
The emergency exi t gate wi l l not be padl ocked but
wi l l be openabl e onl y from i nsi de the swi tchyard by
means of removi ng a drop-i n pi n; the pi n wi l l be so
barri ered that i t cannot be removed from outsi de the
fence. Thi s pani c hardware wi l l be desi gned for i n-
stant, easy removal i n the event use of the emergen-
cy exi t i s necessary.
(6) A doubl e hung, padl ockabl e vehi cl e gate wi l l
be i nstal l ed; each secti on wi l l be 8 feet i n wi dth to
provi de adequate room for transformer removal and
l i ne truck entrance and egress.
(7) I f l ocal codes wi l l permi t, a three-strand
barbed wi re securi ty extensi on, faci ng outward at
45 degrees, wi l l be mounted on top of the fence and
gates.
i. Grounding.
(1) A groundi ng gri d, buri ed approxi matel y 2
feet bel ow rough grade l evel wi l l be i nstal l ed pri or to
i nstal l ati on of cabl e ducts, cabl e trenches and
crushed rock, but si mul taneousl y wi th the i nstal l a-
ti on of swi tchyard structure, ocb, and transformer
footi ngs.
(2) The mai n rectangul ar gri d wi l l be l ooped
around the peri meter of the yard and composed of
500 MCM bare stranded ti nned copper cabl e. From
the peri meter, cross-connecti ons from si de to si de
and end to end wi l l be 250 MCM stranded ti nned
copper cabl e on 10- to 12-foot spaci ng i n accord-
ance wi th TM 5-811-l /AFM 88-9. Taps wi l l be
made to each verti cal bay col umn of the swi tchyard
structure, to every pt and ct and bus support struc-
ture, to every ocb and transformer, and to every di s-
connect swi tch structure wi th 4/0 stranded ti nned
copper conductor. Two taps wi l l be run to each ci r-
cui t breaker and power transformer from di fferent
250 MCM cross-connecti ons.
(3) Taps wi l l extend outward from the 500
MCM peri meter cabl e to a fence rectangul ar l oop
wi th taps at no more than 40-foot centers. Thi s l oop
wi l l be run paral l el to the fence, 2 feet outsi de the
fence l i ne, and the fence l oop wi l l be tapped every 20-
feet vi a 2/0 stranded ti nned copper taps securel y
bol ted to the fence fabri c near the top rai l . Fl exi bl e
ti nned copper ground straps wi l l be i nstal l ed across
the hi nge poi nt at each swi ngi ng gate.
(4) At l east two 500 MCM bare-stranded,
ti nned copper cabl es wi l l be connected vi a di rect
buri al to the generati ng stati on ground gri d. Con-
necti on wi l l be made to opposi te ends of the swi tch-
yard 500 MCM l oop and to wi del y separated poi nts
at the generati ng stati on gri d.
(5) Ground rods, at l east 8 feet l ong, 3/4-i nch di -
ameter, wi l l be dri ven at each mai n gri d i ntersecti on
poi nt and at 20-foot centers al ong the fence l oop to
a depth of 13 i nches above the i ntersecti on about 17
i nches bel ow rough grade.
(6) Every gri d i ntersecti on and every ground
rod connecti on to both gri ds wi l l be exothermi c
wel ded usi ng appropri ate mol ds.
(7) The ground gri d system descri bed above wi l l
suffi ce for most Army establ i shments except i n par-
ti cul arl y rocky areas or i n the Southwest desert
states. Target i s to obtai n not greater than fi ve
ohms ground resi stance. I n rocky or desert areas,
speci al connecti ons of the swi tchyard gri d to remote
groundi ng pi ts vi a dri l l ed hol es perhaps 200 feet
deep or gri ds buri ed i n remote stream beds may be
necessary. NOTE: TM 5-811-1 descri bes a grad-
i ng, fenci ng and groundi ng system i n consi derabl e
detai l for stati on and substati on appl i cati ons where
power i s purchased from a uti l i ty or smal l genera-
tors are i nstal l ed. The i ntent herei n i s to provi de for
the addi ti onal requi rements for a l arger (5000-
30,000 kW) generati ng stati on stepup swi tchyard
whi ch permi ts connecti on to a di stri buti on system
and i nterconnecti on wi th an outsi de uti l i ty system.
The system herei n descri bed i s a heavy duty sys-
tem. TM 5-811-UAFM 88-9 wi l l be fol l owed for de-
tai l not descri bed herei n.
4-15
TM 5-811-6
Sec tion IV. TRANSFORMERS
4-9. Generator stepup transformer
The stepup transformer wi l l be i n accordance wi th
ANSI Standard C 57.12.10 and wi l l i ncl ude the fol -
l owi ng opti onal features.
a. Rating.
(1) The generator stepup transformer kVA rat-
i ng for boi l er-turbi ne-generator uni t type power
pl ants wi l l depend upon the generator kVA rati ng
whi ch, i n turn, i s dependent upon the pri me mover
rati ngs. I n any event, the transformer kVA rati ng
wi l l be sel ected so that i t i s not the l i mi ti ng factor
for stati on output.
(2) As a rul e of thumb, the top kVA rati ng wi l l
be sel ected to be approxi matel y 115-120 percent of
the KVA rati ng of the generator. Si nce the genera-
tor uni t auxi l i ary transformer l oad i s tapped off be-
tween the generator and stepup transformer and
wi l l amount to about 6 percent of the generator rat-
i ng, the operati ng margi n for the stepup transform-
er wi l l be on the order of 20-25 percent. Thi s wi l l per-
mi t maki ng ful l use of the margi n the turbi ne gener-
ator manufacturer must bui l d i n, i n order to meet
hi s guarantees.
(3) I f the l oad served i s expected to be qui te
constant and the generator wi l l be operati ng at a
hi gh l oad factor, i t shoul d be cost effecti ve to obtai n
an FOA (forced oi l /ai r cool ed) transformer. Pumps
and fans are on whenever the transformer i s ener-
gi zed. I f, on the other hand, a wi del y varyi ng l oad i s
expected, i t may be cost effecti ve to obtai n a dual
rated transformer OA/FA, or even tri pl e rated
OA/FA/FA havi ng two i ncrements of fan cool i ng as
wel l as a sel f-cool ed rati ng. The top rati ng woul d co-
ordi nate wi th the generator rati ng but fans woul d
shut down when the uni t i s operati ng at parti al l oad.
The resul ti ng rati ng of the turbi ne, generator and
stepup transformer for typi cal uni t mi ght be:
Tur bi ne 25,000 kW
G e n e r a t or 31,250 kVA at 0.8 PF
Transformer 35,000 kVA at OA/FA/FA rat-
i ng
(4) Vol tage of the hi gh si de wi l l match the nomi -
nal operati ng vol tage desi red for the di stri buti on
system, such as 34.5 kV; and for the l ow si de wi l l
match the generator vol tage, such as 13.8 kV. Hi gh
vol tage si de wi l l have two 2 1/2 percent ful l capaci ty
taps above and bel ow rated vol tage.
b. Control.
(1) Both the fan and pump systems wi l l operate
on 208 vol ts, 60 Hz, si ngl e phase. The control sys-
tem wi l l provi de automati c throwover from dual 208
vol t sources wi th one bei ng preferred and the other
al ternate; ei ther may be sel ected as preferred vi a a
sel ector swi tch. Sources wi l l be run from separate
auxi l i ary power sources wi thi n the pl ant.
(2) The transformer al arms wi l l be connected to
the pl ant annunci ator system and wi l l requi re 125
Vdc for the al arm system auxi l i ary rel ays. Protec-
ti ve devi ces, whi ch wi l l be mounted i n the trans-
former wi th control and i ndi cati on l eads run by the
transformer manufacturer to the control cabi net,
are as fol l ows:
(a) Oi l l ow l evel gauge wi th al arm contacts.
(b) Top oi l temperature i ndi cator wi th al arm
contacts.
(c) Wi ndi ng hot spot oi l temperature i ndi ca-
tor wi th two or more sets of el ectri cal l y i ndependent
control and al arm contacts, the number dependi ng
on whether uni t i s FOA, O/FA, or OA/FA/FA.
(d) Sudden gas pressure Buchhol z type rel ay
wi th al arm contacts and external reset button.
(e) Pressure rel i ef devi ce wi th al arm contacts
and wi th operati on i ndi cator cl earl y vi si bl e from
ground l evel .
(f) Pressure/vacuum gauge wi th el ectri cal l y
i ndependent hi gh and l ow al arm contacts; gauge to
be vi si bl e from ground l evel .
(g) Ful l set of thermal l y protected mol ded
case ci rcui t breakers and auxi l i ary control and
al arm rel ays for denoti ng
-Loss of preferred fan pump power source.
-Automati c throwover of fan and pump sources one
or two.
-Loss of control power.
(3) The control compartment wi l l have a dual
hi nged door readi l y accessi bl e from fi ni shed grade
l evel ; bottom of compartment wi l l be about 3 feet
above grade. Thermostat and heaters wi l l be provi d-
ed,
c. Miscellaneous. Mi scel l aneous i tems that wi l l be
i ncl uded are as fol l ows:
(1) Control of the fi xed hi gh si de wi ndi ng taps
wi l l be accessi bl e to a person standi ng on the
ground. The control devi ce wi l l permi t padl ocki ng
wi th the sel ected tap posi ti on cl earl y vi si bl e.
(2) Base of transformer wi l l be on I -beams sui t-
abl e for ski ddi ng the transformer i n any di recti on.
(3) Two 600-5 or 1200-5 mul ti -rati o bushi ng
cts wi l l be provi ded on each of the hi gh si de and l ow
si de bushi ngs wi th al l l eads brought to termi nal
bl ocks i n the control cabi net.
(4) One 600-5, or l esser hi gh current rati ng,
bushi ng ct wi l l be provi ded on the hi gh si de neutral
bushi ng wi th l eads brought to a termi nal bl ock i n
the control compartment.
4-10. Auxiliary transformers
a. Rating.
4-16
TM 5-811-6
(1) As a rul e of thumb, the uni t auxi l i ary trans-
former for a steam el ectri c stati on wi l l have a kVA
rati ng on the order of 6 to 10 percent of the genera-
tor maxi mum kVA rati ng. The percent goes down
sl i ghtl y as generator kVA goes up and coal fi red
pl ants have hi ghest auxi l i ary power requi rements
whi l e gas fi red pl ants have the l east. The actual rat-
i ng speci fi ed for an i nstal l ati on wi l l be determi ned
from the expected stati on servi ce l oads devel oped
by the desi gn. The stati on startup and standby aux-
i l i ary transformer for pl ants havi ng a uni t system
wi l l have a kVA rati ng on the order of 150 percent of
a uni t auxi l i ary transformer say 10 to 12 percent of
the maxi mum generator kVA. The addi ti onal capac-
i t y i s requi red because the transformer acts as 100
percent spare for the uni t auxi l i ary transformer for
each of one or more generators, whi l e al so servi ng a
number of common pl ant l oads normal l y fed from
thi s source. I f the auxi l i ary power system i s not on
the uni t basi s; i .e., i f two or more auxi l i ary trans-
formers are fed from the stati on bus, si zi ng of the
auxi l i ary transformer wi l l take i nto account the aux-
i l i ary power l oads for al l uni ts i n the stati on pl us al l
common pl ant l oads. The si zi ng of auxi l i ary trans-
formers, i n any case, wi l l be subject to an anal ysi s of
al l l oads served under any set of startup, operati ng,
or shutdown condi ti ons wi th reasonabl e assumed
transformer outages and wi l l i ncl ude a mi ni mum of
10 percent for future l oad addi ti ons.
(2) Auxi l i ary transformer vol tage rati ngs wi l l
be compati bl e wi th the swi tchyard vol tage and the
auxi l i ary swi tchgear vol tages. Two 2 1/2 percent taps
above and bel ow rated vol tage on the hi gh vol tage
si de wi l l be i ncl uded f or each transformer.
b. Control.
(1) One step of fan control i s commonl y pro-
vi ded, resul ti ng i n an OA/FA rati ng. Fan control for
auxi l i ary transformers wi l l be si mi l ar to that de-
scri bed for the generator stepup transformer, except
that i t i s not necessary to provi de for dual power
sources to the fans. Si nce the uni t auxi l i ary and the
stati on auxi l i ary transformers can essenti al l y fur-
ni sh power for the same servi ces, each transformer
serves as a spare for the other. Al so, i f a fan source
fai l s, the transformer i t serves can sti l l be operated
conti nuousl y at the base sel f-cool ed rati ng.
(2) The protecti ve devi ces and al arms wi l l be
i denti cal to those of the generator stepup trans-
for mer .
(3) The control compartment wi l l be si mi l ar to
that of the generator stepup transformer.
c. Miscellaneous. The mi scel l aneous i tems wi l l be
si mi l ar to those for the generator stepup transform-
er, except that onl y one set of mul ti -rati o bushi ng
cts need be provi ded on each of the hi gh and l ow
si de bushi ngs.
4-11. Unit substation transformer
a. Definition. The phrase uni t substati on i s
used to denote a uni t of equi pment compri si ng a
transformer and l ow-si de swi tchgear desi gned and
factory assembl ed as a si ngl e pi ece of equi pment. I t
i s used herei n to denote an i ntermedi ate vol tage re-
duci ng stati on fed by one or two ci rcui ts from the
auxi l i ary swi tchgear and, i n turn, servi ng a number
of l arge motors or motor control centers. The break-
ers wi l l have l ower rati ngs than those i n the auxi l i a-
ry swi tchgear but hi gher rati ngs than those i n the
motor control centers. The transformer i n the uni t
substati on
i s referred to as a uni t substati on
transformer.
(1) The term
uni t auxi l i ary transformer i s
used to denote the transformer connected to the
generator l eads that provi des power for the auxi l i a-
ri es of the uni t to whi ch i t i s connected. I t feeds the
auxi l i ary swi tchgear for that uni t.
(2) The uni t stepup transformer desi gnates
the stepup transformer that i s connected perma-
nentl y to the generator termi nal s and connects that
generator to the di stri buti on system.
b. Rating. For steam el ectri c stati ons there wi l l
be a mi ni mum of two uni t substati ons per turbi ne
i nstal l ati on so that each can be l ocated near an area
l oad center to mi ni mi ze the l engths of cabl es servi ng
the vari ous l ow vol tage l oads. The kVA rati ng of the
transformer i n each uni t substati on wi l l be suffi -
ci ent to handl e the ful l kVA of the connected l oad,
i ncl udi ng the starti ng kVA of the l argest motor fed
from the center, pl us approxi matel y 15 percent for
future l oad addi ti ons. For di esel engi ne or gas tur-
bi ne i nstal l ati ons, these uni t substati ons may not be
requi red or one such uni t substati on may serve more
than one generati ng uni t.
c. Control. No fans or pumps are requi red and
thus no control vol tage need be brought to the
tr ansfor mer .
d. Alarms. Protecti ve devi ces wi l l be mounted on
the transformer wi th al arm l eads run to an easi l y ac-
cessi bl e termi nal board. Devi ces wi l l i ncl ude a wi nd-
i ng hot spot temperature i ndi cator havi ng two
al arm stages for two temperature l evel s wi th el ec-
tri cal l y i ndependent al arm contacts. On occasi on, i t
wi l l be found that desi gn and constructi on of the
uni t substati on transformer and i ts physi cal l y at-
tached 480-vol t swi tchgear may requi re the ground
i ndi cati on pts and thei r ground i ndi cati ng l amps to
be mounted wi thi n and on the transformer venti -
l ated encl osure. I n thi s event, the ground al arm re-
l ays wi l l be mounted i n a readi l y accessi bl e porti on
of the encl osure wi th l eads brought to termi nal
bl ocks for external connecti on to the control room
annuni cator .
4-17
TM 5-811-6
Sec tion V. Protec tive RELAYS AND METERING
4-12. Ge ne rator, s te pup trans forme r
and switc hyard relaying
a. General. Sel ecti on of rel ays and coordi nati on of
thei r setti ngs so that the correct ci rcui t breaker
tri ps when i t i s supposed to, and does not tri p when
i t i s not supposed to i s a subject too broad to be cov-
ered herei n. For the purpose of thi s document the
l i sti ngs bel ow wi l l set forth those protecti ve rel ay
types whi ch wi l l be consi dered.
b. Generator relaying. Each generator wi l l be pro-
vi ded wi th the fol l owi ng protecti ve rel ays:
Three Generator di fferenti al rel ays (ANSI De-
vi ce 87)
One Lockout rel ay, el ectri cal tri p, hand reset
(ANSI Devi ce 86)
One Loss of fi el d rel ay (ANSI Devi ce 40)
One Negati ve sequence rel ay (ANSI Devi ce 46)
One Reverse power rel ay (ANSI Devi ce 32)
One Generator fi el d ground rel ay (ANSI Devi ce
64)
Three Phase ti me overcurrent rel ays, vol tage
restrai ned (ANSI Devi ce 51V)
One Ground overcurrent rel ay i n the generator
neutral (ANSI Devi ce 5 l G)
Al though not a part of the ANSI devi ce i denti fi ca-
ti on system, generator rel ay numbers are frequentl y
suffi xed wi th a l etter-number sequence such as

(
G1. For i nstance, di fferenti al rel ays for generator
1 woul d be 87G 1 and for generator 2 woul d be 87G2.
c. Relay functions.
(1) I t i s usual practi ce i n rel ay. appl i cati on to
provi de two separate rel ays that wi l l be acti vated by
a faul t at any poi nt on the system. I n the case of a
generati ng uni t wi th an extended zone of di fferenti al
protecti on i ncl udi ng generator, feeder, auxi l i ary
transformer, stepup transformer and ci rcui t break-
er, i t i s al so common practi ce to use a dedi cated zone
of di fferenti al protecti on for the generator as back-
up protecti on.
(2) The l ockout rel ay (ANSI devi ce 86) i s a hand
reset devi ce to control equi pment when i t i s desi red
to have the operator take some posi ti ve acti on be-
fore returni ng the control l ed equi pment to i ts nor-
mal posi ti on.
(3) I f a uni t operati ng i n paral l el wi th other
uni ts or a uti l i ty system l oses i ts exci tati on, i t wi l l
draw excessi ve reacti ve kVA from the system,
whi ch may cause other di ffi cul ti es i n the system or
may cause overl oads i n the generator. The l oss of
fi el d rel ays (ANSI devi ce 40) wi l l sense thi s si tua-
ti on and i ni ti ate a safe shutdown.
(4) Negati ve sequence currents fl owi ng i n a gen-
erator armature wi l l cause doubl e frequency mag-
neti c fl ux l i nkages i n the rotor and may cause sur-
face heati ng of the rotor. The generator i s desi gned
to accept a speci fi ed amount of thi s current con-
ti nual l y and hi gher amounts for short peri ods wi th-
i n a speci fi ed i ntegrated ti me-current square (I
2
2
t)
l i mi t. The negati ve sequence rel ay (ANSI devi ce 46)
i s to remove the uni t from servi ce i f these l i mi ts are
exceeded..
(5) The reverse power rel ay (ANSI devi ce 32) i s
used to tri p the generator from the system i n case i t
starts drawi ng power from the system and dri vi ng
i ts pri memover.
(6) A ground on the generator fi el d ci rcui ts i s
not seri ous as l ong as onl y one ground exi sts. How-
ever, a second ground coul d cause destructi ve vi bra-
ti ons i n the uni t due to unbal anced magneti c forces.
The generator fi el d ground rel ay (ANSI devi ce 64) i s
used to detect the fi rst ground so the uni t can be
shut down or the condi ti on corrected before a second
ground occurs.
(7) The phase ti me-overcurrent rel ays (ANSI
devi ce 51) are used for overl oad protecti on to pro-
tect the generator from faul ts occurri ng on the sys-
tem.
(8) The ground overcurrent rel ay (ANSI 51G) i n
the generator neutral i s used to confi rm that a
ground faul t exi sts before other ground rel ays can
operate, thus preventi ng fal se tri ps due to unbal -
antes i n ci rcui t transformer ci rcui ts.
d. Power transformer relaying. Each stepup
transformer wi l l be provi ded wi th the fol l owi ng pro-
tecti ve rel ays:
(1) Three Transformer di fferenti al rel ays
(ANSI Devi ce 87).
(2) OneTransformer neutral ti me over-current -
rel ay to be used as a ground faul t detector rel ay
(ANSI Devi ce 51G)
(3) OneTransformer sudden gas pressure re-
l ay. Thi s devi ce i s speci fi ed and furni shed as part of
the transformer (ANSI Devi ce 63).
(4) For appl i cati on i n a uni t system where
the generator, the stepup transformer, and the aux-
i l i ary transformer are connected together perma-
nentl y, an addi ti onal di fferenti al rel ay zone i s estab-
l i shed compri si ng the three i tems of equi pment and
the connecti ons between them. Thi s requi res three
addi ti onal di fferenti al rel ays, one for each phase,
shown as Zone 1 i n Fi gure 4-3.
e. Auxiliary transformer relaying. These transfor-
mers wi l l each be provi ded wi th the fol l owi ng pro-
tecti ve rel ays:
(1) ThreeTransformer di fferenti al rel ays
(ANSI Devi ce 87)
(2) OneLockout rel ay (ANSI Devi ce 86)
(3) OneTransformer netural ti me overcurrent
4-18
.
rel ay to be used as a faul t detector rel ay (ANSI De-
vi ce 51G)
(4) OneTransformer sudden gas pressure re-
l ay (ANSI Devi ce 63).
f. Switchyard bus relaying. Each secti on of the
swi tchyard bus wi l l be provi ded wi th bus di fferen-
ti al rel ayi ng i f the si ze of the i nstal l ati on, say 25,000
kW or more, requi res hi gh speed cl eari ng of bus
faul ts.
g. Distribution feeder relaying. Whether feeders
emanate from the swi tchyard bus at, say 34.5kV, or
from the generator bus at 13.8 kV, the fol l owi ng re-
l ays wi l l be provi ded for each ci rcui t:
(1) ThreePhase ti me overcurrent rel ays wi th
i nstantaneous el ement (ANSI Devi ce 50/5 1).
(2) OneResi dual ground ti me overcurrent re-
l ay wi th i nstantaneous el ement (ANSI Devi ce
50/51 N).
h. Ties to utility. Rel ayi ng of ti e l i nes to the uti l -
i ty company must be coordi nated wi th that uti l i ty
and the uti l i ty wi l l have i ts own standards whi ch
must be met. For short connecti ons, l ess than 10
mi l es, pi l ot wi re rel ayi ng i s often used (ANSI devi ce
87PW). For l onger connecti ons, phase di recti onal
di stance and ground di stance rel ays are often used
(ANSI devi ce 21 and 21 G). Vari ous auxi l i ary rel ays
wi l l al so be requi red. Refer to the uti l i ty for these ti e
l i ne protecti ve rel ayi ng requi rements.
4-13. Switc hgear and MCC protec tion
a. Medium voltage switchgear (4160 volt system).
(1) The i ncomi ng l i ne breaker wi l l be provi ded
wi th: Three-Phase ti me overcurrent rel ays set
hi gh enough to provi de protecti on agai nst bus faul ts
on the swi tchgear bus and not to cause tri ppi ng on
feeder faul ts (ANSI Devi ce 50/51).
(2) Each transformer feeder wi l l be provi ded
wi th:
(a) Three-Phase ti me overcurrent rel ays
wi th i nstantaneous tri p attachments (ANSI Devi ce
50/51).
(b) OneResi dual ground ti me overcurrent
rel ay wi th i nstantaneous tri p attachment (ANSI
Devi ce 50N/51N).
(3) Each motor feeder wi l l be provi ded wi th:
(a) ThreePhase ti me overcurrent rel ay
(ANSI Devi ce 50/51).
(b) OneRepl i ca type overcurrent rel ay
(ANSI Devi ce 49) (to match motor characteri sti c
heati ng curves).
(4) Each bus ti e wi l l be provi ded wi th: Three
Phase ti me overcurrent rel ays (ANSI Devi ce 50).
b. Unit substation switchgear protection (480 volt
system). Breakers i n the 480-vol t substati ons uti -
l i ze di rect acti ng tri p devi ces. These devi ces wi l l be
provi ded as fol l ows:
(1) I ncomi ng
ti me el ements.
TM 5-811-6
l i ne: threel ong ti me and short
(2) Motor control center feeders: threel ong
ti me and short ti me el ements.
(3) Motor feeders: threel ong ti me and i nstan-
taneous el ements.
c. Motor control center protection (480-volt sys-
tem). Because of the l ower rati ng, breakers wi l l be
mol ded case type empl oyi ng thermal /magneti c el e-
ments for protecti on on di rect feeders. Combi nati on
starters wi l l empl oy three thermal protecti ve heater
type el ements i n conjuncti on wi th the starter.
4-14. Instrumentation and metering
The fol l owi ng i nstruments wi l l be mounted on the
control board i n the operati ng room to provi de the
operator wi th i nformati on needed for operati ons:
a. Generator.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Ammeter wi th phase sel ector swi tch
Vol tmeter wi th phase sel ector swi tch
Wattmeter
Var meter
Power factor meter
Frequency meter
Temperature meter wi th sel ector swi tch for
stator temperature detectors
(8) D.C. vol meter for exci tati on vol tage
(9) D.C. ammeter for fi el d current
b. Stepup transformer.
(1) Vol tmeter on hi gh vol tage si de wi th sel ector
swi tch
(2) Ammeter wi th sel ector swi tch
(3) Wattmeter
(4) Varmeter
(5) Power factor meter
c. Auxiliary transformer.
(1)
swi tch
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Vol tmeter on l ow vol tage si de wi th sel ector
Ammeter wi th sel ector swi tch
Wattmeter
Var meter
Power factor meter
d. Common.
(1) Vol tmeter wi th sel ector swi tch for each bus
(2) Synchroscope
e. I ntegrating meters. The fol l owi ng i ntegrati ng
meters wi l l be provi ded but need not be mounted on
the control board:
(1) Generator output watthour meter
(2) Auxi l i ary transformer watthour meter for
each auxi l i ary transformer.
f. Miscellaneous. For uni ts rated 20,000 kW or
l arger, a turbi ne-generator tri p recorder wi l l be pro-
vi ded but not necessari l y mounted on the control
board. Thi s i s for use i n anal yzi ng equi pment fai l -
ures and shutdowns.
4-19
TM 5-811-6
Sec tion Vl. STATlON SERVlCE POWER SYSTEMS
4-15. General requirements
a. Scope. The power pl ant stati on servi ce el ectri c-
al system wi l l consi st of the fol l owi ng
(1) For steam turbi ne pl ants of about 20,000
kW or l arger, a medi um vol tage (4.16 kV) di stri bu-
ti on system uti l i zi ng outdoor oi l fi l l ed auxi l i ary
power transformers and i ndoor metal cl ad drawout
type swi tchgear assembl i es. Usual l y a medi um vol -
tage l evel of 4.16 kV i s not requi red unti l generator
uni t si zes reach approxi matel y 20 MW. A 4.16 kV
system may be grounded permi tti ng the use of
phase and ground protecti ve rel ays.
(2) A l ow vol tage (480-vol t and 208/120-vol t)
di stri buti on system, uni t substati on assembl i es,
and al so motor control centers contai ni ng combi na-
ti on starters and feeder breakers.
(3) Stati on power requi rements are smal l er for
combusti on gas turbi ne uni ts and di esel engi ne dri v-
en generators. For the combusti on gas turbi ne
pl ant, a starti ng transformer capabl e of suppl yi ng
the starti ng motors i s requi red i f the turbi ne i s mo-
tor started, but may serve more than one uni t. For
di esel pl ants a si ngl e 480-vol t power suppl y wi th
appropri ate standby provi si ons i s adequate for al l
uni ts.
b. Operating conditions and redundancy. The sta-
ti on servi ce system wi l l be desi gned to be operati on-
al duri ng stati on startup, normal operati on and nor-
mal shutdown. Redundancy wi l l be provi ded to per-
mi t operati on of the pl ant at ful l or reduced output
duri ng a component fai l ure of those porti ons of the
system havi ng two or more similar equi pments.
c. Switchgear and motor control center location.
Swi tchgear i nsi de the power pl ant wi l l be l ocated so
as to mi ni mi ze the requi rements for condui t to be
embedded i n the grade fl oor sl ab. I n steam el ectri c
pl ants i t wi l l general l y be conveni ent to have one or
more motor control centers at grade wi th top en-
trance of control and power cabl es. The 4160-vol t
swi tchgear and 480-vol t uni t substati on wi l l prefer-
abl y be l ocated on upper fl oor l evel s for maxi mum
conveni ence i n routi ng power cabl es; control and
power cabl es can thus enter from ei ther above or be-
l ow. The 480-vol t swi tchgear i n combusti on gas tur-
bi ne or di esel pl ants wi l l be at ground l evel .
4-16. Auxiliary power transformers
a. Type. The auxi l i ary power transformers wi l l be
oi l fi l l ed, outdoor type, havi ng both natural and
forced ai r cool ed rati ngs.
b. Taps. Four ful l capaci ty taps for deenergi zed
tap changi ng wi l l be provi ded on the hi gh vol tage
si de, i n two 2 1/2 percent i ncrements above and bel ow
rated vol tage.
4-20
c. I mpedance.
(1) I mpedance shoul d be sel ected so that the
vol tage drop duri ng starti ng of the l argest motor on
an otherwi se ful l y l oaded bus wi l l not reduce motor
termi nal vol tage bel ow 85 percent of the nomi nal
bus vol tage to assure successful motor starti ng
under adverse condi ti ons and so that the symmetri -
cal short ci rcui t current on the l ow vol tage si de wi l l
not exceed 48 kA usi ng 4160 vol t rated swi tchgear
or 41 kA for 4.16 kV system where 2400 vol t swi tch-
gear i s to be used. Thi s permi ts usi ng breakers hav-
i ng an i nterrupti ng rati ng of 350 MVA for 4160
vol ts swi chgear or 300 MVA for 2400 vol t swi tch-
gear .
(2) Meeti ng these cri teri a i s possi bl e for uni ts of
the si ze contempl ated herei n. I f the vol tage drop
when starti ng the l argest motor exceeds the cri teri -
on wi th the faul t current l i mi ted as i ndi cated, al -
ternati ve motor desi gns and reduced vol tage start-
i ng for the l argest motor or al ternati ve dri ves for
that l oad, wi l l be i nvesti gated.
d. Transformer connections.
(1) Wi th the uni t system, the turbi ne generator
uni t auxi l i ary transformers wi l l be 13.8 kV del ta to
4.16 kV wye. I f the startup and standby auxi l i ary
transformer i s fed from a bus to whi ch the generator
i s connected through a del ta-wye transformati on, i t
must be wye-wye wi th a del ta terti ary. The wye-wye
connecti on i s necessary to get the correct phase rel a-
ti onshi p for the two possi bl e sources to the 4160
vol t buses. Vol tage phase rel ati onshi ps must be con-
si dered whenever di fferent vol tage sources are i n
paral l el . For wye-wye or del ta-del ta transformer con-
necti ons, there i s no phase shi ft between the
pri mary and secondary vol tages. However, for
del ta-wye or wye-del ta transformer connecti ons, the
pri mary and secondary vol tage wi l l be 30 degrees
out of phase i n ei ther a l eadi ng or l aggi ng rel ati on-
shi p. Wi th the correct arrangement of transformers
i t wi l l be possi bl e to establ i sh correct phase angl es
for paral l el i ng vol tages from di fferent sources. Fi g
ures 4 1, 4-2 and 4-3 i l l ustrate the typi cal phase re-
l ati onshi ps for power stati on generators and trans-
for mer s.
(2) Where more than one generator i s i nstal l ed,
a si ngl e startup and standby auxi l i ary transformer
i s suffi ci ent. The l ow si de wi l l be connected through
sui tabl e swi tches to each of the secti ons of medi um
vol tage swi tchgear,
4-17. 4160 volt switc hgear
a. Type. The 4160 vol t assembl i es wi l l be i ndoor
metal cl ad, drawout type empl oyi ng breakers hav-
i ng a symmetri cal i nterrupti ng rati ng of 48 kA and
TM 5-811-6
wi th copper or al umi num buses braced to wi thstand
the correspondi ng 350 MVA short ci rcui t. Quanti ty
of breakers wi l l be determi ned to handl e i ncomi ng
transformer, l arge motors above 200 hp and trans-
former feeds to the 480 vol t uni t substati ons.
b. Cable entrance. Power and control cabl e en-
trance from above or bel ow the gear wi l l depend on
fi nal l ocati ons i n the power pl ant.
c. Relaying. Appropri ate protecti ve rel ayi ng wi l l
be appl i ed to each i ncomi ng and outgoi ng ci rcui t as
di scussed i n paragraph 4- 13a above.
4-18. 480 volt unit substations
a. General arrangement. The uni t substati on as
defi ned i n subparagraph 4-1 l a, or power centers,
empl oy a 4160-480 vol t transformer cl ose coupl ed
to a secti on of 480 vol t swi tchgear. Swi tchgear por-
ti on wi l l uti l i ze drawout breakers and have breakers
and buses braced to i nterrupt and wi thstand, re-
specti vel y, a short ci rcui t of 42 kA, symmetri cal .
Buses may be of al umi num or copper.
b. Loads served. The uni t substati ons wi l l serve
as sources for 480-vol t auxi l i ary motor l oads be-
tween 75 and 200 horsepower, and al so serve as sup-
pl y to the 480-vol t motor control centers.
c. Cable entrance. Power and control cabl e en-
trance from above or bel ow wi l l depend on fi nal l oca-
ti on i n the stati on.
d. Trip devices. Di rect acti ng tri p devi ces wi l l be
appl i ed to match the appropri ate transformer or
motor feeder l oad and faul t characteri sti cs as di s-
cussed i n paragraph 4- 13b above.
4-19. 480-volt motor c ontrol c enters
a. General arrangement. Motor control centers
(MCCS) wi l l uti l i ze pl ug-i n type ci rcui t breakers and
combi nati on starters i n ei ther a front onl y or a back-
to-back free standi ng constructi on, dependi ng on
space l i mi tati ons. Mai n bus, starters and breakers
wi l l be braced to wi thstand a short ci rcui t of 22 kA,
symmetri cal . A power panel transformer and feeder
breaker, compl ete wi th a 120/208 vol t power panel
and i ts own mai n breaker, may be bui l t i nto the
MCC.
b. Current limiting reactors. Dry type three phase
reactors, when necessary, wi l l be l ocated i n a verti -
cal secti on of the MCCs to reduce the avai l abl e
short ci rcui t at the 480-vol t uni t substati ons to 22
kA at the MCCs. Each system wi l l be i nvesti gated
to determi ne the necessi ty for these current l i mi ti ng
reactors; cabl e reactance wi l l pl ay an i mportant part
i n determi ni ng the necessi ty for reactors.
c. Location. The several motor control centers
wi l l be strategi cal l y l ocated i n the power pl ant to
serve most of the pl ant auxi l i ary motor l oads, l i ght-
i ng transformers, motor operated devi ces, wel di ng
receptacl e system and the l i ke. Loads shoul d be
grouped i n such a manner as to resul t i n rel ati vel y
short feeder runs from the centers, and al so to faci l i -
tate al ternate power sources to vi tal servi ces.
d. Cable space. Connecti on to the MCCs wi l l be
vi a overhead cabl e tray, and thus the top hori zontal
secti on of the MCC wi l l i ncorporate ampl e cabl e
trai ni ng space. Control and power l eads wi l l termi -
nate i n each compartment. The MCCs can be de-
si gned wi th al l external connecti ons brought by the
manufacturer to termi nal bl ocks i n the top or bot-
tom hori zontal compartments, at added expense.
e. Enclosures. Tabl e 4-1 l i sts standard MCC en-
cl osures. Type 2, dri p ti ght, wi l l be speci fi ed for al l
i ndoor power pl ant appl i cants; Type 3, weather re-
si stant, for outdoor servi ce. The other types l i sted i n
Tabl e 4-1 shoul d be used when appl i cabl e.
4-20. Foundations
a. Transformers. The outdoor auxi l i ary power
transformers wi l l be pl aced on i ndi vi dual rei nforced
concrete pads.
b. Medium voltages switchgear. The medi um vol t-
age swi tchgear assembl i es wi l l be mounted on fl ush
embedded fl oor channel s furni shed by the swi tch-
gear manufacturer pri or to shi pment of the gear.
c. Unit substations and motor control centers.
480-vol t uni t substati on transformers and swi tch-
gear, and al l MCC's wi l l be mounted on chamfered
concrete pads at l east 3 i nches above fi ni shed fl oor
grade. Foundati ons wi l l be dri l l ed for cl i nch anchors
after the foundati on has been poured and set; the
anchor pl acement wi l l be i n accordance wi th the
swi tchgear manufacturers recommendati on.
4-21. Grounding
A mi ni mum 1/4-i nch by 2-i nch copper ground bus
wi l l be i ncorporated wi thi n the l ower rear of each
secti on of swi tchgear and MCC. Each ground bus .
wi l l be connected to the stati on ground gri d wi th
two 4/0 stranded copper cabl es.
4-22. Conduit and tray systems
a. Power cables. Power cabl es wi l l general l y be
run i n gal vani zed ri gi d steel condui t to the motor
and swi tchgear termi nati ons, al though a l adder
type gal vani zed steel cabl e tray system havi ng ade-
quate support may be used wi th condui t runouts
from trays to termi nati ons.
b. Control cables. Control cabl es wi l l be run i n an
expanded metal gal vani zed steel overhead tray sys-
tem wherever possi bl e. Adequate support wi l l be
provi ded to avoi d saggi ng. Exi t from the tray wi l l
be vi a ri gi d steel condui t.
c. Grounding. Every cabl e tray l ength (i .e., each
constructi on secti on) wi l l be grounded by bol ti ng to
4-21
TM 5-811-6
Table 4-1. Standard Motor Control Center Enclosures.
NEMA Cl assi fi cati on
Type 1:
Gener al pur pose . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 1:
Gasketed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 2:
Dr i p ti ght . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 3:
Weather -r esi stant . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 4:
Water ti ght . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 7:
Hazar dous l ocati ons, Cl ass 1,
Ai r br eak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 9:
Hazar dous l ocati ons, Cl ass 2,
Groups F & G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 9-C:
Hazar dous l ocati ons, Cl ass 2,
Group E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 12:
I ndustri al use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sour ce: NAVFAC DM3
Comments
A sheet metal case desi gned pr i mar i l y
to pr otect agai nst acci dental contact
wi th the contr ol mechani sm.
The gener al pur pose encl osur e wi th
gasketed door or cover .
Si mi l ar to Type 1 wi th the addi ti on of
dr i p shi el ds or the equi val ent.
Desi gned to pr ovi de pr otecti on agai nst
weather hazar ds such as r ai n and sl eet.
Desi gned to meet the hose test descr i bed
i n NEMA Defi ni ti on l C-1.2.6B.
Encl osur es desi gned
r equi r ements of the
s peci f i c cl a s s es of
to meet the appl i cati on
NEC for the i ndi cated
hazar dous l ocati ons.
A sheet metal case desi gned wi th wel ded
corners and no knockouts to meet the
Joi nt I ndustr y Confer ence standar ds for
use wher e i t i s desi r ed to excl ude dust,
l i n t , fi ber s an d fi l l i n gs , an d oi l or
cool ant seepage.
a stranded bare copper ground cabl e whi ch wi l l be 4-23. Dis tribution outs ide the powe r
run throughout the tray system. The tray cabl e i t- plant
sel f wi l l be tapped to the pl ant ground gri d at each
bui l di ng col umn. Basi c tray cabl e wi l l be 4/0 bare
El ectri cal di stri buti on system for the i nstal l ati on
stranded copper wi th connecti ons to stati on taps of
outsi de of the power pl ant i s covered i n TM
5-811-11AFM88-9.
mi ni mum 2/0 copper.
4-22
4-24. Battery and c harger
TM 5-811-6
Sec tion Vll. EMERGENCY POWER SYSTEM
a. General requirements. The dc system, consi st-
i ng of a stati on battery, chargers and dc di stri buti on
panel s, provi des a conti nuous and rel i abl e source of
dc control vol tage for system protecti on duri ng nor-
mal operati on and for emergency shutdown of the
power pl ant. Battery wi l l be nomi nal 125 vol ts,
mounted on wooden racks or metal racks wi th PVC
covers on the metal supporti ng surfaces. Lead cal ci -
urn cel l s havi ng pasted pl ates Pl ante or other sui t-
abl e cel l s wi l l be consi dered for use.
b. Duty cycle. Requi red capaci ty wi l l be cal cu-
l ated on an 8-hour duty cycl e basi s taki ng i nto ac-
count al l normal and emergency l oads. The duty
cycl e wi l l meet the requi rements of the steam gen-
erator burner control system, emergency cool i ng
systems, control benchboard, rel ays and i nstrument
panel s, emergency l i ghti ng system, and al l cl ose/tri p
functi ons of the medi um vol tage and 480-vol t ci r-
cui t breaker systems. I n addi ti on, the fol l owi ng
emergency functi ons shal l be i ncl uded i n the duty
cycl e:
(1) Si mul taneousl y cl ose al l normal l y open
breakers and tri p 40 percent of al l normal l y cl osed
breakers duri ng the fi rst mi nute of the duty cycl e;
duri ng the l ast mi nute, si mul taneousl y tri p al l mai n
and ti e breakers on the medi um vol tage system.
(2) One hour (fi rst hour) runni ng of the turbi ne
generator emergency l ube oi l pump motor and, for
hydrogen cool ed uni ts, 3-hour runni ng of the emer-
gency seal oi l pump motor.
(3) One hour (fi rst hour) runni ng of the backup
turni ng gear motor, i f appl i cabl e.
c. Battery chargers.
(1) Two chargers capabl e of mai ntai ni ng a 2.17
the proper fl oat and equal i zi ng vol tage on the bat-
tery wi l l be provi ded. Each charger wi l l be capabl e
of restori ng the stati on battery to ful l charge i n 12
hours after emergency servi ce di scharge. Al so, each
uni t wi l l be capabl e of meeti ng 50 percent of the to-
tal dc demand i ncl udi ng chargi ng current taken by
the di scharged battery duri ng normal condi ti ons.
Note: Equal i zi ng vol tage appl i cati on wi l l subject
coi l s and i ndi cati ng l amps to vol tages above the
nomi nal 125-vol t dc system l evel . These devi ces,
however, wi l l accept 20 percent overvol tage conti nu-
Sec tion Vlll.
4-26. General
Motors i nsi de the power pl ant requi re dri p proof en-
cl osures, whi l e outsi de the pl ant total l y encl osed fan
cool ed motors are used. For i nduced draft and forced
draft, and outdoor fan motors i n the l arger si zes, a
ousl y. To assure, however, that the manufacturer of
al l dc operated devi ces i s aware of the source of dc
system vol tage, the vari ous equi pment speci fi ca-
ti ons wi l l advi se that the nomi nal system vol tage
wi l l be 125 vol ts but wi l l have an equal i zi ng charge
appl i ed peri odi cal l y.
(2) Appurtenances. The fol l owi ng i nstruments
and devi ces wi l l be suppl i ed for each charger:
(a) Rel ay to recogni ze l oss of ac suppl y.
(b) Ac vol tage wi th sel ector swi tch.
(c) Dc ground detecti on system wi th test de-
vi ce.
(d) Rel ay to recogni ze l oss of dc output.
(e) Rel ay to al arm on hi gh dc vol tage.
(f) Rel ay to al arm on l ow dc vol tage.
(g) Dc vol tmeter.
(h) Dc ammeter wi th shunt.
d. Battery room. Onl y the battery wi l l be l ocated
i n a venti l ated battery room, whi ch wi l l be i n accord-
ance wi th TM 5-811-2. The chargers maybe wal l or
fl oor mounted, together wi th the mai n dc di stri bu-
ti on panel , i mmedi atel y outsi de the battery room.
e. DC distribution panel. The di stri buti on panel
wi l l uti l i ze mol ded case ci rcui t breakers or fuses se-
l ected to coordi nate wi th dc breakers furni shed i n
control panel s and swi tchgear. The breakers wi l l be
equi pped wi th thermal magneti c tri p devi ces, and
for 20 kA dc i nterrupti ng rati ng.
4-25. Emergenc y ac system
Those porti ons of the stati on servi ce l oad that must
be operabl e for a safe shutdown of the uni t, or that
are requi red for protecti on of the uni t duri ng shut-
down, wi l l be fed from a separate 480-vol t uni t
emergency power bus. A sui tabl e emergency di esel
engi ne dri ven generator wi l l be i nstal l ed and ar-
ranged to start automati cal l y and carry these l oads
i f the normal source of power to thi s bus i s l ost. The
l oads fed from thi s bus mi ght i ncl ude such thi ngs as
emergency l i ghti ng, communi cati on system, bat-
tery charger, boi l er control system, burner control
system, control boards, annunci ator, recorders and
i nstrumentati on. Desi gn of these systems wi l l pro-
vi de for them to return to operati on after a bri ef
power outage.
MOTORS
weatherproof constructi on empl oyi ng l abyri nth
type encl osures for ai r ci rcul ati on wi l l be appl i ed.
Al l motors wi l l be capabl e of starti ng at 85 percent
namepl ate vol tage.
4-23
TM 5-811-6
4-27. Insulation
a. 4000-volt motors. Motors at thi s vol tage wi l l
be three phase, 60 Hz, have Cl ass B i nsul ati on for 80
C. ri se above 40 C. ambi ent, and wi th 1.0 servi ce
factor .
b. 460-volt motors. These motors wi l l be three
phase, 60 Hz, have Cl ass B i nsul ati on for 80 C. ri se,
or Cl ass F for 95 C. ri se, above 40 C. ambi ent, and
wi th 1.0 servi ce factor.
c. 115-volt motors. These motors wi l l be one
phase, 60 Hz, wi th Cl ass B i nsul ati on for 80 C. ri se
above 40 C. ambi ent, and wi th 1.25 servi ce factor.
4-28. Horsepower
I t i s sel dom necessary to speci fy motor horsepower
i f the motor i s purchased wi th the dri ven equi pment
as i s the usual case wi th mi l i tary projects. I n al most
every i nstance, the l oad requi red by the pump, fan,
or other dri ven equi pment sets the motor horse-
power and characteri sti cs-thus the speci fi cati on is
wri tten to requi re manufacturer of the dri ven ma-
chi ne to furni sh a motor of proper horsepower and
characteri sti cs to perform the i ntended functi on.
4-29. Grounding
Every motor wi l l be connected to the stati on ground
gri d vi a a bol ted connecti on to a stranded copper
tap. Si ngl e phase motors may be grounded wi th #6
AWG bare wi re; to 75 horsepower, three phase wi th
#2 AWG bare stranded copper cabl e; and to 200 hp,
three phase, wi th 2/0 bare stranded copper wi re.
Above 200 horsepower, three phase, 4/0 bare
stranded copper wi re wi l l be used for the ground
connecti on.
4-30. Conduit
Motor power cabl es wi l l be run i n ri gi d steel gal van-
i zed condui t to a poi nt approxi matel y 18 i nches
from the motor termi nati on or pul l box. The l ast 18
i nches, approxi matel y, wi l l be fl exi bl e condui t wi th
PVC weatherproof jacket. Fi rm support wi l l be gi v-
en the ri gi d condui t at the poi nt of transi ti on to the
fl exi bl e condui t.
4-31. Cable
I n sel ecti ng motor cabl e for smal l motors on a hi gh
capaci ty stati on servi ce power system, the cabl e si ze
i s sel dom set by the motor ful l l oad current. Manu-
facturers curves showi ng copper temperature mel t-
i ng val ues for hi gh short ci rcui t currents for a spe-
ci fi c ti me durati on must be consul ted; the cabl e may
need to be appreci abl y l arger than requi red by
motor ful l l oad current.
4-32. Motor details
I t i s i mportant to speci fy encl osure type, speci al
hi gh temperature or other ambi ent condi ti ons and
si mi l ar data whi ch i s uni que to the parti cul ar appl i -
cati on. Al so the type of motor, whether squi rrel
cage, wound rotor or synchronous, and power sup-
pl y characteri sti cs i ncl udi ng vol tage, frequency,
and phases must be speci fi ed.
Sec tion IX. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
4-33. Intraplant c ommunic ations
a. General requirements. I nstal l ati on of a hi gh
qual i ty voi ce communi cati on system i n a power
pl ant and i n the i mmedi ate vi ci ni ty of the pl ant i s
vi tal to successful and effi ci ent startup, operati on
and mai ntenance. The communi cati ons system se-
l ected wi l l be desi gned for operati on i n a noi sy en-
vi r onment.
b. Functional description. A descri pti on of the
features of an i ntrapl ant communi cati on system i s
gi ven bel ow.
(1) A page-tal k party l i ne system wi l l be re-
qui red.
(2) I f a conversati on i s i n process on the party
l i ne when a page i s i ni ti ated, the pagi ng party wi l l
i nstruct the party paged to respond on the page
system. Thi s second conversati on wi l l be carri ed on
over the page systemthat i s, both parti es wi l l be
heard on al l speakers, except that the speakers near-
est the four or more handsets i n use wi l l be muted.
(3) I f a party wi shes to break i nto a pri vate con-
versati on, al l he wi l l do i s l i ft hi s handset and break
4-24
i nto the pri vate conversati on al ready taki ng pl ace.
Any number of parti es wi l l be abl e to parti ci pate i n
the pri vate conversati on because the pri vate sys-
tem i s a party l i ne system.
(4) Addi ti onal handsets and speakers can be
added to the basi c system as the power pl ant or out-
door areas are expanded.
c. Handsets.
(1) Except for handsets at desks i n offi ces or
operati ng rooms, the i ndoor handsets i n the power
pl ant wi l l be hook swi tch mounted i n a metal encl os-
ure havi ng a hi nged door. They wi l l be mounted on
bui l di ng col umns approxi matel y 5 feet above the
fl oor. I n parti cul arl y noi sy areas, e.g., i n the boi l er
feed pump and draft fan areas, the handsets wi l l be
of the noi se cancel i ng types.
(2) Desk type handsets wi l l be furni shed ei ther
for tabl e top use or i n wal l -mounti ng hook swi tch
type for mounti ng on the si de of a desk. The hook
swi tch wal l mounti ng wi l l al so be used at vari ous
control boards for ease of use by the pl ant control
room operators.
TM 5-811-6
(3) Outdoor handsets wi l l be hook swi tch
area confi gurati on but a handset wi l l be readi l y
mounted i n a weatherproof encl osure havi ng a avai l abl e to any operator performi ng an operati ng
hi nged door. They wi l l be mounted on the swi tch- functi on.
yard structure or other structure fi ve feet above
d. Speakers.
fi nal grade. (1) Speakers for general i ndoor use wi l l be of
(4) Fl exi bl e coi l spri ng type cords wi l l be sup- rel ati vel y smal l trumpet type and wi l l be weather-
pl i ed wi th each handset to permi t freedom of move- proof for durabi l i ty. They wi l l be mounted on bui l d-
ment by the cal l er. I n the control room provi de extra i ng col umns about 10 feet above fl oor l evel wi th
l ong cords. The spaci ng depends upon the operati ng spaci ng as i ndi cated i n Tabl e 4-2.
Table 4-2. Suggested Locations for I ntraplant Communication Systems Devices.
For Speakers
Two cei l i ng speak er s.
Handsets
Control Room Desk set on oper ator s desk ;
handsets spaced about 10-
feet apar t on contr ol
benchboards and on each
i s ol ated con tr ol pan el .
Offi ces Cei l i ng speak er i n
Supt. and Assi stant
Su pt. of f i ce s .
Desk set i n each offi ce.
Locker Room
Pl ant
Wal l speaker i n l ocker
r oom.
Wal l handset i n l ocker r oom.
Col umn mounted speakers
as necessar y to pr ovi de
cover age of wor k ar eas.
The r equi r ed spaci ng
wi l l depend upon pl ant
l ayout, equi pment l oca-
ti on and noi se l evel s.
Col umn mounted handsets,
as necessar y to pr ovi de
conveni ent access.
Swi tchyar d
Cool i ng tower ar ea
Fuel oi l unl oadi ng
ar ea (or coal handl -
i ng ar ea)
Gate house (i f power
Mi ni mum two structure
mounted speakers at
di agon al l y oppos i te
cor n er of s tr u ctu r e.
Mi ni num two structure
mounted handsets at quarter
poi n ts on l on gi tu di n al
cen ter l i n e of s tr u ctu r e.
Speaker mounted on
cool i n g tower au i l i ar y
bui l di ng faci ng tower .
Two handsets; one i nsi de
aux i l i ar y bui l di ng; one
mounted on outsi de wal l .
Mi ni mum two speakers on
s tr u ctu r es (on e i n s i de
cr usher house).
One handset near pump area
(one handset i nsi de gr ade
door or cr usher house).
Speaker on outsi de of
gate house.
One handset outsi de fence,
at per sonnel or vehi cl e pl ant ar ea i s fenced)
gate.
Note: Speak er s and handsets for i nsi de-the-power pl ant cover age wi l l
be pr ovi ded at ever y fl oor and mezzani ne l evel fr om basement to
upper most boi l er pl atfor m.
Cour tesy of Pope, Evans and Robbi ns (Non-Copyr i ghted)
4-25
TM 5-811-6
(2) Speakers for outdoor use wi l l be l arge
trumpet type, weatherproof. They wi l l be mounted
on the swi tchyard structure or other structure
about 15 feet above fi nal fi ni shed grade.
(3) I n the control room, two fl ush mounted
speakers wi l l be i nstal l ed i n the cei l i ng. A wal l
mounted speaker i n wooden encl osure wi l l be pro-
vi ded for the pl ant superi ntendents offi ce, trai ni ng
room or other si mi l ar l ocati on.
e. Power supply.
(1) Power suppl y wi l l be 120 Vat, 60 Hz, si ngl e
phase as suppl i ed from the emergency power sup-
pl y. The si ngl e phase conductors wi l l be run i n thei r
own condui t system. I t i s vi tal to have the pl ant
communi cati on system operabl e under al l normal
and emergency condi ti ons.
(2) The manufacturer wi l l be consul ted regard-
i ng type of power suppl y cabl e, as wel l as type,
shi el di ng, and routi ng of the communi cati on pai r
conductors.
f. Device locations, general. Proper sel ecti on and
pl anni ng for l ocati on of components i s necessary to
ensure adequate coverage. Al i gnment of speakers i s
i mportant so as to avoi d i nterference and feedback.
I t i s not necessary to have a speaker and a handset
mounted near to one another. Speakers wi l l be posi -
ti oned to provi de page coverage; handsets wi l l be
pl aced for conveni ence of access. For exampl e, a
speaker may be mounted outdoors to cover a tank
area, whi l e the nearest handset may be conveni entl y
l ocated i mmedi atel y i nsi de the pl ant or auxi l i ary
bui l di ng adjacent to the door gi vi ng access to the
tanks.
g. Suggested device locations. Tabl e 4-2 shows
suggested l ocati ons for the vari ous i ntrapl ant com-
muni cati on systems devi ces.
4-34. Telephone c ommunic ations
At l east one normal tel ephone desk set wi l l be pro-
vi ded i n the central control room for contact by the
operators wi th the outsi de worl d and for contact
wi th the uti l i ty company i n the event of paral l el
operati on. For those i nstances when the power pl ant
i s connected i nto a power pool gri d, a di rect tel e-
phone connecti on between the control room and the
pool or connected uti l i ty di spatcher wi l l al so be pro-
vi ded.
TM 5-811-6
G

CHAPTER 5
GENERAL POWER PLANT FACILITIES DESIGN
Sec tion l. lNSTRUMENTS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
5-1. General
I nput adjustments wi l l be desi gned to be del egated
to automati c control systems except duri ng startup,
shutdown, and abnormal operati ng condi ti ons when
the operator. di spl aces or overri des automati c con-
trol functi ons.
5-2. Control panels
a. Types and selection.
(1) General types. Control panel s used i n power
pl ants may be free standi ng or mounted on a wal l or
col umn, as appropri ate.
(2) Central control panel selection. Contr ol
panel s for use i n central control rooms wi l l be en-
cl osed and of the dual swi tchboard, dupl ex swi tch-
board, dual benchboard, control benchboard, or con-
trol desk type dependi ng upon the si ze of the pl ant
and compl exi ty of the i nstruments and control s to
be mounted. When control panel s have compl ex wi r-
i ng (pi pi ng and devi ces mounted i n the i nteri or) the
verti cal panel secti on wi l l be provi ded wi th rear or
wal k-i n access for ease i n erecti on and mai ntenance.
Frequentl y the fl oor of the wal k-i n space i s dropped
.2 or 3 feet bel ow the rai sed control room fl oor to si m-
pl i fy cabl e and tubi ng entrance to the panel i nteri or
and to i ncrease space for termi nal s. A dropped fl oor
wi l l be provi ded for proper access to any benchboard
secti on of a panel . The shape of the panel wi l l be se-
l ected usi ng the fol l owi ng cri teri a:
(a) Space avai l abi l i ty i n the control room.
(b) Number of control s and i nstruments to be
mounted.
(c) Vi si bi l i ty of the control s and i nstruments
by the pl ant operators.
(d) Groupi ng and i nterrel ati onshi p of the con-
trol s and i nstruments for ease of operati on and
avoi dance of operati ng error.
b. Location of panels.
(1) Control room. The vari ous panel s l ocated i n
the central control room wi l l be arranged to mi ni -
mi ze operator wasted moti on. I n a uni ti zed power
pl ant (one wi thout a header system), provi de a
boi l er-turbi ne mechani cal panel (or secti on) for each
uni t wi th separate common panel (s) to accommodate
compressed ai r, ci rcul ati ng water, servi ce water and
l i ke system whi ch may pertai n to more than one
uni t. Coal handl i ng, ash handl i ng and water treati ng
panel s wi l l not be l ocated i n the central control room
unl ess the pl ant i s smal l and the operati ng crew may
be reduced by such addi ti onal central i zi ng. I f the
pl ant has a header system whi ch i s not conduci ve to
boi l er-turbi ne panel s, group control s and i nstru-
ments i nto a boi l er panel for al l boi l ers and a turbi ne
generator panel for al l turbi nes whenever practi c-
abl e. Usual l y, a separate el ectri cal panel wi th mi mi c
bus for the generators and swi tchgear and swi tch-
yard, i f appl i cabl e, wi l l be provi ded regardl ess of
whether the mechani cal i nstruments are grouped on
a uni t basi s or a header basi s.
(2) Local panels. These wi l l be mounted as cl ose
to the equi pment (or process) they are control l i ng as
i s practi cal .
c. I nstrument selection and arrangement on
panels. Sel ecti on and arrangement of the vari ous
control s, i nstruments and devi ces on the panel s wi l l
be general l y i n accordance wi th the gui del i nes of
Tabl es 5-1,5 -2,5-3 and 5-4, and the fol l owi ng
(1) I tems. Mechani cal i tems wi l l be grouped by
basi c functi on (i .e., turbi ne, boi l er, condensate, feed-
water, ci rcul ati ng water, servi ce water and l i ke sys-
tems), Burner management control s wi l l be obtai ned
as an i nsert or subpanel whi ch can be i ncorporat-
ed i nto the boi l er groupi ng of control s and i nstru-
ments. Such an i nsert may i ncl ude remote l i ghtoff
and startup of burners i f desi red. El ectri cal i tems
wi l l be grouped by generator, vol tage regul ator,
swi tchgear and l i ke equi pment i tems i n a manner
whi ch i s easi l y i ncorporated i nto a mi mi c bus.
(2) Readability. I nstruments whi ch requi re
operator observati on wi l l be l ocated not hi gher than
6 1/2 feet nor l ower than 3 feet above the fl oor for
easy readabi l i ty.
(3) Controls, switches and devices. Those con-
trol s, swi tches and other devi ces whi ch requi re
mani pul ati on by the operators wi l l be easi l y access-
i bl e and wi l l be l ocated on a bench or desk wherever
pr acti cabl e.
(4) I ndicators versus recorders. I ndi cators wi l l
be provi ded where an i nstantaneous readi ng of cycl e
thermodynami c or physi cal parameters suffi ces as a
check of proper system operati on. When a perma-
nent record of pl ant parameters i s desi red for eco-
5-1
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-1. List of Typical I nstruments and Devices to be Provided for Boiler Turbine Mechanical Panel
Measur ement
or Devi ce
Pr essur e
Temper atur e
Fl ow
Notes: (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Pri mary El ement
Fl ui d Locati on
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Feedwater
Condensate
Fuel gas
Fuel gas
Fuel gas
Fl ue gas
Lube Oi l
Vacuum
Steam
Steam
Steam
Ai r -fl ue gas
Lube Oi l
Steam
Ai r
C0
2
Feedwater
Feedwater
Fuel gas
Fuel oi l
Boi l er dr um
Boi l er atomi zi ng steam
Tur bi ne Thr ottl e
Deaerator steam space
BFP di scharge
Cond. pump di scharge
Boi l er bur ner s
I gn i ter
Boi l er bur ne s
Tur bi ne gener ator
Condenser
Tu r bi n e th r ottl e
Boi l er super heater outl et
Tur bi ne extr acti on steam
Boi l er dr aft system
Tur bi ne gener ator
Boi l er mai n steam
Boi l er FD f n di schar ge
Boi l er mai n suppl y
Boi l er Attemper ator
Boi l er bur ner suppl y
Boi l er bur ner suppl y
I ncl udi ng FD fan di schar ge, ai r i nl et & outl et
I nstr ument or
Devi ce on Panel
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
Recorder &
t ot a l i z e r
Recor der
Recor der
Recor der
Recor der
Recorder &
t ot a l i z e r
Recorder &
t ot a l i z e r
to ai r pr eheater ,
wi ndbox, fur nace dr aft, i nl et & outl et to economi zer , gas i nl et
and outl et to ai r pr eheater , over fi r e or pr i mar y ai r pr essur e,
and I D fan di schar ge.
Mul ti -poi nt el ectr oni c type to tr ack ai r and gas temper atur es
thr ough the uni t.
May be used for combusti on contr ol s i nstead of steam fl ow-ai r
fl ow.
Usual l y i n condensate system, boi l er feed system and pr ocess
r etur ns .
5-2
TM 5-311-6
List of Typical I nstruments and Devices to be Provided for Boiler Turbine Mechanical Panel. (Continued) Table 5-1.
Measur ement Pri mary El ement
or Devi ce Fl ui d Locati on
I nstr ument or
Devi ce on Panel
Level Feedwater
Condensate
Coal
Boi l er drum
Deaer ator , Condenser Hotwel l
Bunker
Recor der
Recor der
I n di cator or
pi l ot l i gh ts
Cel l s a s r equ i r ed
(4)
Conducti vi ty Condensate Recor der
Manual -
- -
automati c
s tati on s
Combusti on contr ol system,
condensate and feedwater
contr ol systems, steam
attemper ator , and as r e-
qui r ed
Each stati on
Mot or c on t r ol - -
swi tches
Star ter s for dr aft fan s ,
BF pumps, condensate pumps,
vacuum pumps, fuel pumps,
l ube oi l pumps, tur ni ng
gear , tur bi ne gover nor and
l i k e i tems
Each swi tch
Ammeter s
- -
Maj or motor s (hi gh vol t-
age) : draft fans, BF pumps
I ndi cator
Al arms
- -
Poi nts as sel ected for
safe oper ati on
Annunci ator
s ecti on for
boi l er tur bi ne
panel
Boi l er bur ner system I n s er t on boi l er -
tur bi ne panel
Bur ner
- -
Management
I ndi cati ng
-
As r equi r ed to star t up
and moni tor boi l er and
tur bi ne.
Each l i ght
Notes: See fi r s t
Cour tesy of Pope,
page of Tabl e.
5-3
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-2. List of Typical I nstruments and Devices to be Provided for Common Services Mechanical Panel
Pri mary El ement
Fl ui d Locati on
I nstrument or
Devi ce on Panel
Measur ement
or Devi ce
Mai n steam header
(l )
Extr acti on steam header (l )
Suppl y to pl ant
suppl y
Burner pump di scharge
Di schar ge header
Ser vi ce water
Cl osed cool i ng water
Fi r e system
I nstr ument ai r
Ser v i ce ai r
Atmosphere
Recor der
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
Bar ometer
Pr essur e Steam
Steam
Fuel gas
Fuel oi l
Fuel oi l
Ci r c. water
Water
Water
Water
Ai r
Ai r
Ai r
.
Extr acti on steam header (l )
suppl y
As r equi r ed
Temper atur e Steam
Fuel Oi l
Var i ous
Vi s cos i ty
Fl ow
Fuel oi l
Steam
Steam
Pump and heater sets
Extr acti on to pr ocess
Recor der
Recorder &
t ot a l i z e r
Recorder &
t ot a l i z e r
Fuel gas Suppl y to pl ant
Fuel oi l
Condensate
Tank(s)
Tank(s)
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
Level
Manual -
automati c
s tati on s
Pr essur e r educi ng stati on,
mi sc. ai r oper ated devi ces
Each stati on
--
CW pumps, cool i ng tower Each swi tch Motor
contr ol
swi tches
- -
fans, ai r compr essor s,
condensate tr ansfer pumps,
ser vi ce water pumps, fuel
tr ansfer pumps, and l i ke
i t ems
:
(2)
For header systems onl y
Mu l ti -poi n t el ectr on i c ty pe
5-4
Table 6-2,
TM 5-811-6
List of Typical I nstruments and Devices to be provided for Common Services Mechanical Panel. (Continued)
Measur ement Pri mary El ement
or Devi ce Fl ui d Locati on
Ammeter
-
Maj or (hi gh vol tage)
motors; CW pumps, cool i ng
tower fans
Al arms
- -
Poi nts as sel ected
for s afe oper ati on
I ndi cati ng
- -
.

As r equi r ed to star t-up

and moni tor pr i nci pal
common systems
Courtesy of Pope, Evans and Robbi ns (Non-Copyr i ghted)
nomi c or engi neeri ng accountabi l i ty purposes, re-
corders wi l l be provi ded.
d. Ventilation. Al l panel s whi ch house heat pro-
duci ng i nstruments wi l l be venti l ated or ai r condi -
ti oned to prevent overheati ng of the i nstruments.
For panel ~i n the central control room, thi s wi l l be
.
accompl i shed by havi ng a fi l tered ai r i ntake and me-
chani cal exhaust arrangement to ci rcul ate cool ai r
from the ai r condi ti oned control room through each
encl osed panel wherever practi cabl e. Local panel s,
as a rul e, have onl y gages and other devi ces whi ch
emi t l i ttl e heat and do not requi re speci al venti l a-
ti on.
e. I llumination. I n a central control room, the
best i l l umi nati on i s a l i ght cei l i ng wi th di ffuser
type suspended panel s to gi ve a shadowl ess, even
l evel of l i ghti ng throughout the control room. Level s
of i l l umi nati on at bench tops of 75-foot candl es,
pl us or mi nus 10-foot candl es, wi l l be provi ded.
However, cauti on must be used when desi gni ng
l i ghti ng for control rooms uti l i zi ng el ectroni c di gi tal
control s wi th cathode ray tube (CRT) di spl ay as ex-
cessi ve i l l umi nati on tends to wash out di spl ays. I n
areas wi th el ectroni c di gi tal control s wi th CRT di s-
pl ays, the l evel of general i l l umi nati on wi l l be mai n-
tai ned at 15- to 25-foot candl es. Local panel i l l umi -
nati on wi l l be accompl i shed by means of a canopy
bui l t i nto the top of the panel . Local swi tch control
wi l l be provi ded at each canopy l i ght.
5-3. Automati c contr ol systems
a. Types. Control systems and i nstruments may
be pneumati c, ac or dc el ectroni c, el ectroni c di gi tal ,
combi nati on pneumati c and el ectroni c, or hydraul i c.
I nstr ument or
Devi ce on Panel
I ndi cator
Annunci ator
s ecti on for
common panel
Each l i ght
Mechani cal -hydraul i c and el ectro-hydraul i c systems
wi l l be uti l i zed i n connecti on wi th turbi ne generator
speed governi ng control systems. Pneumati c con-
trol s wi l l be used for power pl ant uni ts of 30 MW or
l ess. Appl i cati ons i ncl ude: combusti on control ,
feedwater regul ati on, desuperheati ng and pressure
reduci ng stati on control , heater drai n control , and
boi l er feed reci rcul ati on control . Pneumati c systems
are economi cal , rel i abl e, and provi de smooth, modu-
l ati ng type of operati on. For pl ants where the ar-
rangement i s di spersed and preci si on i s requi red,
el ectroni c control s and i nstruments wi l l be provi ded
i n l i eu of the pneumati c type because of the sl ug-
gi shness of pneumati c response where l ong di s-
tances are i nvol ved. El ectroni c di gi tal control s have
recentl y become economi cal l y competi ti ve wi th
anal og pneumati c and el ectroni c control s and offer
the advantage of soft-wi red control l ogi c and pro-
grammabl e versati l i ty. Wi th el ectroni c control s i t i s
requi red to use pneumati cal l y operated val ves wi th
transducers to convert the el ectroni c si gnal s to
pneumati c at the pneumati c val ve operator.
b. Combustion controls. Combusti on control s for
steam generators wi l l be based on the conventi onal
i ndi rect method of mai ntai ni ng steam pressure.
Systems wi l l be of the ful l y meteri ng type, desi gned
to hol d steam pressure wi thi n pl us or mi nus 1 per-
cent of the control l er setti ng wi th l oad changes of 5
percent per mi nute; under the same rate of l oad
change, excess ai r wi l l be mai ntai ned at pl us or
mi nus 2 percent of the control setti ng. (Note: Wi th
stoker fi red boi l ers havi ng l i mi ted heat i nputs from
suspensi on heat rel ease, the tol erances on steam
pressure wi l l be greater than 1 percent.)
5-5
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-3. List of Typical I nstruments and Devices to be Provided for Electrical (Generator and Switchgear) Panel
Measur ement I nstr ument or
or Devi ce Devi ce on Panel
For Each Generator
Gener ator gr oss output
Power Factor
Gener ator ac cur r ent
Gener ator ac vol ts
Gener ator dc cur r ent
Gener ator dc vol ts
Gener ator ac cur r ent
(for i n di v i du al ph as es )
Gener ator ac vol ts
(for i n di v i du al ph as es )
Gener ator
synchr oni zi ng
Gener ator
synchr oni zi ng
Oi l ci r cu i t br eak er
t r i p
Gen er ator fi el d
br eaker
Vol tage r egul ator
Vol tage r egul ator
Vol tage r egu l ator
Vol tage r egu l ator
Uni t gover nor
Uni t tr i p
Uni t r eset
Uni t speed
Uni t temper atur es
Generator al arms
Mi scel l aneous
Super vi sor y
Wattmeter
P.F. Meter
AC ammeter
AC vol tmeter
DC ammeter
DC vol tmeter
AC ammeter
con tr ol s wi tch
AC vol tmeter
contr ol swi tch
Synchr oni zi ng
contr ol swi tch
Separ ate panel
s ecti on
OCB control
swi tch
Fi el d br eak er
contr ol swi tch
Vol tage r eg.
Notes
- -
- -
- -
- -
For phase measur ement sel ecti on
- -
For phase measur ement sel ecti on
- -
I n cl . synch. l amps and meters
for i ncomi ng and r unni ng
i n di ca ti on
I f step-up tr ansfor mati on
i ncl uded
- -
tr ansfer vol tmeter
Manual vol tage
r egul ator
- -
Auto. vol tage
r eg. adj u s ter
- -
Vol tage r eg.
tr ansfer swi tch
- -
Gover nor contr ol
s wi tch , r ai s e-l ower
- -
Tr i p pushbutton
- -
Reset pushbutton
- -
Speed i ndi cator
- -
El ectr on i c For tur bi ne and gener ator
r ecor der temperatures
Annunci ator Wi th test and r eset pushbuttons
I ndi cati ng For swi tches and as r equi r ed
l i gh ts
Recor der s Vi br ati on, e cce n t r i ci t y
5-6
Table 5-3.
TM 5-811-6
List of Typical I nstruments and Devices to be Provided for El ectri cal (Generator and Swi tchgear) Panel . (Conti nued)
Measur ement I nstrument or
or Devi ce Devi ce on Panel
For Swi tchgear
2.4 or 4.16 kV uni t
swi tchgear
2.4 or 4.16 kV
common swi tchgear
2.4 or 4.16 kV
feeder s
480 V uni t swi tchgear
480 V common
swi tchgear
480 V feeder s
Swi thgear ac cur r ent
Swi tchgear ac vol ts
Swi tchgear al arms
Mi scel l aneous
I ntr apl ant
communi cati on
Br eaker contr ol
swi tch
Br eaker contr ol
swi tch
Br eaker contr ol
swi tches
Br eaker contr ol
swi tch
Br eaker contr ol
swi tch
Br eaker contr ol
swi tches
AC ammeters
AC vol tmeters
Annunci ator
Notes: (1) I f a hi gh
be r equi r ed.
I ndi cati ng
l i gh ts
Tel ephone handset
Notes
I f h i gh er pl an t au x i l i ar y
vol tage r equi r ed
I f r equi r ed
For pl an t au x i l i ar i es
an d/or for ou ts i de di s tr i -
bu ti on ci r cu i ts as r e-
qui r ed.
For pl ant auxi l i ar i es as
r equi r ed
One for each swi tchgear
wi th swi tch
One for each swi tchgear
wi th swi tch
Wi th test and r eset push-
buttons
For swi tches and as r e-
qui r ed
vol tage swi tchyar d i s r equi r ed a separ ate panel may
(2) For r el ays see Chapter 4, Secti on V; gener ator and auxi l i ar y
power rel ays may be mounted on the back of the generator
wal k-i n bench- boar d or on a separ ate panel .
Cour tesy of Pope, Evans and Robbi ns (Non-Copyr i ghted)
5-7
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-4. List of Typical I nstruments and Devices to be Provided for Diesel Mechanical Panel
Measur ement Pri mary El ement
or Devi ce Fl ui d Locati on
Pr essur e Fuel gas
Fuel oi l
Lube oi l
Lube oi l
Comb. ai r
Comb. ai r
Cool i ng water
Star ti ng ai r
Temper atur e Exhaust
Cool i ng water
Cool i ng water
Level Jacket water
Lube Oi l
Fuel
Fuel
Motor
-
contr ol
swi tches
(or pushbuttons)
Al arms
- -
Suppl y to engi ne
Suppl y to engi ne
Suppl y to engi ne
suppl y to tur bochar ger
Tur bochar ger di schar ge
Fi l ter downstr eam
Pump di scharge
Ai r r ecei v er
Each cyl i nder and
combi ned exhaust
Suppl y to engi ne
Return from engi ne
Surge tank
Sump tank
Bul k stor age tank
Day Tank
Jacket water pumps,
r adi ator (or cool i n g
tower ) fan s , fu el oi l
pumps, centr i fuges,
an d l i k e au x i l i ar i es
Low l ube oi l pr essur e,
l ow jacket water pr essur e,
hi gh l ube oi l temper atur e,
hi gh jacket water
temper atur e, hi gh and l ow
day tank l evel s
Notes : (1) Wi th s el ector s wi tch .
Courtesy of Pope, Evans and Robbi ns
5-8
(Non-Copyr i ghted)
I nstrument or
Devi ce on Panel
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I n di cator (l )
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
I ndi cator
Each swi tch
Annunci ator
TM 5-811-6
.
c. Feedwater regulation. A three el ement feed-
water regul ator system wi l l be provi ded for steam
power pl ant servi ce. Such a system bal ances feed-
water i nput to steam output subject to correcti on
for drum l evel devi ati ons caused by operati ng pres-
sure vari ati ons (drum swel l ).
d. Attemperator control system. Each power
pl ant steam generator wi l l have superheat (attem-
perator) control s to mai ntai n superheat wi thi n the
l i mi ts requi red for protecti on of the turbi ne metal
parts agai nst thermal stress and for preventi ng
excessi ve reducti on i n part l oad turbi ne effi ci ency.
I njecti on of desuperheati ng water (whi ch must be
hi gh puri ty water, such as condensate) wi l l be done
between stages of the boi l er superheater to reduce
chances of water carryover to the turbi ne. An at-
temperator system havi ng a control l er wi th a fast
response, deri vati ve feature wi l l be provi ded. Thi s
type of control l er anti ci pates the magni tude of sys-
tem devi ati ons from the control set poi nt i n accord-
ance wi th the rate of change of superheat temperat-
ure. Automati c posi ti ve shutoff val ve(s) wi l l be pro-
vi ded i n the desuperheati ng water suppl y l i ne up-
stream of the desuperheater control val ve to prevent
dri bbl i ng of water to the desuperheater when the
control s are not cal l i ng for spray water.
e. Closed heater drain controls. Al though i t i s
thermodynami cal l y preferabl e to pump the drai ns
from each feedwater heater forward i nto the conden-
sate or feedwater stream exi ti ng from the heater,
the expense and general unrel i abi l i ty of the l ow
NPSH pumps requi red for thi s type of drai n servi ce
wi l l normal l y precl ude such a desi gn. Accordi ngl y,
the drai ns from each heater wi l l normal l y be cas-
caded to the next l ower pressure heater through a
l evel control val ve. The val ve wi l l be l ocated as
cl osel y as possi bl e to the l ower pressure heater due
to the fl ashi ng whi ch occurs because of the pressure
reducti on at the outl et of the l evel control val ve.
Each heater wi l l be provi ded wi th two l evel control
val ves. The secondary val ve onl y functi ons on
startup, on mal functi on of the normal val ve, or
someti mes duri ng l i ght l oads when pressure di ffer-
enti al between heaters bei ng cascaded becomes very
smal l . The secondary val ve frequentl y di scharges
di rectl y to the condenser. Such a compl exi ty of con-
trol s for heater drai ns i s necessary to assi st i n pre-
venti ng probl ems and turbi ne damage caused by
turbi ne water i nducti on. Water i nducti on occurs
when feedwater header tubes or l evel control val ves
fai l , causi ng water to backup i nto the turbi ne
through the extracti on steam pi pi ng. Refer to
Chapter 3, Secti on VI I .
f. Boiler feed recirculation controls. An automati c
reci rcul ati on system wi l l be i nstal l ed for each pump
to bypass a mi ni mum amount of feedwater back to
the deaerator at l ow l oads for protecti on agai nst
boi l er feed pump overheati ng. A fl ow si gnal from
the sucti on of each pump wi l l be used to sense the
preset mi ni mum safe pump fl ow. Thi s l ow fl ow si g-
nal wi l l open an automati c reci rcul ati on val ve l o-
cated i n the pi pi ng run from the pump di scharge to
the deaerator. Thi s reci rcul ati on l i ne poses mi ni -
mum fl ow through a breakdown ori fi ce for pressure
reducti on to the deaerator. The breakdown ori fi ce
wi l l be l ocated as cl osel y as possi bl e to the deaerator
because fl ashi ng occurs downstream. When pump
sucti on fl ow i ncreases to a presel ected amount i n ex-
cess of pump mi ni mum fl ow, the reci rcul ati on val ve
cl oses. The operator wi l l be abl e to open the reci r-
cul ati on val ve manual l y wi th a sel ector swi tch on
the control panel . Desi gns wi l l be such as to pre-
cl ude acci dental cl osi ng of the val ve manual l y. Such
an operator error coul d cause fl ow to drop bel ow the
safe l evel qui ckl y, destroyi ng hi gh pressure pumps.
g. Other control systems. Desuperheati ng, pres-
sure reduci ng, fuel oi l heati ng, and other mi scel l ane-
ous power pl ant control systems wi l l be provi ded as
appropri ate. Di rect acti ng val ves wi l l not be used.
Control val ves wi l l be equi pped wi th a matchi ng
val ve operator for posi ti ve openi ng and cl osi ng ac-
ti on. Deaerator and hotwel l l evel control systems
are descri bed i n Chapter 3, Secti on VI I .
5-4. Monitoring instruments
a. Types.
(1) Control system components wi l l i ncl ude
sensi ng devi ces for pri mary fl ui ds pl us transmi tters,
transducers, rel ays, control l ers, manual -automati c
stati ons, and vari ous speci al devi ces. Tabl e 5-5 l i sts
sensi ng el ements for control s and i nstruments. I n-
struments general l y fal l i nto two cl assi fi cati onsdi -
rect readi ng and remote readi ng.
(2) Di rect readi ng i nstruments (e.g., thermome-
ters, pressure gages, and manometers) wi l l be
mounted on l ocal panel s, or di rectl y on the process
pi pi ng or equi pment i f at an accessi bl e l ocati on.
Local l y mounted thermometers wi l l be of the con-
venti onal mercury type or of the more easi l y read
(but l ess accurate) di al type. Type sel ected wi l l de-
pend on accuracy requi red. Pressure gages for steam
or water servi ce wi l l be of the Bourdon tube type.
(3) Remote readi ng i nstruments (recorders, i n-
tegrators, i ndi cators and el ectri cal meters) wi l l be
mounted on panel s i n the central control room.
These i nstruments wi l l have pneumati c or el ectroni c
transmi ssi on ci rcui ts. Someti mes the same trans-
mi tters uti l i zed for control system servi ce can be
uti l i zed for the perti nent remote readi ng i nstru-
ment, al though for vi tal servi ces, such as drum
l evel , an i ndependent l evel transmi tter wi l l be used
for the remote l evel i ndi cator.
5-9
Table 5-5. Sensing Elements for Controls and I nstruments. (Continued)
Common Appl i cati ons
Contr ol I nstrument El ement Type
Moti on
Chemi cal
Centr i fugal
Vi br ati ng r eed
Rel ati ve moti on
Ph oto-el ectr i c cel l
Fl ue gas anal ysi s
Water anal ysi s
Speed governs Tachometer
Speed governs Tachometer
- -
Str oboscope
Li mi t contr ol Counter
- .
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
Combusti on Orsat
contr ol
Water
- -
treatment
Fuel anal ysi s
- - - -
- -
Hydr ometer for l i qui ds
- -
Scal es for s ol i ds
- -
Hygr ometer
- -
Ri ngel man chart
Combusti on C0
2
meter
Combusti on Btu meter
Physi cal Speci f i c gr a v i ty
Wei ght
Humi di ty
Smoke densi ty
Gas densi ty
Heat
- -
- -
- -
Combi nati on of
water fl ow and
temperature
d i f f e r e n t i a l
E l e ct r i c
and
el ectr on i c
Ph oto-con du cti v i ty Fl ame safe-
guar d
Ph oto-el ectr i c cel l
Smoke densi ty
E l e ct r i c
con du cti v i ty
Pr obes Al arm pH of water
Oi l i n condensate
Sour ce: NAVFAC DM3
Tabl e 5-5. Sensi ng El ements for Control s and I nstruments. (Conti nued)
Common Appl i cati ons
El ement Type Contr ol I nstrument
Pr essur e Mechani cal
Va r i a bl e el ectr i c
r esi stance due to
s tr a i n
Va r i a bl e el ectr i c
r esi stance due to
vacuum
Var i abl e
e l e ct r on i c
r esi stance due to
vacuum
Level Vi sual
Fl oat
Di f f e r e n t i a l
pr essur e
Hydr ostati c
Bourdon tube
Bel l ows or
di aphr agm
Manometer s
Pr essur e tr ansducer
Thermocoupl e
Vacuum tube
- -
Buoyant fl oat
Di spl acement
Manometer
Di aphragm i n tank
bottom
Pr es s u r e, dr aft
and vacuum
r egu l ator s
Pr ocess pr essur e
r egul ator
Vacuum
r egul ator
Vacuum
r egul ator
- -
Mechani cal
l ev el r egu l ator
Pneumati c fl oat
r egul ator
Level r egul ator
Level r egul ator
Pr essur e gage
Low pressure,
vacuum gages
Bar ometer
Pot e n t i om.
dr aft and
100 to 50,000 psi
Hi gh vacuum 1-7000
mi crons Hg
Hi gh-vacuum down to
0.1 mi cron Hg
Gage sti ck
Tr anspar ent tube
Tape connected to fl oat
Tor que
Remote l evel gage
Tank l evel s wi th
v i s cous fl ui ds
Table 5-5. Sensing Elements for Controls and I nstruments. (Continued)
El ement Type
Temperature Sol i d expansi on
Fl ui d expansi on
Thermocoupl e
El ec. r es i s tan ce
of metal s
Opti cal
Pyrometer
Radi ati on
pyrometer
Fusi on
Bi metal
Mer cur y or al cohol
Mer cur y i n coi l
Or gani c l i qui d
Or gani c vapor
l i qu i d
Gas
Copper -constantan
I r on-constantan
Chromel -al umel
Pl at.-pl at. r h odi u m
Copper
Ni ckel
Pl ati num
Compar ati ve r adi ant
ener gy
Radi ant energy on
ther mocoupl es
- -
Common Appl i cati ons
Contr ol I nstrument
On-off
ther mostats
- -
Temper atur e
r egu l ator s
Temper atur e
r egu l ator s
Temper atur e
r egu l ator s
- -
Di al ther m. - 100 to 1000 F
Gl ass ther m.- 38 to 750 F
Di al ther m. - 38 to 1000 F
125 to 500 F
- 40 to 600 F
- 400 to 1000 F
Low vol tage - 300 to 600 F
O to 1400 F
600 to 2100 F
1300 to 3000 F
Potenti om. - 40 to 250 F
- 300 to 600 F
- 300 to 1800 F
Potenti om. - 800 to 5200 F
Fl ame safeguard Potenti om. - 200 to 7000 F
Sur face
temperature
r egul ati on
- -
Pyrom.cones -1600 to 3600 F
Crayons - 100 to 800 F
TM 5-811-6
(4) Panel mounted recei ver gages for pressure,
temperature, l evel and draft wi l l be of the mi ni ature,
verti cal i ndi cati ng type whi ch can be arranged i n
conveni ent l i neups l i neups on the panel and are easy
to read.
(5) Recorders wi l l be of the mi ni ature type, ex-
cept for mul ti -poi nt el ectroni c dot pri nti ng recorders
whi ch wi l l be ful l si ze.
b. Selection. The moni tori ng i nstruments for any
control system wi l l be sel ected to provi de the neces-
sary i nformati on requi red for the control room
operator to be i nformed at al l ti mes on how the con-
trol l ed system i s functi oni ng, on vi tal process
trends, and on other essenti al i nformati on so that
correcti ve acti on can be taken as requi red.
5-5. Alarm and annunc iator systems
a. Purpose. The annunci ator system suppl ements
the operators physi cal senses and noti fi es hi m both
audi bl y and vi sual l y when troubl e occurs so that
proper steps can be taken to correct the probl em.
b. General. The al arm system wi l l be both audi bl e
and vi sual . The soundi ng of the al arm wi l l al ert the
operators that a probl em exi sts and the vi sual l i ght
i n the perti nent annunci ator wi ndow wi l l i denti fy
the probl em. Annunci ator systems shal l provi de for
the vi sual di spl ay to be di sti ngui shabl e between
new al arms and previ ous al arms al ready acknowl -
edged by the operator pushi ng a button provi ded for
thi s purpose. New al arms wi l l be si gni fi ed by a fl ash-
i ng l i ght, whereas acknowl edged al arms wi l l be si g-
ni fi ed by a steady l i ght. Al arm wi ndows wi l l be ar-
ranged and grouped on verti cal , upper panel sec-
ti ons wi th correspondi ng control stati ons and
operati ng swi tches wi thi n easy reach of the operator
at al l ti mes. Cri ti cal or potenti al l y dangerous al arms
wi l l be a di fferent col or from standard al arms for
rapi d operator i denti fi cati on and response.
Sec tion Il. HEATlNG; VENTILATING AND AlR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
5-6. introduc tion
Thi s secti on sets forth general cri teri a for desi gn of
space condi ti oni ng systems for a power pl ant.
5-7. Operations areas
a. Enclosed general operating areas.
(1) Ventilation supply. Provi de mechani cal ven-
ti l ati on for fresh ai r suppl y to, as wel l as exhaust
from, the mai n operati ng areas, A fi l tered outsi de
ai r suppl y, wi th heati ng coi l s and reci rcul ati on op-
ti on for wi nter use, wi l l be provi ded. Suppl y fans
wi l l be sel ected so that i ndoor temperature does not
ri se more than 15
o
F. above the ambi ent outdoor ai r
desi gn temperature, and to mai ntai n a sl i ght posi -
ti ve i nsi de pressure wi th al l exhaust fans operati ng
at maxi mum speed. Venti l ati on system desi gn wi l l
take i nto account any i ndoor ai r i ntakes for boi l er
forced draft fans, whi ch can be desi gned to draw
warm ai r from near the roof of the pl ant. Suppl y ai r
wi l l be di rected through a duct system to the l owest
l evel s of the pl ant wi th parti cul ar emphasi s on fur-
ni shi ng l arge ai r quanti ti es to hot spots. The
turbi ne room wi l l recei ve a substanti al quanti ty of
fresh ai r, suppl emented by ai r from l ower l evel s ri s-
i ng through operati ng fl oor grati ngs. For hot, dry
cl i mates, evaporati ve cool i ng of venti l ati on ai r sup-
pl y wi l l be provi ded.
(2) Ventilation exhaust. Exhaust fans wi th at
l east two speeds are swi tched so that i ndi vi dual fan
and fan speed can be sel ected accordi ng to ai r quan-
ti ty desi red wi l l be provi ded. Battery rooms wi l l
have separate exhaust systems desi gned i n accord-
ance wi th TM 5-811-21AFM 88-9/2. I t may be
economi cal to remove heat from hot spots wi th l ocal
5-14
ducted exhaust systems to prevent heat from bei ng
carri ed i nto other areas. Al l exhaust and suppl y
openi ngs wi l l be provi ded wi th power operated
dampers, bi rd screens, and means for preventi ng en-
trance of rai n, sl eet and snow.
(3) Heating. As much heati ng as practi cabl e
wi l l be suppl i ed vi a the central venti l ati on suppl y
system, whi ch wi l l be desi gned so that maxi mum de-
si gn ai r fl ow can be reduced to a mi ni mum requi red
for wi nter operati on. Heat suppl i ed by the venti l a-
ti on system wi l l be suppl emented as requi red by
uni t heaters and radi ati on. Heati ng system desi gn
for venti l ati on and other space heati ng equi pment
wi l l be sel ected to mai ntai n a mi ni mum pl ant i ndoor
temperature of 55
O
F. and an offi ce, control room
and l aboratory area temperature of 68
O
F.
b. Control room.
(1) The central control room i s the operati ng
center of a power pl ant and wi l l be ai r condi ti oned
(i .e., temperature control , humi di ty control and ai r
fi l trati on) for the purpose of human comfort and to
protect equi pment such as rel ays, meters and com-
puters. Unattended control rooms may not requi re
comfort condi ti ons but have temperature l i mi ts as
requi red by the equi pment housed i n the room. Con-
trol system component manufacturers wi l l be con-
sul ted to determi ne the operati ng envi ronment re-
qui red for equi pment rel i abi l i ty.
(2) I ntermedi ate season cool i ng usi ng 100 per-
cent outsi de ai r for an economi zer cycl e or enthal py
control wi l l be l i fe cycl e cost anal yzed.
5-8. Servic e areas
a. Toilets, locker rooms and lunch rooms.
TM 5-811-6
(1) Toi l ets wi l l be exhausted to mai ntai n a nega-
ti ve pressure rel ati ve to adjacent areas. Al l exhaust
outl ets from a toi l et wi l l be a mi ni mum of 15 feet
from any suppl y i nl et to prevent short ci rcui ti ng of
ai r. Toi l et exhaust wi l l be combi ned wi th a l ocker
room exhaust but not wi th any other exhaust.
(2) Locker rooms wi l l be exhausted accordi ng to
the appl i cabl e codes and suppl i ed by a heated ai r
suppl y.
(3) Lunch rooms wi l l be furni shed wi th reci rcu-
l ati on heati ng systems to meet appl i cabl e codes; ex-
haust wi l l be i nstal l ed. System wi l l be i ndependent
of other systems to prevent reci rcul ati on of food
odors to other spaces.
b. Shops and maintenance rooms. Al l shops and
mai ntenance rooms wi l l be venti l ated accordi ng to
appl i cabl e codes. Wel di ng and pai nti ng areas wi l l be
exhausted. Heati ng wi l l be provi ded by means of
uni t heaters si zed to mai ntai n a maxi mum of 68 F.
on the col dest wi nter desi gn day.
c. Offices and laboratories. Al l offi ces and l abora-
tori es wi l l be ai r condi ti oned for human comfort i n
accordance wi th TM 5-810-l /AFM 88-8/1. Ex-
haust wi l l be provi ded where requi red for l aboratory
hoods or other speci al purposes.
Sec tion lll. POWER AND SERViCE PlPlNG SYSTEMS
5-9. introduc tion
a. General. Power pl ant pi pi ng systems, desi gned
to transfer a vari ety of fl ui ds (steam, water, com-
pressed ai r, fuel oi l , l ube oi l , natural gas) at pres-
sures rangi ng from ful l vacuum to thousands of psi ,
wi l l be engi neered for structural i ntegri ty and econo-
my of fl ui d system constructi on and operati on.
b. Design considerations. Pi pi ng systems wi l l be
desi gned to conform to the standards l i sted i n Tabl e
5-6. ASME Boi l er Pressure Vessel Code Secti on I
governs the desi gn of boi l er pi pi ng, usual l y up to the
second i sol ati on val ve. ANSI B31.1, Code for Pres-
sure Power Pi pi ng governs the pressure boundary
requi rements of most other pl ant pi pi ng (excl udi ng
pl umbi ng and drai nage pi pi ng). Each of these codes
provi des a detai l ed descri pti on of i ts scope and l i m-
i tati ons.
5-10. Piping design fundamentals
Desi gn of pi pi ng system wi l l conform to the fol l ow-
i ng procedure:
1
I a. Sel ect pi pe si zes, materi al s and wal l thi ckness
(pi pe schedul e). Desi gn for the maxi mum pressure
and temperature the pi pi ng wi l l experi ence duri ng
ei ther operati on or upset condi ti ons. Fol l ow appro-
pri ate secti ons of ASME Secti on I and ANSI B31.1.
Other requi rements for wel di ng qual i fi cati on and
pressure vessel desi gn are set forth i n ASME Sec-
ti ons VI I I and I X. Speci fy hydrostati c pressure
testi ng requi rements i n accordance wi th the codes.
Sel ect fl ow vel oci ti es for overal l economy.
b. Sel ect pi pi ng components and end connecti ons
for equi pment.
c. Route piping. Make runs as si mpl e and di rect
as possi bl e. Al l ow for mai ntenance space and access
to equi pment. Do not al l ow pi pi ng to encroach on
ai sl es and wal kways. I nspect for i nterferences wi th
structures, ductwork, equi pment and el ectri c serv-
i ces.
d. I ncl ude provi si ons for drai nage and venti ng of
al l pi pe l i nes.
e. Desi gn pi pe supports, restrai nts and anchors,
usi ng accepted procedures for thermal expansi on
stress anal ysi s. The stress anal ysi s wi l l consi der si -
mul taneous appl i cati on of sei smi c l oads, where ap-
pl i cabl e. Computer anal ysi s wi l l be used for major
three pl ane pi pi ng systems wi th mul ti pl e anchors.
5-11. Spec ific system design c onsidera-
tions
a. Steam piping. I n al l steam systems, provi si ons
wi l l be made for drai ni ng of condensate before start-
up, duri ng operati on and after shutdown. Steam
traps wi l l be connected to l ow poi nts of the pi pe-
l i nes. Smal l bore bypass pi pi ng wi l l be provi ded
around bl ock val ves on l arge, hi gh pressure l i nes to
permi t warmi ng before startup.
b. Circulating water piping. Rei nforced pl asti c
pi pi ng wi l l be used for sal t or bracki sh water servi ce
whenever practi cabl e.
c. Fuel oil piping. Fuel oi l pi pi ng wi l l be desi gned
wi th rel i ef val ves between al l bl ock val ves to protect
agai nst pi pe rupture due to thermal expansi on of the
oi l . Fuel oi l pi pi ng wi l l be desi gned i n accordance
wi th Nati onal Fi re Protecti on Associ ati on (NFPA)
standards and ANSI B31. Pi pi ng subject to vi bra-
ti on (such as engi ne servi ce) wi l l be socket or butt
wel ded, al though fl ared tubi ng may be used for
smal l l i nes under 1/2 i nch.
d. I nsulation. I nsul ate al l l i nes contai ni ng fl ui ds
above 120
o
F. so that i nsul ati on surface tempera-
tures remai n bel ow 120
0
F. at 80
o
F. sti l l ai r ambi ent.
Provi de anti -sweat i nsul ati on for al l l i nes whi ch op-
erate bel ow ambi ent temperatures. Protect al l i nsu-
l ati on agai nst weather (or wash down water i f i n-
doors) and mechani cal abuse.
I
5-15
24-30
TM 5-811-6
Table 5-6. Piping Codes and Standards for Power Plants. (Continued)
Sponsor I d e n t i f i ca t i on Ti t l e
ANSI B36 ser i es I r on and steel
pi pe
B16 ser i es Pi pe, fl an ges
and G37.1 and fi tti ngs
ASTM
B18 ser i es Bol ts and nuts
- -
Testi ng mater i al s
Major
- -
equi pment
manufactur er s
(tur bi nes, pumps,
h eat ex h an ger s , etc.)
- -
Coverage
Mater i al s and di mensi ons.
Mater i al s, di mensi ons,
str esses and temper atur e-
pr es s u r e r ati n gs .
Bol ted connecti ons.
Ph y s i cal pr oper ti es of
mater i al s s peci fi ed i n
above ASME and ANSI
standar ds.
Al l owabl e r eacti ons and
movements on nozzl es from
pi pi ng.
Cour tesy of Pope, Evans and Robbi ns (Non-Copyr i ghted)
Sec tion IV. THERMAL INSULATION AND FREEZE PROTECTION
5-12. Introduc tion
Applications. Thermal i nsul ati ons are used for the
fol l owi ng purposes:
a. Li mi t useful heat l osses.
b. Personnel burn protecti on.
c. Li mi t heat gai ns where col d i s desi red.
d. Prevent i ci ng and condensati on.
e. Freeze protecti on.
5-13. Insulation design
The pri nci pal el ements of i nsul ati on system desi gn
and speci fi cati on areas fol l ows:
a. Selection of surfaces. Defi ne and l i st the vari -
ous surfaces, pi pi ng, vessel s, ductwork, and machi n-
ery for whi ch i nsul ati on i s needed i ncl udi ng l engths,
areas and temperatures.
b. I nsulation systems. For each cl ass or type of
surface sel ect an appropri ate i nsul ati on system:
bul k i nsul ati on materi al and mi scel l aneous materi -
al s,coveri ngs, and l i ke i tems.
c. Economical thickness. Based on the above
data, sel ect the economi cal or necessary thi ckness of
i nsul ati on for each cl ass or type of surface.
5-14. lnsulation materials
a. Bulk material. Refer to Tabl e 5-7 for nomencl a-
ture and characteri sti cs of conventi onal thermal i n-
sul ati ons.
b. Restrictions on asbestos. Asbestos i nsul ati on,
or i nsul ati ons contai ni ng l oose, fi brous, or free as-
bestos are not to be used.
c. Maximum temperatures. Each type of i nsul a-
ti on i s sui tabl e for use at a speci fi ed maxi mum tem-
perature. Desi gn wi l l be such that those maxi mums
wi l l not be approached cl osel y i n ordi nary appl i ca-
ti ons. Al l hi gh temperature i nsul ati ons are more ex-
pensi ve and more fragi l e than l ower temperature
products and, i n general , the l east expensi ve materi -
al whi ch i s sui tabl e for the temperature exposure
wi l l be sel ected. Where substanti al total i nsul ati on
thi cknesses of 6 i nches or more are requi red, eco-
nomi cs may be real i zed by usi ng two l ayers of di ffer-
ent materi al s usi ng hi gh temperature materi al cl ose
to the hot surface wi th cheaper l ow temperature ma-
teri al on the col d si de.
d. Prefabricated insulation. A major part of total
i nsul ati on cost i s fi el d l abor for cutti ng, fi tti ng and
5-17
0.64 0.68
-- --
-- --
200 6-18 0.28 0.29 0.30 -- -- -- -- --
600 6-10 -- -- 0.28 0.35 0.43 -- -- --
1600 16-24 -- -- 0.34 0.39 0.44 0.54 0.64 --
175 1.6 0.26 0.28 0.30 -- -- -- -- --
150 5 0.23 0.24 0.25 -- -- -- -- --
Corrugat ed and l ami nat ed
as bes t os paper :
4 pl y per i n.
6 pl y per i n.
8 pl y per i n.
300
300
300
1200
800
200
1500
1900
600
11-13
15-17
18-20
--
0. 54 0. 57

0. 49 0. 51
- -
0. 47 0. 49
0.62
0.59
0.57
--
--
--
-- -
-- --
-- --
Ca l c i um s i l i c a t e 11
-- --
0.36 0.40 0.55
-- --
Ce l l ul a r gl a s s
Cork (wi t hout added
bi nde r )
Di at omaceous s i l i ca
9
7-10
0 . 3 7 0 . 3 9 0 . 4 1
0 . 2 7 0 . 2 8 0 . 2 9
0.48
0.30
--
--
-- --
-- --
22
25
0.64
0.70
0. 66 0. 71
0 . 7 5 0 . 8 0
. - --
-- -- --
--
--
- .
--
85% magnesia 11-14
-- --
0.39 0.42 0.51
-- --
Mi neral wool (rock,
s l ag or gl as s ):
Low t emp. (asphal t
or resi n bonded)
Low t emp. (fi ne
f i ber r es i n bonded)
Hi gh temp. bl anket-
ty pe (metal r ei n for ced)
200
450
1200
15 0 . 2 8 0 . 3 0 0 . 3 3 0.39 -- -- -- --
.
3 0 . 2 2 0 . 2 3 0 . 2 4 0.27 0.31 -- --
24-30
TM 5-811-6
. .
,
i nstal l ati on. For l arge areas or l ong pi pi ng runs, sub-
stanti al savi ngs may be real i zed by factory formi ng,
cutti ng or coveri ng. Val ves and pi pe fi tti ngs, espe-
ci al l y l arge ones, may be economi cal l y i nsul ated
wi th factory made prefabri cated shapes. Equi pment
requi ri ng peri odi c servi ci ng wi l l be equi pped wi th re-
movabl e, reusabl e i nsul ati on.
e. Miscellaneous materials. Compl ete i nsul ati on
systems i ncl ude accessory materi al s such as fasten-
ers, adhesi ves, rei nforci ng wi re meshes and screens,
bandi ngs and bi nder wi res, coveri ngs or l aggi ngs,
and fi ni shes. Al l i nsul ati ons wi l l be seal ed or cl osed
at joi nts and shoul d be arranged to accommodate
di fferenti al expansi ons between pi pi ng or metal
structures and i nsul ati ons.
f. Cold surface materials. Col d surface i nsul ati on
materi al s wi l l be sel ected pri mari l y for hi gh resi s-
tance to moi sture penetrati on and damage, and for
avoi dance of corrosi on where wet i nsul ati on materi -
al s may contact metal surfaces. Foamed pl asti cs or
rubber and cel l ul ar (or foamed) gl ass materi al s wi l l
be used wherever practi cabl e.
5-15. Control of useful heat losses
a. General. Control of l osses of useful heat i s the
most i mportant functi on of i nsul ati ons. Substanti al
i nvestments for thermal i nsul ati on warrants careful
sel ecti on and desi gn.
b. Durability and deterioration. Most conventi on-
al i nsul ati ng materi al s are rel ati vel y soft and fragi l e
and are subject to progressi ve deteri orati on and l oss
of effecti veness wi th the passage of ti me. I nsul ati on
assembl i es whi ch must be removed for mai ntenance
or whi ch are subject to frequent contact wi th tool s,
operati ng equi pment and personnel , or are subject
to shock or vi brati on, wi l l be desi gned for maxi mum
resi stance to these forces.
5-16. Safety insulation
a. General I nsul ati on for personnel protecti on or
safety purposes wi l l be used to cover dangerousl y
hot surfaces to avoi d acci dental contact, where heat
l oss i s not i tsel f an i mportant cri teri a.
b. General safety criteria. Safety or burn protec-
ti on i nsul ati ons wi l l be sel ected to i nsure that out-
si de i nsul ati on surfaces do not exceed a reasonabl y
safe maxi mum, such as 140 F.
c. Other criteria Cl ose fi tti ng or seal i ng of safety
i nsul ati on i s not requi red. Metal jacketi ng wi l l be
avoi ded due to i ts hi gh conducti vi ty i n contact wi th
the human body.
5-17. Cold surfac e insulation
a. Applications. I nsul ati ons for col d surfaces wi l l
be appl i ed to refri gerati on equi pment, pi pi ng and
ductwork, col d water pi pi ng, and to ai r ducts bri ng-
i ng outsi de ai r i nto power pl ants and HVAC sys-
tems.
b. Criteria. I n most cases, col d surface i nsul ati ons
wi l l be sel ected to prevent i ci ng or condensati on. Ex-
tra i nsul ati on thi ckness i s not normal l y economi cal
for heat absorpti on control .
5-18. Ec onomic thic kness
a. General. Economi c thi ckness of an i nsul ati on
materi al (ETI ) i s a cal cul ated parameter i n whi ch
the owni ng costs of greater or l esser thi cknesses are
compared wi th the rel ati ve val ues of heat energy
whi ch mi ght be saved by such vari ous thi cknesses.
The method i s appl i cabl e onl y to systems whi ch are
i nstal l ed to save useful heat (or refri gerati on) and
does not appl y to safety i nsul ati on or anti -sweat
(condensati on) materi al s.
b. Economic criteria. The general pri nci pl e of ETI
cal cul ati ons i s that the most economi cal thi ckness
of a group or set of thi cknesses i s that one for whi ch
the annual sum of owni ng costs and heat l oss costs
i s a mi ni mum. General l y, thi cker i nsul ati ons wi l l
represent hi gher owni ng costs and l ower heat l oss
costs. The range of thi cknesses sel ected for cal cul a-
ti on wi l l i ndi cate at l east one uneconomi cal thi ck-
ness on each si de of the i ndi cated ETI . Refer to Fi g
ure 5-1 for a general i zed pl ot of an ETI sol uti on.
c. Required data. The cal cul ati ons of ETI for a
parti cul ar i nsul ati on appl i cati on i nvol ves routi ne
cal cul ati ons of costs for a group of di fferent thi ck-
nesses. Whi l e cal cul ati ons are readi l y performed by
computers, the requi red i nput data are rel ati vel y
compl ex and wi l l i ncl ude energy or fuel pri ces wi th
al l owance for future changes, rel ati ve val ues of par-
ti cul ar heat sources or l osses, depreci ati on and
money cost rates, costs of compl ete i nstal l ed i nsul a-
ti on systems, conducti vi ti es, temperatures, ai r
vel oci ti es and operati ng hours. Standard programs
are avai l abl e for routi ne cal cul ati ons but must be
used wi th care. The most uncertai n data wi l l be the
i nstal l ed costs of al ternati ve i nsul ati on systems and
thi cknesses. Assumpti ons and esti mates of such
costs wi l l be as accurate as possi bl e. Refer to the
publ i cati ons and program systems of the Thermal
I nsul ati on Manufacturers Associ ati on (TI MA) and
of l eadi ng i nsul ati on manufacturers.
5-19. Freeze protec tion
a. Application. Freeze protecti on systems are
combi nati ons of i nsul ati on and heat source materi -
al s arranged to suppl y heat to exposed pi pi ng or
equi pment to prevent freezi ng i n col d weather.
b. I nsulaztion materials. Conventi onal i nsul ati on
materi al s wi l l be used and sel ected for general heat
l oss control purposes i n addi ti on to freeze protec-
ti on. I nsul ati on wi l l be such as not to be damaged by
5-21
TM 5-811-6
Courtesy of Pope, Evans and Robbi ns (Non-Copyr i ghted)
Figure 5-1. Economical thickness for heat insulation (typical curves).
the heat source or by extended exposure to weather eral l y be used to suppl y the correct heat fl ow to the
and moi sture. protected surface. Steam and ho water traci ng may
c. Design criteria. I n general , the i nsul ati on for a al so be used wi th provi si ons to avoi d l oss of steam
freeze protecti on system wi l l be sel ected for maxi - or water. I n ei ther case, the requi red heat suppl y
mum overal l col dest ambi ent temperatures. Al l ow- wi l l be suffi ci ent to meet the heat l oss of the i nsul a-
ance for wi nd condi ti ons wi l l be made. ti on under the combi nati on of desi gn ambi ent and
d. Heat sources. El ectri cal heati ng tape wi l l gen- pi pe l i ne surface temperature.
Sec tion V. CORROSION PROTECTION
5-20. General remarks
cycl e i s general l y accompl i shed by more conventi on-
The need for corrosi on protecti on wi l l be i nvesti gat- al methods such as:
ed. Cycl e fl ui ds wi l l be anal yzed to determi ne treat- U. Sel ecti on of corrosi on resi stant materi al s.
ment or i f addi ti on of corrosi on i nhi bi tors i s re- b. Protecti ve coati ngs.
qui red. Corrosi on protecti on of i tems external to the c. Cathodi c protecti on.
Sec tion Vl. FIRE PROTECTION
5-21. Introduc tion
l ar type of fi re whi ch can occur i n the stati on. Thi s
Fi re protecti on wi l l be provi ded i n order to safe- manual di scusses vari ous fi re protecti on systems
guard the equi pment and personnel . Vari ous sys- and thei r general appl i cati on i n power pl ants. Refer-
tems wi l l be i nstal l ed as requi red to sui t the parti cu- ence wi l l be made to TM 5-812-1 for speci fi c re-
5-22
TM 5-811-6
qui rements for mi l i tary i nstal l ati ons. Further de-
tai l s may be found i n the Nati onal Fi re Protecti on
Associ ati on (NFPA) Codes and Standards.
5-22. Design c onsiderations
a. Areas and equipment to be protected. The fol -
l owi ng are some of the major areas whi ch wi l l be i n-
vesti gated to determi ne the need for i nstal l i ng fi re
protecti on faci l i ti es.
(1) Mai n and auxi l i ary transformers.
(2) Turbi ne l ubri cati ng oi l system i ncl udi ng the
oi l reservoi r, oi l , cool er, storage tanks, pumps and
the turbi ne and generator beari ngs.
(3) Generator hydrogen cool i ng system i ncl ud-
i ng control panel s, seal oi l uni t, hydrogen bottl es
and the puri fi cati on uni t.
(4) Coal storage bunkers, fuel oi l storage tanks
and the burner front of the steam generator.
(5) Emergency di esel generator and i ts oi l stor-
age tank.
(6) Offi ce and records rooms.
(7) Control room.
(8) Rel ay, computer, swi tchgear and battery
r ooms.
(9) Shops, warehouses, garages and l aborato-
r i es.
(10) Personnel l ocker rooms, l unch rooms and
toi l ets.
b. Types of systems. The fol l owi ng i s a bri ef de-
scri pti on of the vari ous types of systems and thei r
general appl i cati on.
(1) Water spray and deluge system. Thi s type of
system consi sts of open type spri nkl er heads at-
tached to a network of dry (not water fi l l ed) pi pi ng
whi ch i s automati cal l y control l ed by a ful l y super-
vi sed fi re detecti on system whi ch al so serves as a
fi re al arm system. When a fi re i s detected, an auto-
mati c del uge val ve i s tri pped open, admi tti ng water
to the system to di scharge through al l of the spri nk-
l er heads. The system may be subdi vi ded i nto sepa-
ratel y control l ed headers, dependi ng on the area to
be covered and the number of spri nkl er heads re-
qui red. The usual pressure requi red at the spri nkl er
heads i s about 175 psi and the pi pi ng shoul d be
properl y si zed accordi ngl y. A water spray del uge
spri nkl er system wi l l be provi ded where requi red i n
open areas and areas requi ri ng the protecti on of the
pi pi ng from freezi ng, such as the steam generator
burner fronts; the generator hydrogen system; the
mai n and auxi l i ary transformers; and unheated
shops, garages, warehouses and l aboratori es.
(2) Water spray pre-action and deluge system.
Thi s type of system i s si mi l ar to the above water
spray del uge system, except that i t contai ns cl osed
type spri nkl er heads whi ch onl y di scharges water
through those spri nkl ers whose fi xed temperature
el ements have been opened by the heat from a fi re.
Thi s system wi l l be uti l i zed for the turbi ne and gen-
erator beari ngs and for the above water spray de-
l uge spri nkl er system areas where more l ocal i zed
control i s desi red.
(3) Wet pipe sprinkler systems. Thi s wet pi pe
system uti l i zes a water fi l l ed pi pi ng system connect-
ed to a water suppl y and i s equi pped wi th spri nkl ers
havi ng fi xed temperature el ements whi ch each open
i ndi vi dual l y when exposed to a hi gh temperature
due to a fi re. The areas where wet pi pe spri nkl er sys-
tems wi l l be used are heated shops, garages, ware-
houses, l aboratori es, offi ces, record rooms, l ocker
rooms, l unch rooms and toi l ets.
(4) Foam extinguishing systems. Foam fi re ex-
ti ngui shi ng systems uti l i ze a foam produci ng sol u-
ti on whi ch i s di stri buted by pi pes equi pped wi th
spray nozzl es or a fuel tank foam entry chamber for
di schargi ng the foam and spreadi ng i t over the area
to be protected. I t i s pri nci pal l y used to form a co-
herent fl oati ng bl anket over fl ammabl e and com-
busti bl e l i qui ds whi ch exti ngui sh (or prevent) a fi re
by excl udi ng ai r and cool i ng the fuel . The foam i s
usual l y generated by mi xi ng proporti onate amounts
of 3% doubl e strength, l ow expansi on standard
foam concentrate usi ng ei ther a sui tabl y arranged
i nducti on devi ce wi th (or wi thout) a foam storage-
proporti oni ng tank to mi x the foam concentrate
wi th a water stream from a fi re water header. A spe-
ci al l y desi gned hand pl ay pi pe, tank foam chamber
or open spri nkl ers aspi rate the ai r to form the foam
to bl anket the area to be protected. The del uge wa-
ter entry val ve to the system may be manual l y or
automati cal l y opened. Foam systems wi l l be i n-
stal l ed i n power pl ants to protect fuel oi l areas,
l ubri cati ng oi l systems, and hydrogen seal oi l sys-
tems.
(5) Carbon dioxide extinguishing systems. Thi s
type of system usual l y consi sts of a truck fi l l ed l ow
pressure refri gerated l i qui d carbon di oxi de storage
tank wi th temperature sensi ng control s to permi t
the automati c i njecti on of permanentl y pi pe carbon
di oxi de i nto areas to be protected. The system
usual l y i ncl udes warni ng al arms to al ert personnel
whenever carbon di oxi de i s bei ng i njected i nto an ac-
tuated area. Carbon di oxi de exti ngui shi ng systems
of thi s total fl oodi ng type wi l l be uti l i zed to exti n-
gui sh coal bunker fi res and for el ectri cal hazard
areas such as i n battery rooms, el ectri cal rel ay
rooms, swi tchgear rooms, computer rooms and wi th-
i n el ectri cal cabi nets.
(6) Halogenated fire extinguishing systems.
Thi s type of system uti l i zes speci al l y desi gned re-
movabl e and rechargeabl e storage contai ners con-
tai ni ng l i qui d HaI on at ambi ent temperature whi ch
i s superpressuri zed wi th dry ni trogen up to 600 psi g
5-23
TM 5-811-6
pressure. These mani fol ded contai ners are l ocated
as cl osel y as possi bl e to the hazards they protect
and i ncl ude connecti ng pi pi ng and di scharge noz-
zl es. There are two types of systems. The total fl ood-
i ng system i s arranged to di scharge i nto, and fi l l to
the proper concentrati on, an encl osed space or an en-
cl osure about the hazard. The l ocal appl i cati on sys-
tem i s arranged to di scharge di rectl y onto the burn-
i ng materi al . Ei ther system may be arranged to pro-
tect one or more hazards or groups of hazards by so
arrangi ng the pi pi ng and val ves and may be manual -
l y or automati cal l y actuated. Hal on i s a col orl ess
and odorl ess gas wi th a densi ty of approxi matel y
fi ve ti mes that of ai r, and these systems must i n-
cl ude warni ng al arms to al ert personnel whenever
the gas i s bei ng ejected. However, personnel maybe
exposed to Hal on vapors i n l ow concentrati ons for
bri ef peri ods wi thout seri ous ri sk. The pri nci pal ap-
pl i cati on of Hal on exti ngui shi ng systems i s where
an el ectri cal l y nonconducti ve medi um i s essenti al or
desi red or where the cl eanup of other medi a presents
a probl em, such as i n control rooms, computer
rooms, chemi cal l aboratori es and wi thi n el ectri cal
panel s.
c. Automatic fire detectors. Al l fi re protecti on
systems wi l l normal l y be automati cal l y al armed and
actuated; however, some speci al condi ti ons may re-
qui re manual actuati on on an al arm i ndi cati on. A
manual actuati on wi l l be i ncl uded to provi de for
emergenci es ari si ng from the mal functi on of an au-
tomati c system. The pri mary el ement of any fi re
protecti on system i s the fi re detecti on sensi ng de-
vi ce whi ch i s actuated by heat detectors whi ch de-
tect abnormal l y hi gh temperature or rate-of-tem-
perature ri se, or smoke detectors whi ch are sensi ti ve
to the vi si bl e or i nvi si bl e parti cl es of combusti on.
The i oni zati on type of smoke detector bel ongs i n
thi s category.
5-23. Support fac ilities
To support the fi re protecti on water systems, an as-
sured suppl y of water at an appropri ate pressure i s
necessary. Thi s water suppl y wi l l be provi ded from
an underground fi re water hydrant system mai n i f
one i s avai l abl e i n the area and/or by means of an el e-
vated head storage tank or by fi re pumps whi ch take
thei r sucti on from a l ow l evel storage tank. For
cases where the water suppl y pressure i s i nadequate
to fi l l the tank, fi l l pumps wi l l be provi ded. Fi re
pumps wi l l be el ectri c motor dri ven, except that at
l east one shoul d be of the engi ne dri ven or of the
dual dri ve type.
5-24
TM5-811-6
CHAPTER 6
GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT DESIGN
6-1. General
Gas turbi nes fi nd onl y l i mi ted appl i cati on as pri me
movers for power generati on at mi l i tary faci l i ti es.
Thi s i s because gas turbi ne generators typi cal l y
have si gni fi cantl y hi gher heat rates than steam tur-
bi ne or di esel power pl ants; thei r hi gher fuel costs
qui ckl y outwei gh thei r i ni ti al advantages i n most
appl i cati ons. Appl i cati ons to be eval uated i ncl ude:
a. Suppl yi ng rel ati vel y l arge power requi rements
i n a faci l i ty where space i s at a si gni fi cant pre-
mi umsuch as hardened structure.
b. Mobi l e, temporary or di ffi cul t access si te
such as a troop support or l i e of si ght stati on.
c. Peak shavi ng, i n conjuncti on wi th a more effi -
ci ent generati ng stati on.
d. Emergency power, where a gas turbi nes l i ght
wei ght and rel ati vel y vi brati on-free operati on are of
greater i mportance than fuel consumpti on over
short peri ods of operati on. However, the starti ng
ti me of gas turbi nes may not be sui tabl e for a gi ven
appl i cati on.
e. Combi ned cycl e or cogenerati on power pl ants
where turbi ne exhaust waste heat can be econom-
i cal l y used to generate addi ti onal power and thermal
energy for process or space heati ng.
6-2. Turbine-generator selec tion
a. Packaged plants. Gas turbi nes are normal l y
purchased as compl ete, packaged power pl ants.
Wi th few excepti ons, onl y si mpl e cycl e turbi nes are
appl i cabl e to mi l i tary i nstal l ati ons. Therefore, the
remai nder of thi s chapter focuses on the si mpl e
cycl e confi gurati on. The packaged gas turbi ne pow-
er pl ant wi l l i ncl ude the pri me mover, combusti on
system, starti ng system, generator, auxi l i ary
swi tchgear and al l turbi ne support equi pment re-
qui red for operati on. Thi s equi pment i s usual l y
ski d or base mounted. The onl y off base or
addi ti onal auxi l i ari es normal l y requi red to suppl e-
ment the package are the fuel oi l storage tanks,
transfer pumps and oi l recei vi ng stati on, di stri bu-
ti on swi tchgear, step up transformer and swi tch-
yard, as requi red.
(1) Sel ecti on of uni t si ze requi res establ i shment
of pl ant l oadi ng and the number of uni ts requi red for
rel i abi l i ty y and turndown. Wi de gaps i n the standard
equi pment capaci ty rati ngs avai l abl e may force re-
consi derati on of the number of uni ts or the total
pl ant capaci ty,
(2) I ni ti al sel ecti on of the gas turbi ne uni t be-
gi ns usi ng the I nternati onal Standards Organi za-
ti on (I SO) rati ng provi ded on the manufacturers
data sheets. Thi s i s a power rati ng at desi gn speed
and at sea l evel wi th an ambi ent temperature of
59
0
F (15
0
C). The I SO rati ng consi ders i nl et and out-
l et l osses to be zero. I ni ti al l y, I SO rati ngs wi l l be re-
duced 15 percent for typi cal appl i cati ons, whi ch wi l l
further be refi ned to refl ect actual si te and i nstal l a-
ti on condi ti ons. The four vari abl es whi ch wi l l be con-
si dered i n uni t rati ng are:
(a) El evati on.
(b) Ambi ent temperature.
(c) I nl et l osses.
(d) Exhaust l osses.
The fol l owi ng subsecti ons defi ne the i mpact of each
of these vari abl es.
b. Elevation. For a speci fi c si te, the I SO rati ng re-
ducti on due to si te al ti tude i s read di rectl y from an
al ti tude correcti on curve publ i shed by the vari ous
manufacturers. There i s l i ttl e di fference i n such
curves. For mobi l e uni ts, the effect of possi bl e si te
al ti tudes wi l l be eval uated. The operati ng al ti tude
wi l l be used to determi ne the uni t rati ng.
c. Temperature. Si te temperature data wi l l be ob-
tai ned from TM 5-785. The desi gn temperature se-
l ected i s normal l y the 2 1/2 percent dry bul b tempera-
ture, al though the ti mi ng of the l oad curve peak wi l l
al so be consi dered. Unl ess the choi ce of equi pment i s
ti ght, there i s usual l y suffi ci ent overl oad capabi l i ty
to carry the uni t duri ng the 2 1/2 percent ti me of hi gh-
er temperature. Another temperature rel ated sel ec-
ti on parameter i s i ci ng. I ci ng i s caused when the
ri ght combi nati on of temperature and humi di ty l ev-
el s occurs, and i s mani fested by i ce formati on on the
downstream si de of the i nl et fi l ters or at the com-
pressors bel l mouth i ntake. Chunks of i ce can be
sucked i n the compressor wi th possi bl e bl ade dam-
age resul ti ng. I ci ng occurs when ambi ent tempera-
tures are i n the 350 to 42
0
F. range and rel ati ve hu-
mi di ty i s hi gh. Thi s probl em wi l l be avoi ded by reci r-
cul ati ng hot ai r from the compressor di scharge to
the fi l ter i nl et, ei ther manual l y or automati cal l y.
Thi s causes some l oss of turbi ne effi ci ency.
d. I nlet losses. I nl et l osses are a cri ti cal perform-
ance vari abl e, and one over whi ch the desi gner has
6-1
TM 5-811-6
consi derabl e control . I ncreases i n the i nl et ai r fri c-
ti on cause a si gni fi cant reducti on i n power output.
The total i nl et pressure l oss wi l l not exceed 2 i nches
of water and wi l l be as cl ose to zero as space l i mi ta-
ti ons and economi cs wi l l permi t. Addi ti onal duct-
work costs wi l l be qui ckl y amorti zed by operati ng
fuel savi ngs. Dust, rai n, sand and snow wi l l be pre-
vented from enteri ng the combusti on ai r i nl et of the
engi ne. I nl et ai r fi l ter desi gn wi l l precl ude entrance
of these contami nants wi th mi ni mal pressure l oss.
The ai r i nl et wi l l be l ocated to precl ude i ngesti on of
combusti on products from other turbi nes or a near-
by boi l er pl ant, or hot, humi d di scharge from any
cool i ng towers.
e. Outlet losses. Outl et fri cti on l osses al so resul t
i n a decrease of turbi ne-generator output and wi l l be
accounted for i n the uni t desi gn. The major factor i n
outl et l osses i s the requi rement to attenuate noi se.
More effecti ve si l encers typi cal l y have hi gher pres-
sure l osses. Exhaust back pressure has a smal l er
overal l effect on performance than i nl et l osses but
wi l l be kept as l ow as possi bl e, and wi l l be l ess than
6 i nches of water. Si nce i ncreasi ng exhaust si l encer
si ze costs consi derabl y more than ductwork desi gn
i mprovements, the return on i nvestment for a l ow
pressure l oss exhaust i s si gni fi cantl y l onger.
6-3. Fuels
Each manufacturer has hi s own speci fi cati on on fuel
acceptabl e for hi s turbi ne. The hi gh grade l i qui d
fuel s such as Di esel No. 1 or 2 and JP-4 or JP-5 wi l l
l i kel y be acceptabl e to al l manufacturers. Use of
heavi er oi l s i s possi bl e wi th a speci al l y desi gned tur-
bi ne. The heavy oi l wi l l have to be cl eaned up to re-
duce corrosi ve sal ts of sodi um, potassi um, vana-
di um, and sul fural l of whi ch wi l l el evate the cost
of the fuel . Storage and handl i ng at the si te wi l l al so
be more costl y, parti cul arl y i f a heavy oi l such as
No. 6 was i nvol ved because of the heati ng requi re-
ment. No. 4 oi l wi l l i ncrease transfer pumpi ng costs
a bi t but, except i n extremel y col d regi ons, woul d
not requi re heati ng.
6-4. Plant arrangement
a. General. Turbi ne generator uni ts are frequent-
l y sol d as compl ete packages whi ch i ncl ude al l com-
ponents necessary to operate, ready for connecti on
to the fuel suppl y and el ectri cal di stri buti on system.
Thi s presents the advantages of faster l ead ti me,
wel l matched components and si ngl e poi nt of perfor-
mance responsi bi l i ty y.
b. Outdoor vs. indoor.
(1) Outdoor. Outdoor uni ts can be di vi ded i nto
two sub-types.
(a) The package power pl ant uni t i s suppl i ed
wi th the pri nci pal components of the uni t factory as-
sembl ed i nto three or more ski d mounted modul es,
each wi th i ts own weatherproof housi ng the sepa-
rate modul es have wi ri ng spl i ts, pi pi ng connecti ons,
and housi ng fl anges arranged so that the modul es
may be qui ckl y assembl ed i nto a uni t on a rei nforced
concrete pad i n the fi el d. Suppl ementi ng these mai n
modul es are the i nl et and exhaust ducts, i nl et si -
l encer and fi l ters, exhaust si l encer, fuel tanks, uni t
fuel ski d, and uni t auxi l i ary transformer whi ch are
connected by pi pi ng and cabl es to the mai n as-
sembl y after pl aci ng on separate foundati on as
may be requi red.
(b) The other outdoor sub-type i s a si mi l ar
package uni t except that the weatherproof housi ng
i s shi pped knocked down and i s, i n effect, a prefabri -
cated bui l di ng for qui ck fi el d assembl y i nto a cl o-
sure for the mai n power pl ant components.
(c) Outdoor uni ts to be provi ded wi th al l com-
ponents, auxi l i ari es and control s assembl ed i n al l -
weather metal encl osures and furni shed compl ete
for operati on wi l l be speci fi ed for Cl ass B and C
power pl ants havi ng a 5-year anti ci pated l i fe and re-
qui ri ng not more than four generati ng uni ts.
(2) I ndoor. An i ndoor type uni t wi l l have the
compressor-turbi ne-generator mounted at grade
fl oor l evel of the bui l di ng on a pad, or possi bl y
rai sed above or l owered bel ow grade fl oor l evel to
provi de space for i nstal l ati on of ducts, pi pi ng and
cabl i ng. I nl et and exhaust ducts wi l l be routed to
the outsi de through the si de wal l or the roof; the si de
wal l i s usual l y preferabl e for thi s so that the turbi ne
room crane can have ful l l ongi tudi nal travel i n the
turbi ne generator bay. Fi l ters and si l encers may be
i nsi de or outsi de. Al l heat rejecti on equi pment wi l l
be mounted outsi de whi l e fuel oi l ski ds may be i n-
si de or outsi de. Uni t and di stri buti on swi tchgear
and motor control centers wi l l be i ndoors as i n a con-
venti onal steam power pl ant. Fi gure 6-1 shows a
typi cal i ndoor uni t i nstal l ati on wi th the pri me mov-
er mounted bel ow grade fl oor l evel .
6-5. Waste heat rec overy
Waste heat recovery wi l l be used wherever cost ef-
fecti ve. I f the turbi ne uni t i s to be used onl y i nter-
mi ttentl y, the capi tal cost of heat recovery must be
kept down i n order to be consi dered at al l . Add-on or
si destream coi l s mi ght provi de a temporary hot
water suppl y for the peri od of operati onfor one ex-
ampl e. Care must be exerci sed due to the hi gh ex-
haust gas temperature. I t may prove feasi bl e to
fl ash steam through the jacket of a smal l heat ex-
changer. I n the event that a l ong term operati on i s
i ndi cated, the cost trade off for heat recovery equi p
ment i s enchanced, but sti l l must be consi dered as
an auxi l i ary system. I t wi l l take a si zabl e yearl y
l oad to justi fy an exhaust gas heat recovery boi l er.
6-2
TM 5-811-6
,
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LONGITUDINAL SECTION A -A
NAVFAC DM3
Figure 6-1. T:ppical indoor simple cycle gas turbine generatorpowerpkznt.
Turbi ne effi ci ency l oss due to back pressure i s al so a
factor to be consi dered.
6-6. Equipment and auxiliary systems
a. GeneraL The gas turbi ne package i s a compl ete
power pl ant requi ri ng onl y adequate si te prepara-
ti on, foundati ons, and support faci l i ti es i ncl udi ng
fuel storage and forwardi ng system, di stri buti on
swi tchgear, stepup transformer, and swi tchyard. I f
the fuel to be fi red i s a resi dual oi l , a fuel washi ng
and treati ng pl ant i s al so requi red.
b. References. Chapter 4 sets forth gui del i nes for
the desi gn of the el ectri cal faci l i ti es requi red for a
gas turbi ne power pl ant, i ncl udi ng the generator,
swi tchgear, swi tchyard, transformers, rel ays and
control s. Chapter 2 descri bes the perti nent ci vi l fa-
ci l i ti es.
c. Scope. The scope of a package gas turbi ne gen-
erator for purchase from the manufacturer wi l l i n-
cl ude the fol l owi ng
(1) Compressor and turbi ne wi th fuel and com-
busti on system, l ube oi l system, turni ng gear, gov-
ernor, and other auxi l i ari es and accessori es.
(2) Reducti on gear.
(3) Generator and exci tati on system.
6 - 3
TM 5-811-6
(4) AC auxi l i ary power system i ncl udi ng
swi tchgear and motor control s.
(5) DC power system i ncl udi ng battery, charg-
er, and i nverter i f requi red.
(6) External heat rejecti on equi pment i f re-
qui red.
(7) Al l mechani cal and el ectri cal control s.
(8) Di esel engi ne or el ectri c motor starti ng sys-
tem.
(9) Uni t fuel ski d (may be purchased separatel y
i f desi red).
(10) I ntake and exhaust ducts.
(11) I ntake ai r fi l ters.
(12) Acousti cal treatment for i ntake and ex-
haust ducts and for machi nery.
(13) Weatherproof housi ng opti on wi th appro-
pri ate l i ghti ng, heati ng, venti l ati ng, ai r condi ti on-
i ng and fi re protecti on systems.
6 - 4
CHAPTER 7
DIESEL ENGINE POWER PLANT DESIGN
7-1. Engines
a. Di esel engi nes have hi gher thermal effi ci enci es
than other commerci al pri me movers of comparabl e
si ze. Di esel engi ne-generators are appl i cabl e to el ec-
tri c l oads. from about 10 to 5000 ki l owatts. Di esel -
engi ne-dri ven el ectri c generator sets are di vi ded i nto
three general categori es based on appl i cati on as fol -
l ows:
(1) Class A: Di esel -el ectri c generator sets for
stati onary power pl ants generati ng pri me power
conti nuousl y at ful l namepl ate kW rati ng as the sol e
source of el ectri c power.
(2) Class B: Di esel -el ectri c generators sets for
stati onary power pl ants generati ng power on a
standby basi s for extended peri ods of ti me where
months of conti nuous operati on at ful l namepl ate
kW rati ng are anti ci pated.
(3) Class C: Di esel -el ectri c generator sets for
stati onary power pl ants generati ng power on an
emergency basi s for short peri ods of ti me at ful l
namepl ate kW rati ng where days of conti nuous
operati on are anti ci pated.
b. Di esel engi nes normal l y wi l l be suppl i ed as
ski d mounted packaged systems. For mul ti pl e-uni t
procurement, matched engi ne-generator sets wi l l be
provi ded for uni ts of 2500kW el ectri cal output or
l ess. For l arger uni ts, i nvesti gate the overal l eco-
nomi cs and practi cal i ty of purchasi ng the gener-
ators separatel y, recogni zi ng that the capabi l i ty for
rel i abl e operati on and performance of the uni ts are
sacri fi ced i f engi ne and generator are bought from
two sources.
c. Engi nes and engi ne-generator sets are normal -
l y provi ded wi th the pri mary subsystems necessary
for engi ne operati on, such as:
(1) Starti ng system.
(2) Fuel suppl y and i njecti on system.
(3) Lubri cati on system and oi l cool i ng.
(4) Pri mary (engi ne) cool i ng system.
(5) Speed control (governor) system.
(6) Requi red i nstrumentati on.
d. The desi gner must provi de for the fol l owi ng
(1) I ntake ai r.
(2) Exhaust and exhaust si l encng.
(3) Source of secondary cool i ng (heat si nk).
(4) Engi ne foundati on and vi brati on i sol ati on.
(5) Fuel storage, transfer and suppl y to the en-
gi ne.
(6) El ectri cal swi tchgear, stepup transformer, i f
requi red, and connecti on to di stri buti on wi ri ng.
(7) Faci l i ti es for engi ne mai ntenance, such as
cranes, hoi sts and di sassembl y space.
(8) Compressed ai r system for starti ng, i f re-
qui red.
e. Generator desi gn cri teri a are provi ded i n
Chapter 4.
7-2. Fuel selec tion
A fuel sel ecti on i s normal l y made accordi ng to avai l -
abi l i ty and economi c cri teri a duri ng the conceptual
desi gn. Fuel s are speci fi ed accordi ng to ASTM, Fed-
eral and mi l i tary speci fi cati ons and i ncl ude:
a. ASTM Grades l -D, 2-D, and 4-D as speci fi ed
by ASTM D 975. These fuel s are si mi l ar to No. 1,
No. 2 and No. 4 heati ng oi l s.
b. Federal Speci fi cati on Grades DF-A and DF-2
(see Federal Speci fi cati on VV-F-800). These speci fi -
cati ons paral l el ASTM Grades 1-D and 2-D, respec-
ti vel y.
c. Jet Fuel Grade JP-5 (Mi l i tary Speci fi cati on
MI L-T-5624).
d. Mari ne Di esel (Mi l i tary Speci fi cati on MI L-
F-16884). Mari ne Di esel i s cl ose to ASTM No. 2-D,
al though requi rements di ffer somewhat.
e. ASTM No. 6, or i ts Federal equi val ent, or Navy
speci al may be speci fi ed for engi nes i n excess of
2000 kW i f economi cs permi t. Fuel sel ecti on must
be cl osel y coordi nated wi th the requi rements of the
engi ne manufacturer. The No. 2-D or DF- 2 fuel s are
most common. I f fuel i s stored at ambi ent tempera-
tures bel ow 20
0
F,, No. 1-D or DF-A (arcti c fuel )
shoul d be consi dered. ASTM No. 4-D or No. 6 are
resi dual oi l bl ends whi ch requi re preheati ng pri or to
burni ng. Fuel oi l storage and handl i ng equi pment
and the engi ne i tsel f wi l l be speci fi cal l y desi gned for
burni ng these vi scous fuel oi l s.
7-1
TM 5-811-6
Sec tion ll. BALANCE OF PLANT SYSTEMS
7-3. General
Bal ance of pl ant systems are those whi ch must be
provi ded and i nterfaced wi th a packaged di esel or
di esel -generator set to provi de an operati onal gener-
ati ng uni t.
7-4. Cooling systems
a. Water-to-water systems. Jacket water and l ube
oi l cool i ng heat exchangers are cool ed by a sec-
ondary ci rcul ati ng water system. Normal l y, a reci r-
cul ati ng system wi l l be used. Heat i s di ssi pated to
the atmosphere through an evaporati ve, mechan-
i cal -draft cool i ng tower. I f the pl ant i s l ocated on or
near a body of water, once-through ci rcul ati ng water
wi l l be eval uated. Bi dders wi l l be i nformed of the
type and source of secondary water used so heat ex-
changers can be desi gned for thei r i ntended servi ce.
b. Water-to-air systems. Water-to-ai r systems
wi l l be restri cted to smal l engi nes. I f an i ntegral
(ski d mounted) radi ator i s used, suffi ci ent cool i ng
ai r wi l l be provi ded. Outsi de ai r may be ducted to
the radi ator ai r i nl et. Ductwork wi l l be desi gned for
mi ni mum pressure l oss. The cool i ng fan(s) wi l l be
checked for adequate fl ow (cfm) and stati c pressure
under the i ntended servi ce. Ai r l eavi ng the radi ator
normal l y goes to the engi ne room and i s exhausted.
Cool i ng ai r i nl ets wi l l be equi pped wi th automati c
dampers and bi rd screens.
7-5. Combustion air intake and exhaust
systems
a. Purpose. The functi ons of the i ntake and ex-
haust systems are to del i ver cl ean combusti on ai r to
the engi ne and di spose of the exhaust qui etl y wi th
the mi ni mum l oss of performance.
b. I ntake. The ai r i ntake system usual l y consi sts
of ai r i ntake duct or pi pe appropri atel y supported, a
si l encer, an ai r cl eaner, and fl exi bl e connecti ons as
requi red. Thi s arrangement permi ts l ocati on of area
of ai r i ntake beyond the i mmedi ate vi ci ni ty of the
engi ne, provi des for the reducti on of noi se from i n-
take ai r fl ow, and protects vi tal engi ne parts agai nst
ai rborne i mpuri ti es. The ai r i ntake wi l l be desi gned
to be short and di rect and economi cal l y si zed for
mi ni mum fri cti on l oss. The ai r fi l ter wi l l be desi gned
for the expected dust l oadi ng, si mpl e mai ntenance,
and l ow pressure drop. Oi l bath or dry fi l ter el ement
ai r cl eaners wi l l be provi ded. The ai r fi l ter and si -
l encer may be combi ned.
c. Exhaust. The exhaust system consi sts of a
muffl er and connecti ng pi pi ng to the atmosphere
wi th sui tabl e expansi on joi nts, i nsul ati on, and sup-
ports. I n cogenerati on pl ants, i t al so provi des for
uti l i zati on of exhaust heat energy by i ncorporati ng
7-2
a waste heat boi l er whi ch can be used for space heat-
i ng, absorpti on refri gerati on, or other useful pur-
pose. Thi s boi l er produces steam i n paral l el wi th the
vapor phase cool i ng system. The exhaust si l encer
attenuates exhaust gas pul sati ons (noi se), arrests
sparks, and i n some cases recovers waste heat. The
muffl er desi gn wi l l provi de the requi red sound at-
tenuati on wi th mi ni mum pressure l oss.
7-6. Fuel storage and handling
a. Storage requirements.
(1) Aboveground fuel storage tanks wi th a mi ni -
mum capaci ty for 30 days conti nuous operati on wi l l
be provi ded for conti nuous and standby duty
pl ants. Fuel storage shal l be desi gned to the requi re-
ments of NFPA 30. A tank wi th 3 day storage ca-
paci ty wi l l be provi ded for emergency duty pl ants.
(2) For conti nuous duty pl ants, provi de a day
tank for each engi ne. The tank wi l l provi de a 4-hour
storage capaci ty at maxi mum l oad. The tank wi l l be
fi l l ed by automati c l evel control s and transfer
pumps. Standby pl ants wi l l be provi ded wi th day
tanks of suffi ci ent capaci ty to permi t manual fi l l i ng
once per shi ft (10-hour capaci ty). No separate day
tank i s requi red for emergency pl ants.
b. Fuel handling. Provi de unl oadi ng pumps i f fuel
i s to be del i vered by rai l car or barge. Most fuel tank
trucks are equi pped wi th pumps. Provi de transfer
pumps capabl e of fi l l i ng the day tank i n l ess than 1/2
hour when the engi ne i s operati ng at maxi mum l oad.
Dupl ex pumps, val ved so that one can operate whi l e
the other i s on standby, wi l l be provi ded for rel i abi l -
i ty. Pi pel i ne strai ners and fi l ters wi l l be provi ded to
protect the fuel pumps and engi ne i njectors from
di rt. Strai ners and fi l ters wi l l not pass parti cl es l arg-
er than hal f the i njector nozzl e openi ng.
7-7. Engine room ventilation
About 8 percent of the heati ng val ue of the fuel con-
sumed by the engi ne i s radi ated to the surroundi ng
ai r. I t i s essenti al that provi si on be made for re-
moval of thi s heat. Engi ne room temperature ri se
shoul d be l i mi ted to 15
0
F. For engi nes wi th wal l
mounted or ducted radi ators, radi ator fans may be
suffi ci ent i f adequate exhaust or ai r rel i ef i s pro-
vi ded. I f engi nes are equi pped wi th water cool ed
heat exchangers, a separate venti l ati on system wi l l
be provi ded. The approxi mate venti l ati on rate may
be determi ned by the fol l owi ng formul a:
1,000 x HP
C F M =
T
wher e:
HP =
T =
maxi mum engi ne horsepower
al l owabl e temperature ri se, F.
TM 5-811-6
Provi si on wi l l be made to al l ow for reduci ng the ai r the engi ne room; however, jacket water cool i ng wi l l
fl ow duri ng the cool er months so as not to over-cool remai n wi thi n recommended l i mi ts at al l ti mes.
Sec tion Ill. FOUNDATIONS AND BUILDING
7-8. General
Chapter 2 shoul d be consul ted for the ci vi l faci l i ti es
desi gn cri teri a associ ated wi th a di esel power pl ant.
Thi s secti on ampl i fi es the ci vi l engi neeri ng aspects
di rectl y appl i cabl e to the di esel pl ant.
7-9. Engine foundation
a. Design considerations.
(1) The foundati on wi l l have the requi red mass

and base area, assumi ng i nstal l ati on on fi rm soi l and

the use of hi gh qual i ty concrete. Before fi nal detai l s
of the foundati on desi gn are establ i shed by the de-
si gner, the beari ng capaci ty and sui tabi l i ty of the
soi l on whi ch the foundati on wi l l rest wi l l be deter-
mi ned. Modi fi cati on of the manufacturers recom-
mended foundati on may be requi red to meet speci al
requi rements of l ocal condi ti ons. Modi fi cati ons re-
qui red may i ncl ude:
(a) Adjustment of the mass.
(b) Addi ti onal rei nforci ng steel .
(c) Use of a rei nforced mat under the regul ar
foundati on.
(d) Support of the foundati on on pi l es. Pi l i ng
may requi re braci ng agai nst hori zontal di spl ace-
ment.
(2) The engi ne foundati on wi l l extend bel ow the
footi ngs of the bui l di ng and the foundati on wi l l be
compl etel y i sol ated from the wal l s and fl oors of the
bui l di ng. The foundati on bl ock wi l l be cast i n a si n-
gl e, conti nuous pour. I f a base mat i s used, i t wi l l be
cast i n a separate conti nuous pour and be provi ded
wi th verti cal re-bars extendi ng up i nto the founda-
ti on bl ock.
b. Vibration mounts.
(1) For smal l engi ne i nstal l ati ons where there i s
a possi bi l i ty y of transmi ssi on of vi brati on to adjacent
areas, the engi ne foundati ons wi l l be adequatel y i n-
sul ated by gravel , or the engi ne mounted on vi bra-
ti on i nsul ati ng materi al or devi ces. Vi brati on
mounts for l arger engi nes become i mpracti cal and
foundati on mass must be provi ded accordi ngl y.
(2) Ski d mounted generati ng uni ts wi l l be sup-
pl i ed wi th ski ds of suffi ci ent strength and ri gi di ty to
mai ntai n proper al i gnment between the engi ne and
the generator. Vi brati on i sol ators, ei ther of the ad-
justabl e spri ng or rubber pad type, wi l l be pl aced be-
tween the uni t ski d and the foundati on bl ock to mi n-
i mi ze the transmi ssi on of vi brati ons.
7-10. Building
a. Location.
(1) A di esel engi ne power pl ant has few l i mi ta-
ti ons regardi ng l ocati on. Aestheti cal l y, an archi tec-
tural l y attracti ve bui l di ng can encl ose the equi p-
ment i f requi red. Fuel can be stored underground i f
appearance so di ctates. Proper exhaust and i ntake
ai r si l enci ng can el i mi nate al l objecti onabl e noi se.
Ai r and water pol l uti on probl ems are mi ni mal wi th
most recommended fuel s.
(2) Consi der the rel ati ve i mportance of the fol -
l owi ng when sel ecti ng a pl ant si te:
(a) Proxi mi ty to the center of power demand.
(b) Economi cal del i very of fuel .
(c) Cost of property.
(d) Sui tabi l i ty of soi l for bui l di ng and machi n-
ery foundati ons.
(e) Space avai l abl e for future expansi on.
(f) Proxi mi ty to potenti al users of engi ne
waste heat.
(g) Avai l abi l i ty of water suppl y for cool i ng
systems.
b. Arrangement.
(1) I n desi gni ng the power pl ant bui l di ng, a gen-
eral arrangement or pl ant l ayout wi l l be desi gned for
the major components. The arrangement wi l l faci l i -
tate i nstal l ati on, mai ntenance and future pl ant ex-
pansi on. Ampl e space shal l be provi ded around each
uni t to create an attracti ve overal l appearance and
si mpl i fy mai ntenance for engi nes and auxi l i ary
equi pment.
(2) I n addi ti on to the basi c equi pment arrange-
ment, provi de for the l ocati on of the fol l owi ng, as re-
qui red by the project scope:
(a) Offi ce space.
(b) Lunchroom and toi l et faci l i ti es.
(c) Engi ne panel s, pl ant and di stri buti on
swi tchgear, and a central control board (Chapter 5,
Secti on I ).
(d) Cool i ng system i ncl udi ng pumps and heat
exchanger s.
(e) Lube oi l fi l ters and, for heavi er fuel s,
oi l processi ng equi pment such as centri fuges.
(f) Tool s and operati ng suppl i es storage.
(g) Faci l i ti es for mai ntenance.
(h) Heat recovery equi pment, i f i ncl uded.
fuel
(3) The mai n uni ts shoul d usual l y be l i ned up i n
paral l el , perpendi cul ar to the l ong axi s of the engi ne
room thus maki ng unl i mi ted future expansi on easy
7-3
TM 5-811-6
and economi cal . The engi ne bay wi l l be hi gh enough
for a motori zed, overheat travel i ng crane. The crane,
i f economi cal l y feasi bl e, wi l l be si zed for mai nte-
nance onl y. The swi tchgear wi l l be l ocated at the
generator end of each uni t, permi tti ng the shortest
possi bl e wi ri ng between the swi tchgear and gener-
ators. The swi tchgear may be encl osed i n a separate
room or maybe a part of the mai n engi ne bay.
(4) A typi cal smal l two-uni t di esel power pl ant
-
arrangement i s shown i n Fi gure 7-1.
U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers
Figure 7-1. Typical diesel generator power plant.
7-4
TM 5-811-6
CHAPTER 8
COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS
Sec tion 1. TYPlCAL PLANTS AND CYCLES
8-1. Introduc tion
a. Definition. I n general usage the term com-
bi ned cycl e power pl ant descri bes the combi nati on
of gas turbi ne generator(s) (Brayton cycl e) wi th tur-
bi ne exhaust waste heat boi l er(s) and steam turbi ne
generator(s) (Ranki ne cycl e) for the producti on Of
el ectri c power. I f the steam from the waste heat boi l -
er i s used for process or space heati ng, the term "co-
generati on i s the more correct termi nol ogy (si mul -
taneous producti on of el ectri c and heat energy).
b. General description.
(1) Si mpl e cycl e gas turbi ne generators, when
operated as i ndependent el ectri c power producers,
are rel ati vel y i neffi ci ent wi th net heat rates at ful l
l oad of over 15,000 Btu per ki l owatt-hour. Conse-
quentl y, si mpl e cycl e gas turbi ne generators wi l l be
used onl y for peaki ng or standby servi ce when fuel
economy i s of smal l i mportance.
(2) Condensi ng steam turbi ne generators have
ful l l oad heat rates of over 13,000 Btu per ki l owatt-
hour and are rel ati vel y expensi ve to i nstal l and oper-
ate. The effi ci ency of such uni ts i s poor compared to
the 8500 to 9000 Btu per ki l owatt-hour heat rates
typi cal of a l arge, fossi l fuel fi red uti l i ty generati ng
stati on.
(3) The gas turbi ne exhausts rel ati vel y l arge
quanti ti es of gases at temperatures over 900 F, I n
combi ned cycl e operati on, then, the exhaust gases
from each gas turbi ne wi l l be ducted to a waste heat
boi l er. The heat i n these gases, ordi nari l y exhausted
to the atmosphere, generates hi gh pressure super-
heated steam. Thi s steam wi l l be pi ped to a steam
turbi ne generator. The resul ti ng combi ned cycl e
heat rate i s i n the 8500 to 10,500 Btu per net ki l o-
watt-hour range, or roughl y one-thi rd l ess than a
si mpl e cycl e gas turbi ne generator.
(4) The di sadvantage of the combi ned cycl e i s
that natural gas and l i ght di sti l l ate fuel s requi red
for l ow mai ntenance operati on of a gas turbi ne are
expensi ve. Heavi er di sti l l ates and resi dual oi l s are
al so expensi ve as compared to coal .
8-2. Plant details
a. Unfired boiler operation. For turbi nes burni ng
natural gas or l i ght di sti l l ate oi l , the boi l er wi l l be of
the compact, extended surface desi gn wi th ei ther
natural or forced ci rcul ati on wi th steam generated
at approxi matel y 650 psi g and 825
0
F. The addi ti on
of the waste heat boi l er-steam turbi ne generator
combi nati ons i ncreases power output over the si m-
pl e gas turbi ne.
b. Fired boiler operation. The exhaust from a gas
turbi ne contai ns l arge amounts of excess ai r. Thi s
exhaust has an oxygen content cl ose to fresh ai r,
and wi l l be uti l i zed as preheated combusti on ai r for
suppl ementary fuel fi ri ng. Suppl ementary fuel fi r-
i ng permi ts i ncreasi ng steami ng of the waste heat
boi l er. Burners wi l l be i nstal l ed between the gas tur-
bi ne exhaust and the waste boi l er to el evate the ex-
haust gases to the heat absorpti on l i mi tati ons of the
waste heat boi l er. Suppl ementary burners al so per-
mi t generati on when the gas turbi ne i s out of
ser vi ce.
c. Other types of combined cycle plants. Vari a-
ti ons of combi ned cycl e pl ants areas fol l ows:
(1) Back pressure operati on of the steam tur-
bi ne. Thi s may i ncl ude ei ther unfi red or fi red boi l er
operati on. The steam turbi ne used i s a non-condens-
i ng machi ne wi th al l of the exhaust steam uti l i zed
for heati ng or process at a l ower pressure l evel .
(2) Control l ed (automati c) extracti on operati on
of the steam turbi ne. Thi s may al so i ncl ude ei ther
unfi red or fi red boi l er operati on. A control l ed extrac-
ti on steam turbi ne permi ts extracti on steam fl ow to
be matched to the steam demand. Varyi ng amounts
of steam can be used for heati ng or process pur-
poses. Steam not extracted i s condensed. Thi s type
of steam turbi ne wi l l onl y be used when el ectri cal re-
qui rements are very l arge (see Chapter 1).
Sec tion Il. GENERAL DESIGN PARAMETERS
8-3. Bac kground turbi ne and steam turbi ne power pl ants. The waste
A combi ned cycl e power pl ant i s essenti al l y com-
heat boi l er i s di fferent i n desi gn, however, from a
pri sed of standard equi pment deri ved from both gas
normal fossi l fuel ed boi l er. Feedwater heati ng i s
8-1
TM 5-811-6
usual l y l ess compl ex. Power pl ant control s must
take i nto account the si mul taneous operati on of gas
turbi ne, boi l er and steam turbi ne.
8-4. Design approac h
a. Operating differences. The fol l owi ng i tems
shoul d be gi ven consi derati on:
(1) Turndown. Gas turbi ne mass fl ows are fai rl y
constant, but exhaust temperature fal l s off rapi dl y
as l oad i s reduced. Therefore, decreasi ng amounts of
steam are generated i n the waste heat boi l er. Vari a-
ti ons i n gas turbi ne generator output affect the out-
put from the steam turbi ne generator unl ess suppl e-
mentary fuel i s fi red to adjust the temperature. Sup-
pl ementary fuel fi ri ng, however, decreases combi ned
cycl e effi ci ency because of the i ncreased boi l er stack
gas l osses associ ated wi th the constant mass fl ow of
the turbi ne.
(2) Exhaust gas flows. For the same amount of
steam produced, gas fl ows through a combi ned cycl e
boi l er are al ways much hi gher than for a fuel fi red
boi l er.
(3) Feedwater temperatures. Wi th a combi ned
cycl e pl an, no ai r preheater i s needed for the boi l er.
Hence, the onl y way to reduce fi nal stack gas exi t
temperature to a suffi ci entl y l ow (effi ci ent) l evel i s
to absorb the heat i n the feedwater wi th economi zer
recovery equi pment. I nl et feedwater temperature
must be l i mi ted (usual l y to about 250
0
F) to do thi s.
b. Approaches to specialized problems:
(1) Load following. Methods of varyi ng l oads
for a combi ned cycl e i ncl ude:
(a) Varyi ng amount of fuel to a gas turbi ne
wi l l decrease effi ci ency qui ckl y as output i s reduced
from ful l l oad because of the steep heat rate curve of
the gas turbi ne and the mul ti pl yi ng effect on the
steam turbi ne. Al so, steam temperature can rapi dl y
fal l bel ow the recommended l i mi t for the steam tur-
bi ne.
(b) Some suppl ementary fi ri ng may be used
for a combi ned cycl e power pl ant ful l l oad. Suppl e-
mentary fi ri ng i s cut back as the l oad decreases; i f
l oad decreases bel ow combi ned output when suppl e-
mentary fi ri ng i s zero, fuel to the gas turbi ne i s al so
cut back. Thi s wi l l gi ve somewhat l ess effi ci ency at
combi ned cycl e ful l l oad and a best effi ci ency poi nt
at l ess than ful l l oad; i .e., at 100 percent waste heat
operati on wi th ful l l oad on the gas turbi ne.
(c) Use of a mul ti pl e gas turbi ne coupl ed wi th
a waste heat boi l er wi l l gi ve the wi dest l oad range
wi th mi ni mum effi ci ency penal ty. I ndi vi dual gas
turbi ne-waste heat uni ts can be shut down as the
l oad decreases wi th l oad-fol l owi ng between shut-
down steps by any or both of the above methods.
(d) I nstal l ati on of gas dampers to bypass
vari abl e amounts of gas from turbi ne exhaust di -
rectl y to atmosphere. Wi th thi s method, gas turbi ne
exhaust and steam temperatures can be mai ntai ned
whi l e steam fl ow to steam turbi ne generator i s de-
creased as i s the l oad. Thi s has the added advantage
that i f both atmospheri c bypass and boi l er dampers
are i nstal l ed, the gas turbi ne can operate whi l e the
steam turbi ne i s down for mai ntenance. Al so, i f ful l
fuel fi ri ng for the boi l er i s i nstal l ed al ong wi th a
standby forced draft fan, steam can be produced
from the boi l er whi l e the gas turbi ne i s out for mai n-
tenance. Thi s pl an al l ows the greatest fl exi bi l i ty
when there i s onl y one gas turbi ne-boi l er-steam tur-
bi ne trai n. I t does i ntroduce equi pment and control
compl i cati on and i s more costl y; and effi ci ency de-
creases as greater quanti ti es of exhaust gas are by
passed to atmosphere.
(2) Boiler design.
(a) Waste heat boi l ers must be desi gned for
the greater gas fl ows and l ower temperature di ffer-
enti al s i nherent i n combi ned cycl e operati on. I f a
standby forced draft fan i s i nstal l ed, the fan must be
careful l y si zed. Gas turbi ne ful l l oad fl ow rates need
not be mai ntai ned,
(b) I f the fuel to be fi red, ei ther i n the gas tur-
bi ne or as suppl ementary fuel , i s resi dual oi l , bare
tubes shoul d be used i n the boi l er wi th extended sur-
face tubes used i n the economi zer onl y. Thi s i n-
creases the boi l er cost substanti al l y but wi l l pre-
cl ude tube pass bl ockages. Soot bl owers are requi red
for heavy oi l fi red uni ts.
(3) Feedwater heating and affect on steam gen-
erator design.
(a) Because of the requi rement for rel ati vel y
l ow temperature feedwater to the combi ned cycl e
boi l er, usual l y onl y one or two stages of feedwater
heati ng are needed. I n some cycl es, separate econo-
mi zer ci rcui ts i n the steam generator are used to
heat and deaerate feewater whi l e reduci ng boi l er
exi t gas to an effi ci ent l ow l evel .
(b) For use i n mi l i tary i nstal l ati ons, onl y co-
generati on combi ned cycl es wi l l be i nstal l ed. A typi -
cal cycl e di agram i s shown i n Fi gure 8-1.
(4) Combined cycle controls. There i s a wi de
vari ati on i n the control s requi red for a combi ned cy-
cl e uni t whi ch, of course, are dependent on the type
of uni t i nstal l ed. Many manufacturers have de-
vel oped thei r own automated control systems to
sui t the standardi zed equi pment array whi ch they
have devel oped.
8-2
TM 5-811-6
.
*
8-3
TM 5-811-6
APPENDIX A
REFERENCES
Government Public ations
Code of Federal Regi ster
10 CFR 436A
Federal Spec ific ations
VV-F-800
G Department of Defense
DOD 4270.1-M
Army Regulations
AR 11-28
Air Forc e Regulations
AFR 178-1
Military Spec ific ations
MI L-T-5624L
MI L-F-16884C
MI L-P-17552D
Part 436: Federal Energy Management and Pl anni ng Program.
Subpart A: Methodol ogy and Procedures for Li fe Cycl e Cost Anal ysi s.
Fuel Oi l , Di esel .
Department of Defense Constructi on Manual Gui de.
Economi c Anal ysi s and Program Eval uati on for Resource Management.
Economi c Anal ysi s and Program Eval uati on for Resources Manage-
ment.
Turbi ne Fuel , Avi ati on, Grades JP-4 and JP-5.
Fuel Oi l , Di esel , Mari ne.
Pump Uni ts, Centri fugal , Water, Hori zontal ; General Servi ce and Boi l er
Feed: El ectri c Motor or Steam Turbi ne Dri ven.
Departments of the Army, Air Forc e and Navy
TM 5-803-5/NAVPAC P-960 I nstal l ati on Desi gn.
AFM 88-43
TM 5-805-41AFM 88-371 Noi se Control for Mechani cal Equi pment.
NAVFAC DM-3.1O
TM 5-805-91AFM 88-201 Power Pl ant Acousti cs.
NAVFAC DM-3.14
TM 5-815-l /AFR 19-6/ Ai r Pol l uti on Control Systems for Boi l ers and I nci nerators.
NAVFAC DM-3.15
Departments of the Army and Air Forc e
TM 5-810-l /AFM 88-8, Mechani cal Desi gn - Heati ng, Venti l ati ng and Ai r Condi ti oni ng.
Chap. 1
TM 5-811 -l /AFM 88-9, El ectri cal Power Suppl y and Di stri buti on.
Chap, 1
TM 5-811-2/AFM 88-9, El ectri cal Desi gn, I nteri or El ectri cal System.
Chap. 2
TM 5-818-2/AFM 88-6, Pavement Desi gn for Frost Condi ti ons.
Chap. 4
TM 5-822-2/AFM 88-7, General Provi si ons and Geometri c Desi gn for Roads, Streets, Wal ks, and
Chap. 5 Open Storage Areas.
TM 5-822-41AFM 88-7, Soi l Stabi l i zati on for Roads and Streets.
Chap. 4
TM 5-822-5/AFM 88-7, Fl exi bl e Pavements for Roads, Streets, Wal ks and Open Storage Areas.
Chap, 3
A-1
TM 5-811-6
TM 5-822-6/AFM 88-7,
Chap. 1
TM 5-822-7/AFM 88-7,
Chap. 8
Ri gi d Pavements for Roads, Streets, Wal ks and Open Storage Areas.
Standard Practi ce for Concrete Pavements.
Department of the Army
TM 5-785 Engi neeri ng Weather Data.
TM 5-822-8 Bi tumi nous Pavements - Standard Practi ce.
Non-Government Public ations
Ameri can Nati onal Standards I nsti tute (ANSI ), 1430 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10018
B31.1 Code for Pressure Pi pi ng - Power Pi pi ng.
C5O.1O General Requi rements for Synchronous Machi nes.
C50.13 Requi rements for Cyl i ndri cal Rotor Synchronous Generators.
C50.14 Requi rements for Combusti on Gas Turbi ne Cyl i ndri cal Rotor Syn-
chronous Generators.
C57.12.1O Requi rements for Transformers, 230,000 Vol ts and Bel ow, 833/958
Through 8,333/10,417 kVA, Si ngl e-Phase, and 750/862 Through
60,000/80,000/100,000 kVA, Three-Phase.
C84.1 Vol tage Rati ngs for El ectri cal Power Systems and Equi pment.
Ameri can Soci ety of Mechani cal Engi neers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017
ASME Code ASME Boi l er and Pressure Code: Secti on I , Power Boi l ers; Secti on I I ,
Materi al Speci fi cati ons; Secti on VI I I , Pressure Vessel s; Secti on
I X, Wel di ng and Brazi ng Qual i fi cati ons.
ASME TWDPS-1 Recommended Practi ces of Water Damage to Steam Turbi nes Used for
El ectri c Power Generati on (Part 1- Fossi l Fuel ed Pl ants).
I nsti tute of El ectri cal and El ectroni c Engi neers, (NEMA) I EEE Servi ce Center, 445 Hoes Lane, Pi scataway,
N.J. 08854
100 Standard Di cti onary of El ectri cal and El ectroni c Terms.
112 Test Procedure for Pol yphase I ndi cator Motors and Generators.
114 Test Procedure for Si ngl e Phase I nducti on Motors.
115 Test Procedure for Synchronous Machi nes.
Nati onal El ectri cal Manufacturers Associ ati on, 155 East 44th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017
SM 12 Di rect-Connected Steam Turbi ne Synchronous Generator Uni ts, Ai r
Cool ed.
SM 13 Di rect-Connected Steam Turbi ne Synchronous Generator Uni ts, Hydro- -
gen Cool ed (20,000 to 30,000 kW, I ncl usi ve).
Nati onal Fi re Protecti on Associ ati on, Publ i cati on Sal es Department, 470 Atl anti c Avenue, Boston, MA.
02210
30 Fl ammabl e and Combusti bl e Li qui ds Code.
70 Nati onal El ectri c Code.
General El ectri c Company, Lynn, MA. 0910
GEK 22504 Standard Desi gn and Operati ng Recommendati ons to Mi ni mi ze Water
Rev. D. I nducti on i n Large Steam Turbi nes.
Westi nghouse El ectri c Corporati on, Lester, PA. 19113

Recommendati on to Mi ni mi ze Water Damage to Steam Turbi nes.

A-2
TM 5-811-6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ameri can I nsti tute of Archi tecture, Life Cycle Cost Analysis - A Guide for Architects, AI A, 1735 New York
Avenue, Washi ngton, DC 20006
Fi nk and Beatty, Standard Handbook for El ectri cal Engi neers, McGraw Hi l l Book Company, New York, N.Y.
10020
Grant, I reson and Leavenworth, Principals of Engineering Economy, John Wi l ey & Sons, I nc., New York,
N.Y. 10036
Kent, R. T., Kents Mechanical Engineers Handbook Power Volume, John Wi l ey& Sons, I nc., New York, N.Y.
10036
Marks Standurd Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, McGraw Hi l l Book Company, New York, N.Y. 10020
Mason, The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, General El ectri c Engi neeri ng Practi ce Seri es, John Wi l ey
& Sons, I nc., New York, N.Y. 10036
Morse, Frederi ck T., Power Plant Engineering and Design, D. Van Nostrand Company, I nc., New York, N.Y.
Naval Faci l i ti es Engi neeri ng Command, Economi c Anal ysi s Handbook, NAVFAC P442, U.S. Naval Publ i ca-
ti ons and Forms Center, 5801 Tabor Avenue, Phi l adel phi a, PA. 19120.
TM 5-811-6
Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) directly to HQDA (DAEN-ECE-E), WASH DC 20314.
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
Offi ci al :
ROBERT M. JOYCE
Major General United States Army
The Adjutant General
JOHN A. WI CKHAM, JR.
General United States Army
Chief of Staff
* U . S . GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1983-424-688