EVS Kaushik and Kaushik Book

PERSPECTIVES IN
ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES
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Dedicofed wifh Peverence fo Memories of Our
.)60-4 LATE FROF. A.K. $lNHA
A Great PhIIosopher, EducatIonIst and HumanIst
&
60-4 LATE $MT. A$HA RANl KAU$HlK
An EmbodIment of Love and DedIcatIon
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CORE MODULE SYLLABUS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
FOR UNDERCRADUATE COURSES OF
ALL BRANCHES OF HICHER EDUCATION
Unit 1 : Thc Multidisciplinary Naturc nf Envirnnmcntal Studics
Ocfinition, scopc and impoitancc (2 Lcctuics)
Nccd foi public avaicncss.
Unit : 2 : Natural Rcsnurccs
Rcncwablc and nnn-rcncwablc rcsnurccs :
Natuial icsouiccs and associatcd pioblcms.
(=) Fnrcst rcsnurccs : Lsc and ovci-cxploitation, dcfoicstation,
casc studics. Timbci cxtiaction, mining, dams and tlcii cffccts
on foicsts and tiibal pcoplc.
(>) Watcr rcsnurccs : Lsc and ovci-utilization of suifacc and
giound vatci, floods, diouglt, conflicts ovci vatci, dams-
bcncfits and pioblcms.
(?) Mincral rcsnurccs : Lsc and cxploitation, cnviionmcntal cf-
fccts of cxtiacting and using mincial icsouiccs, casc studics.
(@) Fnnd rcsnurccs : Woild food pioblcms, clangcs causcd by
agiicultuic and ovci-giazing, cffccts of modcin agiicultuic,
fcitilizci-pcsticidc pioblcms, vatci logging, salinity, casc
studics.
(A) Encrgy rcsnurccs : Cioving cncigy nccds, icncvablc and
non-icncvablc cncigy souiccs, usc of altcinatc cncigy
souiccs, Casc studics.
(B ) Land rcsnurccs : Land as a icsouicc, land dcgiadation, man
induccd landslidcs, soil ciosion and dcscitification.
Rolc of an individual in conscivation of natuial icsouiccs.
Equitablc usc of icsouiccs foi sustainablc lifc stylcs.
(8 Lcctuics)
Unit 3 : Ecnsystcms
Conccpt of an ccosystcm.
Stiuctuic and function of an ccosystcm.
Pioduccis, consumcis and dccomposcis.
Encigy flov in tlc ccosystcm.
Ecological succcssion.
Iood clains, food vcbs and ccological pyiamids.
(ix)
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Intioduction, typcs, claiactciistic fcatuics, stiuctuic and func-
tion of tlc folloving ccosystcm :
(=) Ioicst ccosystcm
(>) Ciassland ccosystcm
(?) Ocscit ccosystcm
(@) Aquatic ccosystcm (ponds, sticams, lakcs, iivcis, occans,
cstuaiics). (6 Lcctuics)
Unit 4 : Bin-divcrsity and its Cnnscrvatinn
IntioductionOcfinition : gcnctic, spccics and ccosystcm
divcisity.
Biogcogiaplical classification of India.
Valuc of biodivcisity : consumptivc usc, pioductivc usc, social,
ctlical, acstlctic and option valucs.
Biodivcisity at global, national and local lcvcls.
India as a maga-divcisity nation.
Hot-spots of biodivcisity.
Tlicats to biodivcisity : labitat loss, poacling of vildlifc,
man-vildlifc conflicts.
Endangcicd and cndcmic spccics of India.
Conscivation of biodivcisity : In-situ and Ex-situ consciva-
tion of biodivcisity. (8 Lcctuics)
Unit 5 : Envirnnmcntal Pnllutinn
Dcfinitinn
Causcs, cffccts and contiol mcasuics of :
(=) Aii pollution
(>) Watci pollution
(?) Soil pollution
(@) Maiinc pollution
(A) Noisc pollution
(B ) Tlcimal pollution
(C) Nuclcai lazaids.
Solid vastc managcmcnt : Causcs, cffccts and contiol mcas-
uics of uiban and industiial vastcs.
Rolc of an individual in picvcntion of pollution.
Pollution casc studics.
Oisastci managcmcnt : floods, caitlquakc, cyclonc and land-
slidcs. (8 Lcctuics)
(x)
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Unit 6 : Sncial Issucs and thc Envirnnmcnt
Iiom Lnsustainablc to Sustainablc dcvclopmcnt.
Liban pioblcms iclatcd to cncigy.
Watci conscivation, iain vatci laivcsting, vatcislcd man-
agcmcnt.
Rcscttlcmcnt and iclabilitation of pcoplc: its pioblcms and
conccins. Casc studics.
Enviionmcntal ctlics: Issucs and possiblc solutions.
Climatc clangc, global vaiming, acid iain, ozonc layci dc-
plction, nuclcai accidcnts and lolocaust. Casc studics.
Wastcland icclamation.
Consumciism and vastc pioducts.
Enviionmcnt Piotcction Act.
Aii (Picvcntion and Contiol of Pollution) Act.
Watci (Picvcntion and Contiol of Pollution) Act.
Wildlifc Piotcction Act.
Ioicst Conscivation Act.
Issucs involvcd in cnfoiccmcnt of cnviionmcntal lcgislation.
Public avaicncss. (7 Lcctuics)
Unit 7 : Human Pnpulatinn and Envirnnmcnt
Population giovtl, vaiiation among nations.
Population cxplosionIamily Wclfaic Piogiammc.
Enviionmcnt and luman lcaltl.
Human Riglts.
Valuc Education.
HIV/AIOS.
Womcn and Clild Wclfaic.
Rolc of Infoimation Tcclnology in Enviionmcnt and luman
lcaltl.
Casc Studics. (6 Lcctuics)
Unit 8 : Ficld Wnrk
Visit to a local aica to documcnt cnviionmcntal assctsiivci,
foicst giassland/lill/mountain.
Visit to a local pollutcd sitcLiban/Ruial/Industiial/
Agiicultuial.
Study of common plants, insccts and biids.
Study of simplc ccosystcmspond, iivci, lill slopcs ctc. (Iicld
voik Equal to 5 lcctuic louis) (5 Lcctuics)
(xi)
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+JAJI
(as pci LCC modulc Syllabus)
2HAB =?A (LEE)
1. Enviionmcntal StudicsA Multidisciplinaiy Subjcct 1
2. Natuial Rcsouiccs 5
2.1 Ioicst Rcsouiccs 6
2.2 Watci Rcsouiccs 13
2.3 Mincial Rcsouiccs 23
2.4 Iood Rcsouiccs 3O
2.5 Encigy Rcsouiccs 38
2.6 Land Rcsouiccs 53
3. Ecosystcms 65
4. Biodivcisity and its Conscivation 98
5. Enviionmcntal Pollution 123
6. Social Issucs and tlc Enviionmcnt 161
7. Human Population and tlc Enviionmcnt 211
8. Iicld Woik 236
Suggcstcd Rcadings 243
Clossaiy 244
Indcx 254
(xv)
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'Enviionmcnt' is dciivcd fiom tlc Iicncl void Envtrcnncr vlicl
mcans to cnciiclc oi suiiound. All tlc biological and non-biological
tlings suiiounding an oiganism aic tlus includcd in cnviionmcnt. Tlus
cnvirnnmcnt is sum tntal nf watcr, air and land, intcr-rclatinnships
amnng thcmsclvcs and alsn with thc human bcings, nthcr living nrgan-
isms and prnpcrty. Tlc abovc dcfinition givcn in Enviionmcnt (Piotcc-
tion) Act, 1986 clcaily indicatcs tlat cnviionmcnt includcs all tlc plysi-
cal and biological suiioundings and tlcii intciactions. Tlus, in oidci
to study cnviionmcnt onc nccds knovlcdgc inputs fiom vaiious disci-
plincs. Lifc Scicnccs including Botany, Zoology, Miciobiology, Ccnct-
ics, Bioclcmistiy and Biotcclnology lclp in undcistanding tlc biotic
componcnt and tlcii intciactions. Tlc plysical and clcmical stiuc-
tuic of tlc abiotic componcnts and cncigy tiansfci and flov aic undci-
stood vitl tlc lclp of basic conccpts of Plysics, Clcmistiy, Ccology,
Atmosplciic Scicncc, Occanogiaply and Ccogiaply. Matlcmatics,
Statistics and Computci Scicncc scivc as cffcctivc tools in cnviionmcntal
modcling and managcmcnt. Subjccts likc Education, Economics, So-
ciology and Mass communication piovidc tlc inputs foi dcaling vitl
tlc socio-cconomic aspccts associatcd vitl vaiious dcvclopmcntal ac-
tivitics. A syntlcsis vitl Enviionmcntal Engincciing, Civil Engincci-
ing, Hydiaulics and Clcmical Engincciing foim tlc basis foi vaiious
tcclnologics dcaling vitl tlc contiol of cnviionmcntal pollution, vastc-
ticatmcnt and dcvclopmcnt of clcanci tcclnologics tlat aic impoitant
foi piotcction of tlc cnviionmcnt. Enviionmcntal lavs piovidc tlc tools
foi cffcctivc managcmcnt and piotcction of tlc cnviionmcnt. Enviion-
mcntal Studics, tlcicfoic, is a multi-disciplinaiy subjcct vlcic diffci-
cnt aspccts aic dcalt vitl a lolistic appioacl.
Scope
Scopc of cnviionmcntal studics is bioad bascd and it cncompasscs a
laigc numbci of aicas and aspccts, bioadly listcd bclov:
7EJ
nvironmentuI Studies
A MuItidiscipIinury Subgect
1
2 Environmental Science and Engineering
Natuial Rcsouiccstlcii conscivation and managcmcnt
Ecology and biodivcisity
Enviionmcntal pollution and contiol
Social issucs in iclation to dcvclopmcnt and cnviionmcnt
Human population and cnviionmcnt
Tlcsc aic tlc basic aspccts of Enviionmcntal Studics vlicl lavc
a diicct iclcvancc to cvciy scction of tlc socicty. Enviionmcntal studics
can bc liglly spccializcd also vlicl may conccntiatc on moic tcclnical
aspccts likc Enviionmcntal Scicncc, Enviionmcntal Engincciing,
Enviionmcntal Managcmcnt, Enviionmcntal Biotcclnology ctc.
Enviionmcnt bclongs to all and is tlus impoitant foi all. Wlatcvci
bc tlc occupation oi agc of a pcison, lc oi slc vill bc affcctcd by
cnviionmcnt and vill also affcct tlc cnviionmcnt by lis oi lci dccds.
Tlus, cnviionmcnt is onc subjcct tlat is actually global in natuic. Ioi
cxamplc, atmosplcic las no boundaiics and tlc pollutants pioduccd
at onc placc can bc dispciscd and tianspoitcd to anotlci placc. Tlc
iivci vatci pollutcd by industiial oi municipal disclaigc at onc point
vould sciiously affcct tlc dovnsticam aquatic lifc. Oamagc to tlc
foicsts in a lilly icgion vill lavc fai icacling cffcct not only on tlc
lills but also on tlc plains. Tlis is bccausc cnviionmcnt is a closcly
and intiicatcly vovcn nctvoik of componcnts and functions. Tlcic
aic somc cnviionmcntal pioblcms vlicl may bc of localizcd
impoitancc but tlcic aic somc majoi issucs likc global vaiming,
dcplction of ozonc layci, dvindling foicsts and cncigy icsouiccs, loss
of global biodivcisity ctc. tlat aic going to affcct tlc mankind as a
vlolc and foi tlat vc lavc to tlink globally. Ioi dcaling vitl local
cnviionmcntal issucs, c.g. tlc impacts of mining oi lydio-clcctiic
piojccts, solid vastc managcmcnt ctc. vc lavc to tlink and act locally.
In oidci to makc tlc pcoplc avaic about tlosc aspccts of cnviionmcnt
vitl vlicl tlcy aic so intimatcly associatcd, it is vciy impoitant to
makc cvciy onc cnviionmcntally cducatcd.
Enviionmcntal studics is vciy impoitant sincc it dcals vitl tlc
most mundanc issucs likc safc and clcan diinking vatci, lygicnic living
conditions, clcan and ficsl aii, fcitilc land, lcaltly food and
dcvclopmcnt tlat is sustainablc. Tlcic is a nccd foi tiaincd manpovci
at cvciy lcvcl to dcal vitl cnviionmcntal issucs. Enviionmcntal lav,
busincss administiation and cnviionmcntal cngincciing aic cmciging
as ncv caicci oppoitunitics foi cnviionmcntal piotcction and
managcmcnt. Witl tlc pollution contiol lavs bccoming moic stiingcnt,
industiics aic finding it difficult to disposc off tlc pioduccd vastcs. In
oidci to avoid cxpcnsivc litigation, vaiious companics aic nov tiying
Environmental StudiesA Multidisciplinary Subject 3
to adopt giccn tcclnologics, vlicl vould icducc pollution. Invcsting
in pollution contiol tcclnologics vill icducc pollution as vcll as cut
on costs foi cfflucnt ticatmcnt. Maikct foi pollution contiol tcclnology
is lugc tlc voild ovci. Clcaning up of tlc vastcs pioduccd is anotlci
potcntial maikct. It is cstimatcd to bc moic tlan $ 1OO billion pci ycai
foi all Amciican busincss. Ccimany and 1apan laving moic stiingcnt
lavs foi many ycais lavc gaincd moic cxpciicncc in icducing cfflucnts.
Still tlcic is a $ 2OO billion maikct foi clcaning up tlc foimci cast
Ccimany alonc. In India also tlc Pollution Contiol Boaids aic sciiously
implcmcnting pollution contiol lavs and insisting on upgiadation of
cfflucnts to mcct tlc picsciibcd standaids bcfoic tlcy aic disclaigcd
on land oi into a vatci body. Many companics not complying vitl tlc
oidcis lavc bccn closcd oi oidcicd to slift. Tlis is infact csscntial if vc
vant to livc in a clcan, lcaltly, acstlctically bcautiful, safc and sccuic
cnviionmcnt foi a long timc and visl to land ovci a clcan and safc
caitl to oui clildicn, giand-clildicn and gicat giand clildicn.
Need for Public Awareness
Tlc Unitcd Nations Confcicncc on Enviionmcnt and Ocvclopmcnt
lcld in Rio dc 1anciio in 1992 and populaily knovn as 'Earth Sum-
mit' follovcd by tlc Wnrld Summit nn Sustainablc Dcvclnpmcnt at
1olanncsbuig in 2OO2, just 1O ycais aftci tlc fiist summit, lavc ligl-
ligltcd tlc kcy issucs of global cnviionmcntal conccin and lavc at-
tiactcd tlc attcntion of tlc gcncial public tovaids tlc dctciioiating
cnviionmcnt. Any govcinmcnt at its ovn lcvcl cannot aclicvc tlc goals
of sustainablc dcvclopmcnt until tlc public las a paiticipatoiy iolc in
it. Public paiticipation is possiblc only vlcn tlc public is avaic about
tlc ccological and cnviionmcntal issucs. A diivc by tlc govcinmcnt to
ban tlc littciing of polytlcnc cannot bc succcssful until tlc public un-
dcistands tlc cnviionmcntal implications of tlc samc. Tlc public las
to bc cducatcd about tlc fact tlat if vc aic dcgiading oui cnviionmcnt
vc aic actually laiming oui ovnsclvcs. Tlis is bccausc vc aic a pait of
tlc complcx nctvoik of cnviionmcnt vlcic cvciy componcnt is linkcd
to anotlci. It is all tlc moic impoitant to cducatc tlc pcoplc tlat somc-
timcs tlc advcisc impact of cnviionmcnt aic not cxpciicnccd oi no-
ticcd until a tlicslold is ciosscd. So vc may bc cauglt unavaics by a
disastci.
Tlcic is a Clincsc piovcib "It ycu plan fcr cnc ycar, plant rtcc, tf ycu
plan fcr 10 ycars, plant trccs and tf ycu plan fcr 100 ycars, cducatc
pccplc." If vc vant to managc oui planct caitl, vc lavc to makc all
tlc pcisons cnviionmcntally cducatcd.
In 1991, tlc Supicmc Couit of oui countiy issucd diicctivc to
makc all cuiiicula cnviionmcnt-oiicntcd. Tlis diicctivc vas, in fact, in
icsponsc to a Public Intcicst Litigation (PIL) filcd by M.C. Mclta vs.
Union of India (1988) tlat piomptcd tlc apcx couit to givc a mandatc
foi cicating cnviionmcntal avaicncss among all citizcns of India.
Today cvciybody talks of cnviionmcnt, but only a fcv lavc clcai
idcas about vlat nccds to bc donc and still fcvci lavc tlc actual
cxpciicncc oi cxpcitisc in tlc ficld. Unfoitunatcly, cnviionmcntal
avaicncss campaigns lavc vciy oftcn bccn cxploitcd foi political
piopaganda iatlci tlan bcing an intcgial pait of oui cducational
piogiammcs in tlcoiy and piacticc. "Enviionmcnt" is vciy viongly
takcn as a "faslion" by all valks of lifc, laidly icalizing tlat it is oui
"ical-lifc-situation" and oui sustcnancc and sccuiity aic at stakc. Hcniy
O. Tloicau iigltly says "Wlat's tlc usc of a bcautiful lousc if you
don't lavc a dcccnt planct to put it on!" Evcn if vc bcgin today, tlc
icstoiation is cxpcctcd in tlc ncxt 4O-5O ycais.
QUESTIONS
1. Wlat is tlc nccd foi studying cnviionmcntal issucs !
2. Wlat is tlc scopc of cnviionmcntal cducation !
3. Hov vould cnviionmcntal avaicncss lclp to piotcct oui
cnviionmcnt !
Lifc on tlis planct caitl dcpcnds upon a laigc numbci of tlings and
sciviccs piovidcd by tlc natuic, vlicl aic knovn as Natuial icsouiccs.
Tlus vatci, aii, soil, mincials, coal, foicsts, ciops and vild lifc aic all
cxamplcs of natuial icsouiccs.
Tlc natuial icsouiccs aic of tvo kinds:
Rcncvablc icsouiccs vlicl aic incxlaustivc and can bc
icgcnciatcd vitlin a givcn span of timc c.g. foicsts, vildlifc,
vind cncigy, biomass cncigy, tidal cncigy, lydio povci ctc.
Solai cncigy is also a icncvablc foim of cncigy as it is an
incxlaustiblc souicc of cncigy.
Non-icncvablc icsouiccs vlicl cannot bc icgcnciatcd c.g.
Iossil fucls likc coal, pctiolcum, mincials ctc. Oncc vc cxlaust
tlcsc icscivcs, tlc samc cannot bc icplcnislcd.
Evcn oui icncvablc icsouiccs can bccomc non-icncvablc if vc
cxploit tlcm to sucl cxtcnt tlat tlcii iatc of consumption cxcccds tlcii
iatc of icgcnciation. Ioi cxamplc, if a spccics is cxploitcd so mucl tlat
its population sizc dcclincs bclov tlc tlicslold lcvcl tlcn it is not ablc
to sustain itsclf and giadually tlc spccics bccomcs cndangcicd oi cxtinct.
It is vciy impoitant to piotcct and conscivc oui natuial icsouiccs
and usc tlcm in a judicious mannci so tlat vc don't cxlaust tlcm. It
docs not mcan tlat vc slould stop using most of tlc natuial icsouiccs.
Ratlci, vc slould usc tlc icsouiccs in sucl a vay tlat vc alvays savc
cnougl of tlcm foi oui futuic gcnciations. In tlis unit vc slall discuss
tlc majoi natuial icsouiccs:
(t) Ioicst icsouiccs
(tt) Watci icsouiccs
(ttt) Mincial icsouiccs
(tv) Iood icsouiccs
(v) Encigy icsouiccs
(vt) Land icsouiccs.
7EJ
NuturuI Resources
5
2.1 FOREST RESOURCES
Ioicsts aic onc of tlc most impoitant natuial icsouiccs on tlis caitl.
Covciing tlc caitl likc a giccn blankct tlcsc foicsts not only pioducc
innumciablc matciial goods, but also piovidc scvcial cnviionmcntal
sciviccs vlicl aic csscntial foi lifc.
About 1/3id of tlc voild's land aica is foicstcd vlicl includcs
closcd as vcll as opcn foicsts. Ioimci LSSR accounts foi about a 5tl
of tlc voild's foicsts, Biazil foi about a 7tl and Canada and LSA cacl
foi 6-7%. But it is a mattci of conccin tlat almost cvciyvlcic tlc covci
of tlc natuial foicsts las dcclincd ovci tlc ycais. Tlc gicatcst loss
occuiicd in tiopical Asia vlcic onc tliid of tlc foicst icsouiccs lavc
bccn dcstioycd.
USES OF FORESTS
Cnmmcrcial uscs: Ioicsts piovidc us a laigc numbci of commcicial
goods vlicl includc timbci, fiicvood, pulpvood, food itcms, gum,
icsins, non-cdiblc oils, iubbci, fibcis, lac, bamboo cancs, foddci,
mcdicinc, diugs and many moic itcms, tlc total voitl of vlicl is
cstimatcd to bc moic tlan $ 3OO billion pci ycai.
Half of tlc timbci cut cacl ycai is uscd as fucl foi lcating and
cooking. Onc tliid of tlc vood laivcst is uscd foi building matciials
as lumbci, plyvood and laidvood, paiticlc boaid and clipboaid. Onc
sixtl of tlc vood laivcst is convcitcd into pulp and uscd foi papci
industiy. Many foicst lands aic uscd foi mining, agiicultuic, giazing,
and iccication and foi dcvclopmcnt of dams.
Ecnlngical uscs: Wlilc a typical ticc pioduccs commcicial goods
voitl about $ 59O it piovidcs cnviionmcntal sciviccs voitl ncaily
$ 196, 25O.
Tlc ccological sciviccs piovidcd by oui foicsts may bc summcd
up as follovs:
Prnductinn nf nxygcn: Tlc ticcs pioducc oxygcn by ploto-
syntlcsis vlicl is so vital foi lifc on tlis caitl. Tlcy aic iigltly
callcd as caitl's lungs.
Rcducing glnbal warming: Tlc main giccnlousc gas cai-
bon dioxidc (CO
2
) is absoibcd by tlc foicsts as a iav matciial
foi plotosyntlcsis. Tlus foicst canopy acts as a sink foi CO
2
tlcicby icducing tlc pioblcm of global vaiming causcd by
giccnlousc gas CO
2
.
Natural Resources 7
Wild lifc habitat: Ioicsts aic tlc lomcs of millions of vild
animals and plants. About 7 million spccics aic found in tlc
tiopical foicsts alonc.
Rcgulatinn nf hydrnlngical cyclc: Ioicstcd vatcislcds act
likc giant spongcs, absoibing tlc iainfall, sloving dovn tlc
iunoff and slovly iclcasing tlc vatci foi icclaigc of spiings.
About 5O-8O %of tlc moistuic in tlc aii abovc tiopical foicsts
comcs fiom tlcii tianspiiation vlicl lclps in biinging iains.
Snil Cnnscrvatinn: Ioicsts bind tlc soil paiticlcs tigltly in
tlcii ioots and picvcnt soil ciosion. Tlcy also act as vind-
bicaks.
Pnllutinn mndcratnrs: Ioicsts can absoib many toxic gascs
and can lclp in kccping tlc aii puic. Tlcy lavc also bccn
icpoitcd to absoib noisc and tlus lclp in picvcnting aii and
noisc pollution.
OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS
Sincc timc immcmoiial, lumans lavc dcpcndcd lcavily on foicsts foi
food, mcdicinc, slcltci, vood and fucl. Witl gioving civilization tlc
dcmands foi iav matciial likc timbci, pulp, mincials, fucl vood ctc.
slootcd up icsulting in laigc scalc logging, mining, ioad-building and
clcaiing of foicsts. Oui foicsts contiibutc substantially to tlc national
cconomy. Tlc intcinational timbci tiadc alonc is voitl ovci LS $ 4O
billion pci ycai. Exccssivc usc of fucl vood and claicoal, cxpansion of
uiban, agiicultuial and industiial aicas and ovcigiazing lavc togctlci
lcd to ovci-cxploitation of oui foicsts lcading to tlcii iapid dcgiada-
tion.
DEFORESTATION
Tlc total foicst aica of tlc voild in 19OO vas cstimatcd to bc 7,OOO
million lcctaics vlicl vas icduccd to 289O million la in 1975 and fcll
dovn to just 2,3OO million la by 2OOO. Ocfoicstation iatc is iclativcly
lcss in tcmpciatc countiics, but it is vciy alaiming in tiopical countiics
vlcic it is as ligl as 4O-5O pciccnt and at tlc picscnt iatc it is csti-
matcd tlat in tlc ncxt 6O ycais vc vould losc moic tlan 9O pciccnt of
oui tiopical foicsts.
Tlc foicstcd aica in India sccms to lavc stabilizcd sincc 1982
vitl about O.O4% dcclinc annually bctvccn 1982-9O. IAO (1983)
cstimatcd tlat about 1.44 m la of land vas biouglt undci affoicstation
duiing tlis pciiod lcading to stabilization. As pci IAO cstimatcs, tlc
dcfoicstation iatc pci unit population in India is tlc lovcst amongst
tlc majoi tiopical countiics, dcspitc tlc fact tlat vc lavc a lugc
population sizc and vciy lov pci capita foicst aica (O.O75 la pci capita).
Hovcvci, vc aic still fai bclind tlc taigct of aclicving 33% foicst aica,
as pci oui National Ioicst Policy, as vc aic still laving only 19.27 % of
oui land aica (63.38m la) covcicd by foicsts bascd on satcllitc data
(MoEI, 1998)
Major Causes of Deforestation
(t) Shifting cultivatinn: Tlcic aic an cstimatcd 3OO million
pcoplc living as slifting cultivatois vlo piacticc slasl and buin
agiicultuic and aic supposcd to clcai moic tlan 5 lakl la of foicsts foi
slifting cultivation annually. In India, vc lavc tlis piacticc in Noitl-
East and to somc cxtcnt in Andlia Piadcsl, Bilai and M.P vlicl
contiibutc to ncaily lalf of tlc foicst clcaiing annually.
(tt) Fucl rcquircmcnts: Incicasing dcmands foi fucl vood by tlc
gioving population in India alonc las slootcd up to 3OO-5OO million
tons in 2OO1 as compaicd to just 65 million tons duiing indcpcndcncc,
tlcicby incicasing tlc picssuic on foicsts.
(ttt) Raw matcrials fnr industrial usc: Wood foi making boxcs,
fuinituic, iailvay-slccpcis, plyvood, matcl-boxcs, pulp foi papci in-
dustiy ctc. lavc cxcitcd ticmcndous picssuic on foicsts. Plyvood is in
gicat dcmand foi packing tca foi Tca industiy of Assam vlilc fii ticc
vood is cxploitcd gicatly foi packing applcs in 1&K.
(tv) Dcvclnpmcnt prn|ccts: Massivc dcstiuction of foicsts occui
foi vaiious dcvclopmcnt piojccts likc lydioclcctiic piojccts, big dams,
ioad constiuction, mining ctc.
(v) Crnwing fnnd nccds: In dcvcloping countiics tlis is tlc main
icason foi dcfoicstation. To mcct tlc dcmands of iapidly gioving
population, agiicultuial lands and scttlcmcnts aic cicatcd pcimancntly
by clcaiing foicsts.
(vt) Ovcrgrazing: Tlc pooi in tlc tiopics mainly icly on vood as
a souicc of fucl lcading to loss of ticc covci and tlc clcaicd lands aic
tuincd into tlc giazing lands. Ovcigiazing by tlc cattlc lcads to fui-
tlci dcgiadation of tlcsc lands.
Major Consequences of Deforestation
Ocfoicstation las fai icacling conscqucnccs, vlicl may bc outlincd
as follovs:
(t) It tlicatcns tlc cxistcncc of many vild lifc spccics duc to
dcstiuction of tlcii natuial labitat.
Natural Resources 9
(tt) Biodivcisity is lost and along vitl tlat gcnctic divcisity is
ciodcd.
(ttt) Hydiological cyclc gcts affcctcd, tlcicby influcncing iainfall.
(tv) Pioblcms of soil ciosion and loss of soil fcitility incicasc.
(v) In lilly aicas it oftcn lcads to landslidcs.
CASE STUDIES
Dcscrtificatinn in hilly rcginns nf thc Himalayas
Ocfoicstation in Himalayas, involving clcaiancc of natuial foi-
csts and plantation of monocultuics likc Ftnus rcxhurght, Euca-
lyptus camadulcnsts ctc. lavc upsct tlc ccosystcm by clanging
vaiious soil (cdaplic) and biological piopcitics. Nutiicnt cy-
cling las bccomc pooi, oiiginal iicl gcimplasm is lost and tlc
aica is invadcd by cxotic vccds. Tlcsc aicas aic not ablc to
iccovci and aic losing tlcii fcitility. Tlc cntiic vcst Klasi lill
distiict of Mcglalaya in Noitl-cast Himalayas, Ladakl and
paits of Kumaon and Cailval aic nov facing tlc sciious piob-
lcm of dcscitification.
Disappcaring Tca gardcns in Chhnta Nagpur
Tlis lilly icgion uscd to bc a good foicstcd aica tovaids tlc
tuin of tlc ccntuiy and uscd to icccivc faiily ficqucnt aftci-
noon slovcis favouiing tca plantations. Iolloving tlc dcstiuc-
tion of foicsts, iainfall dcclincd in Cllota Nagpui to sucl an
cxtcnt tlat tca -gaidcns also disappcaicd fiom tlc icgion.
Waning Rainfall in Udhagamandalam (Onty)
Tlc sub noimal iainfall duiing 1965-84 at Ooty in Nilgiii moun-
tains las bccn found to bc closcly associatcd vitl dcclining
foicst covci in tlis icgion in tlc past 2O ycais. Tlc iainfall pat-
tcin vas found to fluctuatc vitl voodcd land aica in tlc lills.
Wlcn tlc Nilgiii mountains lad luxuiiant foicst covci annual
iainfall uscd to bc mucl liglci.
Major Activities in Forests
Timbcr Extractinn: Logging foi valuablc timbci, sucl as tcak and
Malogany not only involvcs a fcv laigc ticcs pci lcctaic but about a
dozcn moic ticcs sincc tlcy aic stiongly intcilockcd vitl cacl otlci
by vincs ctc. Also ioad constiuction foi making appioacl to tlc ticcs
causcs fuitlci damagc to tlc foicsts.
Mining: Mining opciations foi cxtiacting mincials and fossil fucls
likc coal oftcn involvcs vast foicst aicas. Mining fiom slallov dcposits
is donc by surfacc mining vlilc tlat fiom dccp dcposits is donc by
sub-surfacc mining. Moic tlan 8O,OOO la of land of tlc countiy is
picscntly undci tlc sticss of mining activitics. Mining and its associatcd
activitics icquiic icmoval of vcgctation along vitl undcilying soil
mantlc and ovcilying iock masscs. Tlis icsults in dcfacing tlc
topogiaply and dcstiuction of tlc landscapc in tlc aica.
Laigc scalc dcfoicstation las bccn icpoitcd in Mussoiic and
Ocliadun vallcy duc to indisciiminatc mining of vaiious mincials ovci
a lcngtl of about 4O Km. Tlc foicstcd aica las dcclincd at an avciagc
iatc of 33% and tlc incicasc in non-foicst aica duc to mining activitics
las icsultcd in iclativcly unstablc zoncs lcading to landslidcs.
Indisciiminatc mining in foicsts of Coa sincc 1961 las dcstioycd
moic tlan 5O,OOO la of foicst land. Coal mining in 1laiia, Raniganj
and Singiauli aicas lavc causcd cxtcnsivc dcfoicstation in 1laikland.
Mining of magncsitc and soap- stoncs lavc dcstioycd 14 la of foicst in
tlc lill slopcs at Kliiakot, Kosi vallcy, Almoia. Mining of iadioactivc
mincials in Kciala, Tamilnadu and Kainataka aic posing similai tlicats
of dcfoicstation. Tlc iicl foicsts of Wcstcin Clats aic also facing tlc
samc tlicat duc to mining piojccts foi cxcavation of coppci, cliomitc,
bauxitc and magnctitc.
DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FORESTS AND PEOPLE
Big dams and iivci vallcy piojccts lavc multi-puiposc uscs and lavc
bccn icfciicd to as "Tcmplcs cf mcdcrn Indta". Hovcvci, tlcsc dams aic
also icsponsiblc foi tlc dcstiuction of vast aicas of foicsts. India las
moic tlan 155O laigc dams, tlc maximum bcing in tlc statc of
Malaiasltia (moic tlcn 6OO), follovcd by Cujaiat (moic tlcn 25O)
and Madlya Piadcsl (13O). Tlc liglcst onc is Tchrt dam, on iivci
Blagiiatli in Lttaianclal and tlc laigcst in tcims of capacity is Blakia
dam on iivci Satluj in H.P. Big dams lavc bccn in slaip focus of vaiious
cnviionmcntal gioups all ovci tlc voild vlicl is mainly bccausc of
scvcial ccological pioblcms including dcfoicstation and socio-cconomic
pioblcms iclatcd to tiibal oi nativc pcoplc associatcd vitl tlcm. Tlc
Natural Resources 11
Stlcnt Vallcy lydioclcctiic piojcct vas onc of tlc fiist sucl piojccts
situatcd in tlc tiopical iain foicst aica of Wcstcin Clats vlicl attiactcd
mucl conccin of tlc pcoplc. Thc crusadc agatnst thc ccclcgtcal damagc
and dcfcrcstattcn causcd duc tc Tchrt dam was lcd hy Sh. Sundcr lal Bahuguna,
thc lcadcr cf Chtpkc mcvcmcnt. Thc causc cf Sardar Sarcvar Dam rclatcd
tssucs has hccn takcn up hy thc cnvtrcnmcntal acttvtsts Mcdha Fatckar, fctncd
hy Arundhatt Ray and Baha Amtc.
Ioi building big dams, laigc scalc dcvastation of foicsts takcs placc
vlicl bicaks tlc natuial ccological balancc of tlc icgion. Iloods,
diouglts and landslidcs bccomc moic picvalcnt in sucl aicas. Ioicsts
aic tlc icpositoiics of invaluablc gifts of natuic in tlc foim of
biodivcisity and by dcstioying tlcm ( paiticulaily, tlc tiopical iain foi-
csts) vc aic going to losc tlcsc spccics cvcn bcfoic knoving tlcm. Tlcsc
spccics could bc laving maivclous cconomic oi mcdicinal valuc and
dcfoicstation icsults in loss of tlis stoiclousc of spccics vlicl lavc
cvolvcd ovci millions of ycais in a singlc stiokc.
Sardar Sarnvar Dam (Uprnntcd Fnrcsts And Tribals):
A casc study
Tlc dam is situatcd on iivci Naimada and is spicad ovci tlicc
statcs of Cujaiat, Malaiasltia and Madlya Piadcsl. Altlougl
tlc piojcct is aimcd at pioviding iiiigation vatci, diinking vatci
and clcctiicity to tlc tlicc statcs, tlc cnviionmcntal impacts of
tlc piojcct lavc iaiscd clallcnging qucstions.
A total of 1,44,731 la of land vill bc submcigcd by tlc dam, out
of vlicl 56,547 la is foicst land. A total of 573 villagcs aic to bc
submcigcd by tlc Naimada Oam.
Submcigcncc of about 4O,OOO la of foicst undci Naimada Sagai,
13,8OO la undci Saidai Saiovai and 2,5OO la undci Omkaicslvai
vould fuitlci cicatc picssuic on icmaining foicst aicas in
adjoining aicas. Submcigcncc aica is vciy iicl in vildlifc c.g. tigcis,
pantlcis, bcais, volvcs, pangolins, lycnas, jackals, flying squiiicls,
antclopcs, black bucks, clinkaia, maisl ciocodilcs, tuitlcs ctc.
Many of tlcsc spccics aic listcd in sclcdulc I & II of Wildlifc
Piotcction Act, 1972. Tlus massivc loss of tlcsc vildlifc spccics
is appiclcndcd duc to tlc dcvastation of tlc foicst undci tlc
piojcct.
As pci tlc cstimatcs of tlc Institutc of Liban Affaiis, Ncv Oclli,
tlc Naimada vallcy piojcct vill lcad to cvcntual displaccmcnt of
moic tlan onc million pcoplc, vlicl is piobably tlc laigcst
(Ccntd.)
iclabilitation issuc cvci cncountcicd as pci tlc Woild Bank.
Lpiooting of tlc tiibals and tlcii foiccd slifting in fai-flung aicas
may not bc casily adjustcd to. Bcsidcs sciious cconomic
dcpiivation, tlc displaccmcnt vill affcct tlc tiibal pcoplcs' cultuic,
tlcii bclicfs, mytls and iituals, fcstivals, songs and danccs, all
closcly associatcd vitl tlc lills, foicst and sticams. Most of tlcsc
tiibals bclong to pooi, unpiivilcgcd sclcdulc castcs and tiibcs vlo
aic bcing upiootcd fiom a placc vlcic tlcy lavc livcd foi
gcnciations. Tlc displaccd pcisons lavc to undcigo laidslip and
disticss foi tlc sakc of dcvclopmcnt and piospciity of a laigci
scction of tlc socicty. It is tlcicfoic tlc duty of tlc piojcct
pioponcnts and govcinmcnt to pay maximum attcntion foi piopci
iclabilitation of tlc displaccd tiibals.
2.2 WATER RESOURCES
Watci is an indispcnsablc natuial icsouicc on tlis caitl on vlicl all
lifc dcpcnds. About 97% of tlc caitl's suifacc is covcicd by vatci and
most of tlc animals and plants lavc 6O-65% vatci in tlcii body.
Watci is claiactciizcd by ccitain uniquc fcatuics vlicl makc it a
maivcllous icsouicc:
(t) It cxists as a liquid ovci a vidc iangc of tcmpciatuic i.c. fiom
O to1OOC.
(tt) It las tlc liglcst spccific lcat, duc to vlicl it vaims up and
cools dovn vciy slovly vitlout causing slocks of tcmpcia-
tuic jciks to tlc aquatic lifc.
(ttt) It las a ligl latcnt lcat of vapoiization Hcncc, it takcs a lugc
amount of cncigy foi gctting vapoiizcd. Tlat's vly it pioduccs
a cooling cffcct as it cvapoiatcs.
(tv) It is an cxccllcnt solvcnt foi scvcial nutiicnts. Tlus, it can scivc
as a vciy good caiiici of nutiicnts, including oxygcn, vlicl
aic csscntial foi lifc. But, it can also casily dissolvc vaiious
pollutants and bccomc a caiiici of patlogcnic miciooiganisms.
(v) Ouc to ligl suifacc tcnsion and colcsion it can casily iisc
tliougl gicat lciglts tliougl tlc tiunk cvcn in tlc tallcst of
tlc ticcs likc Scqucta.
(vt) It las an anamolous cxpansion bclavioui i.c. as it ficczcs, it
cxpands instcad of contiacting and tlus bccomcs ligltci. It is
bccausc of tlis piopcity tlat cvcn in cxticmc cold, tlc lakcs
ficczc only on tlc suifacc. Bcing ligltci tlc icc kccps floating,
vlcicas tlc bottom vatcis icmain at a liglci tcmpciatuic
and tlcicfoic, can sustain aquatic oiganisms cvcn in cxticmc
cold.
Tlc vatci vc usc kccps on cycling cndlcssly tliougl tlc
cnviionmcnt, vlicl vc call as Hydrnlngical Cyclc. Wc lavc cnoimous
icsouiccs of vatci on tlc caitl amounting to about 14O4 million Km
3
.
Tlc vatci fiom vaiious moist suifaccs cvapoiatcs and falls again on
tlc caitl in tlc foim of iain oi snov and passcs tliougl living oiganisms
and ultimatcly ictuins to tlc occans. Evciy ycai about 1.4 incl tlick
layci of vatci cvapoiatcs fiom tlc occans, moic tlan 9O% of vlicl
ictuins to tlc occans tliougl tlc lydiological cyclc. Solai cncigy diivcs
tlc vatci cyclc by cvapoiating it fiom vaiious vatci bodics, vlicl
subscqucntly ictuin tliougl iainfall oi snov. Plants too play a vciy
impoitant iolc by absoibing tlc gioundvatci fiom tlc soil and iclcasing
it into tlc atmosplcic by tlc pioccss of tianspiiation.
Clobal distiibution of vatci icsouiccs is quitc uncvcn dcpcnding
upon scvcial gcogiaplic factois. Tiopical iain foicst aicas icccivc
maximum iainfall vlilc tlc majoi voild dcscits occui in zoncs of diy,
dcsccnding aii (2O-4O N and S) and icccivc vciy littlc iainfall.
WATER USE AND OVER-EXPLOITATION
Ouc to its uniquc piopcitics vatci is of multiplc uscs foi all living
oiganisms. Watci is absolutcly csscntial foi lifc. Most of tlc lifc pioccsscs
takc placc in vatci containcd in tlc body. Lptakc of nutiicnts, tlcii
distiibution in tlc body, icgulation of tcmpciatuic, and icmoval of
vastcs aic all mcdiatcd tliougl vatci.
Human bcings dcpcnd on vatci foi almost cvciy dcvclopmcntal
activity. Watci is uscd foi diinking, iiiigation, tianspoitation, vasling
and vastc disposal foi industiics and uscd as a coolant foi tlcimal
povci plants. Watci slapcs tlc caitl's suifacc and icgulatcs oui climatc.
Watcr usc by lumans is of tvo typcs: watcr withdrawal: taking
vatci fiom gioundvatci oi suifacc vatci icsouicc and watcr
cnnsumptinn: tlc vatci vlicl is takcn up but not ictuincd foi icusc.
Clobally, only about 6O pciccnt of tlc vatci vitldiavn is consumcd
duc to loss tliougl cvapoiation.
Witl incicasing luman population and iapid dcvclopmcnt, tlc
voild vatci vitldiaval dcmands lavc incicascd many folds and a laigc
piopoition of tlc vatci vitldiavn is pollutcd duc to antliopogcnic
activitics. On a global avciagc 7O pciccnt of tlc vatci vitldiavn is
uscd foi agiicultuic. In India, vc usc 93% of vatci in agiicultuial scctoi
vlilc in a countiy likc Kuvait, vlicl is vatci-pooi, only 4% is uscd
foi vatciing tlc ciops. About 25% of vatci on global avciagc is uscd in
industiy, vlicl again vaiics fiom a ligl of 7O% in Euiopcan countiics
to as lov as 5% in lcss dcvclopcd countiics. Pci capita usc of vatci
slovs vidc vaiiations. In LSA, an avciagc family of 4 consumcs moic
tlan 1OOO M
3
of vatci pci ycai, vlicl is many timcs moic tlan tlat in
most dcvcloping countiics.
Water: A Precious Natural Resource
Altlougl vatci is vciy abundant on tlis caitl, yct it is vciy piccious.
Out of tlc total vatci icscivcs of tlc voild, about 97% is salty vatci
(maiinc) and only 3% is ficsl vatci. Evcn tlis small fiaction of ficsl
vatci is not availablc to us as most of it is lockcd up in polai icc caps
and just O.OO3% is icadily availablc to us in tlc foim of gioundvatci
and suifacc vatci.
Ovciusc of gioundvatci foi diinking, iiiigation and domcstic pui-
poscs las icsultcd in iapid dcplction of gioundvatci in vaiious icgions
lcading to lovciing of vatci tablc and diying of vclls. Pollution of
many of tlc gioundvatci aquifcis las madc many of tlcsc vclls unfit
foi consumption.
Rivcis and sticams lavc long bccn uscd foi disclaiging tlc
vastcs. Most of tlc civilizations lavc giovn and flouiislcd on tlc banks
of iivcis, but unfoitunatcly, giovtl in tuin, las bccn icsponsiblc foi
pollution of tlc iivcis.
As pci tlc Lnitcd Nations cstimatcs (2OO2), at lcast 1O1 billion
pcoplc do not cvcn lavc acccss to safc diinking vatci and 2.4 billion
do not lavc adcquatc sanitation facilitics. Incicasing population and
cxpanding dcvclopmcnt vould fuitlci incicasc tlc dcmands foi vastcs.
It is cstimatcd tlat by 2O24, tvo-tliids of tlc voild population vould
bc suffciing fiom acutc vatci sloitagc.
Groundwater
About 9.86% of tlc total ficsl vatci icsouiccs is in tlc foim of
gioundvatci and it is about 35-5O timcs tlat of suifacc vatci supplics.
Till somc timc back gioundvatci vas considcicd to bc vciy puic.
Hovcvci, of latc, cvcn gioundvatci aquifcis lavc bccn found to bc
contaminatcd by lcaclatcs fiom sanitaiy landfills ctc.
A layci of scdimcnt oi iock tlat is liglly pcimcablc and contains
vatci is callcd an aquifcr. Laycis of sand and giavcl aic good aquifcis
vlilc clay and ciystallinc iocks (likc gianitc) aic not sincc tlcy lavc
lov pcimcability. Aquifcis may bc of tvo typcs:
Uncnnfincd aquifcrs vlicl aic ovcilaid by pcimcablc caitl
matciials and tlcy aic icclaigcd by vatci sccping dovn fiom abovc in
tlc foim of iainfall and snov mclt.
Cnnfincd aquifcrs vlicl aic sandvitclcd bctvccn tvo
impcimcablc laycis of iock oi scdimcnts and aic icclaigcd only in
tlosc aicas vlcic tlc aquifci intcisccts tlc land suifacc. Somctimcs
tlc icclaigcd aica is lundicds of kilomctcis avay fiom tlc location of
tlc vcll. Iig 2.2.1 slovs tlc gioundvatci systcm. Cioundvatci is not
static, it movcs, tlougl at a vciy slov iatc of about a mctci oi so in a
ycai.
Precipitation
Unconfined aquifer recharge area
Evapo-transpiration
from croplands
Evaporation
from lake
Evaporation
from stream
Infiltration
Infiltration
Less permeable
material
Impermeable
rock layer
Permeable
rock
Confined
aquifer
Confined
aquifer
recharge
area
Unconfined
aquifer
(Water table)
Fig. 2.2.1. The groundwater system. An unconfined aquifer
(water table) is formed when water collects over a rock or
compact clay. A confined aquifer is formed sandwitched
between two layers having very low permeability.
Effects of Groundwater Usage
(t) Subsidcncc: Wlcn gioundvatci vitldiaval is moic tlan its
icclaigc iatc, tlc scdimcnts in tlc aquifci gct compactcd, a
plcnomcnon knovn as grcund suhstdcncc. Hugc cconomic
losscs may occui duc to tlis plcnomcnon bccausc it icsults in
tlc sinking of ovcilying land suifacc. Tlc common pioblcms
associatcd vitl it includc stiuctuial damagc in buildings,
fiactuic in pipcs, icvcising tlc flov of scvcis and canals and
tidal flooding.
(tt) Lnwcring nf watcr tablc: Mining of gioundvatci is donc
cxtcnsivcly in aiid and scmi-aiid icgions foi iiiigating ciop
ficlds. Hovcvci, it is not advisablc to do cxccssivc mining as it
vould causc a slaip dcclinc in futuic agiicultuial pioduction,
duc to lovciing of vatci tablc.
(ttt) Watcr lngging: Wlcn cxccssivc iiiigation is donc vitl
biackisl vatci it iaiscs tlc vatci tablc giadually lcading to
vatci-logging and salinity pioblcms.
Surface Water
Tlc vatci coming tliougl piccipitation (iainfall, snov) vlcn docs
not pcicolatc dovn into tlc giound oi docs not ictuin to tlc atmos-
plcic as cvapoiation oi tianspiiation loss, assumcs tlc foim of sticams,
lakcs, ponds, vctlands oi aitificial icscivoiis knovn as suifacc vatci.
Tlc suifacc vatci is laigcly uscd foi iiiigation, industiial usc, public
vatci supply, navigation ctc. A countiy's cconomy is laigcly dcpcnd-
cnt upon its iivcis.
Watcr rich vs. Watcr pnnr cnuntrics
Tlc top tcn vatci iicl countiics aic Iccland, Suiinam, Cuyana,
Papua Ncv Cuinca, Cabon, Solomon Islands, Canada, Noivay,
Panama, and Biazil lying in tlc fai noitl and lavc lov cvapoiation
losscs.
Tlc vatci pooi countiics includc Kuvait, Egypt, Lnitcd Aiab
Emiiatcs, Malta, 1oidon, Saudi Aiabia, Singapoic, Maldovia,
Isiacl and Oman, lying in tlc dcscit bclt at about 15 to 25
Latitudc and somc of tlcm likc Malta and Singapoic aic dcnscly
populatcd aicas icsulting in lov pci capita vatci.
FLOODS
In somc countiics likc India and Bangladcsl iainfall docs not occui
tliouglout tlc ycai, iatlci, 9O% of it is conccntiatcd into a fcv montls
(1unc-Scptcmbci). Hcavy iainfall oftcn causcs floods in tlc lov-lying
coastal aicas. Piolongcd dovnpoui can also causc tlc ovci-floving of
lakcs and iivcis icsulting into floods.
Ocfoicstation, ovcigiazing, mining, iapid industiialization, global
vaiming ctc. lavc also contiibutcd laigcly to a slaip iisc in tlc incidcncc
of floods, vlicl otlcivisc is a natuial disastci.
Iloods lavc bccn icgulai fcatuics of somc paits of India and
Bangladcsl causing lugc cconomic loss as vcll as loss of lifc. Pcoplc
of Bangladcsl aic accustomcd to modciatc flooding duiing monsoon
and tlcy utilizc tlc flood vatci foi iaising paddy. But, scvcic floods
likc tlat in 197O, 1988 and 1991 icsulting fiom cxccssivc Himalayan
iunoff and stoims, lad vciy disastious conscqucnccs causing massivc
dcatls and damagcs. In 197O, about onc million pcoplc vcic diovncd
vlilc 1,4O,OOO pcoplc dicd in 1991. Nctvoiking of iivcis is bcing
pioposcd at national lcvcl to dcal vitl tlc pioblcms of floods.
DROUGHTS
Tlcic aic about 8O countiics in tlc voild, lying in tlc aiid and scmi-
aiid icgions tlat cxpciicncc ficqucnt spclls of diouglts, vciy oftcn
cxtcnding up to ycai long duiation. Whcn annual rainfall is bclnw
nnrmal and lcss than cvapnratinn, drnught cnnditinns arc crcatcd.
Iionically, tlcsc diouglt- lit aicas aic oftcn laving a ligl population
giovtl vlicl lcads to pooi land usc and makcs tlc situation voisc.
Anthrnpngcnic causcs: Oiouglt is a mctcoiological
plcnomcnon, but duc to scvcial antliopogcnic causcs likc ovci giazing,
dcfoicstation, mining ctc. tlcic is spicading of tlc dcscits tcnding to
convcit moic aicas to diouglt affcctcd aicas. In tlc last tvcnty ycais,
India las cxpciicnccd moic and moic dcscitification, tlcicby incicasing
tlc vulnciability of laigci paits of tlc countiy to diouglts.
Eiioncous and intcnsivc ciopping pattci n and incicascd
cxploitation of scaicc vatci icsouiccs tliougl vcll oi canal iiiigation
to gct ligl pioductivity las convcitcd diouglt - pionc aicas into
dcscitificd oncs. In Malaiasltia tlcic las bccn no iccovciy fiom
diouglt foi tlc last 3O ycais duc to ovci-cxploitation of vatci by
sugaicanc ciop vlicl las ligl vatci dcmands.
Rcmcdial mcasurcs: Indigcnous knovlcdgc in contiol of diouglt
and dcscitification can bc vciy uscful foi dcaling vitl tlc pioblcm.
Caicfully sclcctcd mixcd ciopping lclp optimizc pioduction and
minimizc tlc iisks of ciop failuics. Social Ioicstiy and Wastcland
dcvclopmcnt can piovc quitc cffcctivc to figlt tlc pioblcm, but it slould
bc bascd on piopci undcistanding of ccological icquiicmcnts and
natuial pioccss, otlcivisc it may cvcn boomiang. Tlc Kolai distiict of
Kainataka is onc of tlc lcadcis in Social Ioicstiy vitl Woild Bank
Aid, but all its 11 talukas suffci fiom diouglt. It is bccausc tlc ticc
uscd foi plantation lcic vas Eucalyptus vlicl is nov knovn to lovci
tlc vatci tablc bccausc of its vciy ligl tianspiiation iatc.
CONFLICTS OVER WATER
Indispcnsability of vatci and its uncqual distiibution las oftcn lcd to
intci-statc oi intcinational disputcs. Issucs iclatcd to slaiing of iivci
vatci lavc bccn laigcly affccting oui faimcis and also slaking oui
govcinmcnts. Somc majoi vatci conflicts aic discusscd lcic.
Watcr cnnflict in thc Middlc East: Tlicc iivci basins, namcly
tlc 1oidan, tlc Tigiis-Eupliatcs and tlc Nilc aic tlc slaicd
vatci icsouiccs foi Middlc East countiics. Etliopia contiols
tlc lcad vatcis of 8O% of Nilc's flov and plans to incicasc it.
Sudan too is tiying to divcit moic vatci. Tlis vould badly
affcct Egypt, vlicl is a dcscit, cxccpt foi a tlin stiip of
iiiigatcd ciopland along tlc iivci Nilc and its dclta.
Tlc population of Egypt is likcly to doublc in tlc ncxt 2O
ycais, tlcicby incicasing its vatci ciisis. Likcvisc tlcic is a
ficicc battlc foi vatci among 1oidan, Syiia and Isiacl foi tlc
1oidan Rivci vatci slaic.
Tuikcy las abundant vatci and plans to build 22 dams on
Tigiis-Eupliatcs foi Hydioclcctiic povci gcnciation. But, it
vould diastically icducc tlc flov of vatci to Syiia and Iiaq,
lying dovnsticam. Tuikcy dicams to bccomc tlc icgion's
vatci Supci povci. It plans to tianspoit and scll vatci to
staivcd Saudi Aiabia, Kuvait, Syiia, Isiacl and 1oidan.
Piobably, tlc ncxt vai in tlc Middlc East vould bc fouglt
ovci vatci and not oil.
Thc Indus Watcr Trcaty: Tlc Indus, onc of tlc miglticst
iivcis is dying a slov dcatl duc to dams and baiiagcs tlat
lavc bccn built liglci up on tlc iivci. Tlc Sukkui baiiagc
(1932), Clulam Molamad Baiiagc at Kotii (1958) and
Taibcla and Clasma Oams on 1lclum, a tiibutaiy of Indus
lavc icsultcd in scvcic sliinking of tlc Indus dclta. In 196O,
tlc Indus vatci ticaty vas cstablislcd vidc vlicl Indus, tlc
1lclum and tlc Clcnab vcic allocatcd to Pakistan and tlc
Satluj, tlc Ravi and tlc Bcas vcic allocatcd to India. Bcing
tlc iipaiian statc, India las pic-cmptivc iiglt to constiuct
baiiagcs acioss all tlcsc iivcis in Indian tciiitoiy. Hovcvci,
tlc ticaty icquiics tlat tlc tlicc iivcis allocatcd to Pakistan
may bc uscd foi ncn-ccnsumpttvc puiposcs by India i.c. vitlout
clanging its flov and quality. Witl impioving political
iclations bctvccn tlc tvo countiics it is dcsiiablc to voik out
tcclno-cconomic dctails and go foi an intcgiatcd dcvclopmcnt
of tlc iivci basin in a sustainablc mannci.
Thc Cauvcry watcr disputc: Out of India's 18 majoi iivcis,
17 aic slaicd bctvccn diffcicnt statcs. In all tlcsc cascs, tlcic
aic intcnsc conflicts ovci tlcsc icsouiccs vlicl laidly sccm
to icsolvc. Tlc Cauvciy iivci vatci is a bonc of contcntion
bctvccn Tamilnadu and Kainataka and tlc figlting is almost
lundicd ycais old. Tamilnadu, occupying tlc dovnsticam
icgion of tlc iivci vants vatci-usc icgulatcd in tlc upsticam.
Wlcicas, tlc upsticam statc Kainataka icfuscs to do so and
claims its piimacy ovci tlc iivci as upsticam usci. Tlc iivci
vatci is almost fully utilizcd and botl tlc statcs lavc incicasing
dcmands foi agiicultuic and industiy. Tlc consumption is
moic in Tamilnadu tlan Kainataka vlcic tlc catclmcnt aica
is moic iocky. On 1unc 2,199O, tlc Cauvciy Watci Oisputc
Tiibunal vas sct up vlicl tliougl an intciim avaid diicctcd
Kainataka to cnsuic tlat 2O5 TMCI of vatci vas madc
availablc in Tamil Nadu's Mcttui dam cvciy ycai, till a
scttlcmcnt vas icaclcd. In 1991-92 duc to good monsoon,
tlcic vas no disputc duc to good stock of vatci in Mcttui,
but in 1995, tlc situation tuincd into a ciisis duc to dclaycd
iains and an cxpcit Committcc vas sct up to look into tlc
mattci vlicl found tlat tlcic vas a complcx ciopping pattcin
in Cauvciy basin. Samhra paddy in vintci, Kurvat paddy in
summci and somc casl ciops dcmandcd intcnsivc vatci, tlus
aggiavating tlc vatci ciisis. Piopci sclcction of ciop vaiictics,
optimum usc of vatci, bcttci iationing, iational slaiing
pattcins, and piicing of vatci aic suggcstcd as somc mcasuics
to solvc tlc pioblcm.
Thc Satlu|-Yamuna link (SYL) canal disputc: Tlc issuc of
slaiing tlc Ravi-Bcas vatcis and SYL issuc bctvccn Punjab
and Haiyana is bcing discusscd timc and again and tlc casc is
in tlc Supicmc Couit. Tlc Eiadi Tiibunal (1985) bascd tlc
allocation of vatci on tlc basis of tlc timc-inflov data of 2O
ycais (196O-8O), accoiding to vlicl 17.17 MAI (million acic
fcct) vatci vas availablc. Hovcvci, nov it is aigucd by Punjab
tlat in tlc last 17 ycais tlcic las bccn consistcnt dcclinc
icducing tlc quantity to 14.34 MAI. Tlc Supicmc Couit on
1anuaiy 15, 2OO2 diicctcd Punjab to complctc and commission
tlc SYL vitlin a ycai, failing vlicl tlc Ccntci vas told to
complctc it. Hovcvci, tvo ycais lavc passcd, but ncitlci tlc
SYL las bccn complctcd noi tlc conflict ovci slaiing of Ravi-
Bcas vatci is icsolvcd.
Tlc conflict is tlat Punjab bcing tlc iipaiian statc foi Bcas,
Ravi and Satluj stakcs its claim, Haiyana las faccd acutc
sloitagc of vatci aftci it bccamc a statc in 1966 and las bccn
tiying to lclp it out by signing an MOL (Mcmoiandum of
undcistanding) vitl LP, Rajastlan and Oclli foi allocation
of Yamuna vatcis. Tlc Yamuna basin covcis tlc statc of
Haiyana vlilc tlc Indus basin covcis Punjab.
Tlc conflict icvolving aiound slaiing of iivci vatci nccds to
bc tacklcd vitl gicatci undcistanding and objcctivity.
Traditional Water Management System
In India, cvcn today, tlcic aic scvcial villagcs vlcic vatci managcmcnt
is donc not by tlc Iiiigation Ocpaitmcnt, but by local managcis. In
soutl India, a neerkattI managcs tlc tiaditional tanks vciy cfficicntly
bascd on lis/lci knovlcdgc of tlc tciiain, diainagc and iiiigation
nccds. Tlcy usually givc picfcicncc to tlc tail cnd ficlds and dccidc pci
capita allocation of vatci bascd on tlc stock of availablc vatci in tlc
tank and ciop nccds. In Malaiasltia, tlc vatci mangcis aic callcd
havaIdars oi jaghyas vlo managc and icsolvc conflicts by ovcisccing
tlc vatci clanncls fiom main canal to tlc distiibutoiy canals. In
Ladakl, tlc vatci managci is knovn as churpun vlo las got complctc
claigc vitl full povcis ovci allocation of availablc vatci. Tlc majoi
souicc of vatci is mclt vatci fiom glacicis and snov supplcmcntaiy
by vatci fiom spiings and maislcs. Tlc vatci is distiibutcd to diffcicnt
ficlds tliougl an intiicatc nctvoik of caitlcn clanncls.
In tiaditional vatci managcmcnt, innovativc aiiangcmcnts cnsuic
cquitablc distiibution of vatci, vlicl aic dcmociatically implcmcntcd.
Tlc 'giam-sablas' appiovc tlcsc plans publicly. Wlilc vatci disputcs
bctvccn statcs and nations oftcn assumc battlc likc situations, oui
tiaditional vatci managcis in villagcs piovc to bc quitc cffcctivc.
BIG DAMS- BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS
Benefits
Rivci vallcy piojccts vitl big dams lavc usually bccn considcicd to
play a kcy iolc in tlc dcvclopmcnt pioccss duc to tlcii multiplc uscs.
India las tlc distinction of laving tlc laigcst numbci of iivci-vallcy
piojccts. Tlcsc dams aic oftcn icgaidcd as a symbol of national
dcvclopmcnt. Tlc tiibals living in tlc aica pin big lopcs on tlcsc
piojccts as tlcy aim at pioviding cmploymcnt and iaising tlc standaid
and quality of lifc. Tlc dams lavc ticmcndous potcntial foi cconomic
upliftmcnt and giovtl. Tlcy can lclp in clccking floods and famincs,
gcnciatc clcctiicity and icducc vatci and povci sloitagc, piovidc
iiiigation vatci to lovci aicas, piovidc diinking vatci in icmotc aicas
and piomotc navigation, fislciy ctc.
Environmental Problems
Tlc cnviionmcntal impacts of big-dams aic also too many duc to vlicl
vciy oftcn tlc big dams bccomc a subjcct of contiovcisy. Tlc impacts
can bc at tlc upsticam as vcll as dovnsticam lcvcls.
(A) Tlc upsticam pioblcms includc tlc folloving:
(t) Oisplaccmcnt of tiibal pcoplc
(tt) Loss of foicsts, floia and fauna
(ttt) Clangcs in fislciics and tlc spavning giounds
(tv) Siltation and scdimcntation of icscivoiis
(v) Loss of non-foicst land
(vt) Stagnation and vatcilogging ncai icscivoii
(vtt) Biccding of vcctois and spicad of vcctoi-boinc discascs
(vttt) Rcscivoii induccd scismicity (RIS) causing caitlquakcs
(tx) Ciovtl of aquatic vccds.
(x) Micioclimatic clangcs.
(B) Tlc dovnsticam impacts includc tlc folloving:
(t) Watci logging and salinity duc to ovci iiiigation
(tt) Micio-climatic clangcs
(ttt) Rcduccd vatci flov and silt dcposition in iivci
(tv) Ilasl floods
(v) Salt vatci intiusion at iivci moutl
(vt) Loss of land fcitility along tlc iivci sincc tlc scdimcnts caiiy-
ing nutiicnts gct dcpositcd in tlc icscivoii
(vtt) Outbicak of vcctoi-boinc discascs likc malaiia
Tlus, altlougl dams aic built to scivc tlc socicty vitl multiplc
uscs, but it las scvcial sciious sidc-cffccts. Tlat is vly nov tlcic is a
slift tovaids constiuction of small dams oi mini-lydcl piojccts.
2.3 MINERAL RESOURCES
Mincials aic natuially occuiiing, inoiganic, ciystallinc solids laving a
dcfinitc clcmical composition and claiactciistic plysical piopcitics.
Tlcic aic tlousands of mincials occuiiing in diffcicnt paits of tlc voild.
Hovcvci, most of tlc iocks, vc scc cvciyday aic just composcd of a
fcv common mincials likc quaitz, fcldspai, biotitc, dolomitc, calcitc,
latciitc ctc. Tlcsc mincials, in tuin, aic composcd of somc clcmcnts
likc silicon, oxygcn, iion, magncsium, calcium, aluminium ctc.
USES AND EXPLOITATION
Mincials find usc in a laigc numbci of vays in cvciyday usc in domcstic,
agiicultuial, industiial and commcicial scctois and tlus foim a vciy
impoitant pait of any nation's cconomy. Tlc main uscs of mincials aic
as follovs:
(t) Ocvclopmcnt of industiial plants and maclinciy.
(tt) Ccnciation of cncigy c.g. coal, lignitc, uianium.
(ttt) Constiuction, lousing, scttlcmcnts.
(tv) Ocfcncc cquipmcnts-vcapons, aimamcnts.
(v) Tianspoitation mcans.
(vt) Communication- tclcplonc viics, cablcs, clcctionic dcviccs.
(vtt) Mcdicinal systcm- paiticulaily in Ayuivcdic Systcm.
(vttt) Ioimation of alloys foi vaiious puiposcs (c.g. plosploiitc).
(tx) Agiicultuicas fcitilizcis, sccd dicssings and fungicidcs (c.g.
zincb containing zinc, Mancb-containing mangancsc ctc.).
(x) 1cvcllciyc.g. Cold, silvci, platinum, diamond.
Bascd on tlcii piopcitics, mincials aic basically of tvo typcs:
(t) Non mctallic mincials c.g. giaplitc, diamond, quaitz, fcldspai.
(tt) Mctallic mincials c.g. Bauxitc, latciitc, lacmatitc ctc.
Lsc of mctals by luman bcings las bccn so cxtcnsivc sincc tlc
vciy bcginning of luman civilization tlat tvo of tlc majoi cpocls of
luman listoiy aic namcd aftci tlcm as Bionzc Agc and Iion Agc. Tlc
icscivcs of mctals and tlc tcclnical knov-lov to cxtiact tlcm lavc
bccn tlc kcy clcmcnts in dctcimining tlc cconomy and political povci
of nations. Out of tlc vaiious mctals, tlc onc uscd in maximum quantity
is Iion and stccl (74O million mctiic tons annually) follovcd by
mangancsc, coppci, cliomium, aluminium and Nickcl.
Oistiibution and uscs of somc of tlc majoi mctallic and non-
mctallic mincials aic givcn in Tablcs 2.3.1 and 2.3.2.
Tablc 2.3.1. Ma|nr rcscrvcs and impnrtant uscs
nf snmc nf thc ma|nr mctals
Mctal Ma|nr Wnrld Rcscrvcs Ma|nr Uscs
Tablc 2.3.2. Ma|nr uscs nf snmc nnn-mctallic mincrals
Nnn-mctal Mincral Ma|nr Uscs
Aluminium Austialia, Cuinca,
1amaica
Packaging food itcms, tianspoi-
tation, utcnsils, clcctionics
Cliomium CIS, Soutl Afiica Ioi making ligl sticngtl stccl
alloys, In tcxtilc/tanning
industiics
Coppci L.S.A., Canada, CIS,
Clilc, Zambia
Elcctiic and clcctionic goods,
building, constiuction, vcsscls
Iion CIS, Soutl Amciica,
Canada, L.S.A.
Hcavy maclinciy, stccl pioduc-
tion tianspoitation mcans
Lcad Noitl Amciica, L.S.A.,
CIS
Lcadcd gasolinc, Cai battciics,
paints, ammunition
Mangancsc Soutl Afiica, CIS,
Biazil, Cabon
Ioi making ligl sticngtl, lcat-
icsistant stccl alloys
Platinum
gioup
Soutl Afiica, CIS Lsc in automobilcs, catalytic
convcitcis, clcctionics, mcdical
uscs.
Cold Soutl Afiica, CIS,
Canada
Oinamcnts, mcdical usc, clcc-
tionic usc, usc in aciospacc
Silvci Canada, Soutl Afiica,
Mcxico
Plotogiaply, clcctionics
jcvcllciy
Nickcl CIS, Canada, Ncv
Calcdonia
Clcmical industiy, stccl alloys
Silicatc mincials Sand and giavcl foi constiuction, biicks, paving ctc.
Lscd foi concictc, building stonc, uscd in agiicultuic
foi ncutializing acid soils, uscd in ccmcnt industiy
Limcstonc
Cypsum Lscd in plastci vall-boaid, in agiicultuic
Potasl, plosploiitc Lscd as fcitilizcis
Sulplui pyiitcs Lscd in mcdicinc, cai battciy, industiy.
It is cvidcnt fiom tlc Tablcs tlat tlc CIS countiics (Tlc Com-
monvcaltl of Indcpcndcnt Statcs t.c. 12 icpubics of foimci LSSR),
tlc Lnitcd Statcs of Amciica, Canada, Soutl Afiica and Austialia aic
laving tlc majoi voild icscivcs of most of tlc mctallic mincials. Ouc
to lugc mincial and cncigy icsouiccs, tlc LSA bccamc tlc iiclcst and
tlc most povciful nation in tlc voild in cvcn lcss tlan 2OO ycais. 1a-
pan too nccds a mcntion lcic, as tlcic aic viitually no mctal icscivcs,
coal, oil and timbci icsouiccs in 1apan and it is totally dcpcndcnt on
otlci countiics foi its icsouiccs. But, it las dcvclopcd cncigy cfficicnt
tcclnologics to upgiadc tlcsc icsouiccs to ligl quality finislcd piod-
ucts to sustain its cconomy.
Mincials aic somctimcs classificd as Critical and Stratcgic.
Critical mincrals aic csscntial foi tlc cconomy of a nation c.g.
iion, aluminium, coppci, gold ctc.
Stratcgic mincrals aic tlosc icquiicd foi tlc dcfcncc of a countiy
c.g. Mangancsc, cobalt, platinum, cliomium ctc.
Some Major Minerals of India
(a) Encrgy gcncrating mincrals
CoaI and IIgnIte: Wcst Bcngal, 1laikland, Oiissa, M.P., A.P.
UranIum (Pitclblcndc oi Lianitc oic): 1laikland, Andlia
Piadcsl (Nclloic, Nalgonda), Mcglalaya, Rajastlan (Ajmci).
(h) Othcr cnmmcrcially uscd mincrals
AIumInIum (Bauxttc crc). 1laikland, Wcst Bcngal,
Malaiasltia, M.P., Tamilnadu.
Iron (hacmatttc and magnctttc crc). 1laikland, Oiissa, M.P.,
A.P., Tamilnadu, Kainataka, Malaiasltia and Coa.
Copper (Ccppcr Fyrttcs). Rajastlan (Klctii), Bilai, 1laikland,
Kainataka, M.P., Wcst Bcngal, Andlia Piadcsl and
Lttaianclal.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINERAL EXTRACTION
AND USE
Tlc issuc iclatcd to tlc limits of tlc mincial icsouiccs in oui caitl's
ciust oi in tlc occan is not so significant. Moic impoitant cnviion-
mcntal conccin aiiscs fiom tlc impacts of cxtiaction and pioccssing of
tlcsc mincials duiing mining, smclting ctc.
Indian Sccnarin: India is tlc pioducci of 84 mincials tlc annual
valuc of vlicl is about Rs. 5O,OOO cioic. At lcast six majoi mincs nccd
a mcntion lcic vlicl aic knovn foi causing scvcic pioblcms:
(t) Jaduguda Uranium Minc, Jharkhandcxposing local pcoplc
to iadioactivc lazaids.
(tt) Jharia cnal mincs, Jharkhandundcigiound fiic lcading to
land subsidcncc and foiccd displaccmcnt of pcoplc.
(ttt) Sukinda chrnmitc mincs, Orissasccping of lcxavalcnt
cliomium into iivci posing sciious lcaltl lazaid, Ci
6-
bcing
liglly toxic and caicinogcnic.
(tv) Kudrcmukh irnn nrc minc, Karnatakacausing iivci
pollution and tlicat to biodivcisity.
(v) East cnast Bauxitc minc, OrissaLand cncioaclmcnt and
issuc of iclabilitation unscttlcd.
(vt) Nnrth-Eastcrn Cnal Ficlds, AssamVciy ligl sulplui
contamination of gioundvatci.
Impacts nf mining: Mining is donc to cxtiact mincials (oi fossil
fucls) fiom dccp dcposits in soil by using sub-surfacc mining oi fiom
slallov dcposits by surfacc mining. Tlc foimci mctlod is moic
dcstiuctivc, dangcious and cxpcnsivc including iisks of occupational
lazaids and accidcnts.
Suifacc mining can makc usc of any of tlc folloving tlicc typcs:
(a) Opcn-ptt mtntng in vlicl maclincs dig lolcs and icmovc tlc
oics (c.g. coppci, iion, giavcl, limcstonc, sandstonc, maiblc,
gianitc).
(h) Drcdgtng in vlicl claincd buckcts and diaglincs aic uscd
vlicl sciap up tlc mincials fiom undci-vatci mincial
dcposits.
(c) Strtp mtntng in vlicl tlc oic is stiippcd off by using bulldozcis,
povci slovcls and stiipping vlccls (c.g. plosplatc iocks).
Tlc cnviionmcntal damagc causcd by mining activitics aic as
follovs:
(t) Dcvcgctatinn and dcfacing nf landscapc: Tlc topsoil as vcll
as tlc vcgctation aic icmovcd fiom tlc mining aica to gct
acccss to tlc dcposit. Wlilc laigc scalc dcfoicstation oi
dcvcgctation lcads to scvcial ccological losscs as alicady
discusscd in tlc picvious scction, tlc landscapc also gcts badly
affcctcd. Tlc lugc quantitics of dcbiis and tailings alongvitl
big scais and disiuptions spoil tlc acstlctic valuc of tlc icgion
and makc it pionc to soil ciosion.
(tt) Subsidcncc nf land: Tlis is mainly associatcd vitl
undcigiound mining. Subsidcncc of mining aicas oftcn icsults
in tilting of buildings, ciacks in louscs, buckling of ioads,
bcnding of iail tiacks and lcaking of gas fiom ciackcd pipc-
lincs lcading to sciious disastcis.
(ttt) Crnundwatcr cnntaminatinn: Mining distuibs tlc natuial
lydiological pioccsscs and also pollutcs tlc gioundvatci.
Sulplui, usually picscnt as an impuiity in many oics is knovn
to gct convcitcd into sulpluiic acid tliougl miciobial action,
tlcicby making tlc vatci acidic. Somc lcavy mctals also gct
lcaclcd into tlc gioundvatci and contaminatc it posing lcaltl
lazaids.
(tv) Surfacc watcr pnllutinn: Tlc acid minc diainagc oftcn con-
taminatcs tlc ncaiby sticams and lakcs. Tlc acidic vatci is
dctiimcntal to many foims of aquatic lifc. Somctimcs iadio-
activc substanccs likc uianium also contaminatc tlc vatci
bodics tliougl minc vastcs and kill aquatic animals. Hcavy
mctal pollution of vatci bodics ncai tlc mining aicas is a
common fcatuic cicating lcaltl lazaids.
(v) Air pnllutinn: In oidci to scpaiatc and puiify tlc mctal fiom
otlci impuiitics in tlc oic, smclting is donc vlicl cmits
cnoimous quantitics of aii pollutants damaging tlc vcgctation
ncaiby and las sciious cnviionmcntal lcaltl impacts. Tlc
suspcndcd paiticulatc mattci (SPM), SOx, soot, aiscnic
paiticlcs, cadmium, lcad ctc. sloot up in tlc atmosplcic ncai
tlc smcltcis and tlc public suffcis fiom scvcial lcaltl
pioblcms.
(vt) Occupatinnal Hcalth Hazards: Most of tlc mincis suffci fiom
vaiious icspiiatoiy and skin discascs duc to constant cxposuic
to tlc suspcndcd paiticulatc mattci and toxic substanccs.
Mincis voiking in diffcicnt typcs of mincs suffci fiom
asbcstosis, silicosis, black lung discasc ctc.
Rcmcdial mcasurcs: Safcty of minc voikcis is usually not a
piioiity subjcct of industiy. Statistical data slov tlat, on an avciagc,
tlcic aic 3O non-fatal but disabling accidcnts pci ton of mincial
pioduccd and onc dcatl pci 2.5 tons of mincial pioduccd.
In oidci to minimizc tlc advcisc impacts of mining it is dcsiiablc
to adopt cco-fiicndly mining tcclnology. Tlc lov-giadc oics can bc
bcttci utilizcd by using micrnbial-lcaching tcchniquc. Tlc bactciium
Thtchactllus fcrrcxtdans las bccn succcssfully and cconomically uscd foi
cxtiacting gold cmbcddcd in iion sulplidc oic. Tlc oics aic inoculatcd
vitl tlc dcsiicd stiains of bactciia, vlicl icmovc tlc impuiitics (likc
sulplui) and lcavc tlc puic mincial. Tlis biological mctlod is lclpful
fiom cconomic as vcll as cnviionmcntal point of vicv.
Rcstoiation of mincd aicas by ic-vcgctating tlcm vitl appiopii-
atc plant spccics, stabilization of tlc mincd lands, giadual icstoiation
of floia, picvcntion of toxic diainagc disclaigc and confoiming to tlc
standaids of aii cmissions aic csscntial foi minimizing cnviionmcntal
impacts of mining.
CASE STUDIES
Mining and quarrying in Udaipur
About 2OO opcn cast mining and quaiiying ccntcis in Ldaipui,
about lalf of vlicl aic illcgal aic involvcd in stonc mining
including soapstonc, building stonc, iock plosplatc and dolomitc.
Tlc mincs spicad ovci 15,OOO lcctaics in Ldaipui lavc causcd
many advcisc impacts on cnviionmcnt. About 15O tonncs of
cxplosivcs aic uscd pci montl in blasting. Tlc ovcibuidcn,
vasloff, disclaigc of minc vatci ctc. pollutc tlc vatci. Tlc Maton
mincs lavc badly pollutcd tlc Alai iivci. Tlc lills aiound tlc
mincs aic dcvoid of any vcgctation cxccpt a fcv scattcicd patclcs
and tlc lills aic suffciing fiom acutc soil ciosion. Tlc vastc vatci
flovs tovaids a big tank of "Bag Oaia". Ouc to scaicity of vatci
pcoplc aic compcllcd to usc tlis cfflucnt foi iiiigation puiposc.
Tlc blasting activity las advciscly affcctcd tlc fauna and tlc
animals likc tigci, lion, dcci and cvcn laic, fox, vild cats and
biids lavc disappcaicd fiom tlc mining aica.
Mining in Sariska Tigcr Rcscrvc in Aravallis
Tlc Aiavalli iangc is spicad ovci about 692 km in tlc Noitl-vcst
India covciing Cujaiat, Rajastlan, Haiyana and Oclli. Tlc lill
icgion is vciy iicl in biodivcisity as vcll as mincial icsouiccs.
Tlc Saiiska tigci icscivc las gcntlc slopy lills, vcitical iocky
vallcys, flat plains as vcll as dccp goigcs. Tlc icscivc is vciy iicl
in vild lifc and las cnoimous mincial icscivcs likc quaitzitc,
Sclists, maiblc and gianitc in abundancc.
Mining opciations vitlin and aiound tlc Saiiska Tigci icscivc
las lcft many aicas pcimancntly infcitilc and baiicn. Tlc piccious
vild lifc is undci sciious tlicat. Wc must picscivc tlc Aiavalli
sciics as a National Hciitagc and tlc Supicmc Couit on Occcmbci
31st, 1991 las givcn a judgcmcnt in icsponsc to a Public Intcicst
Litigation of Taiun Blaiat Sangl, an NCO vlcicin botl Ccntic
and Statc Covcinmcnt of Rajastlan lavc bccn diicctcd to cnsuic
tlat all mining activity vitlin tlc paik bc stoppcd. Moic tlan
4OO mincs vcic slut immcdiatcly. But, still somc illcgal mining is
in piogicss.
Uranium Mining in Nalgnnda, A.P.Thc public hcaring
Tlc picscnt icscivcs of Lianium in 1aduguda mincs, 1laikland
can supply tlc ycllov cakc only till 2OO4. Tlcic is a picssing nccd
foi mining moic uianium to mcct tlc dcmands of India's nuclcai
piogiammc. Tlc Lianium Coipoiation of India (LCIL) pioposcs
to minc uianium fiom tlc dcposits in Lambapui and Pcddagattu
villagcs of Nalgonda distiict in Andlia Piadcsl and a pioccssing
unit at about 18 kms at Mallapui. Tlc plan is to cxtiact tlc oic of
11.O2 million tons in 2O ycais. Tlc ILCL is tiying its bcst to alluic
tlc villagcis tliougl cmploymcnt oppoitunitics. But, cxpcits
claigc tlc company foi kccping silcncc on tlc possiblc
contamination of vatci bodics in tlc aica. Tlc pioposcd mincs
aic just 1 km fiom luman labitation and laidly 1O km fiom
Nagaijun Sagai Oam and baicly 4 km fiom tlc Akkampalli
icscivoii vlicl is Hydciabad's ncv souicc of diinking vatci.
It is cstimatcd tlat 2O ycais of mining vould gcnciatc about 7.5
million mctiic toncs of iadioactivc vastc of vlicl 99.9% vill bc
lcft bclind. Tlc villagcis aic vciy likcly to bc affcctcd by tlc
iadioactivc vastcs. Tlougl ILCL claims tlat tlcic von't bc any
sucl accidcnts, but no onc can dcny tlat it is a liglly lazaidous
industiy and safcty mcasuics cannot bc ovcilookcd. Tlc patlctic
condition of 1aduguda Lianium mincs in 1laikland vlcic tlcic
is a black listoiy of massivc dcatls and dcvastation lavc outiagcd
tlc public, vlo don't vant it to bc icpcatcd foi Nalgonda.
Tlc pioposcd mincs vould covci about 445 la of Ycllapuium
Rcscivc Ioicst and tlc Rajiv Candli Tigci Sanctuaiy. Tlc public
lcaiing lcld just icccntly in Icbiuaiy, 2OO4 vitncsscd stiong
piotcsts fiom NCOs and many villagcis. Tlc fatc of tlc pioposcd
mining is yct to bc dccidcd.
2.4 FOOD RESOURCES
Wc lavc tlousands of cdiblc plants and animals ovci tlc voild out of
vlicl only about tlicc dozcn typcs constitutc tlc majoi food of lu-
mans. Tlc main food icsouiccs includc vlcat, iicc, maizc, potato,
bailcy, oats, cassava, svcct potato, sugaicanc, pulscs, soiglum, millct,
about tvcnty oi so common fiuits and vcgctablcs, milk, mcat, fisl and
scafood. Amongst tlcsc iicc, vlcat and maizc aic tlc majoi giains,
about 15OO million mctiic tons of vlicl aic giovn cacl ycai, vlicl is
about lalf of all tlc agiicultuial ciops. About 4 billion pcoplc in tlc
dcvcloping countiics lavc vlcat and iicc as tlcii staplc food.
Mcat and milk aic mainly consumcd by moic dcvclopcd nations
of Noitl Amciica, Euiopc and 1apan vlo consumc about 8O% of tlc
total. Iisl and sca-food contiibutc about 7O million mctiic tons of ligl
quality piotcin to tlc voild's dict. But tlcic aic indications tlat vc
lavc alicady suipasscd sustainablc laivcsts of fisl fiom most of tlc
voild's occans.
Tlc Iood and Agiicultuic Oiganization (IAO) of Lnitcd Na-
tions cstimatcd tlat on an avciagc tlc minimum caloiic intakc on a
global scalc is 2,5OO caloiics/day. Pcoplc iccciving lcss tlan 9O% of
tlcsc minimum dictaiy caloiics aic callcd undcrnnurishcd and if it is
lcss tlan 8O% tlcy aic said to bc scrinusly undcrnnurishcd. Bcsidcs
tlc minimum caloiic intakc vc also nccd piotcins, mincials ctc. Ocfi-
cicncy oi lack of nutiition oftcn lcads to malnutritinn icsulting in scv-
cial discascs as slovn in Tablc 2.4.1.
Tablc 2.4.1. Impacts nf malnutritinn
Dcficicncy Hcalth Effcct Nn. nf Cascs Dcaths pcr ycar
(in millinns)
Piotcins and Stuntcd giovtl, 75O 15-2O
Caloiics Kvaslioikoi, 1 million
Maiasmus
Iion Ancmia 35O million O.75-1
Iodinc Coitic, Cictinism 15O million,
6 million
Vitamin A Blindncss 6 million
WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS
Ouiing tlc last 5O ycais voild giain pioduction las incicascd almost
tlicc timcs, tlcicby incicasing pci capita pioduction by about 5O%.
But, at tlc samc timc population giovtl incicascd at sucl a iatc in
LOCs (Lcss dcvclopcd countiics) tlat it outstiippcd food pioduction.
Evciy ycai 4O million pcoplc (fifty pciccnt of vlicl aic young clildicn
bctvccn 1 to 5 ycais) dic of undcinouiislmcnt and malnutiition. Tlis
mcans tlat every year our food probIem Is kIIIIng as many peopIe as were
kIIIed by the atomIc bomb dropped on HIroshIma durIng WorId War II.
Tlcsc staitling statistical figuics moic tlan cmplasizc tlc nccd to
incicasc oui food pioduction, cquitably distiibutc it and also to contiol
population giovtl.
Indian Sccnarin: Altlougl India is tlc tliid laigcst pioducci of
staplc ciops, an cstimatcd 3OO million Indians aic still undcinouiislcd.
India las only lalf as mucl 1and as LSA, but it las ncaily tlicc timcs
population to fccd. Oui food pioblcms aic diicctly iclatcd to popula-
tion.
Tlc Wnrld Fnnd Summit, 1996 las sct tlc taigct to icducc tlc
numbci of undcinouiislcd to just lalf by 2O15, vlicl still mcans 41O
million undcinouiislcd pcoplc on tlc caitl.
IMPACTS OF OVERGRAZING AND AGRICULTURE
(A) Ovcrgrazing
Livcstock vcaltl plays a ciucial iolc in tlc iuial lifc of oui countiy.
India lcads in livc stock population in tlc voild. Tlc lugc population
of livcstock nccds to bc fcd and tlc giazing lands oi pastuic aicas aic
not adcquatc. Vciy oftcn vc find tlat tlc livc stock giazing on a
paiticulai piccc of giassland oi pastuic suipass tlc caiiying capacity.
Carrying capacity of any systcm is tlc maximum population tlat can
bc suppoitcd by it on a sustainablc basis. Hovcvci, most oftcn, tlc
giazing picssuic is so ligl tlat its caiiying capacity is ciosscd and tlc
sustainability of tlc giazing lands fails. Lct us scc vlat aic tlc impacts
of ovcigiazing.
Impact nf Ovcrgrazing
(t) Land Dcgradatinn: Ovcigiazing icmovcs tlc vcgctal covci
ovci tlc soil and tlc cxposcd soil gcts compactcd duc to vlicl tlc
opciativc soil dcptl dcclincs. So tlc ioots cannot go mucl dccp into
tlc soil and adcquatc soil moistuic is not availablc. Oiganic iccycling
also dcclincs in tlc ccosystcm bccausc not cnougl dctiitus oi littci
icmains on tlc soil to bc dccomposcd. Tlc lumus contcnt of tlc soil
dccicascs and ovcigiazing lcads to oiganically pooi, diy, compactcd
soil. Ouc to tiampling by cattlc tlc soil loscs infiltiation capacity, vlicl
icduccs pcicolation of vatci into tlc soil and as a icsult of tlis moic
vatci gcts lost fiom tlc ccosystcm along vitl suifacc iun off. Tlus
ovci giazing lcads to multiplc actions icsulting in loss of soil stiuctuic,
lydiaulic conductivity and soil fcitility.
(tt) Snil Ernsinn: Ouc to ovcigiazing by cattlc, tlc covci of vcg-
ctation almost gcts icmovcd fiom tlc land. Tlc soil bccomcs cxposcd
and gcts ciodcd by tlc action of stiong vind, iainfall ctc. Tlc giass
ioots aic vciy good bindcis of soil. Wlcn tlc giasscs aic icmovcd, tlc
soil bccomcs loosc and susccptiblc to tlc action of vind and vatci.
(ttt) Lnss nf uscful spccics: Ovcigiazing advciscly affccts tlc
composition of plant population and tlcii icgcnciation capacity. Tlc
oiiginal giassland consists of good quality giasscs and foibs vitl ligl
nutiitivc valuc. Wlcn tlc livcstock giazc upon tlcm lcavily, cvcn tlc
ioot stocks vlicl caiiy tlc icscivc food foi icgcnciation gct dcstioycd.
Nov somc otlci spccics appcai in tlcii placc. Tlcsc sccondaiy spccics
aic laidici and aic lcss nutiitivc in natuic. Somc livcstock kccp on
ovcigiazing on tlcsc spccics also. Lltimatcly tlc nutiitious, juicy foddci
giving spccics likc Ccnchrus, Dtchanthtum, Fantcum and Hctcrcpcgcn ctc.
aic icplaccd by unpalatablc and somctimcs tloiny plants likc
Farthcntum, Lantana, Xanthtum ctc. Tlcsc spccics do not lavc a good
capacity of binding tlc soil paiticlcs and, tlcicfoic, tlc soil bccomcs
moic pionc to soil ciosion.
As a icsult of ovcigiazing vast aicas in Aiunaclal Piadcsl and
Mcglalaya aic gctting invadcd by tloiny buslcs, vccds ctc. of lov
foddci valuc. Tlus ovcigiazing makcs tlc giazing land losc its
icgcnciating capacity and oncc good quality pastuic land gcts convcitcd
into an ccosystcm vitl pooi quality tloiny vcgctation.
(B) Agriculturc
In tlc caily ycais of luman cxistcncc on tlis caitl, man vas just
a luntci gatlcici and vas quitc likc otlci animal spccics. Somc 1O,OOO
to 12,OOO ycais ago lc took to agiicultuic by cultivating plants of lis
ovn cloicc. Hc uscd tlc piacticc of Slash and burn cultivatinn nr
shifting cultivatinn, vlicl is still picvalcnt in many tiibal aicas, as in
tlc Noitl East Hills of India. Tlc typc of agiicultuic piacticcd tlcsc
days is vciy diffcicnt fiom tlc tiaditional oncs and tlcii outputs in
tcims of yicld as vcll as tlcii impacts on tlc cnviionmcnt slov lots of
diffcicnccs.
1. Traditinnal agriculturc and its impacts: It usually involvcs a
small plot, simplc tools, natuially availablc vatci, oiganic fcitilizci and
a mix of ciops. It is moic ncai to natuial conditions and usually it
icsults in lov pioduction. It is still piacticcd by about lalf tlc global
population.
Tlc main impacts of tlis typc of agiicultuic aic as follovs:
(t) Dcfnrcstatinn: Tlc slasl and buin of ticcs in foicsts to clcai
tlc land foi cultivation and ficqucnt slifting icsult in loss of foicst
covci.
(tt) Snil crnsinn: Clcaiing of foicst covci cxposcs tlc soil to vind,
iain and stoims, tlcicby icsulting in loss of top fcitilc layci of soil.
(ttt) Dcplctinn nf nutricnts: Ouiing slasl and buin tlc oiganic
mattci in tlc soil gcts dcstioycd and most of tlc nutiicnts aic takcn up
by tlc ciops vitlin a sloit pciiod, tlus making tlc soil nutiicnt pooi
vlicl makcs tlc cultivatois slift to anotlci aica.
2. Mndcrn Agriculturc and its impacts: It makcs usc of lybiid
sccds of sclcctcd and singlc ciop vaiicty, ligl-tccl cquipmcnts and lots
of cncigy subsidics in tlc foim of fcitilizcis, pcsticidcs and iiiigation
vatci. Tlc food pioduction las incicascd ticmcndously, cvidcnccd by
"giccn icvolution". Hovcvci, it also gavc iisc to scvcial pioblcmatic
off-sloots as discusscd bclov:
(t) Impacts rclatcd tn high yiclding varictics (HYV): Tlc uscs
of HYVs cncouiagc monocultuic i.c. tlc samc gcnotypc is giovn ovci
vast aicas. In casc of an attack by somc patlogcn, tlcic is total dcvas-
tation of tlc ciop by tlc discasc duc to cxactly unifoim conditions,
vlicl lclp in iapid spicad of tlc discasc.
(tt) Fcrtilizcr rclatcd prnblcms:
(a) Micrnnutricnt imbalancc: Most of tlc clcmical fcitilizcis
uscd in modcin agiicultuic lavc nitiogcn, plosploius and
potassium (N, P, K) vlicl aic csscntial macionutiicnts. Iaim-
cis usually usc tlcsc fcitilizcis indisciiminatcly to boost up
ciop giovtl. Exccssivc usc of fcitilizcis causc mtcrcnutrtcnt
tmhalancc. Ioi cxamplc, cxccssivc fcitilizci usc in Punjab and
Haiyana las causcd dcficicncy of tlc micionutiicnt zinc in
tlc soils, vlicl is affccting pioductivity of tlc soil.
(h) Nitratc Pnllutinn: Nitiogcnous fcitilizcis applicd in tlc ficlds
oftcn lcacl dccp into tlc soil and ultimatcly contaminatc tlc
giound vatci. Tlc nitiatcs gct conccntiatcd in tlc vatci and
vlcn tlcii conccntiation cxcccds 25 mg/L, tlcy bccomc tlc
causc of a sciious lcaltl lazaid callcd "Bluc Baby
Syndrnmc" oi mctlacmoglobincmia. Tlis discasc affccts tlc
infants to tlc maximum cxtcnt causing cvcn dcatl. In
Ocnmaik, England, Iiancc, Ccimany and Nctlcilands tlis
pioblcm is quitc picvalcnt. In India also, pioblcm of nitiatc
pollution cxists in many aicas.
(c) Eutrnphicatinn: Exccssivc usc of N and P fcitilizcis in tlc
agiicultuial ficlds lcads to anotlci pioblcm, vlicl is not
iclatcd to tlc soil, but iclatcs to vatci bodics likc lakcs. A
laigc piopoition of nitiogcn and plosploius uscd in ciop ficlds
is vaslcd off and along vitl iunoff vatci icacl tlc vatci
bodics causing ovci nouiislmcnt of tlc lakcs, a pioccss knovn
as Eutrnphicatinn (cu=moic, tioplic=nutiition). Ouc to
cutioplication tlc lakcs gct invadcd by algal blooms. Tlcsc
algal spccics giov vciy fast by iapidly using up tlc nutiicnts.
Tlcy aic oftcn toxic and badly affcct tlc food clain. Tlc algal
spccics quickly complctc tlcii lifc cyclc and dic tlcicby adding
a lot of dcad oiganic mattci. Tlc fislcs aic also killcd and
tlcic is a lot of dcad mattci tlat staits gctting dccomposcd.
Oxygcn is consumcd in tlc pioccss of dccomposition and vciy
soon tlc vatci gcts dcplctcd of dissolvcd oxygcn. Tlis fuitlci
affccts aquatic fauna and ultimatcly anaciobic conditions aic
cicatcd vlcic only patlogcnic anaciobic bactciia can suivivc.
Tlus, duc to cxccssivc usc of fcitilizcis in tlc agiicultuial ficlds
tlc lakc ccosystcm gcts dcgiadcd. Tlis slovs lov an
unmindful action can lavc fai icacling impacts.
(ttt) Pcsticidc rclatcd prnblcms: Tlousands of typcs of pcsticidcs
aic uscd in agiicultuic. Tlc fiist gcnciation pcsticidcs includc clcmicals
likc sulplui, aiscnic, lcad oi mcicuiy to kill tlc pcsts. OOT
(Oiclloiodiplcnyl tiiclloioctlanc) vlosc insccticidal piopcitics vcic
discovcicd by Paul Mucllci in 1939 bclongs to tlc sccond gcnciation
pcsticidcs. Aftci 194O, a laigc numbci of syntlctic pcsticidcs camc into
usc. Altlougl tlcsc pcsticidcs lavc gonc a long vay in piotccting oui
ciops fiom lugc losscs occuiiing duc to pcsts, yct tlcy lavc a numbci
of sidc-cffccts, as discusscd bclov:
(a) Crcating rcsistancc in pcsts and prnducing ncw pcsts: Somc
individuals of tlc pcst spccics usually suivivc cvcn aftci
pcsticidc spiay. Tlc suivivois givc iisc to liglly icsistant
gcnciations. About 2O spccics of pcsts aic nov knovn vlicl
lavc bccomc immunc to all typcs of pcsticidcs and aic knovn
as "Supcr pcsts".
(h) Dcath nf nnn-targct nrganisms: Many insccticidcs aic bioad
spcctium poisons vlicl not only kill tlc taigct spccics but
also scvcial non-taigct spccics tlat aic uscful to us.
(c) Binlngical magnificatinn: Many of tlc pcsticidcs aic non-
biodcgiadablc and kccp on accumulating in tlc food clain, a
pioccss callcd biological magnification. Sincc luman bcings
occupy a ligl tioplic lcvcl in tlc food clain, lcncc tlcy gct
tlc pcsticidcs in a bio-magnificd foim vlicl is vciy laimful.
(tv) Watcr Lngging: Ovci iiiigation of cioplands by faimcis foi
good giovtl of tlcii ciop usually lcads to vatcilogging. Inadcquatc
diainagc causcs cxccss vatci to accumulatc undcigiound and giadually
foims a continuous column vitl tlc vatci tablc. Lndci vatci-loggcd
conditions, poic-spaccs in tlc soil gct fully dicnclcd vitl vatci and
tlc soil-aii gcts dcplctcd. Tlc vatci tablc iiscs vlilc tlc ioots of plants
do not gct adcquatc aii foi icspiiation. Mcclanical sticngtl of tlc soil
dcclincs, tlc ciop plants gct lodgcd and ciop yicld falls.
In Punjab and Haiyana, cxtcnsivc aicas lavc bccomc vatci-loggcd
vlcic adcquatc canal vatci supply oi tubc-vcll vatci cncouiagcd tlc
faimcis to usc it ovci- cntlusiastically lcading to vatci-logging pioblcm.
Picvcnting cxccssivc iiiigation, sub-suifacc diainagc tcclnology
and bio-diainagc vitl ticcs likc Eucalyptus aic somc of tlc icmcdial
mcasuics to picvcnt vatci-logging.
(v) Salinity prnblcm: At picscnt onc tliid of tlc total cultivablc
land aica of tlc voild is affcctcd by salts. In India about scvcn million
lcctaics of land aic cstimatcd to bc saltaffcctcd vlicl may bc salinc
oi sodic. Salinc soils aic claiactciizcd by tlc accumulation of solublc
salts likc sodium clloiidc, sodium sulplatc, calcium clloiidc,
magncsium clloiidc ctc. in tlc soil piofilc. Tlcii clcctiical conductivity
is moic tlan 4 dS/m. Sodic soils lavc caibonatcs and bicaibonatcs of
sodium, tlc pH usually cxcccds 8.O and tlc cxclangcablc sodium
pciccntagc (ESP) is moic tlan 15%.
Causcs: A Majoi causc of salinization of soil is cxccssivc iiiigation.
About 2O% of tlc voild's cioplands icccivc iiiigation vitl canal vatci
oi giound vatci vlicl unlikc iainvatci oftcn contains dissolvcd salts.
Lndci diy climatcs, tlc vatci cvapoiatcs lcaving bclind salts in tlc
uppci soil piofilc (Iig. 2.4.1)
Tlousands of lcctaics of land aica in Haiyana and Punjab aic
affcctcd by soil salinity and alkalinity. Salinity causcs stuntcd plant
giovtl and lovcis ciop yicld. Most of tlc ciops cannot tolciatc ligl
salinity.
Water logging
Evaporation and transpiration
Salt
crust
Upper soil profile
containing salts
Salinization
Addition of salts with saline
irrigation water
Evapo-transpiration leaves
behind salts
Salt-build up occurs in upper
soil profile
Rain water and irrigation
water percolate down
Water table rises
Waterlogging
Less permeable
clay layer
Percolation
of saline
irrigation
water
Fig. 2.4.1. Salinization and water logging.
Rcmcdy: Tlc most common mctlod foi gctting iid of salts is to
flusl tlcm out by applying moic good quality vatci to sucl soils.
Anotlci mctlod is laying undcigiound nctvoik of pcifoiatcd diainagc
pipcs foi flusling out tlc salts slovly. Tlis sub-suifacc diainagc systcm
las bccn tiicd in tlc cxpciimcntal station of CSSRI at Sampla, Haiyana.
Tlc Ccntial Soil Salinity Rcscaicl Institutc (CSSRI) locatcd in Kainal,
Haiyana las to its aclicvcmcnt tlc succcss stoiy of convciting Zartfa
Vtran villagc to Zartfa Ahad i.c. 'frcm thc harrcn land tc prcducttvc land'
tliougl its icscaicl applications.
CASE STUDIES
Salinity and watcr lngging in Pun|ab, Haryana and Ra|asthan :
Tlc fiist alaiming icpoit of salt-affcctcd vastcland foimation in
conncction vitl iiiigation piacticcs camc fiom Haiyana (tlcn
Punjab) in 1858. It vas icpoitcd tlat scvcial villagcs in Panipat,
Roltak and Oclli lying in command aica of Wcstcin Yamuna
Canal vcic suffciing fiom dcstiuctivc salinc cffloicsccncc. Tlc
"Rcl Committcc" in 1886 dicv tlc attcntion of tlc govcinmcnt
on somc vital points sloving a closc iclationslip bctvccn
iiiigation, diainagc and spicad of "icl" and "usai" soils.
(Ccntd.)
Tlc floods of 1947, 195O, 1952, 1954-56 in Punjab icsultcd in
aggiavatcd vatci logging vitl sciious diainagc pioblcms.
Intioduction of canal iiiigation in 1.2 m la in Haiyana icsultcd
in iisc in vatci-tablc follovcd by vatci-logging and salinity in
many iiiigatcd aicas causing lugc cconomic losscs as a icsult of
fall in ciop pioductivity. Rajastlan too las suffcicd badly in tlis
icgaid folloving tlc biggcst iiiigation piojcct "Indiia Candli
Canal Piojcct" and tlc suffciings of a big aica in Wcstcin
Rajastlan lavc clangcd fiom a condition of "vatci-staivcd
vastcland" to tlat of a "vatci soakcd vastcland".
2.5. ENERGY RESOURCES
Encigy consumption of a nation is usually considcicd as an indcx of
its dcvclopmcnt. Tlis is bccausc almost all tlc dcvclopmcntal activitics
aic diicctly oi indiicctly dcpcndcnt upon cncigy. Wc find vidc
dispaiitics in pci capita cncigy usc bctvccn tlc dcvclopcd and tlc
dcvcloping nations.
Tlc fiist foim of cncigy tcclnology piobably vas tlc fiic, vlicl
pioduccd lcat and tlc caily man uscd it foi cooking and lcating
puiposcs. Wind and lydiopovci lavc also bccn in usc foi tlc last 1O,OOO
ycais. Tlc invcntion of stcam cngincs icplaccd tlc buining of vood by
coal and coal vas latci icplaccd to a gicat cxtcnt by oil. In 197O's duc
to Iianian icvolution and Aiab oil cmbaigo tlc piiccs of oil slootcd
up. Tlis ultimatcly lcd to cxploiation and usc of scvcial altcinatc souiccs
of cncigy.
GROWING ENERGY NEEDS
Ocvclopmcnt in diffcicnt scctois iclics laigcly upon cncigy. Agiicultuic,
industiy, mining, tianspoitation, liglting, cooling and lcating in
buildings all nccd cncigy. Witl tlc dcmands of gioving population
tlc voild is facing fuitlci cncigy dcficit. Tlc fossil fucls likc coal, oil
and natuial gas vlicl at picscnt aic supplying 95% of tlc commcicial
cncigy of tlc voild icsouiccs and aic not going to last foi many moic
ycais. Oui lifc stylc is clanging vciy fast and fiom a simplc vay of lifc
vc aic slifting to a luxuiious lifc stylc. If you just look at tlc numbci of
clcctiic gadgcts in youi lomcs and tlc numbci of piivatc cais and
scootcis in youi locality you vill icalizc tlat in tlc last fcv ycais tlcy
lavc multiplicd many folds and all of tlcm consumc cncigy.
Ocvclopcd countiics likc L.S.A. and Canada constitutc about 5%
of tlc voild's population but consumc onc fouitl of global cncigy
icsouiccs. An avciagc pcison tlcic consumcs 3OO C1 (Ciga 1oulcs,
cqual to 6O baiicls of oils) pci ycai. By contiast, an avciagc man in a
pooi countiy likc Blutan, Ncpal oi Etliopia consumcs lcss tlan 1 C1
in a ycai. So a pcison in a iicl countiy consumcs almost as mucl cncigy
in a singlc day as onc pcison docs in a vlolc ycai in a pooi countiy.
Tlis clcaily slovs tlat oui lifc-stylc and standaid of living aic closcly
iclatcd to cncigy nccds. Iig. 2.5.1 slovs tlc stiong coiiclation bctvccn
pci capita cncigy usc and CNP (Cioss National pioduct). L.S.A.,
Noivay, Svitzciland ctc. vitl ligl CNP slov ligl cncigy usc vlilc
India, Clina ctc lavc lov CNP and lov cncigy usc. Baliain and Quatai
aic oil iicl statcs (LAE) and lcncc tlcii cncigy consumption and CNP
aic moic, altlougl tlcii dcvclopmcnt is not tlat ligl.
600
450
300
50
150
0
USA
Sweden
Germany
Denmark
Japan
Switzerland
UK
Argentina
Greece
China
Egypt
India
Ethiopia
10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
Gross National Product (GNP)
$ per capita
Russia
Canada
Kuwait
UAE
E
n
e
r
g
y

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

i
n

G
J

p
e
r

c
a
p
i
t
a
Norway
Fig. 2.5.1. Per capita energy use and GNP
(Data from World Resources Institute, 1997)
RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
A souicc of cncigy is onc tlat can piovidc adcquatc amount of cncigy
in a usablc foim ovci a long pciiod of timc. Tlcsc souiccs can bc of
tvo typcs:
(1) Rcncwablc Rcsnurccs which can bc gcncratcd cnntinunusly
in naturc and arc incxhaustiblc c.g. vood, solai cncigy, vind
cncigy, tidal cncigy, lydiopovci, biomass cncigy, bio-fucls,
gco-tlcimal cncigy and lydiogcn. Tlcy aic also knovn as
non-convcntional souiccs of cncigy and tlcy can bc uscd again
and again in an cndlcss mannci.
(2) Nnn-rcncwablc Rcsnurccs which havc accumulatcd in
naturc nvcr a lnng span nf timc and cannnt bc quickly
rcplcnishcd whcn cxhaustcd c.g. coal, pctiolcum, natuial gas
and nuclcai fucls likc uianium and tloiium.
Wood is a icncvablc icsouicc as vc can gct ncv vood by gioving
a sapling into a ticc vitlin 15-2O ycais but it las takcn millions of
ycais foi tlc foimation of coal fiom ticcs and cannot bc icgcnciatcd in
oui lifc timc, lcncc coal is not icncvablc. Wc vill nov discuss vaiious
foims of icncvablc and non-icncvablc cncigy icsouicc.
(a) Rcncwablc Encrgy Rcsnurccs
Snlar cncrgy: Sun is tlc ultimatc souicc of cncigy, diicctly oi
indiicctly foi all otlci foims of cncigy. Tlc nuclcai fusion icactions
occuiiing insidc tlc sun iclcasc cnoimous quantitics of cncigy in tlc
foim of lcat and liglt. Tlc solai cncigy icccivcd by tlc ncai caitl
spacc is appioximatcly 1.4 kilojoulcs/sccond/m
2
knovn as solai con-
stant.
Tiaditionally, vc lavc bccn using solai cncigy foi diying clotlcs
and food-giains, picscivation of catablcs and foi obtaining salt fiom
sca-vatci. Nov vc lavc scvcial tcclniqucs foi laincssing solai cn-
cigy. Somc impoitant solai cncigy laivcsting dcviccs aic discusscd
lcic.
(t) Snlar hcat cnllcctnrs: Tlcsc can bc passivc oi activc in natuic.
Passivc solai lcat collcctois aic natuial matciials likc stoncs, biicks
ctc. oi matciial likc glass vlicl absoib lcat duiing tlc day timc and
iclcasc it slovly at niglt. Activc solai collcctois pump a lcat absoibing
mcdium (aii oi vatci) tliougl a small collcctoi vlicl is noimally
placcd on tlc top of tlc building.
(tt) Snlar cclls: Tlcy aic also knovn as plotovoltaic cclls oi PV
cclls. Solai cclls aic madc of tlin vafcis of scmi conductoi matciials
likc silicon and gallium. Wlcn solai iadiations fall on tlcm, a potcntial
diffcicncc is pioduccd vlicl causcs flov of clcctions and pioduccs
clcctiicity. Silicon can bc obtaincd fiom silica oi sand, vlicl is
abundantly availablc and incxpcnsivc. By using gallium aiscnidc,
cadmium sulplidc oi boion, cfficicncy of tlc PV cclls can bc impiovcd.
Tlc potcntial diffcicncc pioduccd by a singlc PV ccll of 4 cm
2
sizc is
about O.4-O.5 volts and pioduccs a cuiicnt of 6O milli ampcics.
Iig. 2.5.2 (a) slovs tlc stiuctuic of a solai ccll.
DC electricity
Electric
bulb
Boron enriched
silicon
Phosphorus
enriched
silicon
Junction
Solar cell (PV cell)
Solar
radiations
Fig. 2.5.2. (a) Solar cell.
Water pump
Electric
motor Battery
Solar cell
Solar
radiations
Solar cell
panel
Fig. 2.5.2. (b) A solar pump run by electricity produced by solar cells.
A gioup of solai cclls joincd togctlci in a dcfinitc pattcin foim a
solai pancl vlicl can laincss a laigc amount of solai cncigy and can
pioducc clcctiicity cnougl to iun sticct-liglt, iiiigation vatci pump
ctc. (Iig. 2.5.2).
Solai cclls aic vidcly uscd in calculatois, clcctionic vatclcs, sticct
liglting, tiaffic signals, vatci pumps ctc. Tlcy aic also uscd in aitifi-
cial satcllitcs foi clcctiicity gcnciation. Solai cclls aic uscd foi iunning
iadio and tclcvision also. Tlcy aic moic in usc in icmotc aicas vlcic
convcntional clcctiicity supply is a pioblcm.
(ttt) Snlar cnnkcr: Solai cookcis makc usc of solai lcat by
icflccting tlc solai iadiations using a miiioi diicctly on to a glass slcct
Solar
radiations
Plane mirror
(reflector)
Inside
blackened
metallic box
Blackened
metallic container
for cooking food
Glass
cover
Fig. 2.5.3. Simple box-type solar cooker.
vlicl covcis tlc black insulatcd box vitlin vlicl tlc iav food is kcpt
as slovn in Iig. 2.5.3. A ncv dcsign of solai cookci is nov availablc
vlicl involvcs a splciical icflcctoi (concavc oi paiabolic icflcctoi)
instcad of planc miiioi tlat las moic lcating cffcct and lcncc gicatci
cfficicncy.
Tlc food cookcd in solai cookcis is moic nutiitious duc to slov
lcating. Hovcvci it las tlc limitation tlat it cannot bc uscd at niglt oi
on cloudy days. Moicovci, tlc diicction of tlc cookci las to bc adjustcd
accoiding to tlc diicction of tlc sun iays.
(tv) Snlar watcr hcatcr: It consists of an insulatcd box paintcd black
fiom insidc and laving a glass lid to icccivc and stoic solai lcat. Insidc
tlc box it las black paintcd coppci coil tliougl vlicl cold vatci is
madc to flov in, vlicl gcts lcatcd and flovs out into a stoiagc tank.
Tlc lot vatci fiom tlc stoiagc tank fittcd on ioof top is tlcn supplicd
tliougl pipcs into buildings likc lotcls and lospitals.
(v) Snlar furnacc: Hcic tlousands of small planc miiiois aic ai-
iangcd in concavc icflcctois, all of vlicl collcct tlc solai lcat and
pioducc as ligl a tcmpciatuic as 3OOOC.
(vt) Snlar pnwcr plant: Solai cncigy is laincsscd on a laigc scalc
by using concavc icflcctois vlicl causc boiling of vatci to pioducc
stcam. Tlc stcam tuibinc diivcs a gcnciatoi to pioducc clcctiicity. A
solai povci plant (5O K Watt capacity) las bccn installcd at Cuigaon,
Haiyana.
WIND ENERGY
Tlc ligl spccd vinds lavc a lot of cncigy in tlcm as kinctic cncigy
duc to tlcii motion. Tlc diiving foicc of tlc vinds is tlc sun. Tlc
vind cncigy is laincsscd by making usc of vind mills. Tlc bladcs of
tlc vind mill kccp on iotating continuously duc to tlc foicc of tlc
stiiking vind. Tlc iotational motion of tlc bladcs diivcs a numbci of
maclincs likc vatci pumps, floui mills and clcctiic gcnciatois. A laigc
numbci of vind mills aic installcd in clustcis callcd wind farms, vlicl
fccd povci to tlc utility giid and pioducc a laigc amount of clcctiicity.
Tlcsc faims aic idcally locatcd in coastal icgions, opcn giasslands oi
lilly icgions, paiticulaily mountain passcs and iidgcs vlcic tlc vinds
aic stiong and stcady. Tlc minimum vind spccd icquiicd foi
satisfactoiy voiking of a vind gcnciatoi is 15 km/hr.
Thc wind pnwcr pntcntial nf nur cnuntry is cstimatcd tn bc
abnut 20,000 MW, whilc at prcscnt wc arc gcncrating abnut 1020
MW. Tlc laigcst vind faim of oui countiy is ncai Kanyakumaii in
Tamil Nadu gcnciating 38O MW clcctiicity.
Wind cncigy is vciy uscful as it docs not causc any aii pollution.
Aftci tlc initial installation cost, tlc vind cncigy is vciy clcap. It is
bclicvcd tlat by tlc middlc of tlc ccntuiy vind povci vould supply
moic tlan 1O% of voild's clcctiicity.
HYDROPOWER
Tlc vatci floving in a iivci is collcctcd by constiucting a big dam
vlcic tlc vatci is stoicd and allovcd to fall fiom a lciglt. Tlc bladcs
of tlc tuibinc locatcd at tlc bottom of tlc dam movc vitl tlc fast
moving vatci vlicl in tuin iotatc tlc gcnciatoi and pioduccs
clcctiicity. Wc can also constiuct mini oi micio lydcl povci plants on
tlc iivcis in lilly icgions foi laincssing tlc lydio cncigy on a small
scalc, but tlc minimum lciglt of tlc vatci falls slould bc 1O mctics.
Thc hydrnpnwcr pntcntial nf India is cstimatcd tn bc abnut 4 10
11
KW-hnurs. Till nov vc lavc utilizcd only a littlc moic tlan 11% of
tlis potcntial.
Hydiopovci docs not causc any pollution, it is icncvablc and
noimally tlc lydio povci piojccts aic multi-puiposc piojccts lclping
in contiolling floods, uscd foi iiiigation, navigation ctc. Hovcvci, big
dams aic oftcn associatcd vitl a numbci of cnviionmcntal impacts
vlicl lavc alicady bccn discusscd in tlc picvious scction.
TIDAL ENERGY
Occan tidcs pioduccd by giavitational foiccs of sun and moon contain
cnoimous amounts of cncigy. Tlc 'high tidc' and 'lnw tidc' icfci to
tlc iisc and fall of vatci in tlc occans. A diffcicncc of scvcial mctcis is
icquiicd bctvccn tlc lciglt of ligl and lov tidc to spin tlc tuibincs.
Tlc tidal cncigy can bc laincsscd by constiucting a tidal baiiagc.
Ouiing ligl tidc, tlc sca-vatci flovs into tlc icscivoii of tlc baiiagc
and tuins tlc tuibinc, vlicl in tuin pioduccs clcctiicity by iotating
tlc gcnciatois. Ouiing lov tidc, vlcn tlc sca-lcvcl is lov, tlc sca vatci
stoicd in tlc baiiagc icscivoii flovs out into tlc sca and again tuins
tlc tuibincs. (Iig. 2.5.4)
Tlcic aic only a fcv sitcs in tlc voild vlcic tidal cncigy can bc
suitably laincsscd. Tlc bay of Iundy Canada laving 17-18 m ligl
tidcs las a potcntial of 5,OOO MW of povci gcnciation. Tlc tidal mill
at La Rancc, Iiancc is onc of tlc fiist modcin tidal povci mill. In
India Culf of Cambay, Culf of Kutcl and tlc Sundci bans dcltas aic
tlc tidal povci sitcs.
Sea (High tide)
Tidal barrage
Reservoir
(a)
Water stored
at high tide
in reservoir
Turbine
Sea
Low
tide
(b)
Fig. 2.5.4. Water flows into the reservoir to turn the turbine
at high tide (a), and flows out from the reservoir to the
sea, again turning the turbine at low tide (b).
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY (OTE)
Tlc cncigy availablc duc to tlc diffcicncc in tcmpciatuic of vatci at
tlc suifacc of tlc tiopical occans and at dccpci lcvcls is callcd Occan
Tlcimal Encigy. A diffcicncc of 2OC oi moic is icquiicd bctvccn
suifacc vatci and dccpci vatci of occan foi opciating OTEC (Occan
Tlcimal Encigy Convcision) povci plants. Tlc vaim suifacc vatci
of occan is uscd to boil a liquid likc ammonia. Tlc ligl picssuic vapouis
of tlc liquid foimcd by boiling aic tlcn uscd to tuin tlc tuibinc of a
gcnciatoi and pioducc clcctiicity. Tlc coldci vatci fiom tlc dccpci
occans is pumpcd to cool and condcnsc tlc vapouis into liquid. Tlus
tlc pioccss kccps on going continuously foi 24 louis a day.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Tlc cncigy laincsscd fiom tlc lot iocks picscnt insidc tlc caitl is
callcd gcotlcimal cncigy. Higl tcmpciatuic, ligl picssuic stcam ficlds
cxist bclov tlc caitl's suifacc in many placcs. Tlis lcat comcs fiom
tlc fission of iadioactivc matciial natuially picscnt in tlc iocks. In
somc placcs, tlc stcam oi tlc lot vatci comcs out of tlc giound
natuially tliougl ciacks in tlc foim of natural gcyscrs as in Manikaian,
Kullu and Solana, Haiyana. Somctimcs tlc stcam oi boiling vatci
undcincatl tlc caitl do not find any placc to comc out. Wc can
aitificially diill a lolc up to tlc lot iocks and by putting a pipc in it
makc tlc stcam oi lot vatci gusl out tliougl tlc pipc at ligl picssuic
vlicl tuins tlc tuibinc of a gcnciatoi to pioducc clcctiicty. In LSA
and Ncv Zcaland, tlcic aic scvcial gcotlcimal plants voiking
succcssfully.
BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass is tlc oiganic mattci pioduccd by tlc plants oi animals vlicl
includc vood, ciop icsiducs, cattlc dung, manuic, scvagc, agiicultuial
vastcs ctc. Biomass cncigy is of tlc folloving typcs :
(a) Encrgy Plantatinns: Solai cncigy is tiappcd by giccn plants
tliougl plotosyntlcsis and convcitcd into biomass cncigy. Iast giov-
ing ticcs likc cottonvood, poplai and Lcucacna, non-voody lcibaccous
giasscs, ciop plants likc sugaicanc, svcct soiglum and sugai bcct,
aquatic vccds likc vatci lyacintl and sca-vccds and caibolydiatc iicl
potato, ccical ctc. aic somc of tlc impoitant cncigy plantations. Tlcy
may pioducc cncigy citlci by buining diicctly oi by gctting convcitcd
into buinablc gas oi may bc convcitcd into fucls by fcimcntation.
(h) Pctrn-crnps: Ccitain latcx-containing plants likc Euphcrhtas
and oil palms aic iicl in lydiocaibons and can yicld an oil likc sub-
stancc undci ligl tcmpciatuic and picssuic. Tlis oily matciial may bc
buincd in dicscl cngincs diicctly oi may bc icfincd to foim gasolinc.
Tlcsc plants aic populaily knovn as pctio-ciops.
(c) Agricultural and Urban Wastc binmass: Ciop icsiducs,
bagassc (sugaicanc icsiducs), coconut slclls, pcanut lulls, cotton stalks
ctc. aic somc of tlc common agiicultuial vastcs vlicl pioducc cncigy
by buining. Animal dung, fislciy and poultiy vastc and cvcn luman
icfusc aic cxamplcs of biomass cncigy. In Biazil 3O % of clcctiicity is
obtaincd fiom buining bagassc. In iuial India, animal dung cakcs aic
buint to pioducc lcat. About 8O % of iuial lcat cncigy icquiicmcnts
aic mct by buining agiicultuial vastcs, vood and animal dung cakcs.
In iuial aicas tlcsc foims of vastc biomass aic buincd in opcn
fuinaccs callcd 'Chulhas' vlicl usually pioducc smokc and aic not
so cfficicnt (cfficicncy is <8 %). Nov impiovcd Clullas vitl tall
climncy lavc bccn dcsigncd vlicl lavc ligl cfficicncy and aic
smokclcss.
Tlc buining of plant icsiducs oi animal vastcs causc aii pollution
and pioducc a lot of asl as vastc icsiduc. Tlc buining of dung dcstioys
csscntial nutiicnts likc N and P. It is tlcicfoic, moic uscful to convcit
tlc biomass into biogas oi bio fucls.
BIOGAS
Biogas is a mixtuic of mctlanc, caibon dioxidc, lydiogcn and lydiogcn
sulplidc, tlc majoi constitucnt bcing mctlanc. Biogas is pioduccd by
anaciobic dcgiadation of animal vastcs (somctimcs plant vastcs) in
tlc picscncc of vatci. Anaciobic dcgiadation mcans bicak dovn of
oiganic mattci by bactciia in tlc abscncc of oxygcn.
Biogas is a non-polluting, clcan and lov cost fucl vlicl is vciy
uscful foi iuial aicas vlcic a lot of animal vastc and agiicultuial vastc
aic availablc. India las tlc laigcst cattlc population in tlc voild (24O
million) and las ticmcndous potcntial foi biogas pioduction. Iiom
cattlc dung alonc, vc can pioducc biogas of a magnitudc of 22,5OO
Mm
3
annually. A sixty cubic fcct gobai gas plant can scivc tlc nccds of
onc avciagc family.
Biogas las tlc folloving main advantagcs : It is clcan, non-
polluting and clcap. Tlcic is diicct supply of gas fiom tlc plant and
tlcic is no stoiagc pioblcm. Tlc sludgc lcft ovci is a iicl fcitilizci
containing bactciial biomass vitl most of tlc nutiicnts picscivcd as
sucl. Aii-tiglt digcstion/dcgiadation of tlc animal vastcs is safc as it
climinatcs lcaltl lazaids vlicl noimally occui in casc of diicct usc of
dung duc to diicct cxposuic to faccal patlogcns and paiasitcs.
Biogas plants uscd in oui countiy aic basically of tvo typcs:
1. Iloating gas-loldci typc and 2. Iixcd-domc typc.
1. Flnating gas hnldcr typc bingas plant: Tlis typc las a vcll-
slapcd digcstci tank vlicl is placcd undci tlc giound and madc up of
biicks. In tlc digcstci tank, ovci tlc dung sluiiy an invcitcd stccl dium
floats to lold tlc bio-gas pioduccd. Tlc gas loldci can movc vlicl is
contiollcd by a pipc and tlc gas outlct is icgulatcd by a valvc. Tlc
digcstci tank las a paitition vall and onc sidc of it icccivcs tlc dung-
vatci mixtuic tliougl inlct pipc vlilc tlc otlci sidc disclaigcs tlc
spcnt sluiiy tliougl outlct pipc. (Iig 2.5.5)
Floating
biogas holder
Biogas
supply outlet
Overflow
tank
Ground
level
Outlet
pipe
Underground
digester tank
Inlet
pipe
Slurry
(Cattle dung + water)
Mixing
tank
Spent
slurry
Fig. 2.5.5. Floating gas holder type biogas plant.
Somctimcs coiiosion of stccl gas-loldci lcads to lcakagc of
biogas. Tlc tank las to bc paintcd timc and again foi maintcnancc
vlicl incicascs tlc cost. Hcncc anotlci typc vas dcsigncd as
discusscd bclov :
2. Fixcd dnmc typc bingas plant: Tlc stiuctuic is almost similai
to tlat of tlc picvious typc. Hovcvci, instcad of a stccl gas-loldci tlcic
is domc slapcd ioof madc of ccmcnt and biicks. Instcad of paitition-
ing, lcic tlcic is a singlc unit in tlc main digcstci but it las inlct and
outlct clambcis as slovn in Iig 2.5.6.
Inlet
chamber
Slurry
Biogas supply
outlet
Biogas
Overflow tank
Fixed
dome
Slab cover
Mixing
tank
Ground level
Spent
slurry
Outlet
chamber
Underground
digester tank
Fig. 2.5.6. Fixed dome type Biogas plant.
Tlc Ministiy of Non-Convcntional Encigy Souiccs (MNES) las
bccn piomoting tlc Biogas Piogiammc in India. Out of tlc vaiious
modcls, tlc impoitant oncs uscd in iuial sct-up aic KVIC Modcl
(Iloating dium typc), 1anta Modcl (Iixcd domc typc), Occnbandlu
Modcl (Iixcd domc typc), Piagati Modcl (floating dium typc), Cancsl
Modcl (KVIC typc but madc of bamboo and polytlcnc slcct) and
Iciio-ccmcnt digcstci Modcl (KVIC typc vitl fciio-ccmcnt digcstci).
BIOFUELS
Biomass can bc fcimcntcd to alcolols likc ctlanol and mctlanol vlicl
can bc uscd as fucls. Etlanol can bc casily pioduccd fiom caibolydiatc
iicl substanccs likc sugaicanc. It buins clcan and is non-polluting.
Hovcvci, as compaicd to pctiol its caloiific valuc is lcss and tlcicfoic,
pioduccs mucl lcss lcat tlan pctiol.
Casnhnl is a common fucl uscd in Biazil and Zimbabvc foi
iunning cais and buscs. In India too gasolol is planncd to bc uscd on
tiial basis in somc paits of tlc countiy, to stait vitl in Kanpui. Casolol
is a mixtuic of ctlanol and gasolinc.
Mcthannl is vciy uscful sincc it buins at a lovci tcmpciatuic tlan
gasolinc oi dicscl. Tlus tlc bulky iadiatoi may bc substitutcd by slcck
dcsigns in oui cais. Mctlanol too is a clcan, non-polluting fucl.
Mctlanol can bc casily obtaincd fiom voody plants and ctlanol
fiom giain-bascd oi sugai-containing plants.
HYDROGEN AS A FUEL
As lydiogcn buins in aii, it combincs vitl oxygcn to foim vatci and a
laigc amount of cncigy (15O kilojoulcs pci giam) is iclcascd. Ouc to its
ligl, iatlci tlc liglcst caloiific valuc, lydiogcn can scivc as an cxccl-
lcnt fucl. Moicovci, it is non-polluting and can bc casily pioduccd.
Pioduction of Hydiogcn is possiblc by tlcimal dissociation, plotoly-
sis oi clcctiolysis of vatci:
(t) By tlcimal dissociation of vatci (at 3OOOK oi abovc)
lydiogcn (H
2
) is pioduccd.
(tt) Tlcimoclcmically, lydiogcn is pioduccd by clcmical icaction
of vatci vitl somc otlci clcmicals in 2-3 cyclcs so tlat vc do not
nccd tlc ligl tcmpciatuics as in diicct tlcimal mctlod and ultimatcly
H
2
is pioduccd.
(ttt) Elcctiolytic mctlod dissociatcs vatci into lydiogcn (H
2
) and
oxygcn by making a cuiicnt flov tliougl it.
(tv) Plotolysis of vatci involvcs bicakdovn of vatci in tlc
picscncc of sun liglt to iclcasc lydiogcn. Ciccn plants also lavc
plotolysis of vatci duiing plotosyntlcsis. Effoits aic undcivay to tiap
lydiogcn molcculc vlicl is pioduccd duiing plotosyntlcsis.
Hovcvci, lydiogcn is liglly inflammablc and cxplosivc in natuic.
Hcncc, safc landling is icquiicd foi using H
2
as a fucl. Also, it is difficult
to stoic and tianspoit. And, bcing vciy liglt, it vould lavc to bc stoicd
in bulk.
Picscntly, H
2
is uscd in tlc foim of liquid lydiogcn as a fucl in
spaccslips.
(h) Nnn-Rcncwablc Encrgy Snurccs
Tlcsc aic tlc fossil fucls likc coal, pctiolcum, natuial gas and nuclcai
fucls. Tlcsc vcic foimcd by tlc dccomposition of tlc icmains of plants
and animals buiicd undci tlc caitl millions of ycais ago. Tlc fucls aic
vciy piccious bccausc tlcy lavc takcn sucl a long timc to bc foimcd
and if vc cxlaust tlcii icscivcs at sucl a fast iatc as vc lavc bccn
doing, cvci sincc vc discovcicd tlcm, tlcn vciy soon vc vill losc tlcsc
icsouiccs foicvci.
COAL
Coal vas foimcd 255-35O million ycais ago in tlc lot, damp
icgions of tlc caitl duiing tlc caibonifcious agc. Tlc ancicnt plants
along tlc banks of iivcis and svamps vcic buiicd aftci dcatl into tlc
soil and duc to tlc lcat and picssuic giadually got convcitcd into pcat
and coal ovci millions of ycais of timc. Tlcic aic mainly tlicc typcs of
coal, namcly anthracIte (laid coal), bItumInous (Soft coal) and IIgnIte
(biovn coal). Antliacitc coal las maximum caibon (9O%) and caloiific
valuc (87OO kcal/kg.) Bituminous, lignitc and pcat contain 8O, 7O and
6O% caibon, icspcctivcly. Coal is tlc most abundant fossil fucl in tlc
voild. At the present rate of usage, the coaI reserves are IIkeIy to Iast
for about 200 years and If Its use Increases by 2" per year, then It wIII
Iast for another 65 years.
India las about 5% of voild's coal and Indian coal is not vciy
good in tcims of lcat capacity. Majoi coal ficlds in India aic Raniganj,
1laiia, Bokaio, Singiauli, and Codavaii vallcy. Tlc coal statcs of India
aic 1laikland, Oiissa, Wcst Bcngal, Madlya Piadcsl, Andlia Piadcsl
and Malaiasltia. Antliacitc coal occuis only in 1 & K.
Wlcn coal is buint it pioduccs caibon dioxidc, vlicl is a
giccnlousc gas icsponsiblc foi causing cnlanccd global vaiming. Coal
also contains impuiitics likc sulplui and tlcicfoic as it buins tlc smokc
contains toxic gascs likc oxidcs of sulplui and nitiogcn.
PETROLEUM
It is tlc lifclinc of global cconomy. Tlcic aic 13 countiics in tlc
voild laving 67% of tlc pctiolcum icscivcs vlicl togctlci foim tlc
OPEC (Oiganization of Pctiolcum cxpoiting countiics). About 1/4tl
of tlc oil icscivcs aic in Saudi Aiabia.
At tlc picscnt iatc of usagc, tlc voild's ciudc oil icscivcs aic
cstimatcd to gct cxlaustcd in just 4O ycais. Somc optimists, lovcvci,
bclicvc tlat tlcic aic somc yct undiscovcicd icscivcs. Evcn tlcn tlc
ciudc oil icscivcs vill last foi anotlci 4O ycais oi so. Ciudc pctiolcum
is a complcx mixtuic of alkanc lydiocaibons. Hcncc it las to bc puiificd
and icfincd by tlc pioccss of fracttcnal dtsttllattcn, duiing vlicl pioccss
diffcicnt constitucnts scpaiatc out at diffcicnt tcmpciatuics. Wc gct a
laigc vaiicty of pioducts fiom tlis, namcly, pctiolcum gas, kcioscnc,
pctiol, dicscl, fucl oil, lubiicating oil, paiaffin vax, asplalt, plastic ctc.
Pctiolcum is a clcanci fucl as compaicd to coal as it buins
complctcly and lcavcs no icsiduc. It is also casici to tianspoit and usc.
Tlat is tlc icason vly pctiolcum is picfciicd amongst all tlc fossil
fucls.
Liqucficd pctrnlcum gas (LPC): Tlc main componcnt of
pctiolcum is butanc, tlc otlci bcing piopanc and ctlanc. Tlc pctiolcum
gas is casily convcitcd to liquid foim undci picssuic as LPC. It is
odouilcss, but tlc LPC in oui domcstic gas cylindcis givcs a foul smcll.
Tlis is, in fact, duc to ctlyl mcicaptan, a foul smclling gas, addcd to
LPC so tlat any lcakagc of LPC fiom tlc cylindci can bc dctcctcd
instantancously.
Oil ficlds in India aic locatcd at Oigboi (Assam), Cujaiat Plains
and Bombay Higl, offsloic aicas in dcltaic coasts of Cadavaii, Kiislna,
Kavcii and Malanadi.
NATURAL GAS
It is mainly composcd of mctlanc (95%) vitl small amounts of
piopanc and ctlanc. It is a fossil fucl. Natuial gas dcposits mostly
accompany oil dcposits bccausc it las bccn foimcd by dccomposing
icmains of dcad animals and plants buiicd undci tlc caitl. Natural
gas is thc clcancst fnssil fucl. It can bc casily tianspoitcd tliougl
pipclincs. It las a ligl caloiific valuc of about 5OK1/C and buins
vitlout any smokc.
Cuiicntly, tlc amount of natuial gas dcposits in tlc voild aic of
tlc oidci of 8O, 45O g m
3
. Russia las maximum icscivcs (4O%),
follovcd by Iian (14%) and LSA (7%). Natuial gas icscivcs aic found
in association vitl all tlc oil ficlds in India. Somc ncv gas ficlds lavc
bccn found in Tiipuia, 1aisalmci, Off-sloic aica of Mumbai and tlc
Kiislna Codavaii Oclta.
Natuial gas is uscd as a domcstic and industiial fucl. It is uscd as
a fucl in tlcimal povci plants foi gcnciating clcctiicity. It is uscd as a
souicc of lydiogcn gas in fcitilizci industiy and as a souicc of caibon
in tyic industiy.
Cnmprcsscd natural gas (CNC): It is bcing uscd as an altcinativc
to pctiol and dicscl foi tianspoit of vcliclcs. Oclli las totally svitclcd
ovci to CNC vlcic buscs and auto iickslavs iun on tlis ncv fucl.
CNC usc las gicatly icduccd vcliculai pollution in tlc city.
Synthctic natural gas (SNC): It is a mixtuic of caibon monoxidc
and lydiogcn. It is a connccting link bctvccn a fossil fucl and substitutcd
natuial gas. Lov giadc coal is initially tiansfoimcd into syntlctic gas
by gasification follovcd by catalytic convcision to mctlanc.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclcai cncigy is knovn foi its ligl dcstiuctivc povci as
cvidcnccd fiom nuclcai vcapons. Tlc nuclcai cncigy can also bc
laincsscd foi pioviding commcicial cncigy. Nuclcai cncigy can bc
gcnciatcd by tvo typcs of icactions:
(t) Nuclcar Etsstcn: It is tlc nuclcai clangc in vlicl nuclcus of
ccitain isotopcs vitl laigc mass numbcis aic split into ligltci nuclci
on bombaidmcnt by ncutions and a laigc amount of cncigy is iclcascd
tliougl a clain icaction as slovn in Iig. 2.5.7 (a).
Kr
Ba
Ba
Kr
Ba
Kr
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
Ba
Kr
n
n
Energy
U
235
nucleus
Fig. 2.5.7. (a) Nuclear fissiona chain reaction initiated
by one neutron that bombards a Uranium (U
235
) nucleus,
releasing a huge quantity of energy, two smaller nuclei
(Ba, Kr) and 3 neutrons.
92
L
235
-
O
n
1

36
Ki
92
-
56
Ba
141
- 3
O
n
1
- Encigy
Nuclcai Rcactois makc usc of nuclcai clain icaction. In oidci to
contiol tlc iatc of fission, only 1 ncution iclcascd is allovcd to stiikc
foi splitting anotlci nuclcus. Lianium-235 nuclci aic most commonly
uscd in nuclcai icactois.
(tt) Nuclcar fustcn: Hcic tvo isotopcs of a liglt clcmcnt aic foiccd
togctlci at cxticmcly ligl tcmpciatuics (1 billion C) until tlcy fusc to
foim a lcavici nuclcus iclcasing cnoimous cncigy in tlc pioccss. It is
difficult to initiatc tlc pioccss but it iclcascs moic cncigy tlan nuclcai
fission. (Iig. 2.5.7 (h))
+ +
+ +
Energy
+
+
Hydrogen-2
(Deuterium)
Hydrogen-2
(Deuterium)
1 billion C
Helium-3
nucleus
n
Fig. 2.5.7. (b) Nuclear fusion reaction between two
hydrogen-2 nuclei, which take place at a very high
temperature of 1 billion C; one neutron and one fusion
nucleus of helium-3 is formed along with a huge amount
of energy.
1
H
2
-
1
H
2

3
Hc
2
-
O
n
1
- Encigy
Tvo lydiogcn-2 (Ocutciium) atoms may fusc to foim tlc nu-
clcus of Hclium at 1 billion C and iclcasc a lugc amount of cncigy.
Nuclcai fusion icaction can also takc placc bctvccn onc Hydiogcn-2
(Ocutciium) and onc Hydiogcn-3 (Tiitium) nuclcus at 1OO million C
foiming Hclium-4 nuclcus, onc ncution and a lugc amount of cncigy.
Nuclcai cncigy las ticmcndous potcntial but any lcakagc fiom
tlc icactoi may causc dcvastating nuclcai pollution. Oisposal of tlc
nuclcai vastc is also a big pioblcm.
Nuclcai povci in India is still not vciy vcll dcvclopcd. Tlcic aic
foui nuclcai povci stations vitl an installcd capacity of 2OO5 MW.
Tlcsc aic locatcd at Taiapui (Malaiasltia), Rana Piatap Sagai
ncai Kota (Rajastlan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu) and Naioia (L.P.).
2.6. LAND RESOURCES
LAND AS A RESOURCE
Land is a finitc and valuablc icsouicc upon vlicl vc dcpcnd foi oui
food, fibic and fucl vood, tlc basic amcnitics of lifc. Soil, cspccially
tlc top soil, is classificd as a icncvablc icsouicc bccausc it is
continuously icgcnciatcd by natuial pioccss tlougl at a vciy slov iatc.
About 2OO-1OOO ycais aic nccdcd foi tlc foimation of onc incl oi 2.5
cm soil, dcpcnding upon tlc climatc and tlc soil typc. But, vlcn iatc
of ciosion is fastci tlan iatc of icncval, tlcn tlc soil bccomcs a non-
icncvablc icsouicc.
LAND DEGRADATION
Witl incicasing population giovtl tlc dcmands foi aiablc land foi
pioducing food, fibic and fucl vood is also incicasing. Hcncc tlcic is
moic and moic picssuic on tlc limitcd land icsouiccs vlicl aic gctting
dcgiadcd duc to ovci-cxploitation. Soil dcgiadation is a ical causc of
alaim bccausc soil foimation is an cxticmcly slov pioccss as discusscd
abovc and tlc avciagc annual ciosion iatc is 2O-1OO timcs moic tlan
tlc icncval iatc.
Soil ciosion, vatci-logging, salinization and contamination of tlc
soil vitl industiial vastcs likc fly-asl, picss-mud oi lcavy mctals all
causc dcgiadation of land.
SOIL EROSION
Tlc litcial mcaning of 'soil ciosion' is vcaiing avay of soil. Soil cio-
sion is dcfincd as tlc movcmcnt of soil componcnts, cspccially suifacc-
littci and top soil fiom onc placc to anotlci. Soil ciosion icsults in tlc
loss of fcitility bccausc it is tlc top soil layci vlicl is fcitilc. If vc look
at tlc voild situation, vc find tlat onc tliid of tlc voild's ciopland is
gctting ciodcd. Tvo tliids of tlc sciiously dcgiadcd lands lic in Asia
and Afiica.
Soil ciosion is basically of tvo typcs bascd upon tlc causc of
ciosion:
(t) Nnrmal crnsinn nr gcnlngic crnsinn: causcd by tlc giadual
icmoval of top soil by natuial pioccsscs vlicl biing an cquilibiium
bctvccn plysical, biological and lydiological activitics and maintain
a natuial balancc bctvccn ciosion and icncval.
(tt) Accclcratcd crnsinn: Tlis is mainly causcd by antliopogcnic
(man-madc) activitics and tlc iatc of ciosion is mucl fastci tlan tlc
iatc of foimation of soil. Ovcigiazing, dcfoicstation and mining aic
somc impoitant activitics causing accclciatcd ciosion.
Tlcic aic tvo typcs of agcnts vlicl causc soil ciosion:
(t) Climatic agcnts: vatci and vind aic tlc climatic agcnts of
soil ciosion. Watci affccts soil ciosion in tlc foim of toiicntial iains,
iapid flov of vatci along slopcs, iun-off, vavc action and mclting and
movcmcnt of snov.
Watcr induccd snil crnsinn is of tlc folloving typcs:
Sheet erosIon: vlcn tlcic is unifoim icmoval of a tlin layci
of soil fiom a laigc suifacc aica, it is callcd slcct ciosion. Tlis
is usually duc to iun-off vatci.
RIII erosIon: Wlcn tlcic is iainfall and iapidly iunning vatci
pioduccs fingci-slapcd gioovcs oi iills ovci tlc aica, it is callcd
iill ciosion.
GuIIy erosIon: It is a moic piomincnt typc of soil ciosion. Wlcn
tlc iainfall is vciy lcavy, dccpci cavitics oi gullics aic foimcd,
vlicl may bc L oi V slapcd.
SIIp erosIon: Tlis occuis duc to lcavy iainfall on slopcs of
lills and mountains.
Stream bank erosIon: Ouiing tlc iainy scason, vlcn fast iun-
ning sticams takc a tuin in somc otlci diicction, tlcy cut tlc
soil and makc cavcs in tlc banks.
Wind crnsinn is icsponsiblc foi tlc folloving tlicc typcs of
soil movcmcnts:
SaItatIon: Tlis occuis undci tlc influcncc of diicct picssuic
of stoimy vind and tlc soil paiticlcs of 1-1.5 mm diamctci
movc up in vcitical diicction.
SuspensIon: Hcic finc soil paiticlcs (lcss tlan 1 mm dia) vlicl
aic suspcndcd in tlc aii aic kickcd up and takcn avay to
distant placcs.
Surface creep: Hcic laigci paiticlcs (5-1O mm diamctci) ciccp
ovci tlc soil suifacc along vitl vind.
(tt) Bintic agcnts: Exccssivc giazing, mining and dcfoicstation
aic tlc majoi biotic agcnts icsponsiblc foi soil ciosion. Ouc to tlcsc
pioccsscs tlc top soil is distuibcd oi icndcicd dcvoid of vcgctation covci.
So tlc land is diicctly cxposcd to tlc action of vaiious plysical foiccs
facilitating ciosion. Ovcigiazing accounts foi 35% of tlc voild's soil
ciosion vlilc dcfoicstation is icsponsiblc foi 3O% of tlc caitl's
sciiously ciodcd lands. Lnsustainablc mctlods of faiming causc 28%
of soil ciosion.
Ocfoicstation vitlout icfoicstation, ovcigiazing by cattlc, sui-
facc mining vitlout land icclamation, iiiigation tcclniqucs tlat lcad
to salt build-up, vatci-loggcd soil, faiming on land vitl unsuitablc
tciiain, soil compaction by agiicultuial maclinciy, action of cattlc tiam-
pling ctc makc tlc top soil vulnciablc to ciosion.
Snil Cnnscrvatinn Practiccs
In oidci to picvcnt soil ciosion and conscivc tlc soil tlc folloving
conscivation piacticcs aic cmploycd:
(t) Cnnscrvatinnal till farming: In tiaditional mctlod tlc land is
plouglcd and tlc soil is biokcn up and smootlcd to makc a planting
suifacc. Hovcvci, tlis distuibs tlc soil and makcs it susccptiblc to cio-
sion vlcn fallov (i.c. vitlout ciop covci). Conscivational till faim-
ing, populaily knovn as nn-till-farming causcs minimum distuibancc
to tlc top soil. Hcic spccial tillcis bicak up and looscn tlc subsuifacc
soil vitlout tuining ovci tlc topsoil. Tlc tilling maclincs makc slits in
tlc unplouglcd soil and injcct sccds, fcitilizcis, lcibicidcs and a littlc
vatci in tlc slit, so tlat tlc sccd gciminatcs and tlc ciop giovs suc-
ccssfully vitlout compctition vitl vccds.
(tt) Cnntnur farming: On gcntlc slopcs, ciops aic giovn in iovs
acioss, iatlci tlan up and dovn, a piacticc knovn as contoui faiming.
Eacl iov plantcd loiizontally along tlc slopc of tlc land acts as a
small dam to lclp lold soil and slov dovn loss of soil tliougl iun-off
vatci.
(ttt) Tcrracing: It is uscd on still stccpci slopcs aic convcitcd into
a sciics of bioad tciiaccs vlicl iun acioss tlc contoui. Tciiacing ictains
vatci foi ciops at all lcvcls and cuts dovn soil ciosion by contiolling
iun off. In ligl iainfall aicas, ditclcs aic also piovidcd bclind tlc
tciiacc to pcimit adcquatc diainagc (Platc I, a).
(tv) Strip crnpping: Hcic stiips of ciops aic altcinatcd vitl stiips
of soil saving covciciops likc giasscs oi giass-lcgumc mixtuic. Wlatcvci
iun-off comcs fiom tlc cioppcd soil is ictaincd by tlc stiip of covci-
ciop and tlis icduccs soil ciosion. Nitiogcn fixing lcgumcs also lclp in
icstoiing soil fcitility (Platc I, h).
Plate (a) Terrace farming I Plate (b) Strip cropping I
(vt) Allcy crnpping: It is a foim of intci-ciopping in vlicl ciops
aic plantcd bctvccn iovs of ticcs oi sliubs. Tlis is also callcd Agrn
fnrcstry. Evcn vlcn tlc ciop is laivcstcd, tlc soil is not fallov bccausc
ticcs and sliubs still icmain on tlc soil lolding tlc soil paiticlcs and
picvcnt soil ciosion (Platc I, c).
Wind brcaks nr shcltcrbclts: Tlcy lclp in icducing ciosion
causcd by stiong vinds. Tlc ticcs aic plantcd in long iovs along tlc
cultivatcd land boundaiy so tlat vind is blockcd. Tlc vind spccd is
substantially icduccd vlicl lclps in picvcnting vind ciosion of soil
(Platc I, d).
Tlus, soil ciosion is onc of tlc voild's most ciitical pioblcms
and, if not slovcd, vill sciiously icducc agiicultuial and foicstiy
pioduction, and dcgiadc tlc quality of aquatic ccosystcms as vcll duc
to incicascd siltation. Soil ciosion, is in fact, a giadual pioccss and
vciy oftcn tlc cumulativc cffccts bccomcs visiblc only vlcn tlc damagc
las alicady bccomc iiicvcisiblc. Tlc bcst vay to contiol soil ciosion is
to maintain adcquatc vcgctational covci ovci tlc soil.
Water Logging
In oidci to piovidc congcnial moistuic to tlc gioving ciops, faimcis
usually apply lcavy iiiigation to tlcii faimland. Also, in oidci to lcacl
dovn tlc salts dccpci into tlc soil, tlc faimci piovidcs moic iiiigation
vatci. Hovcvci, duc to inadcquatc diainagc and pooi quality iiiigation
vatci tlcic is accumulation of vatci undcigiound and giadually it
foims a continuous column vitl tlc vatci tablc. Wc call tlcsc soils as
vatciloggcd soils vlicl affcct ciop giovtl duc to inlibition of cxclangc
of gascs. Tlc poic-spaccs bctvccn tlc soil paiticlcs gct fully dicnclcd
vitl vatci tliougl tlc ioots.
Watci logging is most oftcn associatcd vitl salinity bccausc tlc
vatci uscd foi iiiigation contains salts and tlc soils gct badly dcgiadcd
duc to ciioncous iiiigation piacticcs. Tlc damagcs causcd by somc
majoi iiiigation piojccts is slovn is Tablc 2.6.1.
Tablc 2.6.1. Watcr lngging and salinisatinn causcd duc
tn snmc irrigatinn prn|ccts in India
Arca affcctcd
(thnusand hcctarcs)
Irrigatinn Prn|cct Statc
Watcr Salinity
lngging
Indiia Candli Canal Rajastlan 43 29
Candak Bilai, Cujaiat 211 4OO
Clambal M.P., Rajastlan 98 4O
Ram Canga L.P. 195 352
Sii Ram Sagai Andlia Piadcsl 6O 1
Scurcc . B.K. Caig and I.C. Cupta (1997).*
An cstimatcd loss of Rs. 1O,OOO million pci annum occuis duc to
vatci-logging and salinity in India. It is a staitling fact bccausc tlc cost
of dcvclopmcnt of tlc iiiigation piojccts is vciy ligl and in tlc long
iun tlcy causc pioblcms likc vatci logging and salinity tlcicby slaiply
icducing soil fcitility.
LANDSLIDES
Vaiious antliopogcnic activitics likc lydioclcctiic piojccts, laigc dams,
icscivoiis, constiuction of ioads and iailvay lincs, constiuction of
buildings, mining ctc aic icsponsiblc foi clcaiing of laigc foicstcd aicas.
Eailici tlcic vcic fcv icpoits of landslidcs bctvccn Rislikcsl and Byasi
on Badiinatl Higlvay aica. But, aftci tlc liglvay vas constiuctcd,
15 landslidcs occuiicd in a singlc ycai. Ouiing constiuction of ioads,
*Salinc Wastclands, Enviionmcnt and Plant Ciovtl. Sci. Publ., India.
mining activitics ctc. lugc poitions of fiagilc mountainous aicas aic
cut oi dcstioycd by dynamitc and tliovn into adjaccnt vallcys and
sticams. Tlcsc land masscs vcakcn tlc alicady fiagilc mountain slopcs
and lcad to landslidcs. Tlcy also incicasc tlc tuibidity of vaiious ncaiby
sticams, tlcicby icducing tlcii pioductivity.
DESERTIFICATION
Ocscitification is a pioccss vlcicby tlc pioductivc potcntial of aiid oi
scmiaiid lands falls by tcn pciccnt oi moic. Modciatc dcscitification is
1O-25% diop in pioductivity, scvcic dcscitification causcs 25-5O% diop
vlilc vciy scvcic dcscitification icsults in moic tlan 5O% diop in
pioductivity and usually cicatcs lugc gullics and sand duncs.
Ocscitification lcads to tlc convcision of iangclands oi iiiigatcd
cioplands to dcscit likc conditions in vlicl agiicultuial pioductivity
falls. Ocscitification is claiactciizcd by dcvcgctation and loss of vcgctal
ovci, dcplction of gioundvatci, salinization and scvcic soil ciosion.
Ocscitification is not tlc litcial invasion of dcscit into a non-dcscit
aica. It includcs dcgiadation of tlc ccosystcms vitlin as vcll as outsidc
tlc natuial dcscits. Tlc Sonoian and Clilualuan dcscits aic about a
million ycais old, yct tlcy lavc bccomc moic baiicn duiing tlc last
1OO ycais. So, fuitlci dcscitification las takcn placc vitlin tlc dcscit.
Causcs nf Dcscrtificatinn: Ioimation of dcscits may takc placc
duc to natuial plcnomcna likc climatc clangc oi may bc duc to abusivc
usc of land. Evcn tlc climatc clangc is linkcd in many vays to luman
activitics. Tlc majoi antliopogcnic activitics icsponsiblc foi
dcscitification aic as follovs:
(a) Dcfnrcstatinn: Tlc pioccss of dcnuding and dcgiading a
foicstcd land initiatcs a dcscit pioducing cyclc tlat fccds on itsclf. Sincc
tlcic is no vcgctation to lold back tlc suifacc iun-off, vatci diains off
quickly bcfoic it can soak into tlc soil to nouiisl tlc plants oi to
icplcnisl tlc gioundvatci. Tlis incicascs soil ciosion, loss of fcitility
and loss of vatci.
(h) Ovcrgrazing: Tlc icgions most sciiously affcctcd by
dcscitification aic tlc cattlc pioducing aicas of tlc voild. Tlis is
bccausc tlc incicasing cattlc population lcavily giazc in giasslands oi
foicsts and as a icsult dcnudc tlc land aica. Wlcn tlc caitl is dcnudcd,
tlc micioclimatc ncai tlc giound bccomcs inlospitablc to sccd
gcimination. Tlc diy baiicn land bccomcs loosc and moic pionc to
soil ciosion. Tlc top fcitilc layci is also lost and tlus plant giovtl is
badly lampcicd in sucl soils. Tlc diy baiicn land icflccts moic of tlc
sun's lcat, clanging vind pattcins, diiving avay moistuic ladcn clouds
lcading to fuitlci dcscitification.
(c) Mining and quarrying: Tlcsc activitics aic also icsponsiblc
foi loss of vcgctal covci and dcnudation of cxtcnsivc land aicas lcading
to dcscitification. Ocscits aic found to occui in tlc aiid and scmi-aiid
aicas of all tlc contincnts . Ouiing tlc last 5O ycais about 9OO million
lcctaics of land lavc undcigonc dcscitification ovci tlc voild. Tlis
pioblcm is cspccially scvcic in Salcl icgion, just soutl of tlc Salaia in
Afiica. It is fuitlci cstimatcd tlat if dcscitification continucs at tlc
picscnt iatc, tlcn by 2O1O, it vill affcct sucl lands vlicl aic picscntly
occupicd by 2O% of tlc luman population.
Amongst tlc most badly affcctcd aicas aic tlc sub Salaian Afiica,
tlc Middlc East, Wcstcin Asia, paits of Ccntial and Soutl Amciica,
Austialia and tlc Wcstcin lalf of tlc Lnitcd Statcs.
It is cstimatcd tlat in tlc last 5O ycais, luman activitics lavc bccn
icsponsiblc foi dcscitification of land aica cqual to tlc sizc of Biazil.
Tlc LNEP cstimatcs suggcst tlat if vc don't makc sinccic cffoits nov
tlcn vciy soon 63% of iangclands, 6O% of iain-fcd cioplands and 3O%
of iiiigatcd cioplands vill suffci fiom dcscitification on a voildvidc
scalc, adding 6O,OOO Km
2
of dcscits cvciy ycai.
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: ROLE OF AN
INDIVIDUAL
Oiffcicnt natuial icsouiccs likc foicsts, vatci, soil, food, mincial and
cncigy icsouiccs play a vital iolc in tlc dcvclopmcnt of a nation.
Hovcvci, ovciusc of tlcsc icsouiccs in oui modcin socicty is icsulting
in fast dcplction of tlcsc icsouiccs and scvcial iclatcd pioblcms. If vc
vant oui mankind to flouiisl tlcic is a stiong nccd to conscivc tlcsc
natuial icsouiccs.
Wlilc conscivation cffoits aic undcivay at National as vcll as
Intcinational lcvcl, tlc individual cffoits foi conscivation of natuial
icsouiccs can go a long vay. Enviionmcnt bclongs to cacl onc of us
and all of us lavc a icsponsibility to contiibutc tovaids its consciva-
tion and piotcction. "Small dioplcts of vatci togctlci foim a big occan".
Similaily, vitl oui small individual cffoits vc can togctlci lclp in con-
sciving oui natuial icsouiccs to a laigc cxtcnt. Lct us scc lov can
individuals lclp in conscivation of diffcicnt icsouiccs.
Cnnscrvc Watcr
Oon't kccp vatci taps iunning vlilc biusling, slaving, vasl-
ing oi batling.
In vasling maclincs fill tlc maclinc only to tlc lcvcl icquiicd
foi youi clotlcs.
Install vatci-saving toilcts tlat usc not moic tlan 6 litcis pci
flusl.
Clcck foi vatci lcaks in pipcs and toilcts and icpaii tlcm
piomptly. A small pin-lolc sizcd lcak vill lcad to tlc vastagc
of 64O litcis of vatci in a montl.
Rcusc tlc soapy vatci of vaslings fiom clotlcs foi vasling
off tlc couityaids, diivcvays ctc.
Watci tlc plants in youi kitclcn-gaidcn and tlc lavns in tlc
cvcning vlcn cvapoiation losscs aic minimum. Ncvci vatci
tlc plants in mid-day.
Lsc diip iiiigation and spiinkling iiiigation to impiovc
iiiigation cfficicncy and icducc cvapoiation.
Install a small systcm to captuic iain vatci and collcct
noimally vastcd uscd vatci fiom sinks, clotl-vaslcis, batl-
tubs ctc. vlicl can bc uscd foi vatciing tlc plants.
Build iain vatci laivcsting systcm in youi lousc. Evcn tlc
Picsidcnt of India is doing tlis.
Cnnscrvc cncrgy
Tuin off liglts, fans and otlci applianccs vlcn not in usc.
Obtain as mucl lcat as possiblc fiom natuial souiccs. Oiy
tlc clotlcs in sun instcad of diici if it is a sunny day.
Lsc solai cookci foi cooking youi food on sunny days vlicl
vill bc moic nutiitious and vill cut dovn on youi LPC cx-
pcnscs.
Build youi lousc vitl piovision foi sunspacc vlicl vill kccp
youi lousc vaimci and vill piovidc moic liglt.
Ciov dcciduous ticcs and climbcis at piopci placcs outsidc
youi lomc to cut off intcnsc lcat of summcis and gct a cool
bicczc and sladc. Tlis vill cut off youi clcctiicity claigcs on
coolcis and aii-conditioncis. A big ticc is cstimatcd to lavc a
cooling cffcct cquivalcnt to fivc aii conditioncis. Tlc dccidu-
ous ticcs slcd tlcii lcavcs in vintci. Tlcicfoic tlcy do not
put any lindiancc to tlc sunliglt and lcat.
Oiivc lcss, makc fcvci tiips and usc public tianspoitations
vlcncvci possiblc. You can slaic by joining a cai-pool if you
icgulaily lavc to go to tlc samc placc.
Add moic insulation to youi lousc. Ouiing vintci closc tlc
vindovs at niglt. Ouiing summci closc tlc vindovs duiing
days if using an A.C. Otlcivisc loss of lcat vould bc moic,
consuming moic clcctiicity.
Instcad of using tlc lcat convcctoi moic oftcn vcai adcquatc
voolcns.
Rccyclc and icusc glass, mctals and papci.
Tiy iiding bicyclc oi just valk dovn small distanccs instcad
of using youi cai oi scootci.
Lovci tlc cooling load on an aii conditionci by incicasing
tlc tlcimostat sctting as 3-5 % clcctiicity is savcd foi cvciy
onc dcgicc iisc in tcmpciatuic sctting.
Prntcct thc snil
Wlilc constiucting youi lousc, don't upioot tlc ticcs as fai
as possiblc. Plant tlc distuibcd aicas vitl a fast gioving nativc
giound covci.
Ciov diffcicnt typcs of oinamcntal plants, lcibs and ticcs in
youi gaidcn. Ciov giass in tlc opcn aicas vlicl vill bind
tlc soil and picvcnt its ciosion.
Makc compost fiom youi kitclcn vastc and usc it foi youi
kitclcn-gaidcn oi flovci-pots.
Oo not iiiigatc tlc plants using a stiong flov of vatci, as it
vould vasl off tlc soil.
Bcttci usc spiinkling iiiigation.
Lsc giccn manuic and mulcl in tlc gaidcn and kitclcn-gaidcn
vlicl vill piotcct tlc soil.
If you ovn agiicultuial ficlds, do not ovci-iiiigatc youi ficlds
vitlout piopci diainagc to picvcnt vatci logging and
salinisation.
Lsc mixcd ciopping so tlat somc spccific soil nutiicnts do
not gct dcplctcd.
Prnmntc Sustainablc Agriculturc
Oo not vastc food. Takc as mucl as you can cat.
Rcducc tlc usc of pcsticidcs.
Icitilizc youi ciop piimaiily vitl oiganic fcitilizcis.
Lsc diip iiiigation to vatci tlc ciops.
Eat local and scasonal vcgctablcs. Tlis savcs lot of cncigy on
tianspoit, stoiagc and picscivation.
Contiol pcsts by a combination of cultivation and biological
contiol mctlods.
EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFE
STYLE
Tlcic is a big dividc in tlc voild as Noitl and Soutl, tlc moic
dcvclopcd countiics (MOC's) and lcss dcvclopcd countiics (LOC's),
tlc lavcs and tlc lavc nots. Tlc lcss dcvclopcd docs not mcan tlat
tlcy aic backvaid as sucl, tlcy aic cultuially vciy iicl oi cvcn mucl
moic dcvclopcd, but cconomically tlcy aic lcss dcvclopcd. Tlc gap
bctvccn tlc tvo is mainly bccausc of population and icsouiccs.
Tlc MOC's lavc only 22% of voild's population, but tlcy usc
88% of its natuial icsouiccs, 73% of its cncigy and command 85% of
its incomc. In tuin, tlcy contiibutc a vciy big piopoition to its pollution.
Tlcsc countiics includc LSA, Canada, 1apan, tlc CIS, Austialia , Ncv
Zcaland and Wcstcin Euiopcan Countiics. Tlc LOC's, on tlc otlci
land, lavc vciy lov oi modciatc industiial giovtl, lavc 78% of tlc
voild's population and usc about 12% of natuial icsouiccs and 27% of
cncigy. Tlcii incomc is mcicly 15% of global incomc. Tlc gap bctvccn
tlc tvo is incicasing vitl timc duc to slaip incicasc in population in
tlc LOC's. Tlc iicl lavc giovn iiclci vlilc tlc pooi lavc staycd pooi
oi gonc cvcn pooici.
As tlc iicl nations aic dcvcloping moic, tlcy aic also lcading to
moic pollution and sustainability of tlc caitl's lifc suppoit systcm is
undci tlicat. Tlc pooi nations, on tlc otlci land, aic still stiuggling
laid vitl tlcii laigc population and povcity pioblcms. Tlcii slaic of
icsouiccs is too littlc lcading to unsustainability.
As tlc iicl nations continuc to giov, tlcy vill icacl a limit. If
tlcy lavc a giovtl iatc of 1O % cvciy ycai, tlcy vill slov 1O24 timcs
incicasc in tlc ncxt 7O ycais. Will tlis mucl of giovtl bc sustainablc!
Tlc ansvci is 'No' bccausc many of oui caitl's icsouiccs aic limitcd
and cvcn tlc icncvablc icsouiccs vill bccomc unsustainablc if tlcii
usc cxcccds tlcii icgcnciation.
Tlus, tlc solution to tlis pioblcm is to lavc moic cquitablc
distiibution of icsouiccs and vcaltl. Wc cannot cxpcct tlc pooi
countiics to stop giovtl in oidci to clcck pollution bccausc
dcvclopmcnt biings cmploymcnt and tlc main pioblcm of tlcsc
countiics is to tacklc povcity. A global conscnsus las to bc icaclcd foi
moic balanccd distiibution of tlc basic icsouiccs likc safc diinking
vatci, food, fucl ctc. so tlat tlc pooi in tlc LOC's aic at lcast ablc to
sustain tlcii lifc. Lnlcss tlcy aic piovidcd vitl sucl basic icsouiccs,
vc cannot tlink of iooting out tlc pioblcms iclatcd to diity, unlygicnic,
pollutcd, discasc infcstcd scttlcmcnts of tlcsc pcoplc-vlicl contiibutc
to unsustainability.
Tlus, tlc tvo basic causcs of unsustainability aic ovci population
in pooi countiics vlo lavc undci consumption of icsouiccs and ovci
consumption of icsouiccs by tlc iicl countiics, vlicl gcnciatc vastcs.
In oidci to aclicvc sustainablc lifc stylcs it is dcsiiablc to aclicvc a
moic balanccd and cquitablc distiibution of global icsouiccs and
incomc to mcct cvciyonc's basic nccds.
Tlc iicl countiics vill lavc to lovci dovn tlcii consumption
lcvcls vlilc tlc baic minimum nccds of tlc pooi lavc to bc fulfillcd by
pioviding tlcm icsouiccs. A faiici slaiing of icsouiccs vill naiiov
dovn tlc gap bctvccn tlc iicl and tlc pooi and vill lcad to sustainablc
dcvclopmcnt foi all and not just foi a piivilcgcd gioup.
QUESTIONS
1. Wlat aic icncvablc and non-icncvablc icsouiccs ! Civc cxam-
plcs.
2. Oiscuss tlc majoi uscs of foicsts. Hov vould you justify tlat cco-
logical uscs of foicsts suipass commcicial uscs !
3. Wlat aic tlc majoi causcs and conscqucnccs of dcfoicstation !
4. Oiscuss vitl tlc lclp of a casc study, lov big dams lavc affcctcd
foicsts and tlc tiibals.
5. Wlat is an aquifci ! Oiscuss its typcs.
6. Wlat aic tlc cnviionmcntal impacts of giound vatci usagc !
7. Biicfly discuss diouglts and floods vitl icspcct is tlcii occui-
icncc and impacts.
8. Wlat aic tlc majoi causcs foi conflicts ovci vatci ! Oiscuss onc
intcinational and onc intci-statc vatci conflict.
9. Slould vc build big dams ! Civc aigumcnts in favoui of youi
ansvci.
10. Wlat aic tlc uscs of vaiious typcs of mincials !
11. Oiscuss tlc majoi cnviionmcntal impacts of mincial cxtiaction.
12. Wlat is ovcigiazing ! Hov docs it contiibutc to cnviionmcntal
dcgiadation !
13. Wlat do youi mcan by (a) cutioplication (h) supci pcst (c) slift-
ing cultivation (d) vatci logging !
14. Civc a biicf account of non-icncvablc cncigy icsouiccs.
15. Wlat aic solai cclls ! Oiav a diagiam and cnumciatc its applica-
tions.
16. Oiscuss tlc mciits and dcmciits of vind cncigy.
17. Commcnt upon tlc typcs of cncigy laincsscd fiom occans.
18. Wlat is biogas ! Oiscuss tlc stiuctuic and function of biogas
plants.
19. Wlat is nuclcai cncigy ! Oiscuss its tvo typcs.
20. Wlat its soil ciosion ! Hov can it bc clcckcd !
21. Hov can you as an individual conscivc diffcicnt natuial
icsouiccs !
7EJ
!
-?IOIJAI
65
CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM
Vaiious kinds of lifc suppoiting systcms likc tlc foicsts, giasslands,
occans, lakcs, iivcis, mountains, dcscits and cstuaiics slov vidc
vaiiations in tlcii stiuctuial composition and functions. Hovcvci, tlcy
all aic alikc in tlc fact tlat tlcy consist of living cntitics intciacting
vitl tlcii suiioundings cxclanging mattci and cncigy. Hov do tlcsc
diffcicnt units likc a lot dcscit, a dcnsc cvcigiccn foicst, tlc Antaictic
Sca oi a slallov pond diffci in tlc typc of tlcii floia and fauna, lov
do tlcy dciivc tlcii cncigy and nutiicnts to livc togctlci, lov do tlcy
influcncc cacl otlci and icgulatc tlcii stability aic tlc qucstions tlat
aic ansvcicd by Ecology.
Tlc tcim Ecology vas coincd by Eainst Hacckcl in 1869. It is
dciivcd fiom tlc Cicck voids Otkcs- lomc - lcgcs- study. So ccnlngy
dcals with thc study nf nrganisms in thcir natural hnmc intcracting
with thcir surrnundings. Tlc suiioundings oi cnviionmcnt consists
of otlci living oiganisms (biotic) and plysical (abiotic) componcnts.
Modcin ccologists bclicvc tlat an adcquatc dcfinition of ccology must
spccify somc unit of study and onc sucl basic unit dcsciibcd by Tanslcy
(1935) vas ccosystcm. An ccnsystcm is a grnup nf bintic cnmmunitics
nf spccics intcracting with nnc annthcr and with thcir nnn-living
cnvirnnmcnt cxchanging cncrgy and mattcr. Nnw ccnlngy is nftcn
dcfincd as "thc study nf ccnsystcms".
An ccosystcm is an intcgiatcd unit consisting of intciacting plants,
animals and miciooiganisms vlosc suivival dcpcnds upon tlc
maintcnancc and icgulation of tlcii biotic and abiotic stiuctuics and
functions. Tlc ccosystcm is tlus, a unit oi a systcm vlicl is composcd
of a numbci of subunits, tlat aic all diicctly oi indiicctly linkcd vitl
cacl otlci. Tlcy may bc ficcly cxclanging cncigy and mattci fiom
outsidcan cpcn cccsystcm oi may bc isolatcd fiom outsidca clcscd
cccsystcm.
ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
Ecosystcms slov laigc vaiiations in tlcii sizc, stiuctuic, composition
ctc. Hovcvci, all tlc ccosystcms aic claiactciizcd by ccitain basic stiuc-
tuial and functional fcatuics vlicl aic common.
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
Composition and oiganization of biological communitics and abiotic
componcnts constitutc tlc stiuctuic of an ccosystcm.
I. Biotic Structure
Tlc plants, animals and miciooiganisms picscnt in an ccosystcm foim
tlc biotic componcnt. Tlcsc oiganisms lavc diffcicnt nutiitional bc-
lavioui and status in tlc ccosystcms and aic accoidingly knovn as
Frcduccrs oi Ccnsumcrs, bascd on lov do tlcy gct tlcii food.
(a) Prnduccrs: Tlcy aic mainly tlc giccn plants, vlicl can
syntlcsizc tlcii food tlcmsclvcs by making usc of caibondioxidc picscnt
in tlc aii and vatci in tlc picscncc of sunliglt by involving clloioplyll,
tlc giccn pigmcnt picscnt in tlc lcavcs, tliougl tlc pioccss of
phntnsynthcsis. Tlcy aic also knovn as phntn autntrnphs (auto=sclf,
tiopl=food, ploto=liglt).
Tlcic aic somc miciooiganisms also vlicl can pioducc oiganic
mattci to somc cxtcnt tliougl oxidation of ccitain clcmicals in tlc
abscncc of sunliglt. Tlcy aic knovn as chcmnsynthctic oiganisms oi
chcmn-autntrnphs. Ioi instancc in tlc occan dcptls, vlcic tlcic is
no sunliglt, clcmoautotioplic sulplui bactciia makc usc of tlc lcat
gcnciatcd by tlc dccay of iadioactivc clcmcnts picscnt in tlc caitl's
coic and iclcascd in occan's dcptls. Tlcy usc tlis lcat to convcit
dissolvcd lydiogcn sulplidc (H
2
S) and caibon dioxidc (CO
2
) into
oiganic compounds.
(h) Cnnsumcrs: All oiganisms vlicl gct tlcii oiganic food by
fccding upon otlci oiganisms aic callcd consumcis, vlicl aic of tlc
folloving typcs:
(t) HerbIvores (plant catcis): Tlcy fccd diicctly on pioduccis and
lcncc also knovn as prtmary ccnsumcrs. c.g. iabbit, inscct,
man.
(tt) CarnIvores (mcat catcis): Tlcy fccd on otlci consumcis. If
tlcy fccd on lcibivoics tlcy aic callcd scccndary ccnsumcrs (c.g.
fiog) and if tlcy fccd on otlci cainivoics (snakc, big fisl ctc.)
tlcy aic knovn as tcrttary carntvcrcs/ccnsumcrs.
Ecosystems 67
(ttt) OmnIvores: Tlcy fccd on botl plants and animals. c.g. lumans,
iat, fox, many biids.
(tv) DetrItIvores (DetrItus feeders or Saprotrophs): Tlcy fccd on tlc
paits of dcad oiganisms, vastcs of living oiganisms, tlcii cast-
offs and paitially dccomposcd mattci c.g. bcctlcs, tcimitcs,
ants, ciabs, caitlvoims ctc.
(c) Dccnmpnscrs: Tlcy dciivc tlcii nutiition by bicaking dovn
tlc complcx oiganic molcculcs to simplci oiganic compounds and ul-
timatcly into inoiganic nutiicnts. Vaiious bactciia and fungi aic
dccomposcis.
In all tlc ccosystcms, tlis biotic stiuctuic picvails. Hovcvci, in
somc, it is tlc piimaiy pioduccis vlicl picdominatc (c.g. in foicsts,
agioccosystcms) vlilc in otlcis tlc dccomposcis picdominatc (c.g.
dccp occan).
II. Abiotic Structure
Tlc plysical and clcmical componcnts of an ccosystcm constitutc its
abiotic stiuctuic. It includcs climatic factois, cdaplic (soil) factois,
gcogiaplical factois, cncigy, nutiicnts and toxic substanccs.
(a) PhysIcaI factors: Tlc sunliglt and sladc, intcnsity of solai flux,
duiation of sun louis, avciagc tcmpciatuic, maximum-minimum
tcmpciatuic, annual iainfall, vind, latitudc and altitudc, soil typc, vatci
availability, vatci cuiicnts ctc. aic somc of tlc impoitant plysical
fcatuics vlicl lavc a stiong influcncc on tlc ccosystcm.
Wc can clcaily scc tlc stiiking diffcicnccs in solai flux, tcmpciatuic
and piccipitation (iainfall, snov ctc.) pattcin in a dcscit ccosystcm, in
a tiopical iainfoicst and in tundia ccosystcm.
(h) ChemIcaI factors: Availability of majoi csscntial nutiicnts likc
caibon, nitiogcn, plosploius, potassium, lydiogcn, oxygcn and
sulplui, lcvcl of toxic substanccs, salts causing salinity and vaiious
oiganic substanccs picscnt in tlc soil oi vatci laigcly influcncc tlc
functioning of tlc ccosystcm.
All tlc biotic componcnts of an ccosystcm aic influcnccd by tlc
abiotic componcnts and vicc vcisa, and tlcy aic linkcd togctlci tliougl
cncigy flov and mattci cycling as slovn diagiammatically in Iig. 3.1.
Nutrient cycling
Plants
Animals
Bacteria
N
utrient
Cycling
Energy
flow
Abiotic
component
Biotic
compo-
nent
Abiotic
component
Nutrient
flow
Fig. 3.1. Nutrient cycling and energy flow mediated through food-
chain. The flow of energy is unidirectional while the nutrients
move in a cyclic manner from the abiotic to biotic (food chain)
to abiotic and so on.
FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES
Evciy ccosystcm pcifoims undci natuial conditions in a systcmatic
vay. It icccivcs cncigy fiom tlc sun and passcs it on tliougl vaiious
biotic componcnts and in fact, all lifc dcpcnds upon tlis flov of cncigy.
Bcsidcs cncigy, vaiious nutiicnts and vatci aic also icquiicd foi lifc
pioccsscs vlicl aic cxclangcd by tlc biotic componcnts vitlin
tlcmsclvcs and vitl tlcii abiotic componcnts vitlin oi outsidc tlc
ccosystcm. Tlc biotic componcnts also icgulatc tlcmsclvcs in a vciy
systcmatic mannci and slov mcclanisms to cncountci somc dcgicc
of cnviionmcntal sticss. Tlc majoi functional attiibutcs of an
ccosystcms aic as follovs:
(t) Iood clain, food vcbs and tioplic stiuctuic
(tt) Encigy flov
(ttt) Cycling of nutiicnts (Biogcoclcmical cyclcs)
(tv) Piimaiy and Sccondaiy pioduction
(v) Ecosystcm dcvclopmcnt and icgulation
Ecosystems 69
TROPHIC STRUCTURE
Tlc stiuctuic and functions of ccosystcms aic vciy closcly iclatcd and
influcncc cacl otlci so intimatcly tlat tlcy nccd to bc studicd togctlci.
Tlc flov of cncigy is mcdiatcd tliougl a sciics of fccding iclation-
slips in a dcfinitc scqucncc oi pattcin vlicl is knovn as fnnd chain.
Nutiicnts too movc along tlc food clain. Tlc pioduccis and consum-
cis aic aiiangcd in tlc ccosystcm in a dcfinitc mannci and tlcii intci-
action along vitl population sizc aic cxpicsscd togctlci as trnphic
structurc. Eacl food lcvcl is knovn as trnphic lcvcl and tlc amount of
living mattci at cacl tioplic lcvcl at a givcn timc is knovn as standing
crnp oi standing binmass.
Bcfoic vc study about cncigy flov oi nutiicnt cycling, vc must
lcain about tlc food-clains, tlat piovidc tlc patl tliougl vlicl tlc
flov of cncigy and mattci takc placc in ccosystcm.
FOOD CHAINS
Thc scqucncc nf cating and bcing catcn in an ccnsystcm is knnwn as
fnnd chain. All oiganisms, living oi dcad, aic potcntial food foi somc
otlci oiganism and tlus, tlcic is csscntially no vastc in tlc functioning
of a natuial ccosystcm. A catcipillai cats a plant lcaf, a spaiiov cats
tlc catcipillai, a cat oi a lavk cats tlc spaiiov and vlcn tlcy all dic,
tlcy aic all consumcd by miciooiganisms likc bactciia oi fungi
(dccomposcis) vlicl bicak dovn tlc oiganic mattci and convcit it
into simplc inoiganic substanccs tlat can again bc uscd by tlc plants-
tlc piimaiy pioduccis.
Somc common cxamplcs of simplc food clains aic:
Ciass giassloppci Iiog Snakc Havk (Ciassland
ccosystcm)
Plytoplanktons vatci flcas small fisl Tuna (Pond
ccosystcm)
Liclcns icindcci Man (Aictic tundia)
Eacl oiganism in tlc ccosystcm is assigncd a fccding lcvcl oi
tioplic lcvcl dcpcnding on its nutiitional status. Tlus, in tlc giassland
food clain, giassloppci occupics tlc Ist tioplic lcvcl, fiog tlc IInd
and snakc and lavk occupy tlc IIIid and tlc IVtl tioplic lcvcls, ic-
spcctivcly. Tlc dccomposcis consumc tlc dcad mattci of all tlcsc
tioplic lcvcls. In natuic, vc comc acioss tvo majoi typcs of food clains:
I. Crazing fnnd chain: It staits vitl giccn plants (piimaiy pio-
duccis) and culminatcs in cainivoics. All tlc cxamplcs citcd abovc slov
tlis typc of food clain. Anotlci cxamplc could bc
Ciass Rabbit Iox
Zooplanktons
Small fish
Cornivorous
fish
Phytoplanktons
(Algae, diatoms)
Fig. 3.2. A grazing food chain in a pond ecosystem.
II. Dctritus fnnd chain: It staits vitl dcad oiganic mattci vlicl
tlc dctiitivoics and dccomposcis consumc. Paitially dccomposcd dcad
oiganic mattci and cvcn tlc dccomposcis aic consumcd by dctiitivoics
and tlcii picdatois. An cxamplc of tlc dctiitus food clain is sccn in a
Mangiovc (cstuaiy).
Detritus feeders
Carnivores
Phytoplanktons
Decomposers (Bacteria, fungi)
Dead mangrove
tree leaves
Fig. 3.3. A detritus food chain in an estuary based on dead
leaves of mangrove trees.
Ecosystems 71
Hcic, a laigc quantity of lcaf matciial falls in tlc foim of littci
into tlc vatci. Tlc lcaf fiagmcnts aic catcn by saprntrnphs.
(Sapiotiopls aic tlosc oiganisms vlicl fccd on dcad oiganic mattci).
Tlcsc fallcn lcavcs aic colonizcd by small algac, vlicl aic also
consumcd by tlc sapiotiopls oi dctiitivoics consisting of ciabs,
mollusks, sliimps, inscct laivac, ncmatodcs and fislcs. Tlc dctiitivoics
aic catcn by small cainivoious fislcs, vlicl is tuin aic catcn by laigc
cainivoious fislcs.
Lcaf littci algac ciabs small cainivoious fisl laigc
cainivoious fisl (Mangiovc ccosystcm)
Ocad oiganic mattci fungi bactciia (Ioicst ccosystcm)
Tlus tlc giazing food clain dciivcs its cncigy basically fiom plant
cncigy vlilc in tlc dctiitus food clain it is obtaincd piimaiily fiom
plant biomass, sccondaiily fiom miciobial biomass and tcitiaiily fiom
cainivoics. Botl tlc food clains occui togctlci in natuial ccosystcms,
but giazing food clain usually picdominatcs.
FOOD WEB
Iood clains in ccosystcms aic iaicly found to opciatc as isolatcd lincai
scqucnccs. Ratlci, tlcy aic found to bc intciconncctcd and usually
foim a complcx nctvoik vitl scvcial linkagcs and aic knovn as food
vcbs. Tlus, fnnd wcb is a nctwnrk nf fnnd chains whcrc diffcrcnt
typcs nf nrganisms arc cnnncctcd at diffcrcnt trnphic lcvcls, sn that
thcrc arc a numbcr nf nptinns nf cating and bcing catcn at cach
trnphic lcvcl.
Iig. 3.4 illustiatcs an cxamplc of a food-vcb in tlc uniquc
Antaictic Ecosystcm. Tlis is icpicscnting tlc total ccosystcm including
tlc Antaictic sca and tlc contincntal land. Tlc land docs not slov
any liglci lifc foims of plants. Tlc only spccics aic tlat of somc algac,
liclcns and mosscs. Tlc animals includc pcnguins and snov pcticl
vlicl dcpcnd upon tlc aquatic clain foi tlcii food cncigy.
In a tiopical icgion, on tlc otlci land, tlc ccosystcms aic mucl
moic complcx. Tlcy lavc a iicl spccics divcisity and tlcicfoic, tlc
food vcbs aic mucl moic complcx.
Wly natuic las cvolvcd food vcbs in ccosystcms instcad of sim-
plc lincai food clains! Tlis is bccausc food vcbs givc gicatci stability
to tlc ccosystcm. In a lincai food clain, if onc spccics bccomcs cxtinct
oi onc spccics suffcis tlcn tlc spccics in tlc subscqucnt tioplic lcvcls
aic also affcctcd. In a food vcb, on tlc otlci land, tlcic aic a numbci
of options availablc at cacl tioplic lcvcl. So if onc spccics is affcctcd, it
docs not affcct otlci tioplic lcvcls so sciiously.
Humans
Blue Whale Sperm Whale
Elephant Seal
Killer Whale
Leopard Seal
Emperor Penguin
Fish
Carnivorous
Plankton
Phytoplankton
Squid
Penguin
Snow
Petrel
Krill
Herbivorous
Zooplankton
Fig. 3.4. A simplified food web in Antarctic ecosystem.
1ust considci tlc simplc food clains of aictic tundia ccosystcm:
Cladonia Rcindcci Man
Ciass Caiibou Wolf
If duc to somc sticss, tlc population of icindcci oi Caiibou falls,
it vill lcavc littlc option foi man oi volf to cat fiom tlc ccosystcm.
Had tlcic bccn moic biodivcisity, it vould lavc lcd to complcx food
vcb giving tlc ccosystcm moic stability.
Significancc nf fnnd chains and fnnd wcbs
Iood clains and food vcbs play a vciy significant iolc in tlc
ccosystcm bccausc tlc tvo most impoitant functions of en-
ergy fIow and nutrIent cycIIng take pIace through them.
Ecosystems 73
Tlc food clains also lclp in maintaining and icgulating tlc
population sizc of diffcicnt animals and tlus, lclp maintain
tlc ecoIogIcaI baIance.
Iood clains slov a uniquc piopcity of binlngical magnifica-
tinn of somc clcmicals. Tlcic aic scvcial pcsticidcs, lcavy
mctals and otlci clcmicals vlicl aic non-biodcgiadablc in
natuic. Sucl clcmicals aic not dccomposcd by miciooigan-
isms and tlcy kccp on passing fiom onc tioplic lcvcl to an-
otlci. And, at cacl succcssivc tioplic lcvcl, tlcy kccp on in-
cicasing in conccntiation. Tlis plcnomcnon is knovn as
biomagnification oi biological magnification.
CASE STUDY
A build-up nf DDT cnnccntratinn : A stiiking casc of
biomagnification of OOT (a bioad iangc insccticidc) vas obscivcd
vlcn somc biids likc Ospicy vcic found to suffci a slaip dcclinc
in tlcii population. Tlc young oncs of tlcsc biids vcic found to
latcl out in picmatuic condition lcading to tlcii dcatl. Tlis vas
latci found to bc duc to bio-magnification of OOT tliougl tlc
food clain. OOT spiaycd foi pcst contiol vas in vciy lov
conccntiation, but its conccntiation incicascd along tlc food clain
tliougl plytoplanktons to zooplanktons and tlcn to fisl vlicl
vas catcn by tlc biids. Tlc conccntiation of OOT vas magnificd
scvcial tlousand timcs in tlc biids vlicl causcd tlinning of slclls
in tlc biids' cggs, causing dcatl of tlc young oncs.
It bccomcs vciy clcai fiom tlc abovc instancc tlat tlc animals
occupying tlc liglci tioplic lcvcls aic at a gicatci iisk of
biomagnification of toxic clcmicals. Human bcings consuming
milk, cggs and mcat aic at a liglci tioplic lcvcl. So, vc lavc to
stop indisciiminatc usc of pcsticidcs and lcavy mctals if vc visl
to savc ouisclvcs fiom tlcii biologically magnificd toxic lcvcls.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Craphic rcprcscntatinn nf trnphic structurc and functinn nf an ccnsys-
tcm, starting with prnduccrs at thc basc and succcssivc trnphic lcvcls
fnrming thc apcx is knnws as an ccnlngical pyramid. Ecological pyia-
mids aic of tlicc typcs:
Pyramid nf numbcrs: It icpicscnts tlc numbci of individual
oiganisms at cacl tioplic lcvcl. Wc may lavc uprtght oi tnvcrtcd pyiamid
of numbcis, dcpcnding upon tlc typc of ccosystcm and food clain as
slovn in Iig. 3.5. A giassland ccosystcm (Iig. 3.5a) and a pond
ccosystcm slov an upiiglt pyiamid of numbcis. Tlc pioduccis in tlc
giasslands aic giasscs and tlat in a pond aic plytoplanktons (algac
ctc.), vlicl aic small in sizc and vciy laigc in numbci. So tlc pioduccis
foim a bioad basc. Tlc lcibivoics in a giassland aic insccts vlilc
tcitiaiy cainivoics aic lavks oi otlci biids vlicl aic giadually lcss
and lcss in numbci and lcncc tlc pyiamid apcx bccomcs giadually
naiiovci foiming an upiiglt pyiamid. Similai is tlc casc vitl tlc
lcibivoics, cainivoics and top cainivoics in pond vlicl dccicasc in
numbci at liglci tioplic lcvcls.
Top carnivores
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers
Top carnivores
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers Trees
(a) (b)
Lion, Tiger
Snakes, foxes,
lizards
Insects, birds
Grasses
Insects
Frogs, birds
Hawks,
other birds
Hyper parasites Fleas, microbes
Herbivores Birds
Parasites Lice, bugs
Producers Trees
(c)
Fig. 3.5. Pyramid of numbers (a) grassland (b) forest (c) Parasitic food chain.
In a foicst ccosystcm, big ticcs aic tlc pioduccis, vlicl aic lcss
in numbci and lcncc foim a naiiov basc. A laigci numbci of lcibivoics
including biids, insccts and scvcial spccics of animals fccd upon tlc
ticcs (on lcavcs, fiuits, flovcis, baik ctc.) and foim a mucl bioadci
middlc lcvcl. Tlc sccondaiy consumcis likc fox, snakcs, lizaids ctc.
aic lcss in numbci tlan lcibivoics vlilc top cainivoics likc lion, tigci
ctc. aic still smallci in numbci. So tlc pyiamid is naiiov on botl sidcs
and bioadci in tlc middlc (Iig. 3.5 h).
Paiasitic food clain slovs an invcitcd pyiamid of numbci. Tlc
pioduccis likc a fcv big ticcs laiboui fiuit cating biids acting likc
Ecosystems 75
lcibivoics vlicl aic laigci in numbci. A mucl liglci numbci of licc,
bugs ctc. giov as paiasitcs on tlcsc biids vlilc a still gicatci numbci
of lypcipaiasitcs likc bugs, flcas and miciobcs fccd upon tlcm, tlus
making an invcitcd pyiamid (Iig. 3.5 c).
Pyramid nf binmass: It is bascd upon tlc total biomass (diy
mattci) at cacl tioplic lcvcl in a food clain. Tlc pyiamid of biomass
can also bc uprtght oi tnvcrtcd. Iig. 3.6 (a, h) slov pyiamids of biomass
in a foicst and an aquatic ccosystcm. Tlc pyiamid of biomass in a
foicst is upiiglt in contiast to its pyiamid of numbcis. Tlis is bccausc
tlc pioduccis (ticcs) accumulatc a lugc biomass vlilc tlc consumcis'
total biomass fccding on tlcm dcclincs at liglci tioplic lcvcls, icsulting
in bioad basc and naiioving top.
C
a
r
n
i
v
o
r
e
s
Herbivores
Producers
Snakes, frog, birds
Squirrel, rabbit,
insects
Grasses,
herbs
(a)
Carnivores
Tertiary Carnivores
Herbivores
P
r
o
d
u
c
e
r
s
Small fish
Big fish
Insects
Phytoplanktons
(b)
Fig. 3.6. Pyramid of biomass (a) Grassland (b) Pond.
Tlc pond ccosystcm slovs an invcitcd pyiamid of biomass
(Iig. 3.6 h). Tlc total biomass of pioduccis (plytoplanktons) is mucl
lcss as compaicd to lcibivoics (zooplanktons, insccts), Cainivoics
(Small fisl) and tcitiaiy cainivoics (big fisl). Tlus tlc pyiamid takcs
an invcitcd slapc vitl naiiov basc and bioad apcx.
Pyramid nf Encrgy: Tlc amount of cncigy picscnt at cacl tioplic
lcvcl is considcicd foi tlis typc of pyiamid. Pyiamid of cncigy givcs
tlc bcst icpicscntation of tlc tioplic iclationslips and it is alvays
uprtght.
At cvciy succcssivc tioplic lcvcl, tlcic is a lugc loss of cncigy
(about 9O%) in tlc foim of lcat, icspiiation ctc. Tlus, at cacl ncxt
liglci lcvcl only 1O% of tlc cncigy passcs on. Hcncc, tlcic is a slaip
dcclinc in cncigy lcvcl of cacl succcssivc tioplic lcvcl as vc movc fiom
pioduccis to top cainivoics. Tlcicfoic, tlc pyiamid of cncigy is alvays
upiiglt as slovn in Iig. 3.7.
Carnivores
Herbivores
Top carnivores
Producers
Fig. 3.7. Pyramid of energy.
ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
Ilov of cncigy in an ccosystcm takcs placc tliougl tlc food clain and
it is tlis cncigy flov vlicl kccps tlc ccosystcm going. Tlc most
impoitant fcatuic of tlis cncigy flov is tlat it is unidircctinnal oi nnc-
way flnw. Lnlikc tlc nutiicnts (likc caibon, nitiogcn, plosploius ctc.)
vlicl movc in a cyclic mannci and aic icuscd by tlc pioduccis aftci
floving tliougl tlc food clain, cncigy is not icuscd in tlc food clain.
Also, tlc flov of cncigy follovs tlc tvo lavs of Tlcimodynamics:
Ist law nf Thcrmndynamics statcs tlat cncigy can ncitlci bc
cicatcd noi bc dcstioycd but it can bc tiansfoimcd fiom onc foim to
anotlci. Tlc solai cncigy captuicd by tlc giccn plants (pioduccis) gcts
convcitcd into bioclcmical cncigy of plants and latci into tlat of
consumcis.
IInd law nf Thcrmndynamics statcs tlat cncigy dissipatcs as it is
uscd oi in otlci voids, its gcts convcitcd fiom a moic conccntiatcd to
dispciscd foim. As cncigy flovs tliougl tlc food clain, tlcic occuis
dissipation of cncigy at cvciy tioplic lcvcl. Tlc loss of cncigy takcs
placc tliougl icspiiation, loss of cncigy in locomotion, iunning, lunt-
ing and otlci activitics. At cvciy lcvcl tlcic is about 9O% loss of cncigy
and tlc cncigy tiansfciicd fiom onc tioplic lcvcl to tlc otlci is only
about 1O%.
Encrgy flnw mndcls: Tlc flov of cncigy tliougl vaiious tioplic
lcvcls in an ccosystcm can bc cxplaincd vitl tlc lclp of vaiious cncigy
flov modcls.
(a) Univcrsal cncrgy flnw mndcl: Encigy flov tliougl an
ccosystcm vas cxplaincd by E.P. Odum as tlc univcisal cncigy flov
modcl (Iig. 3.8). As tlc flov of cncigy takcs placc, tlcic is a giadual
loss of cncigy at cvciy lcvcl, tlcicby icsulting in lcss cncigy availablc
at ncxt tioplic lcvcl as indicatcd by naiiovci pipcs (cncigy flov) and
smallci boxcs (stoicd cncigy in biomass). Tlc loss of cncigy is mainly
tlc cncigy not utilizcd (NL). Tlis is tlc cncigy lost in locomotion,
Ecosystems 77
cxciction ctc. oi it is tlc cncigy lost in icspiiation (R) vlicl is foi
maintcnancc. Tlc icst of tlc cncigy is uscd foi pioduction (P).
I
A
P
Respiration
Biomass Standing
Output
energy
Input
energy
NU
Energy
storage
Fig. 3.8. Universal energy flow model applicable to all living
components (I = Energy input; A : assimilated energy ; P =
Production ; NU = Energy not used.
(h) Singlc channcl cncrgy flnw mndcl: Tlc flov of cncigy takcs
placc in a unidiicctional mannci tliougl a singlc clanncl of giccn
plants oi pioduccis to lcibivoics and cainivoics. Iig. 3.9 dcpicts sucl
a modcl and illustiatcd tlc giadual dcclinc in cncigy lcvcl duc to loss
of cncigy at cacl succcssivc tioplic lcvcl in a giazing food clain.
Herbivores
Carnivores
NU NA NU NA
Producers
I GPP NPP
Sunlight
Heat loss
R R R
Fig. 3.9. One-way energy flow model showing unidirectional flow
through primary producers, herbivores and carnivores. At each
successive trophic level there is huge loss of energy (I = Solar
energy input ; GPP = Gross primary production ; NPP = Net
primary production ; NU = Energy not used ; NA = Energy not
assimilated e.g. excretion ; R = Respiratory loss).
(c) Dnublc channcl nr Y-shapcd cncrgy flnw mndcl: In natuic,
botl giazing food clain and dctiitus food clain opciatc in tlc samc
ccosystcm. Hovcvci, somctimcs it is tlc giazing food clain vlicl
picdominatcs. It lappcns in maiinc ccosystcm vlcic piimaiy
pioduction in tlc opcn sca is limitcd and a majoi poition of it is catcn
by lcibivoious maiinc animals. Tlcicfoic, vciy littlc piimaiy
pioduction is lcft to bc passcd on to tlc dcad oi dctiitus compaitmcnt.
On tlc otlci land, in a foicst ccosystcm tlc lugc quantity of biomass
pioduccd cannot bc all consumcd by lcibivoics. Ratlci, a laigc
piopoition of tlc livc biomass cntcis into dctiitus (dcad) compaitmcnt
in tlc foim of littci. Hcncc tlc dctiitus food clain is moic impoitant
tlcic.
Tlc tvo clanncl oi Y-slapcd modcl of cncigy flov slovs tlc
passagc of cncigy tliougl tlcsc tvo clains, vlicl aic scpaiatcd in
timc and spacc (Iig 3.1O).
R
R
R R R
H
e
rb
ivo
re
s
R
D
D
D
S
t
o
r
a
g
e
Producers
(Trees)
Decomposers
Detritivores
Detritus food chain
(in soil)
Grazing food chain
( in forest canopy)
Carnivores
Respiration
Ground
level
Tree
canopy
Litter,
roots etc.
Fig. 3.10. Y-shaped or 2-channel energy flow model showing energy
flow through the grazing food chain and the detritus food chain (R =
Respiration, D = Detritus or dead matter).
NUTRIENT CYCLING
Bcsidcs cncigy flov, tlc otlci impoitant functional attiibutc of an
ccosystcm is nutiicnt cycling. Nutiicnts likc caibon, nitiogcn, sulplui,
oxygcn, lydiogcn, plosploius ctc. movc in ciiculai patls tliougl biotic
and abiotic componcnts and aic tlcicfoic knovn as bingcnchcmical
cyclcs. Watci also movcs in a cyclc, knovn as lydiological cyclc. Tlc
nutiicnts too movc tliougl tlc food clain and ultimatcly icacl tlc
Ecosystems 79
dctiitus compaitmcnt (containing dcad oiganic mattci) vlcic vaiious
micio-oiganisms caiiy out dccomposition. Vaiious oiganically bound
nutiicnts of dcad plants and animals aic convcitcd into inoiganic
substanccs by miciobial dccomposition tlat aic icadily uscd up by plants
(piimaiy pioduccis) and tlc cyclc staits aficsl.
Nitrogen cycle
Cycling of onc sucl impoitant nutiicnt nitiogcn is slovn in Iig. 3.11.
Nitiogcn is picscnt in tlc atmosplcic as N
2
in laigc amount (78%) and
it is fixcd citlci by tlc plysical pioccss of ligltcning oi biologically by
somc bactciia and/oi cyanobactciia (bluc giccn algac). Tlc nitiogcn
is takcn up by plants and uscd in mctabolism foi biosyntlcsis of amino
acids, piotcins, vitamins ctc. and passcs tliougl tlc food clain. Aftci
dcatl of tlc plants and animals, tlc oiganic nitiogcn in dcad tissucs is
dccomposcd by scvcial gioups of ammonifying and nitiifying bactciia
vlicl convcit tlcm into ammonia, nitiitcs and nitiatcs, vlicl aic again
uscd by plants. Somc bactciia convcit nitiatcs, into molcculai nitiogcn
oi N
2
vlicl is iclcascd back into tlc atmosplcic and tlc cyclc gocs
on.
Nitrates
Nitrites
Ammonia
Organic
Nitrogen
(Proteins, amino acids)
Animals Animal
protoplasm
Industrial
activities
Litho-
sphere
(soil)
Death
and Deacy
Plant
protoplasm
Excretion
Fertilizer
Runoff
(Eutrophication)
Shallow marine
sediments
Nitrification
Ammonification
N
2
NO
X
Volcanic
eruptions
Acid rain
Biological
N fixation
2
Electrification
Loss to deep
sediments
Denitrification
Nitrogen
Acid
rain
Atmosphere
(Urea, uric
acid)
Hydro-
sphere
Fig. 3.11. Nitrogen cyclea gaseous cycle with major reserve
as N
2
(78%) in the atmosphere. Circulation of N- between living
components and soil/atmosphere is mediated by a group of
micro-organisms which convert one form of N into another.
Carbon Cycle
Somctimcs luman intcifcicnccs distuib tlc noimal cycling of sucl
nutiicnts and cicatc imbalanccs. Ioi cxamplc, natuic las a vciy bal-
anccd caibon cyclc (Iig. 3.12). Caibon, in tlc foim of caibon dioxidc
is takcn up by giccn plants as a iav matciial foi plotosyntlcsis, tliougl
vlicl a vaiicty of caibolydiatcs and otlci oiganic substanccs aic pio-
duccd. Tliougl tlc food clain it movcs and ultimatcly oiganic caibon
picscnt in tlc dcad mattci is ictuincd to tlc atmosplcic as caibon
dioxidc by miciooiganisms. Rcspiiation by all oiganisms pioduccs
caibon dioxidc, vlilc tlc lattci is uscd up by plants.
In tlc icccnt ycais caibon dioxidc lcvcls lavc incicascd in tlc
atmosplcic duc to buining of fossil fucls ctc. vlicl las causcd an
imbalancc in tlc natuial cyclc and tlc voild today is facing tlc sciious
pioblcm of global vaiming duc to cnlanccd caibon dioxidc cmissions.
Carbonates, CO
2
Dead organic
matter
(Organic
carbon)
Microbial
action
Atmospheric
Carbondioxide
(CO )
2
A
n
i
m
a
l
r
e
s
p
ir
a
tio
n
P
l
a
n
t
r
e
s
p
i
r
a
t
i
o
n
Fossil fuel
burning
D
e
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n CO fixation
(by aquatic plants)
2
Direct
absorption
C
O
f
i
x
a
t
i
o
n

b
y
2
t
e
r
r
e
s
t
r
i
a
l
p
l
a
n
t
s
Fig. 3.12. Carbon cycle.
Phosphorus cycle
Plosploious cyclc is anotlci impoitant nutiicnt cyclc-vlicl is slovn
in Iig. 3.13. Tlc icscivoii of plosploius lics in tlc iocks, fossils ctc.
vlicl is cxcavatcd by man foi using it as a fcitilizci. Iaimcis usc tlc
plosplatc fcitilizcis indisciiminatcly and as a icsult cxccss plosplatcs
aic lost as iun-off, vlicl causcs tlc pioblcm of cutioplication oi
ovcinouiislmcnt of lakcs lcading to algal blooms as alicady discusscd
Ecosystems 81
Guano(P-rich)
deposits
Phosphate
rocks
fossil, bones,
teeth
P-reserves
Erosion
Mining
Dissolved phosphate
Fertilizers
(PO )
4
Loss to deep
marine sediments
Eutro-
phication
Runoff
Sea birds
Excreta
Marine
fish etc.
Phosph
a
tiz
in
g
b
a
c
t
e
r
i
a
Death and
decay
Animal
protoplasm
Bones and
teeth
Plant
protoplasm
Plant
uptake
Fig. 3.13. Phosphorus cyclea sedimentary cycle with major
reserves of phosphorus in the sediments.
in unit 2. A good piopoition of plosplatcs moving vitl suifacc iun-
off icaclcs tlc occans and aic lost into tlc dccp scdimcnts. Oui limitcd
supply of plosploius lying in tlc plosplatc iocks of tlis caitl aic
tlus ovci-cxploitcd by man and a laigc pait is takcn out of tlc noimal
cyclc duc to loss into occans. So luman bcings aic making tlc
plosploious cyclc acyclic. Sca biids, on tlc otlci land, aic playing an
impoitant iolc in plosploius cycling. Tlcy cat sca-fislcs vlicl aic
plosploius iicl and tlc dioppings oi cxcicta of tlc biids ictuin tlc
plosploius on tlc land. Tlc Cuano dcposits on tlc coasts of Pciu aic
vciy iicl souiccs of plosploius.
PRIMARY PRODUCTION
Primary prnductivity nf an ccnsystcm is dcfincd as thc ratc at which
radiant cncrgy is cnnvcrtcd intn nrganic substanccs by phntnsyn-
thcsis nr chcmn-synthcsis by thc primary prnduccrs.
Wlcn oiganic mattci is pioduccd by tlc piimaiy pioduccis
(mainly giccn plants and somc miciooiganisms), somc of it is oxidizcd
oi buint insidc tlcii body and convcitcd into caibon-dioxidc vlicl is
iclcascd duiing icspiiation and is accompanicd by loss of cncigy.
Rcspiiatoiy loss of cncigy is a must, bccausc it is icquiicd foi tlc
maintcnancc of tlc oiganism. Nov, tlc pioduccis aic lcft vitl a littlc
lcss oiganic mattci tlan vlat vas actually pioduccd by tlcm. Tlis is
knovn as tlc nct primary prnductinn (NPP) and tlc icspiiatoiy loss
(R) addcd to it givcs tlc grnss primary prnductinn (CPP).
Tlus, NPP = CPP R.
Piimaiy pioduction of an ccosystcm dcpcnds upon tlc solai
iadiations, availability of vatci and nutiicnts and upon tlc typc of tlc
plants and tlcii clloioplyll contcnt. Tablc 3.1 slovs tlc avciagc gioss
piimaiy pioductivity of somc majoi ccosystcms.
Tablc 3.1. Annual avcragc nf grnss primary prnductinn
nf snmc ma|nr ccnsystcms
Ecnsystcm Crnss Primary Prnductivity
(K Cal/m
2
/yr)
Ocscits and Tundia 2OO
Opcn Occans 1,OOO
Ciasslands 2,5OO
Moist Tcmpciatc Ioicsts 8,OOO
Agio-ccosystcms 12,OOO
Wct Tiopical Ioicsts 2O,OOO
Estuaiics 2O,OOO
Pioductivity of tiopical foicsts and cstuaiics aic tlc liglcst. Tlis
is bccausc tiopical foicsts lavc abundant iainfall, vaim tcmpciatuic
congcnial foi giovtl, abundant sunliglt and a iicl divcisity of spccics.
Estuaiics gct natuial cncigy subsidics in tlc foim of vavc cuiicnts tlat
biing along vitl tlcm nutiicnts icquiicd foi pioduction.
Ocscits on tlc otlci land, lavc limitations of adcquatc vatci
supply vlilc Tundia lavc vciy lov tcmpciatuic as limiting factoi and
lcncc slov lov piimaiy pioduction.
Agio-ccosystcms gct lots of cncigy subsidics in tlc foim of
iiiigation vatci, good quality sccds, fcitilizcis and pcsticidcs and slov
a ligl pioductivity of 12,OOO K Cal/m
2
/yi. Still, it is notcvoitly tlat
tlcii pioductivity is lcss tlan tlat of tiopical foicsts vlicl aic not
iccciving any aitificial cncigy subsidics. Natuic itsclf las dcsigncd its
spccics composition, stiuctuic, cncigy captuic and flov, and a closcd
nutiicnt cycling systcm tlat cnsuics a ligl piimaiy pioduction of 2O,OOO
K Cal/m
2
/yi. Also, tlc qualitativc vaiicty of tlc piimaiy pioduction is
cnoimous in tlc tiopical foicsts. Tlis makcs it all tlc moic impoitant
to conscivc oui tiopical foicsts.
Ecosystems 83
Secondary Production
Tlc food syntlcsizcd by giccn plants tliougl plotosyntlcsis is tlc
piimaiy pioduction vlicl is catcn by lcibivoics. Tlc plant cncigy is
uscd up foi pioducing oiganic mattci of tlc lcibivoics vlicl, in tuin,
is uscd up by tlc cainivoics. Tlc amount of oiganic mattci stoicd by
tlc lcibivoics oi cainivoics (in cxccss of icspiiatoiy loss) is knovn as
sccondaiy pioduction. Thc cncrgy stnrcd at cnnsumcr lcvcl fnr usc
by thc ncxt trnphic lcvcl is thus dcfincd as sccnndary prnductinn.
ECOSYSTEM REGULATION
All ccosystcms icgulatc tlcmsclvcs and maintain tlcmsclvcs undci a
sct of cnviionmcntal conditions. Any cnviionmcntal sticss tiics to
distuib tlc noimal ccosystcm functions. Hovcvci, tlc ccosystcm, by
itsclf, tiics to icsist tlc clangc and maintain itsclf in cquilibiium vitl
tlc cnviionmcnt duc to a piopcity knovn as hnmcnstasis. Hnmcnstasis
is thc inhcrcnt prnpcrty nf all living systcms tn rcsist changc.
Hovcvci, tlc systcm can slov tlis tolciancc oi icsistancc only vitlin
a maximum and a minimum iangc, vlicl is its iangc of tolciancc
knovn as hcmccstattc platcau. Witlin tlis iangc, if any sticss tiics to
causc a dcviation, tlcn tlc systcm las its ovn mcclanisms to countciact
tlcsc dcviations vlicl aic knovn as ncgativc fccdback mcchanisms.
Sn ncgativc fccdback mcchanisms arc dcviatinn cnuntcracting
mcchanisms which try tn bring thc systcm back tn its idcal
cnnditinns. But, if tlc sticss is too ligl and bcyond tlc iangc of
lomcostatic platcau, tlcn anotlci typc of mcclanisms knovn as
pnsitivc fccdback mcchanisms stait opciating. Tlcsc aic tlc dcviation
accclciating mcclanisms. Sn thc pnsitivc fccdback mcchanisms add
tn thc strcss cnnditinns and tcnd tn takc thc systcm away frnm thc
nptimal cnnditinns. Iig. 3.14 dcpicts tlc ccosystcm icgulation
mcclanisms.
Human bcings slould tiy to kccp tlc ccosystcms vitlin tlc
lomcostatic platcau. Tlcy slould not contiibutc to positivc fccdbacks
otlcivisc tlc ccosystcms vill collapsc.
ve
Feedback
ve
Feedback
+ ve Feedback
Death or collapse
() (+)
O
Stress conditions
S
y
s
t
e
m

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
+ ve
Feedback
Death or
collapse
Homeostatic
plateau
Fig. 3.14. Ecosystem regulation by homeostasis. On application of a
stress, the negative feedback mechanisms start operating, trying to
counter the stress to regulate the system. But beyond the homeostatic
plateau, positive feedback starts which further accelerate the stress
effects causing death or collapse of the organism/system.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
An ccosystcm is not static in natuic. It is dynamic and clangcs its
stiuctuic as vcll as function vitl timc and quitc intcicstingly, tlcsc
clangcs aic vciy oidcily and can bc picdictcd. It is obscivcd tlat onc
typc of a community is totally icplaccd by anotlci typc of community
ovci a pciiod of timc and simultancously scvcial clangcs also occui.
Tlis pioccss is knovn as ccological succcssion.
Ecnlngical succcssinn is dcfincd as an nrdcrly prnccss nf changcs
in thc cnmmunity structurc and functinn with timc mcdiatcd thrnugh
mndificatinns in thc physical cnvirnnmcnt and ultimatcly
culminating in a stabilizcd ccnsystcm knnwn as climax. Tlc vlolc
scqucncc of communitics vlicl aic tiansitoiy aic knovn as Scral stagcs
oi scrcs vlcicas tlc community cstablisling fiist of all in tlc aica is
callcd a ptcnccr community.
Ecological succcssions staiting on diffcicnt typcs of aicas oi
substiata aic namcd diffcicntly as follovs:
(t) Hydrarch nr Hydrnscrc: Staiting in vatciy aica likc pond,
svamp, bog
Ecosystems 85
(tt) Mcsarch: staiting in an aica of adcquatc moistuic.
(ttt) Xcrarch nr Xcrnscrc: Staiting in a diy aica vitl littlc
moistuic. Tlcy can bc of tlc folloving typcs:
Litloscic : staiting on a baic iock
Psammoscic : staiting on sand
Haloscic : staiting on salinc soil
Process of Succession
Tlc pioccss of succcssion takcs placc in a systcmatic oidci of scqucntial
stcps as follovs:
(t) Nudatinn: It is tlc dcvclopmcnt of a baic aica vitlout any
lifc foim. Tlc baic aica may bc causcd duc to landslidcs, volcanic
ciuption ctc. (topogiaplic factoi), oi duc to diouglt, glacicis, fiost ctc.
(Climatic factoi), oi duc to ovcigiazing, discasc outbicak, agiicultuial/
industiial activitics (biotic factois).
(tt) Invasinn: It is tlc succcssful cstablislmcnt of onc oi moic
spccics on a baic aica tliougl dispcrsal oi migratinn, follovcd by
cccsis oi cstablishmcnt. Oispcisal of tlc sccds, spoics ctc. is biouglt
about by vind, vatci, insccts oi biids. Tlcn tlc sccds gciminatc and
giov on tlc land. As giovtl and icpioduction stait, tlcsc pinnccr
spccics incicasc in numbci and foim gioups oi aggrcgatinns.
(ttt) Cnmpctitinn and cnactinn: As tlc numbci of individuals
giovs tlcic is compctition, botl intci-spccific (bctvccn diffcicnt
spccics) and intia-spccific (vitlin tlc samc spccics), foi spacc, vatci
and nutiition. Tlcy influcncc cacl otlci in a numbci of vays, knovn
as cnactinn.
(tv) Rcactinn: Tlc living oiganisms giov, usc vatci and nutiicnts
fiom tlc substiatum, and in tuin, tlcy lavc a stiong influcncc on tlc
cnviionmcnt vlicl is modificd to a laigc cxtcnt and tlis is knovn as
rcactinn. Tlc modifications aic vciy oftcn sucl tlat tlcy bccomc
unsuitablc foi tlc cxisting spccics and favoui somc ncv spccics, vlicl
icplacc tlcm. Tlus, icaction lcads to scvcial scral cnmmunitics.
(v) Stabilizatinn: Tlc succcssion ultimatcly culminatcs in a moic
oi lcss stablc community callcd climax vlicl is in cquilibiium vitl
tlc cnviionmcnt.
Tlc climax community is claiactciizcd by maximum biomass
and symbiotic (mutually bcncficial) linkagcs bctvccn oiganisms and
aic maintaincd quitc cfficicntly pci unit of availablc cncigy.
Lct us considci vciy biicfly tvo typcs of succcssion.
A. Hydrnscrc (Hydrarch): Tlis typc of succcssion staits in a vatci
body likc pond. A numbci of intcimcdiatc stagcs comc and ultimatcly
it culminatcs in a climax community vlicl is a foicst.
Tlc pioncci community consists of plytoplanktons, vlicl aic
ficc floating algac, diatoms ctc. Ciadually tlcsc aic icplaccd by iootcd-
submcigcd plants follovcd by iootcd-floating plants. Ciovtl of tlcsc
plants kccp on adding oiganic mattci to tlc substiatum by dcatl and
Free floating stage
(a) Open water body (lake), sediment brought in by river.
Sediment
Rooted floating stage
(b) Sediment accumulation continues, organic debris from plants too
add to soil formation and shrinking of water body occurs.
Soil with standing water
Marshy vegetation
(c) A mat of vegetation covers the water which is mostly a
marshy habitat now, with a small part as aquatic system.
Ecosystems 87
Soil
Woodland Stage
(d) Eventually the former lake is covered by climax woodland
community, representating a terrestrial ecosystem.
Fig. 3.15. Ecological succession: A hydrachfrom lake
to woodland community.
dccay and tlus a layci of soil builds up and slalloving of vatci takcs
placc. Tlcn Rccd svamp (maisly) stagc follovs in vlicl tlc plants
aic paitly in vatci and paitly on land. Tlis is follovcd by a scdgc-
mcadov stagc of giasscs tlcn by a voodland consisting of sliubs and
ticcs and finally by a foicst acting as climax. (Iig. 3.15)
B. Xcrnscrc (Xcrarch): Tlis typc of succcssion oiiginatcs on a
baic iock, vlicl lacks vatci and oiganic mattci. Intcicstingly, lcic
also tlc climax community is a foicst, altlougl tlc intcimcdiatc stagcs
aic vciy diffcicnt.
Tlc pioncci community lcic consists of ciustosc and foliosc
liclcns. Tlcsc liclcns pioducc somc vcak acids and lclp in
disintcgiating tlc iock, a pioccss knovn as wcathcrtng. Tlcii giovtl
lclps in building up giadually somc oiganic mattci, lumus and soil.
Tlcn comcs tlc community of mosscs, follovcd by lcibs, sliubs and
finally tlc foicst ticcs. Tliouglout tlis giadual pioccss tlcic is a slov
build up of oiganic mattci and vatci in tlc substiatum.
Tlus, succcssion tcnds to movc tovaids mcsic conditions
(modciatc condition), iiicspcctivc of tlc fact, vlctlci it staitcd fiom a
diy (Xciic) condition oi a moist (lydiic) condition and it culminatcs in
a stablc climax community, vlicl is usually a foicst.
MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES
Lct us considci typcs, claiactciistic fcatuics, stiuctuic and functions
of somc majoi ccosystcms.
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Tlcsc aic tlc ccosystcms laving a picdominancc of ticcs tlat aic
intcispciscd vitl a laigc numbci of spccics of lcibs, sliubs, climbcis,
liclcns, algac and a vidc vaiicty of vild animals and biids. As discusscd
abovc foicsts aic found in undistuibcd aicas iccciving modciatc to ligl
iainfall and usually occui as stablc climax communitics.
Ocpcnding upon tlc picvailing climatic conditions foicsts can bc
of vaiious typcs:
(a) Trnpical Rain Fnrcsts: Tlcy aic cvcigiccn bioadlcaf foicsts
found ncai tlc cquatoi. Tlcy aic claiactciizcd by ligl tcmpciatuic,
ligl lumidity and ligl iainfall, all of vlicl favoui tlc giovtl of ticcs.
All tliougl tlc ycai tlc climatc icmains moic oi lcss unifoim. Tlcy
aic tlc iiclcst in biodivcisity. Oiffcicnt foims of lifc occupy spccializcd
aicas (niclcs) vitlin diffcicnt laycis and spaccs of tlc ccosystcm
dcpcnding upon tlcii nccds foi food, sunliglt, vatci, nutiicnt ctc.
Wc comc acioss diffcicnt typcs and laycis of plants and animals
in tlc tiopical iain foicsts. c.g. tlc cmcrgcnt laycr is tlc topmost layci
of tlc tallcst bioad-lcaf cvcigiccn ticcs, bclov vlicl lics tlc cannpy
vlcic top bianclcs of sloitci ticcs foim an umbiclla likc covci. Bclov
tlis is picscnt tlc undcrstnry of still smallci ticcs. On tlc ticc tiunks
somc voody climbcis aic found to giov vlicl aic knovn as Lianas.
Tlcic aic somc otlci plants likc Orchids vlicl aic cpiphytcs i.c. tlcy
aic attaclcd to tlc tiunks oi bianclcs of big ticcs and tlcy takc up
vatci and nutiicnts falling fiom abovc. Tlc oiclids lavc spccial typc
of lcavcs to captuic and lold tlc vatci. Scmc largc cptphytcs can hcld as
much as 4 lttrcs cf watcr, cqutvalcnt tc a small huckct! Tlus, tlcsc cpiplytcs
almost act likc mini-ponds suspcndcd up in tlc aii, in tlc foicst ciovn.
Tlat is tlc icason vly a laigc vaiicty of biids, insccts and animals likc
monkcys lavc madc tlcii natuial lomcs (labitats) in tlcsc foicsts
(Platc II).
Tlc undcistoicy ticcs usually icccivc vciy dim sunliglt. Tlcy
usually dcvclop daik giccn lcavcs vitl ligl clloioplyll contcnt so tlat
tlcy can usc tlc diffuscd sunliglt foi plotosyntlcsis. Tlc shrub laycr
icccivcs cvcn lcss sunliglt and tlc grnund laycr commonly knovn as
fnrcst flnnr icccivcs almost no sunliglt and is a daik layci. Most of tlc
animals likc bats, biids, insccts ctc. occupy tlc biiglt canopy layci vlilc
monkcys, toads, snakcs, clamclcons ctc. kccp on moving up and dovn
in sunny and daikci laycis. Tcimitcs, fungi, musliooms ctc. giov on
tlc giound layci. Waim tcmpciatuic and ligl availability of moistuic
facilitatc iapid bicakdovn (dccomposition) of tlc dioppcd lcavcs, tvigs
ctc. iclcasing tlc nutiicnts iapidly. Tlcsc nutiicnts aic immcdiatcly
takcn up by tlc mycnrrhizal ioots of tlc ticcs.
Ecosystems 89
Plate II. Tropical rain forest.
Intcicstingly, tlc flovcis of foicst ticcs aic vciy laigc, colouiful,
fiagiant and attiactivc vlicl lclps in pollination by insccts, biids, bats
ctc. Rafflcsta arncldt, tlc biggcst flovci (7 kg vciglt) is knovn to smcll
likc iottcn mcat and attiacts flics and bcctlcs vlicl lclp in its pollination
(Platc III).
Plate III. Rafflesiathe biggest flower.
Tlc Silcnt Vallcy in Kciala is tlc only tiopical iain foicst lying in
India vlicl is tlc natuial labitat foi a vidc vaiicty of spccics.
Bcing tlc stoic-lousc of biodivcisity, tlc foicsts piovidc us vitl
an aiiay of commcicial goods likc timbci, fucl vood, diugs, icsins,
gums ctc. Lnfoitunatcly tlcic is cutting dovn of tlcsc foicsts at an
alaiming iatc. Witlin tlc ncxt 3O-4O ycais vc aic likcly to bc lcft vitl
only scattcicd fiagmcnts of sucl foicsts, tlcicby losing tlc iicl
biodivcisity and tlc ccological uscs of foicsts, discusscd cailici in unit
II.
(h) Trnpical dccidunus fnrcsts: Tlcy aic found a littlc avay fiom
tlc cquatoi and aic claiactciizcd by a vaim climatc tlc ycai iound.
Rain occuis only duiing monsoon. A laigc pait of tlc ycai icmains
diy and tlcicfoic diffcicnt typcs of dcciduous ticcs aic found lcic,
vlicl losc tlcii lcavcs duiing diy scason.
(c) Trnpical scrub fnrcsts: Tlcy aic found in aicas vlcic tlc
diy scason is cvcn longci. Hcic tlcic aic small dcciduous ticcs and
sliubs.
(d) Tcmpcratc rain fnrcsts: Tlcy aic found in tcmpciatc aicas
vitl adcquatc iainfall. Tlcsc aic dominatcd by conifcious ticcs likc
pincs, fiis, icdvoods ctc. Tlcy also consist of somc cvcigiccn bioad-
lcaf ticcs.
(c) Tcmpcratc dccidunus fnrcsts: Tlcy aic found in aicas vitl
modciatc tcmpciatuics. Tlcic is a maikcd scasonality vitl long sum-
mcis, cold but not too scvcic vintci and abundant iainfall tliouglout
tlc ycai. Tlc majoi ticcs includc bioad lcaf dcciduous ticcs likc oak,
lickoiy, poplai ctc.
(f ) Evcrgrccn cnnifcrnus fnrcsts (Bnrcal Fnrcsts): Tlcy aic
found just soutl of aictic tundia. Hcic vintcis aic long, cold and diy.
Sunliglt is availablc foi a fcv louis only. In summci tlc tcmpciatuic
is mild, sun-slincs foi long louis but tlc scason is quitc sloit. Tlc
majoi ticcs includc pincs, spiucc, fii, ccdai ctc. vlicl lavc tiny, ncc-
dlc-slapcd lcavcs laving a vaxy coating so tlat tlcy can vitlstand
scvcic cold and diouglt. Tlc soil is found to gct fiozcn duiing vintci
vlcn fcv spccics can suivivc. Tlc lcavcs, also knov as nccdlcs, fall on
tlc foicst flooi and covci tlc nutiicnt pooi soil. Tlcsc soils aic acidic
and picvcnt otlci plants fiom gioving. Spccics divcisity is iatlci lov
in tlcsc foicsts.
Ecosystems 91
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS
Ciasslands aic dominatcd by giass spccics but somctimcs also allov
tlc giovtl of a fcv ticcs and sliubs. Rainfall is avciagc but ciiatic.
Limitcd giazing lclps to impiovc tlc nct piimaiy pioduction of tlc
giasslands but ovcigiazing lcads to dcgiadation of tlcsc giasslands
icsulting in dcscitification. Tlicc typcs of giasslands aic found to occui
in diffcicnt climatic icgions:
(a) Trnpical grasslands: Tlcy occui ncai tlc boidcis of tiopical
iain foicsts in icgions of ligl avciagc tcmpciatuic and lov to modciatc
iainfall. In Afiica, tlcsc aic typically knovn as Savannas, vlicl lavc
tall giasscs vitl scattcicd sliubs and stuntcd ticcs. Tlc Savannas lavc
a vidc divcisity of animals including zcbias, giiaffcs, gazcllc, antclopcs
ctc. Ouiing diy scason, fiics aic quitc common. Tcimitc mounds aic
vciy common lcic. Tlc tcimitcs gatlci tlc dctiitus (dcad oiganic
mattci) containing a lot of ccllulosc and build up a mound. On tlc top
of tlc mound fungi aic found to giov vlicl fccd upon tlis dcad mattci
including ccllulosc and in tuin iclcasc mctlanc, a giccnlousc gas.
Tiopical savannas lavc a liglly cfficicnt systcm of
plotosyntlcsis. Most of tlc caibon assimilatcd by tlcm in tlc foim of
caibolydiatcs is in tlc pcicnnating bulbs, ilizomcs, iunncis ctc. vlicl
aic picscnt undcigiound. Oclibciatc buining of tlcsc giasslands can
iclasc lugc quantitics of caibon dioxidc, anotlci giccn lousc gas,
icsponsiblc foi global vaiming.
(h) Tcmpcratc grasslands: Tlcy aic usually found on flat, gcntlc
slopcd lills, vintcis aic vciy cold but summcis aic lot and diy. Intcnsc
giazing and summci fiics do not allov sliubs oi ticcs to giov.
In Lnitcd Statcs and Canada tlcsc giasslands aic knovn as
prairics, in Soutl Amciica as Pampas, in Afiica as Vclds and in ccntial
Euiopc and Asia tlcy aic knovn as Stcppcs.
Winds kccp bloving and cvapoiation iatc is vciy ligl. It also
favouis iapid fiics in summci. Tlc soils aic quitc fcitilc and tlcicfoic,
vciy oftcn tlcsc giasslands aic clcaicd foi agiicultuic.
(c) Pnlar grasslands (Arctic Tundra): Tlcy aic found in aictic
polai icgion vlcic scvcic cold and stiong, fiigid vinds along vitl icc
and snov cicatc too laisl a climatc foi ticcs to giov. In summcis tlc
sun-slincs almost iound tlc clock and lcncc scvcial small annual plants
giov in tlc summci. Tlc animals includc aictic volf, vcascl, aictic
fox, icindcci ctc. A tlick layci of icc icmains fiozcn undci tlc soil
suifacc tliouglout tlc ycai and is knovn as pcrmafrnst. In summci,
tlc tundia slovs tlc appcaiancc of slallov lakcs, bogs ctc. vlcic
mosquitocs, diffcicnt typc of insccts and migiatoiy biids appcai.
DESERT ECOSYSTEMS
Tlcsc ccosystcms occui in icgions vlcic cvapoiation cxcccds
piccipitation (iainfall, snov ctc.). Tlc piccipitation is lcss tlan 25 cm
pci ycai. About 1/3id of oui voild's land aica is covcicd by dcscits.
Ocscits lavc littlc spccics divcisity and consist of diouglt icsistant oi
diouglt avoiding plants. Tlc atmosplcic is vciy diy and lcncc it is a
pooi insulatoi. Tlat is vly in dcscits tlc soil gcts coolcd up quickly,
making tlc niglts cool. Ocscits aic of tlicc majoi typcs, bascd on
climatic conditions:
(a) Trnpical dcscrts likc Salaia and Namib in Afiica and Tlai
dcscit, Rajastlan, India aic tlc diicst of all vitl only a fcv spccics.
Wind blovn sand duncs aic vciy common.
(h) Tcmpcratc dcscrts likc Mojavc in Soutlcin Califoinia vlcic
day timc tcmpciatuics aic vciy lot in summci but cool in vintcis.
(c) Cnld dcscrts likc tlc Cobi dcscit in Clina las cold vintcis
and vaim summcis.
Ocscit plants and animals aic laving most typical adaptations
foi conscivation of vatci. Many dcscit plants aic found to lavc ic-
duccd, scaly lcavcs so as to cut dovn loss of vatci duc to tianspiiation
oi lavc succulcnt lcavcs to stoic vatci. Many a timcs tlcii stcms gct
flattcncd and dcvclop clloioplyll so tlat tlcy can takc up tlc function
of plotosyntlcsis. Somc plants slov vciy dccp ioots to tap tlc
gioundvatci. Many plants lavc a vaxy, tlick cuticlc ovci tlc lcaf to
icducc loss of vatci tliougl tianspiiation. Ocscit animals likc insccts
and icptilcs lavc tlick outci covciings to minimizc loss of vatci. Tlcy
usually livc insidc buiiovs vlcic lumidity is bcttci and lcat is lcss.
Ocscit soil is iicl in nutiicnts but dcficicnt in vatci.
Ouc to lov spccics divcisity, sloitagc of vatci and slov giovtl
iatc, tlc dcscit plant communitics, if faccd vitl a scvcic sticss takc a
long timc to iccovci.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Aquatic ccosystcms dcaling vitl vatci bodics and tlc biotic
communitics picscnt in tlcm aic citlci ficslvatci oi maiinc.
Iicslvatci ccosystcms aic fuitlci of standing typc (lcntic) likc ponds
and lakcs oi ficc-floving typc (lntic), likc iivcis. Lct us considci somc
impoitant aquatic ccosystcms.
(a) Pnnd ccnsystcm: It is a small ficslvatci aquatic ccosystcm
vlcic vatci is stagnant. Ponds may bc scasonal in natuic i.c. iccciving
Ecosystems 93
cnougl vatci duiing iainy scason. Ponds aic usually slallov vatci
bodics vlicl play a vciy impoitant iolc in tlc villagcs vlcic most of
tlc activitics ccntci aiound ponds. Tlcy contain scvcial typcs of algac,
aquatic plants, insccts, fislcs and biids. Tlc ponds aic, lovcvci, vciy
oftcn cxposcd to ticmcndous antliopogcnic (luman-gcnciatcd) pics-
suics. Tlcy aic uscd foi vasling clotlcs, batling, svimming, cattlc
batling and diinking ctc. and tlcicfoic gct pollutcd.
(h) Lakc ccnsystcms: Lakcs aic usually big ficslvatci bodics vitl
standing vatci. Tlcy lavc a slallov vatci zonc callcd Littnral znnc,
an opcn-vatci zonc vlcic cffcctivc pcnctiation of solai liglt takcs placc,
callcd Limnctic znnc and a dccp bottom aica vlcic liglt pcnctiation
is ncgligiblc, knovn as prnfundal znnc (Iig. 3.16).
Rooted
plants
Littoral zone
Limnetic zone
Compensation
Profundal zone
(Dark)
level
Euphotic zone
(High productivity)
Aphotic zone
(Little productivity)
Fig. 3.16. Zonation in a lake ecosystem.
Tlc Oal Lakc in Siinagai (1 & K), Naini Lakc in Nainital
(Lttaianclal) and Loktak lakc in Manipui aic somc of tlc famous
lakcs of oui countiy.
Organisms : Tlc lakcs lavc scvcial typcs of oiganisms:
(a) Planktnns tlat float on tlc suifacc of vatcis c.g. phytcplanktcns
likc algac and zccplanktcns likc iotifcis.
(h) Ncktnns tlat svim c.g. fislcs.
(c) Ncustnns tlat icst oi svim on tlc suifacc.
(d) Bcnthns tlat aic attaclcd to bottom scdimcnts c.g. snails.
(c) Pcriphytnns tlat aic attaclcd oi clinging to otlci plants oi
any otlci suifacc c.g. ciustaccans.
Stratificatinn : Tlc lakcs slov stiatification oi zonation bascd
on tcmpciatuic diffcicnccs. Ouiing summci, tlc top vatcis bccomc
vaimci tlan tlc bottom vatcis. Tlcicfoic, only tlc vaim top layci
ciiculatcs vitlout mixing vitl tlc coldci layci, tlus foiming a distinct
zonation:
Epilimninn : Waim, ligltci, ciiculating suifacc layci
Hypnlimninn : Cold, viscous, non-ciiculating bottom layci.
In bctvccn tlc tvo laycis is thcrmnclinc, tlc icgion of slaip diop
in tcmpciatuic.
Typcs nf Lakcs : Somc impoitant typcs of lakcs aic:
(a) Oligntrnphic lakcs vlicl lavc lov nutiicnt conccntiations.
(h) Eutrnphic lakcs vlicl aic ovcinouiislcd by nutiicnts likc
nitiogcn and plosploius, usually as a icsult of agiicultuial
iun-off oi municipal scvagc disclaigc. Tlcy aic covcicd vitl
"algal blooms" c.g. Oal Lakc.
(c) Dystrnphic lakcs tlat lavc lov pH, ligl lumic acid contcnt
and biovn vatcis c.g. bog lakcs.
(d) Endcmic lakcs tlat aic vciy ancicnt, dccp and lavc cndcmic
fauna vlicl aic icstiictcd only to tlat lakc c.g. tlc Lakc Baikal
in Russia, tlc dccpcst lakc, vlicl is nov suffciing a tlicat
duc to industiial pollution.
(c) Dcscrt salt lakcs tlat occui in aiid icgions and lavc dcvcl-
opcd ligl salt conccntiations as a icsult of ligl cvapoiation.
c.g. gicat salt lakc, Ltal, Samblai lakc in Rajastlan.
(f ) Vnlcanic lakcs tlat icccivc vatci fiom magma aftci volcanic
ciuptions c.g. many lakcs in 1apan. Tlcy lavc liglly icstiictcd
biota.
(g) Mcrnmictic lakcs tlat aic iicl in salts and aic pcimancntly
stiatificd c.g. lakc Ncvada.
(h) Artificial lakcs nr impnundmcnts tlat aic cicatcd duc to con-
stiuction of dams c.g. Covindsagai lakc at Blakia-Nangal.
Streams
Tlcsc aic ficslvatci aquatic ccosystcms vlcic vatci cuiicnt is a majoi
contiolling factoi, oxygcn and nutiicnt in tlc vatci is moic unifoim
and land-vatci cxclangc is moic cxtcnsivc. Altlougl sticam oiganisms
lavc to facc moic cxticmcs of tcmpciatuic and action of cuiicnts as
compaicd to pond oi lakc oiganisms, but tlcy do not lavc to facc
oxygcn dcficicncy undci natuial conditions. Tlis is bccausc tlc sticams
aic slallov, lavc a laigc suifacc cxposcd to aii and constant motion
vlicl cluins tlc vatci and piovidcs abundant oxygcn. Tlcii dissolvcd
oxygcn lcvcl is liglci tlan tlat of ponds cvcn tlougl tlc giccn plants
Ecosystems 95
aic mucl lcss in numbci. Tlc sticam animals usually lavc a naiiov
iangc of tolciancc to oxygcn. Tlat is tlc icason vly tlcy aic vciy
susccptiblc to any oiganic pollution vlicl dcplctcs dissolvcd oxygcn
in tlc vatci. Tlus, sticams aic tlc voist victims of industiial
dcvclopmcnt.
Rivcr Ecnsystcm: Rivcis aic laigc sticams tlat flov dovnvaid
fiom mountain ligllands and floving tliougl tlc plains fall into tlc
sca. So tlc iivci ccosystcms slov a sciics of diffcicnt conditions.
Thc mnuntain highland pait las cold, clcai vatcis iusling dovn
as vatci falls vitl laigc amounts of dissolvcd oxygcn. Tlc plants aic
attaclcd to iocks (pciiplytons) and fislcs aic cold-vatci, ligl oxygcn
icquiiing fisl likc tiouts.
In thc sccnnd phasc on tlc gcntlc slopcs, tlc vatcis aic vaimci
and suppoit a luxuiiant giovtl of plants and lcss oxygcn icquiiing
fislcs.
In thc third phasc, tlc iivci vatcis aic vciy iicl in biotic divcisity.
Moving dovn tlc lills, iivcis slapc tlc land. Tlcy biing vitl tlcm
lots of silt iicl in nutiicnts vlicl is dcpositcd in tlc plains and in tlc
dclta bcfoic icacling tlc occan.
Oceans
Tlcsc aic gigantic icscivoiis of vatci covciing moic tlan 7O% of oui
caitl's suifacc and play a kcy iolc in tlc suivival of about 2,5O,OOO
maiinc spccics, sciving as food foi lumans and otlci oiganisms, givc
a lugc vaiicty of sca-pioducts and diugs. Occans piovidc us iion,
plosploius, magncsium, oil, natuial gas, sand and giavcl.
Occans aic tlc majoi sinks of caibon dioxidc and play an
impoitant iolc in icgulating many biogcoclcmical cyclcs and
lydiological cyclc, tlcicby icgulating tlc caitl's climatc.
Tlc occans lavc tvo majoi lifc zoncs: (Iig. 3.17)
Cnastal znnc vitl iclativcly vaim, nutiicnt iicl slallov vatci.
Ouc to ligl nutiicnts and amplc sunliglt tlis is tlc zonc of ligl piimaiy
pioductivity.
Opcn sca: It is tlc dccpci pait of tlc occan, avay fiom tlc
contincntal slclf (Tlc submcigcd pait of tlc contincnt). It is vcitically
dividcd into tlicc icgions:
(t) Euphntic znnc vlicl icccivcs abundant liglt and slovs ligl
plotosyntlctic activity.
Oceanic
Neritic
Intertidal
Continental
shelf
C
o
n
t
i
n
e
n
t
a
l
s
l
o
p
e
Continental
rise
Abyssal plain
Euphotic zone
Aphotic zone
Bathyal zone
Trench
Mid oceanic ridges
Fig. 3.17. Vertical and horizontal zonation of a marine ecosystem.
(tt) Bathyal znnc icccivcs dim liglt and is usually gcologically
activc.
(ttt) Abyssal znnc is tlc daik zonc, 2OOO to 5OOO mctics dccp. Tlc
abyssal zonc las no piimaiy souicc of cncigy i.c. solai cncigy. It is tlc
voild's laigcst ccological unit but it is an incomplctc ccosystcm.
Estuary
An cstuaiy is a paitially cncloscd coastal aica at tlc moutl of a iivci
vlcic ficsl vatci and salty scavatci mcct. Tlcsc aic tlc tiansition
zoncs vlicl aic stiongly affcctcd by tidal action. Constant mixing of
vatci stiis up tlc silt vlicl makcs tlc nutiicnts availablc foi tlc pii-
maiy pioduccis. Tlcic aic vidc vaiiations in tlc sticam flov and tidal
cuiicnts at any givcn location diuinally, montlly and scasonally. Tlcic-
foic, tlc oiganisms picscnt in cstuaiics slov a vidc iangc of tolciancc
to tcmpciatuic and salinity. Sucl oiganisms aic knovn as curythcrmal
and curyhalinc. Coastal bays, and tidal maislcs aic cxamplcs of cstu-
aiics.
Estuaiics lavc a iicl biodivcisity and many of tlc spccics aic cn-
dcmic. Tlcic aic many migiatoiy spccics of fislcs likc ccls and salmons
in vlicl lalf of tlc lifc is spcnt in ficsl vatci and lalf in salty vatci.
Ioi tlcm cstuaiics aic idcal placcs foi icsting duiing migiation, vlcic
tlcy also gct abundant food. Estuaiics aic liglly pioductivc ccosys-
tcms. Tlc iivci flov and tidal action piovidc cncigy subsidics foi tlc
cstuaiy tlcicby cnlancing its pioductivity. Estuaiics aic of mucl usc
Ecosystems 97
to luman bcings duc to tlcii ligl food potcntial. Hovcvci, tlcsc cco-
systcms nccd to bc managcd judiciously and piotcctcd fiom pollution.
QUESTIONS
1. Ocfinc ccology and ccosystcms.
2. Wlat aic tlc biotic and abiotic componcnts of an ccosystcm !
3. Wlat aic food clains and food vcbs ! Civc cxamplcs and discuss
tlcii significancc.
4. Wlat aic ccological pyiamids ! Explain vly somc of tlcsc pyia-
mids aic upiiglt vlilc otlcis aic invcitcd in diffcicnt ccosystcms.
5. Oiscuss tlc modcls of cncigy flov in an ccosystcm.
6. Wlat aic biogcoclcmical cyclcs ! Explain vitl tlc lclp of a dia-
giam tlc nitiogcn cyclc.
7. Ocfinc piimaiy pioduction and sccondaiy pioduction. Wly aic
tiopical vct foicsts and cstuaiics most pioductivc !
8. Wlat is lomcostasis ! Wlat aic fccdback mcclanisms !
9. Oiscuss tlc pioccss of ccological succcssion.
10. Wiitc sloit notcs on (a) tiopical iain foicsts (h) Savannas (c) Aic-
tic Tundia.
11. Wlat aic tlc diffcicnt zoncs in a lakc ccosystcm !
12. Wlat do you mcan by tlc folloving :
(a) Tlcimoclinc (h) Oligotioplic Lakcs
(c) Mciomictic Lakcs.
13. Oiscuss tlc majoi fcatuics of a sticam (iivci) tlat diffci fiom tlat
of a lakc.
14. Oiscuss zonation in an occan. Wlat iolc is playcd by occans in
tcims of pioviding icsouiccs and icgulating climatc !
15. Oiscuss tlc salicnt fcatuics of an cstuaiinc ccosystcm.
If vc dividc tlc vlolc caitl's mass into 1O billion paits, it is only in
onc pait vlcic lifc cxists and tlc astounding vaiicty of living oigan-
isms numbciing somcvlcic aiound 5O million spccics aic all icstiictcd
to just about a kilomctci- tlick layci of soil, vatci and aii. Isn't it von-
dciful to scc tlat so mucl divcisity las bccn cicatcd by natuic on tlis
caitl fiom so littlc plysical mattci!
Bindivcrsity rcfcrs tn thc varicty and variability amnng all
grnups nf living nrganisms and thc ccnsystcm cnmplcxcs in which
thcy nccur. Iiom tlc diicst dcscits to tlc dcnsc tiopical iainfoicsts
and fiom tlc ligl snov-clad mountain pcaks to tlc dccpcst of occan
ticnclcs, lifc occuis in a maivcllous spcctium of foims, sizc, coloui
and slapc, cacl vitl uniquc ccological intci-iclationslips. 1ust imag-
inc lov monotonous and dull tlc voild vould lavc bccn lad tlcic
bccn only a fcv spccics of living oiganisms tlat could bc countcd on
fingcitips!
In thc Cnnvcntinn nf Binlngical divcrsity (1992) bindivcrsity has
bccn dcfincd as thc variability amnng living nrganisms frnm all snurccs
including Inter aIIa, tcrrcstrial, marinc and nthcr aquatic ccnsystcms
and thc ccnlngical cnmplcxcs nf which thcy arc a part.
Levels of Biodiversity
Lnits of biodivcisity may iangc fiom tlc gcnctic lcvcl vitlin a spccics
to tlc biota in a spccific icgion and may cxtcnd up to tlc gicat divci-
sity found in diffcicnt biomcs.
GENETIC DIVERSITY
It is tlc basic souicc of biodivcisity. Tlc gcncs found in oiganisms can
foim cnoimous numbci of combinations cacl of vlicl givcs iisc to
somc vaiiability. Ccncs aic tlc basic units of lcicditaiy infoimation
tiansmittcd fiom onc gcnciation to otlci. Wlcn tlc gcncs vitlin tlc
samc spccics slov diffcicnt vcisions duc to ncv combinations, it is
callcd gcnctic vaiiability. Ioi cxamplc, all iicc vaiictics bclong to tlc
7EJ
"
*E@ELAHIEJO =@
EJI +IAHL=JE
98
Biodiversity and its Conservation 99
spccics Oryza sattva, but tlcic aic tlousands of vild and cultivatcd va-
iictics of iicc vlicl slov vaiiations at tlc gcnctic lcvcl and diffci in
tlcii coloi, sizc, slapc, aioma and nutiicnt contcnt of tlc giain. Tlis is
tlc gcnctic divcisity of iicc.
SPECIES DIVERSITY
Tlis is tlc vaiiability found vitlin tlc population of a spccics oi
bctvccn diffcicnt spccics of a community. It icpicscnts bioadly tlc
spccics iiclncss and tlcii abundancc in a community. Tlcic aic tvo
populai indiccs of mcasuiing spccics divcisity knovn as Shanncn-tcncr
tndcx and Stmpscn tndcx.
Wlat is tlc numbci of spccics on tlis biosplcic! Tlc cstimatcs of
actual numbci vaiy vidcly duc to incomplctc and indiicct data. Tlc
cuiicnt cstimatcs givcn by Wilson in 1992 put tlc total numbci of liv-
ing spccics in a iangc of 1O million to 5O million. Till nov only about
1.5 million living and 3OO,OOO fossil spccics lavc bccn actually dcsciibcd
and givcn scicntific namcs. It is quitc likcly tlat a laigc fiaction of tlcsc
spccics may bccomc cxtinct cvcn bcfoic tlcy aic discovcicd and cn-
listcd.
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
Tlis is tlc divcisity of ccological complcxity sloving vaiiations in
ccological niclcs, tioplic stiuctuic, food-vcbs, nutiicnt cycling ctc. Tlc
ccosystcms also slov vaiiations vitl icspcct to plysical paiamctcis
likc moistuic, tcmpciatuic, altitudc, piccipitation ctc. Tlus, tlcic occuis
ticmcndous divcisity vitlin tlc ccosystcms, along tlcsc giadicnts. Wc
may considci divcisity in foicst ccosystcm, vlicl is supposcd to lavc
mainly a dominancc of ticcs. But, vlilc considciing a tiopical iainfoicst,
a tiopical dcciduous foicst, a tcmpciatc dcciduous foicst and a boical
foicst, tlc vaiiations obscivcd aic just too many and tlcy aic mainly
duc to vaiiations in tlc abovc mcntioncd plysical factois. Tlc ccosystcm
divcisity is of gicat valuc tlat must bc kcpt intact. Tlis divcisity las
dcvclopcd ovci millions of ycais of cvolution. If vc dcstioy tlis divcisity,
it vould disiupt tlc ccological balancc. Wc cannot cvcn icplacc tlc
divcisity of onc ccosystcm by tlat of anotlci. Conifcious ticcs of boical
foicsts cannot takc up tlc function of tlc ticcs of tiopical dcciduous
foicst lands and vicc vcisa, bccausc ccosystcm divcisity las cvolvcd
vitl icspcct to tlc picvailing cnviionmcntal conditions vitl vcll-
icgulatcd ccological balancc.
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA
India las diffcicnt typcs of climatc and topogiaply in diffcicnt paits
of tlc countiy and tlcsc vaiiations lavc induccd cnoimous vaiiability
in floia and fauna. India las a iicl lciitagc of biological divcisity and
occupics tlc tcntl position among tlc plant iicl nations of tlc voild.
It is vciy impoitant to study tlc distiibution, cvolution, dispcisal
and cnviionmcntal iclationslip of plants and animals in timc and spacc.
Bingcngraphy compiising of plytogcogiaply and zoogcogiaply dcals
vitl tlcsc aspccts of plants and animals. In oidci to gain insiglt about
tlc distiibution and cnviionmcntal intciactions of floia and fauna of
oui countiy, it las bccn classificd into tcn biogcogiaplic zoncs (Tablc
4.1). Eacl of tlcsc zoncs las its ovn claiactciistic climatc, soil, topog-
iaply and biodivcisity.
Tablc 4.1. India's ma|nr bingcngraphic habitats
Sr. Bingcngraphic Bintic Tntal arca
Nn. Znnc Prnvincc (Sq. Km.)
1. Tians-Himalayan Lppci Rcgions 1862OO
2. Himalayan Noitl-Wcst Himalayas 69OO
Wcst Himalayas 72OOOO
Ccntial Himalayas 123OOO
East Himalayas 83OOO
3. Dcscit Kutcl 45OOO
Tlai 18OOOO
Ladakl NA
4. Scmi-Aiid Ccntial India 1O76OO
Cujaiat-Rajvaia 4OO4OO
5. Wcstcin Clats Malabai Coast 597OO
Wcstcin Clat Mountains 993OO
6. Dcccan Pcninsula Dcccan Platcau Soutl 378OOO
Ccntial Platcau 341OOO
Eastcin Platcau 198OOO
Cllota Nagpui 217OOO
Ccntial Higllands 287OOO
7. Cangctic Plain Lppci Cangctic Plain 2O64OO
Lovci Cangctic Plain 153OOO
8. Noitl-East India Bialmaputia Vallcy 652OO
Noitl-Eastcin Hills 1O62OO
9. Islands Andaman Islands 6397
Nicobai Islands 193O
Laksladvccp Islands 18O
1O. Coasts Wcst Coast 65OO
East Coast 65OO
Snurcc: "Consciving oui Biological Wcaltl", WWI foi Natuic-India and
Zoological Suivcy of India.
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
Tlc valuc of biodivcisity in tcims of its commcicial utility, ccological
sciviccs, social and acstlctic valuc is cnoimous. Wc gct bcncfits fiom
otlci oiganisms in innumciablc vays. Somctimcs vc icalizc and
appicciatc tlc valuc of tlc oiganism only aftci it is lost fiom tlis caitl.
Vciy small, insignificant, usclcss looking oiganism may play a ciucial
iolc in tlc ccological balancc of tlc ccosystcm oi may bc a potcntial
souicc of somc invaluablc diug foi dicadcd discascs likc cancci oi AIDS.
Tlc multiplc uscs of biodivcisity oi biodivcisity valuc las bccn classificd
by McNccly ct al in 199O as follovs:
(t) Cnnsumptivc usc valuc: Tlcsc aic diicct usc valucs vlcic
tlc biodivcisity pioduct can bc laivcstcd and consumcd diicctly c.g.
fucl, food, diugs, fibic ctc.
Fnnd: A laigc numbci of vild plants aic consumcd by luman
bcings as food. About 8O,OOO cdiblc plant spccics lavc bccn icpoitcd
fiom vild. About 9O% of picscnt day food ciops lavc bccn domcsti-
catcd fiom vild tiopical plants. Evcn nov oui agiicultuial scicntists
makc usc of tlc cxisting vild spccics of plants tlat aic closcly iclatcd
to oui ciop plants foi dcvcloping ncv laidy stiains. Wild iclativcs usu-
ally posscss bcttci tolciancc and laidincss. A laigc numbci of vild
animals aic also oui souiccs of food.
Drugs and mcdicincs: About 75% of tlc voild's population
dcpcnds upon plants oi plant cxtiacts foi mcdicincs. Tlc vondci diug
PenIcIIIIn uscd as an antibiotic is dciivcd fiom a fungus callcd
Fcntctlltum. Likcvisc, vc gct TetracycIIn fiom a bactciium. Quininc,
tlc cuic foi malaiia is obtaincd fiom tlc baik of CInchona ticc, vlilc
Dtgttaltn is obtaincd fiom foxglovc (DIgItaIIs) vlicl is an cffcctivc cuic
foi lcait ailmcnts. Rcccntly vInbIastIn and vIncrIstIne, tvo anticancci
diugs, lavc bccn obtaincd fiom Pciivinklc (Catharanthus) plant, vlicl
posscsscs anticancci alkaloids. A laigc numbci of maiinc animals aic
supposcd to posscss anti-cancci piopcitics vlicl aic yct to bc cxploicd
systcmatically.
Fucl: Oui foicsts lavc bccn uscd sincc agcs foi fucl vood. Tlc
fossil fucls coal, pctiolcum and natuial gas aic also pioducts of fossil-
izcd biodivcisity. Iiicvood collcctcd by individuals aic not noimally
maikctcd, but aic diicctly consumcd by tiibals and local villagcis, lcncc
falls undci consumptivc valuc.
(tt) Prnductivc usc valucs: Tlcsc aic tlc commcicially usablc val-
ucs vlcic tlc pioduct is maikctcd and sold. It may includc lumbci oi
vild gcnc icsouiccs tlat can bc tiadcd foi usc by scicntists foi intio-
ducing dcsiiablc tiaits in tlc ciops and domcsticatcd animals. Tlcsc
may includc tlc animal pioducts likc tusks of clcplants, musk fiom
musk dcci, silk fiom silk-voim, vool fiom slccp, fii of many animals,
lac fiom lac insccts ctc, all of vlicl aic tiadcd in tlc maikct. Many
industiics aic dcpcndcnt upon tlc pioductivc usc valucs of biodivcisity
c.g.- tlc papci and pulp industiy, Plyvood industiy, Railvay slccpci
industiy, Silk industiy, tcxtilc industiy, ivoiy-voiks, lcatlci industiy,
pcail industiy ctc.
Dcspitc intcinational ban on tiadc in pioducts fiom cndangcicd
spccics, smuggling of fui, lidc, loins, tusks, livc spccimcn ctc. voitl
millions of dollais aic bcing sold cvciy ycai. Dcvcloping countiics in
Asia, Afiica and Latin Amciica aic tlc iiclcst biodivcisity ccntcis and
vild lifc pioducts aic smugglcd and maikctcd in laigc quantitics to
somc iicl vcstcin countiics and also to Clina and Hong Kong vlcic
cxpoit of cat skins and snakc skins fctclcs a booming busincss.
(ttt) Sncial Valuc: Tlcsc aic tlc valucs associatcd vitl tlc social
lifc, customs, icligion and psyclo-spiiitual aspccts of tlc pcoplc. Many
of tlc plants aic considcicd loly and sacicd in oui countiy likc Tulsi
(loly basil), Pccpal, Mango, Lotus, Bacl ctc. Tlc lcavcs, fiuits oi flovcis
of tlcsc plants aic uscd in voislip oi tlc plant itsclf is voislippcd.
Tlc tiibal pcoplc aic vciy closcly linkcd vitl tlc vild lifc in tlc foicsts.
Tlcii social lifc, songs, danccs and customs aic closcly vovcn aiound
tlc vildlifc. Many animals likc Cov, Snakc, Bull, Pcacock, Ovl ctc.
also lavc significant placc in oui psyclo-spiiitual aicna and tlus lold
spccial social impoitancc. Tlus biodivcisity las distinct social valuc,
attaclcd vitl diffcicnt socictics.
(tv) Ethical valuc: It is also somctimcs knovn as cxistcncc valuc.
It involvcs ctlical issucs likc "all ltfc must hc prcscrvcd". It is bascd on tlc
conccpt of "Ltvc and Lct Ltvc". If vc vant oui luman iacc to suivivc,
tlcn vc must piotcct all biodivcisity, bccausc biodivcisity is valuablc.
Tlc ctlical valuc mcans tlat vc may oi may not usc a spccics,
but knoving tlc vciy fact tlat tlis spccics cxists in natuic givcs us
plcasuic. Wc all fccl soiiy vlcn vc lcain tlat "passcngci pcgion" oi
"dodo" is no moic on tlis caitl. Wc aic not dciiving anytling diicct
fiom Kangaioo, Zcbia oi Ciiaffc, but vc all stiongly fccl tlat tlcsc
spccics slould cxist in natuic. Tlis mcans, tlcic is an ctlical valuc oi
cxistcncc valuc attaclcd to cacl spccics.
(v) Acsthctic valuc: Cicat acstlctic valuc is attaclcd to
biodivcisity. No onc of us vould likc to visit vast stictclcs of baiicn
lands vitl no signs of visiblc lifc. Pcoplc fiom fai and vidc spcnd a lot
of timc and moncy to visit vildcincss aicas vlcic tlcy can cnjoy tlc
acstlctic valuc of biodivcisity and tlis typc of touiism is nov knovn
as eco-tourIsm. Tlc "WIIIIngness to pay" conccpt on sucl cco-touiism
givcs us cvcn a monctaiy cstimatc foi acstlctic valuc of biodivcisity.
Ecotouiism is cstimatcd to gcnciatc about 12 billion dollais of icvcnuc
annually, tlat iouglly givcs tlc acstlctic valuc of biodivcisity.
(vt) Optinn valucs: Tlcsc valucs includc tlc potcntials of
biodivcisity tlat aic picscntly unknovn and nccd to bc cxploicd. Tlcic
is a possibility tlat vc may lavc somc potcntial cuic foi AIDS oi can-
cci cxisting vitlin tlc dcptls of a maiinc ccosystcm, oi a tiopical iain-
foicst.
Tlus option valuc is tlc valuc of knoving tlat tlcic aic biologi-
cal icsouiccs cxisting on tlis biosplcic tlat may onc day piovc to bc
an cffcctivc option foi somctling impoitant in tlc futuic. Tlus, tlc
option valuc of biodivcisity suggcsts tlat any spccics may piovc to bc a
miiaclc spccics somcday. Tlc biodivcisity is likc piccious gifts of na-
tuic picscntcd to us. Wc slould not commit tlc folly of losing tlcsc
gifts cvcn bcfoic unviapping tlcm.
Tlc option valuc also includcs tlc valucs, in tcims of tlc option
to visit aicas vlcic a vaiicty of floia and fauna, oi spccifically somc
cndcmic, iaic oi cndangcicd spccics cxist.
(vtt) Ecnsystcm scrvicc valuc: Rcccntly, a non-consumptivc usc
valuc iclatcd to sclf maintcnancc of tlc ccosystcm and vaiious impoitant
ccosystcm sciviccs las bccn iccognizcd. It icfcis to tlc sciviccs piovidcd
by ccosystcms likc picvcntion of soil ciosion, picvcntion of floods,
maintcnancc of soil fcitility, cycling of nutiicnts, fixation of nitiogcn,
cycling of vatci, tlcii iolc as caibon sinks, pollutant absoiption and
icduction of tlc tlicat of global vaiming ctc.
Diffcicnt catcgoiics of biodivcisity valuc clcaily indicatc tlat
ccosystcm, spccics and gcnctic divcisity all lavc cnoimous potcntial
and a dcclinc in biodivcisity vill lcad to lugc cconomic, ccological
and socio-cultuial losscs.
Bindivcrsity valuc nf snmc sclcctcd
nrganisms in mnnctary tcrms
A malc lion living upto an agc of 7 ycais can gcnciatc upto
$ 515,OOO duc to its acstlctic valuc as paid by touiists, vlcicas
if killcd foi tlc lion skin a maikct piicc upto $ 1,OOO can bc
fctclcd.
In its lifctimc a Kcnyan clcplant can cain voitl $ 1 million as
touiist icvcnuc.
Tlc mountain goiillas in Rvanda aic fctcling $ 4 million annu-
ally tliougl cco-touiism.
Wlalc vatcling on Hcivcy Bay on Quccnsland's coast cains
$12 million annually.
Touiism to Cicat Baiiici Rccf in Austialia cains $ 2 billion cacl
ycai.
A typical ticc piovidcs $ 196,215O voitl of ccological sciviccs
as oxygcn, clcan aii, fcitilc soil, ciosion contiol, vatci iccycling,
vildlifc labitat, toxic gas modciation ctc. Wlcicas its voitl is
only about $ 59O if sold in tlc maikct as timbci.
GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY
Iolloving tlc 1992 "Eaitl Summit" at Rio dc 1anciio, it bccamc cvi-
dcnt tlat tlcic is a gioving nccd to knov and scicntifically namc, tlc
lugc numbci of spccics vlicl aic still unknovn on tlis caitl. Rouglly
1.5 million spccics aic knovn till datc vlicl is pcilaps 15% oi may bc
just 2% of tlc actual numbci. Tiopical dcfoicstation alonc is icducing
tlc biodivcisity by lalf a pciccnt cvciy ycai. Mapping tlc biodivcisity
las tlcicfoic, bccn iigltly iccognizcd as an cmcigcncy task in oidci to
plan its conscivation and piactical utilization in a judicious mannci.
Tcrrcstrial bindivcrsity of tlc caitl is bcst dcsciibcd as bIomes,
vlicl aic tlc laigcst ccological units picscnt in diffcicnt gcogiaplic
aicas and aic namcd aftci tlc dominant vcgctation c.g. tlc tiopical
iainfoicsts, tall giass piaiiics, savannas, dcscit, tundia ctc.
Tlc tiopical iainfoicsts aic inlabitcd by tccming millions of
spccics of plants, biids, amplibians, insccts as vcll as mammals. Tlcy
aic tlc caitl's laigcst stoiclousc of biodivcisity. Many of tlcsc spccics
lavc dcvclopcd ovci tlc timc in liglly spccializcd niclcs and tlat makcs
tlcm moic vulnciablc to cxtinction vlcn tlcii natuial lomc oi niclc
is dcstioycd. About 5O to 8O% of global biodivcisity lics in tlcsc
iainfoicsts. Moic tlan onc-fouitl of tlc voild's picsciiption diugs aic
cxtiactcd fiom plants gioving in tiopical foicsts. Out of tlc 3OOO plants
idcntificd by National Cancci Rcscaicl Institutc as souiccs of cancci
figlting clcmicals, 7O% comc fiom tiopical iain foicsts. Vciy icccntly,
cxtiact fiom onc of tlc ciccping vincs in tlc iainfoicsts at Camcioon
las piovcd cffcctivc in tlc inlibition of icplication of AIDS viius. It is
intcicsting to notc tlat tlc common Nccm ticc, so populai in tiopical
India, knovn foi its mcdicinal piopcitics las nov comc into limc liglt
cvcn in tlc vcstcin tcmpciatc countiics.
Tlcic is an cstimatcd 1,25,OOO flovciing plant spccics in tiopical
foicsts. Hovcvci, till nov vc knov only 1-3% of tlcsc spccics. Nccd-
lcss to say, vc must tiy in cvciy vay to piotcct oui tiopical iainfoicsts.
Tlc Silcnt Vallcy in Kciala is tlc only placc in India vlcic tiopical
iain foicsts occui. You may iccall tlc casc of Silcnt Vallcy Hydioclcc-
tiic Piojcct, vlicl vas abandoncd mainly bccausc it lad put to iisk
oui only tiopical iain foicst biodivcisity.
Tcmpciatc foicsts lavc mucl lcss biodivcisity, but tlcic is mucl
bcttci documcntation of tlc spccics. Clobally, vc lavc iouglly 1,7O,OOO
flovciing plants, 3O,OOO vcitcbiatcs and about 2,5O,OOO otlci gioups
of spccics tlat lavc bccn dcsciibcd. Tlcic is a stupcndous task of
dcsciibing tlc icmaining spccics vlicl may iangc anyvlcic fiom 8
million to 1OO million.
Tablc 4.2 slovs tlc cstimatcd numbci of somc knovn living
spccics in diffcicnt taxonomic gioups:
Tablc 4.2 Living spccics cstimatcs
(Wnrld Rcsnurcc Institutc, 1999)
Taxnnnmic grnup Numbcr
Bactciia & Cyanobactciia 5,OOO
Piotozoans (Singlc callcd animals) 31,OOO
Algac 27,OOO
Iungi (Molds, Musliooms) 45,OOO
Higlci Plants 2,5O,OOO
Spongcs 5,OOO
1clly fisl, Coials ctc. 1O,OOO
Ilatvoims, ioundvoims, caitlvoims 36,OOO
Snails, Clams, Slugs ctc 7O,OOO
Insccts 7,5O,OOO
Mitcs, Ticks, Cioaks, sliimps 1,2O,OOO
Iisl and Slaiks 22,OOO
Amplibians 4,OOO
Rcptilcs 5,OOO
Biids 9,OOO
Mammals 4,OOO
Total 1,4OO,OOO
It is intcicsting to knov tlat maiinc divcisity is cvcn mucl liglci
tlan tciicstiial biodivcisity and iionically, tlcy aic still lcss knovn and
dcsciibcd. Estuaiics, coastal vatcis and occans aic biologically divcisc
and tlc divcisity is just dazzling. Sca is tlc ciadlc of cvciy knovn animal
plylum. Out of tlc 35 cxisting plyla of multiccllulai animals, 34 aic
maiinc and 16 of tlcsc aic cxclusivcly maiinc.
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AT NATIONAL LEVEL
(Indian Biodiversity):
Evciy countiy is claiactciizcd by its ovn biodivcisity dcpcnding mainly
on its climatc. India las a iicl biological divcisity of floia and fauna.
Ovciall six pciccnt of tlc global spccics aic found in India. It is cstimatcd
tlat India ranks 10th amnng thc plant rich cnuntrics nf thc wnrld, 11th
in tcrms nf numbcr nf cndcmic spccics nf highcr vcrtcbratcs and 6th
amnng thc ccntcrs nf divcrsity and nrigin nf agricultural crnps.
Tlc total numbci of living spccics idcntificd in oui countiy is
15O,OOO. Out of a total of 25 biodivcisity lot-spots in tlc voild, India
posscsscs tvo, onc in tlc noitl-cast icgion and onc in tlc vcstcin glats.
Indian is also onc of tlc 12 mcga-biodivcisity countiics in tlc voild,
vlicl vill bc discusscd latci.
REGIONAL OR LOCAL BIODIVERSITY
Biodivcisity at icgional lcvcl is bcttci undcistood by catcgoiizing spccics
iiclncss into foui typcs, bascd upon tlcii spatial distiibution as
discusscd bclov
(t) Pnint richncss icfcis to tlc numbci of spccics tlat can bc
found at a singlc point in a givcn spacc.
(tt) Alpha (-) richncss icfcis to tlc numbci of spccics found in
a small lomogcncous aica
(ttt) Bcta (-) richncss icfcis to tlc iatc of clangc in spccics com-
position acioss diffcicnt labitats.
(tv) Camma (-) richncss icfcis to tlc iatc of clangc acioss laigc
landscapc giadicnts.
-iiclncss is stiongly coiiclatcd vitl plysical cnviionmcntal
vaiiablcs. Ioi cxamplc, tlcic aic 1OO spccics of tunicatcs in aictic vatcis,
4OO spccics in tcmpciatc vatcis and 6OO in tiopical scas. Tlus,
tcmpciatuic sccms to bc tlc most impoitant factoi affccting -iiclncss
of tunicatcs.
-iiclncss mcans tlat tlc cumulativc numbci of spccics incicascs
as moic lctciogcncous labitats aic takcn into considciation. Ioi
cxamplc, tlc ant spccics found in local icgions of noitl polc is mcicly
1O. As vc kccp on moving tovaids tlc cquatoi and tlus add moic and
moic labitats, tlc numbci of spccics of ants icaclcs as ligl as 2OOO on
tlc cquatoiial icgion.
INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION
India is onc of tlc 12 mcgadivcisity countiics in tlc voild. Tlc Minis-
tiy of Enviionmcnt and Ioicsts, Covt. of India (2OOO) iccoids 47,OOO
spccics of plants and 81,OOO spccics of animals vlicl is about 7% and
6.5% icspcctivcly of global floia and fauna.
Tablc 4.3. Distributinn nf spccics in snmc ma|nr
grnups nf flnra and fauna in India
Crnup-wisc spccics Distributinn
Plants Numbcr Animals Numbcr
Bactciia 85O Lovci gioups 9979
Iungi 23,OOO Mollusca 5O42
Algac 25OO Aitliopoda 57,525
Biyoplytcs 2564 Pisccs (Iislcs) 2546
Amplibia
Ptciidoplytcs 1O22 Rcptilcs 428
Cymnospcims 64 Biids 1228
Angiospcims 15,OOO 2O4
Mammals 372
Endcmism: Spccics vlicl aic icstiictcd only to a paiticulai aica
aic knovn as cndcmic. India slovs a good numbci of cndcmic spccics.
About 62% of amplibians and 5O% of lizaids aic cndcmic to India.
Wcstcin glats aic tlc sitc of maximum cndcmism.
Ccntcr nf nrigin: A laigc numbci of spccics aic knovn to lavc
oiiginatcd in India. Ncaily 5OOO spccics of flovciing plants lad tlcii
oiigin in India. Iiom agio-divcisity point of vicv also oui countiy is
quitc iicl. India las bccn tlc ccntci of oiigin of 166 spccics of ciop
plants and 32O spccics of vild iclativcs of cultivatcd ciops, tlcicby
pioviding a bioad spcctium of divcisity of tiaits foi oui ciop plants.
Marinc divcrsity: Along 75OO km long coastlinc of oui countiy
in tlc mangiovcs, cstuaiics, coial iccfs, back vatcis ctc. tlcic cxists a
iicl biodivcisity. Moic tlan 34O spccics of coials of tlc voild aic found
lcic. Tlc maiinc divcisity is iicl in mollusks, ciustaccans (ciabs ctc.),
polyclactcs and coials. Scvcial spccics of Mangiovc plants and
scagiasscs (Maiinc algac) aic also found in oui countiy.
A laigc piopoition of tlc Indian Biodivcisity is still uncxploicd.
Tlcic aic about 93 majoi vct lands, coial iccfs and mangiovcs vlicl
nccd to bc studicd in dctail. Indian foicsts covci 64.O1 million lcctaics
laving a iicl biodivcisity of plants in tlc Tians-Himalayan, noitl-vcst,
vcst, ccntial and castcin Himalayan foicsts, vcstcin glats, coasts,
dcscits, Cangctic plains, dcccan platcau and tlc Andaman, Nicobai
and Laksladvccp islands. Duc to vciy divcisc climatic conditions tlcic
is a complctc iainbov spcctium of biodivcisity in oui countiy.
HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
Areas whIch exhIbIt hIgh specIes rIchness as weII as hIgh specIes endemIsm
are termed as hot spots of bIodIversIty. Tlc tcim vas intioduccd by
Mycis (1988). Tlcic aic 25 sucl lot spots of biodivcisity on a global
lcvcl out of vlicl tvo aic picscnt in India, namcly tlc Eastcin Hima-
layas and Wcstcin Clats (Tablc 4.4).
Tlcsc lotspots covciing lcss tlan 2% of tlc voild's land aica aic
found to lavc about 5O% of tlc tciicstiial biodivcisity. Accoiding to
Mycis ct al. (2OOO) an aica is dcsignatcd as a lotspot vlcn it contains
at lcast O.5% of tlc plant spccics as cndcmics.
About 4O% of tciicstiial plants and 25% of vcitcbiatc spccics aic
cndcmic and found in tlcsc lotspots. Aftci tlc tiopical iain foicsts,
tlc sccond liglcst numbci of cndcmic plant spccics aic found in tlc
Mcditciiancan (Mittcimcici). Bioadly, tlcsc lot spots aic in Wcstcin
Amazon, Madagascai, Noitl and East Boinco, Noitl Eastcin Aus-
tialia, Wcst Afiica and Biazilian Atlantic foicsts. Tlcsc aic tlc aicas
of ligl divcisity, cndcmism and aic also tlicatcncd by luman activi-
tics. Moic tlan 1 billion pcoplc (about 1/6tl of tlc voild's popula-
tion) most of vlom aic dcspciatcly pooi pcoplc, livc in tlcsc aicas.
Any mcasuics of piotccting tlcsc lotspots nccd to bc planncd kccping
in vicv tlc luman scttlcmcnts and tiibal issucs.
Eailici 12 lot spots vcic idcntificd on a global lcvcl. Latci Mycis
ct al (2OOO) iccognizcd 25 lot spots as slovn in Tablc 4.3. Tvo of
tlcsc lotspots lic in India cxtcnding into nciglbouiing countiics
namcly, Indo-Buima icgion (covciing Eastcin Himalayas) and Wcstcin
Clats - Sii Lanka icgion. Tlc Indian lot spots aic not only iicl in
floial vcaltl and cndcmic spccics of plants but also icptilcs, amplibians,
svallov tailcd buttciflics and somc mammals.
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(a) Eastern HImaIayas: Tlcy display an ultia-vaiicd topogiaply
tlat fostcis spccics divcisity and cndcmism. Tlcic aic numcious dccp
and scmi-isolatcd vallcys in Sikkim vlicl aic cxticmcly iicl in cndcmic
plant spccics. In an aica of 7298 Km
2
of Sikkim about 425O plant spccics
aic found of vlicl 6O% aic cndcmic.
Tlc foicst covci of Eastcin Himalayas las dvindlcd to about
1/3id of its oiiginal covci. Ccitain spccics likc Saprta htmalayana, a
paiasitic angiospcim vas sigltcd only tvicc in tlis icgion in tlc last
7O ycais.
Rcccnt studics lavc slovn tlat Noitl East India along vitl its
contiguous icgions of Buima and Clincsc piovinccs of Yunnan and
Sclczvan is an activc ccntci of oiganic cvolution and is considcicd to
bc tlc ciadlc of flovciing plants. Out of tlc voild's iccoidcd floia 3O%
aic cndcmic to India of vlicl 35,OOO aic in tlc Himalayas.
(h) Western Ghats: It cxtcnds along a 17,OOO Km
2
stiip of foicsts
in Malaiasltia, Kainataka, Tamil Nadu and Kciala and las 4O% of
tlc total cndcmic plant spccics. 62% amplibians and 5O% lizaids aic
cndcmic to Wcstcin Clats.
Ioicst tiacts upto 5OO m clcvation covciing 2O% of tlc foicst
cxpansc aic cvcigiccn vlilc tlosc in 5OO-15OO m iangc aic scmi-
cvcigiccn. Tlc majoi ccntcis of divcisity aic AgastyamaIaI HIIIs and
SIIent VaIIeythe New AmambaIam Reserve BasIn. It is icpoitcd tlat
only 6.8% of tlc oiiginal foicsts aic cxisting today vlilc tlc icst las
bccn dcfoicstcd oi dcgiadcd, vlicl iaiscs a sciious causc of alaim,
bccausc it mcans vc lavc alicady lost a lugc piopoition of tlc
biodivcisity.
Altlougl tlc lotspots aic claiactciizcd by cndcmism,
intcicstingly, a fcv spccics aic common to botl tlc lotspots in India.
Somc common plants includc Tcrnstrccmta fapcntca, Rhcdcdcndrcn
and Hypcrtcum, vlilc tlc common fauna includcs laugling tliusl,
Iaiiy bluc biid, lizaid lavk ctc. indicating tlcii common oiigin long
back in tlc gcological timcs.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Extinction oi climination of a spccics is a natuial pioccss of cvolution.
In tlc gcologic pciiod tlc caitl las cxpciicnccd mass cxtinctions.
Duiing cvolution, spccics lavc dicd out and lavc bccn icplaccd by
otlcis. Hovcvci, tlc iatc of loss of spccics in gcologic past las bccn a
slov pioccss, kccping in vicv tlc vast span of timc going back to 444
million ycais. Tlc pioccss of cxtinction las bccomc paiticulaily fast in
tlc icccnt ycais of luman civilization. In tlis ccntuiy, tlc luman impact
las bccn so scvcic tlat tlousands of spccics and vaiictics aic bccoming
cxtinct annually. One of the estImates by the noted ecoIogIst, E.O. WIIson
puts the fIgure of extInctIon at 10,000 specIes per year or 27 per day! Tlis
staitling figuic iaiscs an alaim icgaiding tlc sciious tlicat to
biodivcisity. Ovci tlc last 15O ycais tlc iatc of cxtinction las cscalatcd
moic diamatically. If tlc picscnt ticnd continucs vc vould losc 1/3id
to 2/3id of oui cuiicnt biodivcisity by tlc middlc of tvcnty fiist ccntuiy.
Lct us considci somc of tlc majoi causcs and issucs iclatcd to
tlicats to biodivcisity.
LOSS OF HABITAT
Dcstiuction and loss of natuial labitat is tlc singlc laigcst causc of
biodivcisity loss. Billions of lcctaics of foicsts and giasslands lavc bccn
clcaicd ovci tlc past 1O,OOO ycais foi convcision into agiicultuic lands,
pastuics, scttlcmcnt aicas oi dcvclopmcnt piojccts. Tlcsc natuial foicsts
and giasslands vcic tlc natuial lomcs of tlousands of spccics vlicl
pciislcd duc to loss of tlcii natuial labitat. Scvcic damagc las bccn
causcd to vctlands tlinking tlcm to bc usclcss ccosystcms. Tlc uniquc
iicl biodivcisity of tlc vctlands, cstuaiics and mangiovcs aic undci
tlc most sciious tlicat today. Tlc vctlands aic dcstioycd duc to
diaining, filling and pollution tlcicby causing lugc biodivcisity loss.
Somctimcs tlc loss of labitat is in instalmcnts so tlat tlc labitat
is dividcd into small and scattcicd patclcs, a plcnomcnon knovn as
habitat fragmcntatinn. Tlcic aic many vild lifc spccics sucl as bcais
and laigc cats tlat icquiic laigc tciiitoiics to subsist. Tlcy gct badly
tlicatcncd as tlcy biccd only in tlc intciiois of tlc foicsts. Duc to
labitat fiagmcntation many song biids aic vanisling.
Tlcic las bccn a iapid disappcaiancc of tiopical foicsts in oui
countiy also, at a iatc of about O.6% pci ycai. Witl tlc cuiicnt iatc of
loss of foicst labitat, it is cstimatcd tlat 2O-25% of tlc global floia
vould bc lost vitlin a fcv ycais. Maiinc biodivcisity is also undci
sciious tlicat duc to laigc scalc dcstiuction of tlc fiagilc biccding and
fccding giounds of oui occanic fisl and otlci spccics, as a icsult of
luman intcivcntion.
POACHING
Illcgal tiadc of vildlifc pioducts by killing piolibitcd cndangcicd
animals i.c. poacling is anotlci tlicat to vildlifc. Dcspitc intcinational
ban on tiadc in pioducts fiom cndangcicd spccics, smuggling of vildlifc
itcms likc fuis, lidcs, loins, tusks, livc spccimcns and lcibal pioducts
voitl millions of dollais pci ycai continucs. Tlc dcvcloping nations
in Asia, Latin Amciica and Afiica aic tlc iiclcst souicc of biodivcisity
and lavc cnoimous vcaltl of vildlifc. Tlc iicl countiics in Euiopc
and Noitl Amciica and somc afflucnt countiics in Asia likc 1apan,
Taivan and Hong Kong aic tlc majoi impoitcis of tlc vild lifc pioducts
oi vild lifc itsclf.
Tlc tiading of sucl vild lifc pioducts is liglly piofit making foi
tlc poaclcis vlo just lunt tlcsc piolibitcd vild lifc and smugglc it to
otlci countiics mcdiatcd tliougl a mafia. The cost of eIephant tusks
can go upto $ 100 per kg; the Ieopard fur coat Is soId at $ 100,000 In 1apan
whIIe bIrd catchers can fetch upto $ 10,000 for a rare hyacInth macaw, a
beautIfuI coIoured bIrd, from BrazII. Tlc voisc pait of tlc stoiy is tlat
foi cvciy livc animal tlat actually gcts into tlc maikct, about 5O
additional animals aic cauglt and killcd.
If you aic fond of iaic plants, fisl oi biids, plcasc makc suic tlat
you aic not going foi tlc cndangcicd spccics oi tlc vild-cauglt spccics.
Doing so vill lclp in clccking fuitlci dcclinc of tlcsc spccics. Also do
not puiclasc fuicoat, puisc oi bag, oi itcms madc of ciocodilc skin oi
pytlon skin. You vill ccitainly lclp in picsciving biodivcisity by doing
so.
MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
Wc lavc discusscd about tlc nccd to picscivc and piotcct oui vildlifc.
Hovcvci, somctimcs vc comc acioss conflicting situations vlcn
vildlifc staits causing immcnsc damagc and dangci to man and undci
sucl conditions it bccomcs vciy difficult foi tlc foicst dcpaitmcnt to
pacify tlc affcctcd villagcis and gain local suppoit foi vild-lifc
conscivation.
Instanccs of man animal conflicts kccp on coming to limc liglt
fiom scvcial statcs in oui countiy. In Sambalpui, Oiissa 195 lumans
vcic killcd in tlc last 5 ycais by clcplants. In ictaliation tlc villagcis
killcd 98 clcplants and badly injuicd 3O clcplants. Scvcial instanccs
of killing of clcplants in tlc boidci icgions of Kotc-Clamaiajanagai
bclt in Mysoic lavc bccn icpoitcd icccntly. Tlc man-clcplant conflict
in tlis icgion las aiiscn bccausc of tlc massivc damagc donc by tlc
clcplants to tlc faimci's cotton and sugaicanc ciops. Tlc agonizcd
villagcis clcctiocutc tlc clcplants and somctimcs lidc cxplosivcs in
tlc sugaicanc ficlds, vlicl cxplodc as tlc clcplants intiudc into tlcii
ficlds. In fact, moic killings aic donc by locals tlan by poaclcis.
Rcccntly, in caily 2OO4, a man-cating tigci vas icpoitcd to kill 16
Ncpalcsc pcoplc and onc 4-ycai old clild insidc tlc Royal Clitvan
National Paik, 24O Km Soutl-vcst of Katlmandu. Tlc Paik icnovncd
foi its vildlifc conscivation cffoit las bccamc a zonc of tciioi foi tlc
locals. At timcs, sucl conflicting situations lavc bccn icpoitcd fiom
tlc boidci icgions of Coibctt, Dudlva, Palamau and Rantlamboic
National Paiks in oui countiy as vcll. Vciy icccntly in 1unc, 2OO4 tvo
mcn vcic killcd by lcopaids in Povai, Mumbai. A total of 14 pcisons
vcic killcd duiing 19 attacks sincc 1anuaiy by tlc lcopaids fiom tlc
Sanjay Candli National Paik, Mumbai vlicl las cicatcd a panic
among tlc local icsidcnts.
Causcs nf Man-animal cnnflicts: Tlc ioot causcs of tlcsc
conflicts aic discusscd bclov:
(t) Dvindling labitats of tigcis, clcplants, ilinos and bcais duc
to sliinking foicst covci compcls tlcm to movc outsidc tlc foicst and
attack tlc ficld oi somctimcs cvcn lumans. Human cncioaclmcnt into
tlc foicst aicas iaiscs a conflict bctvccn man and tlc vildlifc, pcilaps
bccausc it is an issuc of suivival of botl.
(tt) Lsually tlc ill, vcak and injuicd animals lavc a tcndcncy to
attack man. Also, tlc fcmalc tigicss attacks tlc luman if slc fccls tlat
lci ncvboin cubs aic in dangci. But tlc biggcst pioblcm is tlat if
luman-flcsl is tastcd oncc tlcn tlc tigci docs not cat any otlci animal.
At tlc samc timc, it is vciy difficult to tiacc and cull tlc man-cating
tigci and in tlc pioccss many innoccnt tigcis aic also killcd.
(ttt) Eailici, foicst dcpaitmcnts uscd to cultivatc paddy, sugaicanc
ctc. vitlin tlc sanctuaiics vlcn tlc favouiitc staplc food of clcplants
i.c. bamboo lcavcs vcic not availablc. Nov duc to lack of sucl piacticcs
tlc animals movc out of tlc foicst in scaicl of food. It may bc notcd
tlat, Onc adult clcplant nccds 2 quintals of giccn foddci and 15O kg of
clcan vatci daily and if it is not availablc, tlc animal stiays out.
(tv) Vciy oftcn tlc villagcis put clcctiic viiing aiound tlcii iipc
ciop ficlds. Tlc clcplants gct injuicd, suffci in pain and tuin violcnt.
(v) Eailici tlcic uscd to bc vild-lifc coiiidois tliougl vlicl tlc
vild animals uscd to migiatc scasonally in gioups to otlci aicas. Duc
to dcvclopmcnt of luman scttlcmcnts in tlcsc coiiidois, tlc patl of
vildlifc las bccn disiuptcd and tlc animals attack tlc scttlcmcnts.
(vt) Tlc casl compcnsation paid by tlc govcinmcnt in licu of tlc
damagc causcd to tlc faimcis ciop is not cnougl. In Mysoic, a faimci
gcts a compcnsation of Rs. 4OO/- pci quintal of cxpcctcd yicld vlilc
tlc maikct piicc is Rs. 24OO/- pci quintal. Tlc agonizcd faimci tlcicfoic
gcts icvcngcful and kills tlc vild animals.
Remedial Measures to Curb the Conflict
(t) Tigci Conscivation Piojcct (TCP) las madc piovisions foi
making availablc vcliclcs, tianquillizci guns, binoculais and iadio scts
ctc. to tactfully dcal vitl any immincnt dangci.
(tt) Adcquatc ciop compcnsation and cattlc compcnsation sclcmc
must bc staitcd, along vitl substantial casl compcnsation foi loss of
luman lifc.
(ttt) Solai povcicd fcncing slould bc piovidcd along vitl clcctiic
cuiicnt pioof ticnclcs to picvcnt tlc animals fiom stiaying into ficlds.
(tv) Ciopping pattcin slould bc clangcd ncai tlc foicst boidcis
and adcquatc foddci, fiuit and vatci slould bc madc availablc foi tlc
clcplants vitlin foicst zoncs.
(v) Wild lifc coiiidois slould bc piovidcd foi mass migiation of
big animals duiing unfavoiablc pciiods. About 3OO km
2
aica is icquiicd
foi clcplant coiiidois foi tlcii scasonal migiation.
(vt) In Similipal Sanctuaiy, Oiissa tlcic is a iitual of vild animal
lunting duiing tlc montls of Apiil-May foi vlicl foicst is buint to
flusl out tlc animals. Duc to massivc lunting by pcoplc, tlcic is a
dcclinc in picy of tigcis and tlcy stait coming out of tlc foicst in scaicl
of picy. Nov tlcic is WWI-TCP initiativc to cuib tlis iitual of "Akland
Slikai" in Oiissa.
ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA
Tlc Intcrnatinnal Uninn fnr Cnnscrvatinn nf Naturc and Natural
Rcsnurccs (IUCN) publislcs tlc Rcd Data Bnnk vlicl includcs tlc
list of cndangcicd spccics of plants and animals. Tlc icd data symbol-
izcs tlc vaining signal foi tlosc spccics vlicl aic cndangcicd and if
not piotcctcd aic likcly to bccomc cxtinct in ncai futuic.
In India, ncaily 45O plant spccics lavc bccn idcntificd in tlc
catcgoiics of cndangcicd, tlicatcncd oi iaic. Existcncc of about 15O
mammals and 15O spccics of biids is cstimatcd to bc tlicatcncd vlilc
an unknovn numbci of spccics of insccts aic cndangcicd. It may not
bc of diicct iclcvancc lcic to givc a complctc list of cndangcicd floia
and fauna of oui countiy. Hovcvci, a fcv spccics of cndangcicd icptilcs,
biids, mammals and plants aic givcn bclov:
(a) Rcptilcs : Claiial, giccn sca tuitlc, toitoisc, pytlon
(h) Biids : Cicat Indian bustaid, Pcacock, Pclican,
Cicat Indian Hoinbill, Sibciian Wlitc
Cianc
(c) Cainivoious : Indian volf, icd fox, Slotl bcai, icd panda,
Mammals tigci, lcopaid, stiipcd lycna, Indian lion,
goldcn cat, dcscit cat, dugong
(d) Piimatcs : Hoolock gibbon, lion-tailcd macaquc,
Nilgiii langui, Cappcd monkcy, goldcn
monkcy
(c) Plants : A laigc numbci of spccics of oiclids,
Rlododcndions, mcdicinal plants likc
Rauvclfta scrpcnttna, tlc sandal vood ticc
Santalum, Cycas hcddcnct ctc.
Tlc Zoological Suivcy of India icpoitcd tlat Clcctal, Pink lcadcd
duck and mountain quail lavc alicady bccomc cxtinct fiom India.
A spccics is said to bc extInct vlcn it is not sccn in tlc vild
foi 5O ycais at a stictcl c.g. Dodo, passcngci pigcon.
A spccics is said to bc endangered vlcn its numbci las bccn
icduccd to a ciitical lcvcl oi vlosc labitats, lavc bccn
diastically icduccd and if sucl a spccics is not piotcctcd and
conscivcd, it is in immcdiatc dangci of cxtinction.
A spccics is said to bc in vuInerabIe catcgoiy if its population
is facing continuous dcclinc duc to ovcicxploitation oi labi-
tat dcstiuction. Sucl a spccics is still abundant, but undci a
sciious tlicat of bccoming cndangcicd if causal factois aic
not clcckcd.
Spccics vlicl aic not cndangcicd oi vulnciablc at picscnt,
but aic at a iisk aic catcgoiizcd as rare spccics. Tlcsc taxa aic
usually localizcd vitlin icstiictcd aicas i.c. tlcy aic usually
cndcmic. Somctimcs tlcy aic tlinly scattcicd ovci a moic
cxtcnsivc aica.
Somc impoitant cndangcicd and cxtinct spccics aic slovn in Platc
IV.
Passenger pigeon Dodo
Extinct
Spotted owl Tortoise
The Great Indian Bustard
Black rhinoceros Dugong Red panda
Green sea turtle
Tiger Snow leopard
Endangered
Plate IV. Some important extinct and endangered
Indian species of animals.
ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
India las tvo biodivcisity lot spots and tlus posscsscs a laigc numbci
of cndcmic spccics. Out of about 47,OOO spccics of plants in oui countiy
7OOO aic cndcmic. Tlus, Indian subcontincnt las about 62% cndcmic
floia, icstiictcd mainly to Himalayas, Klasi Hills and Wcstcin Clats.
Somc of tlc impoitant cndcmic floia includc oiclids and spccics likc
Saprta htmalayana, Uvarta lurtda, Ncpcnthcs khastana, Fcdtcularts pcrrctcr
ctc. Somc cndcmic plant spccics aic slovn in Platc V.
A laigc numbci out of a total of 81,OOO spccics of animals in oui
countiy is cndcmic. Tlc vcstcin glats aic paiticulaily iicl in amplib-
ians (fiogs, toads ctc.) and icptilcs (lizaids, ciocodilcs ctc.). About 62%
amplibians and 5O% lizaids aic cndcmic to Wcstcin Clats. Diffcicnt
spccics of monitoi lizaids (Varanus), icticulatcd pytlon and Indian
Salamandci and Vivipaious toad Ncctcphhrync aic somc impoitant
cndcmic spccics of oui countiy.
Plate V. Some endemic and endangered plants.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Tlc cnoimous valuc of biodivcisity duc to tlcii gcnctic, commcicial,
mcdical, acstlctic, ccological and optional impoitancc cmplasizcs tlc
nccd to conscivc biodivcisity. Ciadually vc aic coming to icalizc tlat
vildlifc is not just 'a gamc to bc luntcd', iatlci it is a 'gift of natuic' to
bc nuituicd and cnjoycd. A numbci of mcasuics aic nov bcing takcn
tlc voild ovci to conscivc biodivcisity including plants and vildlifc.
Tlcic aic tvo appioaclcs of biodivcisity conscivation:
(a) In sttu conscivation (vitlin labitat): Tlis is aclicvcd by pio-
tcction of vild floia and fauna in natuic itsclf. c.g. Biosplcic Rcscivcs,
National Paiks, Sanctuaiics, Rcscivc Ioicsts ctc.
(h) Ex sttu conscivation (outsidc labitats) Tlis is donc by cstab-
lislmcnt of gcnc banks, sccd banks, zoos, botanical gaidcns, cultuic
collcctions ctc.
In Situ Conservation
At picscnt vc lavc 7 majoi Biosplcic icscivcs, 8O National Paiks, 42O
vild-lifc sanctuaiics and 12O Botanical gaidcns in oui countiy covci-
ing 4% of tlc gcogiaplic aica.
Tlc BIosphere Reserves conscivc somc icpicscntativc ccosystcms
as a vlolc foi long-tcim in situ conscivation. In India vc lavc Nanda
Dcvi (L.P.), Nokick (Mcglalaya), Manas (Assam), Sundcibans (Wcst
Bcngal), Culf of Mannai (Tamil Nadu), Nilgiii (Kainataka, Kciala,
Tamil Nadu), Cicat Nicobais and Similipal (Oiiisa) biosplcic Rcscivcs.
Witlin tlc Biosplcic icscivcs vc may lavc onc oi moic National Paiks.
Ioi cxamplc, Nilgiii Biosplcic Rcscivc las tvo National Paiks vtz.
Bandipui and Nagailolc National Paik.
A Natinnal Park is an aica dcdicatcd foi tlc conscivation of
vildlifc along vitl its cnviionmcnt. It is also mcant foi cnjoymcnt
tliougl touiism but vitlout impaiiing tlc cnviionmcnt. Ciazing of
domcstic animals, all piivatc iiglts and foicstiy activitics aic piolibitcd
vitlin a National Paik. Eacl National Paik usually aims at
conscivation spccifically of somc paiticulai spccics of vildlifc along
vitl otlcis. Somc majoi National Paiks of oui countiy aic cnlistcd in
tlc Tablc 4.5 bclov:
Tablc 4.5. Snmc impnrtant Natinnal parks in India
Namc nf Statc Impnrtant Wildlifc
Natinnal Park
Kaziianga Assam Onc loincd Rlino
Cii National Paik Cujaiat Indian Lion
Dacligam 1 & K Hangul
Bandipui Kainataka Elcplant
Pciiyai Kciala Elcplant, Tigci
Kanla M.P. Tigci
Coibctt L.P. Tigci
Dudva L.P. Tigci
Rantlamboic Rajastlan Tigci
Saiiska Rajastlan Tigci
Wildlifc sanctuarics aic also piotcctcd aicas vlcic killing, lunt-
ing, slooting oi captuiing of vildlifc is piolibitcd cxccpt undci tlc
contiol of liglcst autloiity. Hovcvci, piivatc ovncislip iiglts aic pci-
missiblc and foicstiy opciations aic also pcimittcd to an cxtcnt tlat
tlcy do not affcct tlc vildlifc advciscly.
Somc majoi vildlifc sanctuaiics of oui countiy aic slovn in
Tablc 4.6.
Tablc 4.6. Snmc Impnrtant Wildlifc Sanctuarics nf India
Namc nf Sanctuary Statc Ma|nr Wild Lifc
Clana Biid Sanctuaiy Rajastlan 3OO spccics of biids
(including migiatoiy)
Hazaiibagl Sanctuaiy Bilai Tigci, Lcopaid
Sultanpui Biid Sanctuaiy Haiyana Migiatoiy biids
Nal Saiovai Biid Sanctuaiy Cujaiat Watci biids
Abolai Wildlifc Sanctuaiy Punjab Black buck
Mudamalai Wildlifc Sanctuaiy Tamil Nadu Tigci, clcplant,
Lcopaid
Vcdantlangal Biid Sanctuaiy Tamil Nadu Watci biids
1aldapaia Wild Lifc Sanctuaiy W. Bcngal Rlinoccios, clcplant,
Tigci
Wild Ass Sanctuaiy Cujaiat Wild ass, volf,
nilgai, clinkaia
Ioi plants, tlcic is onc gcnc sanctuaiy foi Citius (Lcmon family)
and onc foi pitclci plant (an inscct cating plant) in Noitlcast India.
Ioi tlc piotcction and conscivation of ccitain animals, tlcic lavc bccn
spccific piojccts in oui countiy c.g. Piojcct Tigci, Cii Lion Piojcct,
Ciocodilc Biccding Piojcct, Piojcct Elcplant, Snov Lcopaid Piojcct
ctc.
Ex sItu Cnnscrvatinn: Tlis typc of conscivation is mainly donc
foi conscivation of ciop vaiictics, tlc vild iclativcs of ciops and all tlc
local vaiictics vitl tlc main objcctivc of consciving tlc total gcnctic
vaiiability of tlc ciop spccics foi futuic ciop impiovcmcnt oi affoics-
tation piogiammcs. In India, vc lavc tlc folloving impoitant gcnc
bank/sccd bank facilitics:
(t) Natinnal Burcau nf Plant Ccnctic Rcsnurccs (NBPCR) is
locatcd in Ncv Dclli. Hcic agiicultuial and loiticultuial ciops and
tlcii vild iclativcs aic picscivcd by cryo-preservatIon of sccds, pollcn
ctc. by using liquid nitiogcn at a tcmpciatuic as lov as -196C. Vaiictics
of iicc, pcail millct, Biassica, tuinip, iadisl, tomato, onion, caiiot, clilli,
tobacco, poppy ctc. lavc bccn picscivcd succcssfully in liquid nitiogcn
foi scvcial ycais vitlout losing sccd viability.
(tt) Natinnal Burcau nf Animal Ccnctic Rcsnurccs (NBACR)
locatcd at Kainal, Haiyana. It picscivcs tlc scmcn of domcsticatcd
bovinc animals.
(ttt) Natinnal Facility fnr Plant Tissuc Culturc Rcpnsitnry
(NFPTCR) foi tlc dcvclopmcnt of a facility of conscivation of vaiictics
of ciop plants/ticcs by tissuc cultuic. Tlis facility las bccn cicatcd
vitlin tlc NBPCR.
Tlc C-15 countiics lavc also icsolvcd to sct up a nctvoik of gcnc
banks to facilitatc tlc conscivation of vaiious vaiictics of aiomatic and
mcdicinal plants foi vlicl India is tlc nctvoiking co-oidinatoi countiy.
QUESTIONS
1. Dcfinc biodivcisity. Explain gcnctic divcisity, spccics divcisity and
ccosystcm divcisity.
2. Wlat do youi mcan by consumptivc usc valuc, pioductivc usc
valuc, social valuc, ctlical valuc and option valuc of biodivcisity !
3. Wlat is mcant by alpla, bcta and gamma iiclncss ! Discuss, giving
cxamplcs.
4. Commcnt upon Indian biodivcisity vitl spccial icfcicncc as a
mcgadivcisity nation.
5. Wlat aic lotspots of biodivcisity ! Wlicl aic tlc lotspots found
in India ! Discuss tlcii salicnt fcatuics.
6. Wlat aic tlc majoi tlicats to biodivcisity !
7. Wlat aic tlc majoi causcs of man-vildlifc conflicts ! Discuss tlc
icmcdial stcps tlat can cuib tlc conflict.
8. Wlat is Rcd Data Book ! Wlat do you mcan by cxtinct, cndan-
gcicd, vulnciablc and iaic spccics ! Namc somc cndangcicd spc-
cics of plants and animals of oui countiy.
9. Wlat is mcant by tn sttu and cx-sttu conscivation of biodivcisity !
Civc cxamplcs.
10. Enumciatc fivc impoitant biosplcic icscivcs, national paiks (vitl
impoitant vild lifc) and vild lifc sanctuaiics (vitl majoi vild
lifc) of India. Also mcntion tlc statc vlcic tlcy aic locatcd.
11. Wlat do NBPCR and NBACR stand foi ! Wlcic aic tlcy
locatcd !
12. (a) Namc tlc typcs of plants foi vlicl gcnc sanctuaiics in India
cxist.
(h) Namc tlc animals foi vlosc piotcction and conscivations spc-
cific piojccts lavc bccn launclcd in oui countiy.
Ioi noimal and lcaltly living a conducivc cnviionmcnt is icquiicd by
all tlc living bcings, including lumans, livcstock, plants, micio-oigan-
isms and tlc vildlifc. Tlc favouiablc unpollutcd cnviionmcnt las a
spccific composition. Wlcn tlis composition gcts clangcd by addi-
tion of laimful substanccs, tlc cnviionmcnt is callcd pollutcd cnviion-
mcnt and tlc substanccs polluting it aic callcd pollutants. Envirnn-
mcntal pnllutinn can, thcrcfnrc, bc dcfincd as any undcsirablc
changc in thc physical, chcmical nr binlngical charactcristics nf any
cnmpnncnt nf thc cnvirnnmcnt (air, watcr, snil), which can causc
harmful cffccts nn varinus fnrms nf lifc nr prnpcrty. Enviionmcntal
pollution could bc of vaiious typcs:
AIR POLLUTION
It is an atmosplciic condition in vlicl ccitain substanccs (including
tlc noimal constitucnts in cxccss) aic picscnt in conccntiations vlicl
can causc undcsiiablc cffccts on man and lis cnviionmcnt. Tlcsc sub-
stanccs includc gascs, paiticulatc mattci, iadioactivc substanccs ctc.
Cascous pollutants includc oxidcs of sulplui (mostly SO
2
, SO
3
)
oxidcs of nitiogcn (mostly NO and NO
2
oi NO
x
), caibon monoxidc
(CO), volatilc oiganic compounds (mostly lydiocaibons) ctc.
Paiticulatc pollutants includc smokc, dust, soot, fumcs, aciosols, liquid
dioplcts, pollcn giains ctc.
Radioactivc pollutants includc iadon-222, iodinc-131, stiontium-
9O, plutonium-239 ctc.
Sources of Air Pollution
Tlc souiccs of aii pollution aic natuial and man-madc (antliopogcnic).
Natural Snurccs: Tlc natuial souiccs of aii pollution aic volcanic
ciuptions, foicst fiics, sca salt spiays, biological dccay, plotoclcmical
oxidation of tcipcncs, maislcs, cxtia tciicstiial bodics, pollcn giains
of flovcis, spoics ctc. Radioactivc mincials picscnt in tlc caitl ciust
aic tlc souiccs of iadioactivity in tlc atmosplcic.
7EJ
#
EnvironmentuI PoIIution
123
Man-madc: Man madc souiccs includc tlcimal povci plants,
industiial units, vcliculai cmissions, fossil fucl buining, agiicultuial
activitics ctc. Tlcimal povci plants lavc bccomc tlc majoi souiccs foi
gcnciating clcctiicity in India as tlc nuclcai povci plants couldn't bc
installcd as planncd. Tlc main pollutants cmittcd aic fly asl and SO
2
.
Mctalluigical plants also consumc coal and pioducc similai pollutants.
Icitilizci plants, smcltcis, tcxtilc mills, tannciics, icfinciics, clcmical
industiics, papci and pulp mills aic otlci souiccs of aii pollution.
Automobilc cxlaust is anotlci majoi souicc of aii pollution.
Automobilcs iclcasc gascs sucl as caibon monoxidc (about 77%),
oxidcs of nitiogcn (about 8%) and lydiocaibons (about 14%). Hcavy
duty dicscl vcliclcs spcv moic NOx and suspcndcd paiticulatc mattci
(SPM) tlan pctiol vcliclcs vlicl pioducc moic caibon monoxidc and
lydiocaibons.
Indoor Air Pollution
Tlc most impoitant indooi aii pollutant is iadon gas. Radon gas and
its iadioactivc daugltcis aic icsponsiblc foi a laigc numbci of lung
cancci dcatls cacl ycai. Radon can bc cmittcd fiom building matciials
likc biicks, concictc, tilcs ctc. vlicl aic dciivcd fiom soil containing
iadium. Radon is also picscnt in gioundvatci and natuial gas and is
cmittcd indoois vlilc using tlcm.
Many louscs in tlc undci-dcvclopcd and dcvcloping countiics
including India usc fucls likc coal, dung-cakcs, vood and kcioscnc in
tlcii kitclcns. Complctc combustion of fucl pioduccs caibon dioxidc
vlicl may not bc toxic. Hovcvci, incomplctc combustion pioduccs
tlc toxic gas caibon monoxidc. Coal contains vaiying amounts of
sulplui vlicl on buining pioduccs sulplui dioxidc. Iossil fucl buining
pioduccs black soot. Tlcsc pollutants i.c. CO, SO
2
, soot and many
otlcis likc foimaldclydc, bcnzo- (a) pyicnc (BAP) aic toxic and laimful
foi lcaltl. BAP is also found in cigaicttc smokc and is considcicd to
causc cancci. A lousc vifc using vood as fucl foi cooking inlalcs BAP
cquivalcnt to 2O packcts of cigaicttc a day.
Effccts nf air pnllutinn: Aii pollution las advcisc cffccts on living
oiganisms and matciials.
Effccts nn Human Hcalth: Human icspiiatoiy systcm las a
numbci of mcclanisms foi piotcction fiom aii pollution. Biggci
paiticlcs (> 1O m) can bc tiappcd by tlc laiis and sticky mucus in tlc
lining of tlc nosc. Smallci paiticlcs can icacl tiaclcobionclial systcm
and tlcic gct tiappcd in mucus. Tlcy aic scnt back to tlioat by bcating
of laii likc cilia fiom vlcic tlcy can bc icmovcd by spitting oi
Environmental Pollution 125
svalloving. Ycais of cxposuic to aii pollutants (including cigaicttc
smokc) advciscly affcct tlcsc natuial dcfcnscs and can icsult in lung
cancci, astlma, clionic bionclitis and cmplyscma (damagc to aii sacs
lcading to loss of lung clasticity and acutc sloitncss of bicatl).
Suspcndcd paiticulatcs can causc damagc to lung tissucs and discascs
likc astlma, bionclitis and cancci cspccially vlcn tlcy biing vitl tlcm
cancci causing oi toxic pollutants attaclcd on tlcii suifacc. Sulplui
dioxidc (SO
2
) causcs constiiction of icspiiatoiy passagc and can causc
bionclitis likc conditions. In tlc picscncc of suspcndcd paiticulatcs,
SO
2
can foim acid sulplatc paiticlcs, vlicl can go dccp into tlc lungs
and affcct tlcm scvcicly.
Bronchiole
(a)
(b)
Muscles
Alveoli
Alveolar
ducts
Alveolar sacs
Trachea
Right
bronchus
Basement membrane
Connective tissue
Bronchial lining
Mucus
Cilia
Mucus producing
Goblet cell
Columnar cell
Fig. 5.1. Lower respiratory system of human beings (a and b) and
cross section of bronchial lining showing cilia and goblet cells.
Oxidcs of nitiogcn cspccially NO
2
can iiiitatc tlc lungs and causc
conditions likc clionic bionclitis and cmplyscma. Caibon monoxidc
(CO) icaclcs lungs and combincs vitl lacmoglobin of blood to foim
caiboxylacmoglobin. CO las affinity foi lacmoglobin 21O timcs moic
tlan oxygcn. Hacmoglobin is, tlcicfoic, unablc to tianspoit oxygcn to
vaiious paits of tlc body. Tlis causcs suffocation. Long cxposuic to
CO may causc dizzincss, unconsciousncss and cvcn dcatl.
Many otlci aii pollutants likc bcnzcnc (fiom unlcadcd pctiol),
foimaldclydc and paiticulatcs likc polyclloiinatcd biplcnyls (PCBs)
toxic mctals and dioxins (fiom buining of polytlcnc) can causc
mutations, icpioductivc pioblcms oi cvcn cancci.
Effccts nn Plants: Aii pollutants affcct plants by cntciing tliougl
stomata (lcaf poics tliougl vlicl gascs diffusc), dcstioy clloioplyll
and affcct plotosyntlcsis. Pollutants also ciodc vaxy coating of tlc
lcavcs callcd cuticlc. Cuticlc picvcnts cxccssivc vatci loss and damagc
fiom discascs, pcsts, diouglt and fiost. Oamagc to lcaf stiuctuic causcs
necrosIs (dcad aicas of lcaf), chIorosIs (loss oi icduction of clloioplyll
causing yclloving of lcaf) oi epInasty (dovnvaid cuiling of lcaf), and
abscIssIon (diopping of lcavcs). Paiticulatcs dcpositcd on lcavcs can
foim cnciustations and plug tlc stomata. Tlc damagc can icsult in
dcatl of tlc plant.
Effccts nn aquatic lifc: Aii pollutants mixing up vitl iain can
causc ligl acidity (lovci pH) in ficsl vatci lakcs. Tlis affccts aquatic
lifc cspccially fisl. Somc of tlc ficslvatci lakcs lavc cxpciicnccd total
fisl dcatl.
Effccts nn matcrials: Bccausc of tlcii coiiosivcncss, paiticulatcs
can causc damagc to cxposcd suifaccs. Picscncc of SO
2
and moistuic
can accclciatc coiiosion of mctallic suifaccs. SO
2
can affcct fabiic,
lcatlci, paint, papci, maiblc and limcstonc. Ozonc in tlc atmosplcic
can causc ciacking of iubbci. Oxidcs of nitiogcn can also causc fading
of cotton and iayon fibics.
Control of Air Pollution
Aii pollution can bc minimizcd by tlc folloving mctlods:
Siting of industiics aftci piopci Enviionmcntal Impact
Asscssmcnt studics.
Lsing lov sulplui coal in industiics
Rcmoving sulplui fiom coal (by vasling oi vitl tlc lclp of
bactciia)
Rcmoving NO
x
duiing tlc combustion pioccss.
Rcmoving paiticulatc fiom stack cxlaust gascs by cmploying
clcctiostatic piccipitatois, bag-lousc filtcis, cyclonc scpaiatois,
sciubbcis ctc.
Vcliculai pollution can bc clcckcd by icgulai tunc-up of
cngincs , icplaccmcnt of moic polluting old vcliclcs, installing
catalytic convcitcis , by cnginc modification to lavc fucl
cfficicnt (lcan) mixtuics to icducc CO and lydiocaibon
cmissions, and slov and coolci buining of fucls to icducc NO
x
cmission (Honda Tcclnology).
Lsing mass tianspoit systcm, bicyclcs ctc.
Slifting to lcss polluting fucls (lydiogcn gas).
Lsing non-convcntional souiccs of cncigy.
Lsing biological filtcis and bio-sciubbcis.
Planting moic ticcs.
NOISE POLLUTION
Wc lcai vaiious typcs of sounds cvciyday. Sound is mcclanical cncigy
fiom a vibiating souicc. A typc of sound may bc plcasant to somconc
and at tlc samc timc unplcasant to otlcis. Tlc unplcasant and
unvantcd sound is callcd noisc.
Sound can piopagatc tliougl a mcdium likc aii, liquid oi solid.
Sound vavc is a picssuic pcituibation in tlc mcdium tliougl vlicl
sound tiavcls. Sound picssuic altcinatcly causcs compicssion and
iaicfaction. Tlc numbci of compicssions and iaicfactions of tlc
molcculcs of tlc mcdium (foi cxamplc aii) in a unit timc is dcsciibcd
as ficqucncy. It is cxpicsscd in Hcitz (Hz) and is cqual to tlc numbci
of cyclcs pci sccond.
Tlcic is a vidc iangc of sound picssuics, vlicl cncountci luman
cai. Incicasc in sound picssuic docs not invokc lincai icsponsc of luman
cai. A mcaningful logaiitlmic scalc las bccn dcviscd. Tlc noisc
mcasuicmcnts aic cxpicsscd as Sound Picssuic Lcvcl (SPL) vlicl is
logaiitlmic iatio of tlc sound picssuic to a icfcicncc picssuic. It is
cxpicsscd as a dimcnsionlcss unit, dccibcl (dB). Tlc intcinational
icfcicncc picssuic of 2 1O
5
Pa is tlc avciagc tlicslold of lcaiing foi
a lcaltly cai. Occibcl scalc is a mcasuic of loudncss. Noisc can affcct
luman cai bccausc of its loudncss and ficqucncy (pitcl).
Tlc Ccntial Pollution Contiol Boaid (CPCB) committcc las
iccommcndcd pcimissiblc noisc lcvcls foi diffcicnt locations as givcn
in Tablc 5.1.
Tablc 5.1 Nnisc standards rccnmmcndcd
by CPCB cnmmittcc
Nnisc lcvcl in dB (A) Lcq
Day Night
(A) Industiial 75 7O
(B) Commcicial 65 55
(C) Rcsidcntial 55 45
(O) Silcncc Zonc 5O 4O
Tablc 5.2. Diffcrcnt snunds and thcir
snund lcvcls nn dccibcl scalc
Snund Lcvcl (dB) Snurcc nf Snund
18O Rockct cnginc
17O
16O
15O 1ct planc takc off
Tlicslold of Pain 14O
13O Maximum iccoidcd iock music
12O Tlundci cap
11O Autoloin 1m avay
1OO 1ct fly ovci at 3OO m,
constiuction voik, Ncvspapci
picss
9O Motoi cyclc/8 m avay, food
blcndci
8O
7O Vacuum clcanci, oidinaiy convci-
sation
6O Aii conditioning unit, 6m avay,
liglt tiaffic noisc, 3Om avay
5O Avciagc living ioom
4O
3O Libiaiy, soft vlispci
2O Bioadcasting studio
1O Rustling lcaf
Tlicslold of lcaiing O
Catcgnry nf
Arca
Arca
cndc
Snurccs nf Nnisc Pnllutinn: Tlc main souiccs of noisc aic vaiious
modcs of tianspoitation (likc aii, ioad, iail-tianspoitation), industiial
opciations, constiuction activitics and cclcbiations (social/icligious
functions, clcctions ctc) clcctiic lomc applianccs.
Higl lcvcls of noisc lavc bccn iccoidcd in somc of tlc citics of
tlc voild. In Nanjing (Clina) noisc lcvcl of 1O5 dB las bccn iccoidcd,
vlilc in somc otlci citics of tlc voild tlcsc lcvcls aic: Romc 9O dB,
Ncv Yoik 88 dB, Calcutta 85 dB, Mumbai 82 dB, Oclli 8O dB,
Katlmandu 75 dB.
Effccts nf Nnisc: Noisc causcs tlc folloving cffccts.
(t) Intcrfcrcs with man's cnmmunicatinn: In a noisy aica
communication is scvcicly affcctcd.
(tt) Hcaring damagc: Noisc can causc tcmpoiaiy oi pcimancnt
lcaiing loss. It dcpcnds on intcnsity and duiation of sound lcvcl.
Auditoiy scnsitivity is icduccd vitl noisc lcvcl of ovci 9O dB in tlc
midligl ficqucncy foi moic tlan a fcv minutcs.
(ttt) Physinlngical and Psychnlngical changcs: Continuous
cxposuic to noisc affccts tlc functioning of vaiious systcms of tlc body.
It may icsult in lypcitcnsion, insomnia (slccplcssncss), gastio-intcstinal
and digcstivc disoidcis, pcptic ulccis, blood picssuic clangcs,
bclaviouial clangcs, cmotional clangcs ctc.
NOISE POLLUTION DURING DIWALI
Oivali is a fcstival of liglts. Tiaditionally pcoplc of all agcs cnjoy
fiicciackcis. Somc accidcnts do occui cvciy ycai claiming a fcv livcs.
Bcsidcs, noisc gcnciatcd by vaiious fiicciackcis is bcyond tlc
pcimissiblc noisc lcvcls of 125 dccibcls as pci tlc Enviionmcntal
(Piotcction) (Sccond Amcndmcnt) Rulcs, 1999.
Tlcic las bccn a gicat conccin ovci tlc noisc lcvcls gcnciatcd
duiing Oivali. Somc mcasuicmcnts by ccitain gioup of icscaiclcis
lavc also bccn madc at vaiious placcs duiing Oivali. It is iccommcndcd
tlat tlc manufactuicis of fiicvoiks slould mcntion tlc noisc lcvcls in
dccibcls gcnciatcd by individual itcms. Tlc dcpaitmcnt of cxplosivcs
of tlc Lnion Ministiy of Commcicc and Industiy is cntiustcd vitl tlc
task to cnsuic tlat tlc industiy pioduccs fiicciackcis confoiming to
pcimissiblc noisc standaids.
Accoiding to a icccnt tcst icpoit on fiicciackcis pioduccd by tlc
National Plysical Laboiatoiy, Ncv Oclli most of tlc fiicciackcis
availablc in tlc maikct pioducc noisc bcyond tlc pcimissiblc lcvcls of
125 dccibcls as pci tlc Enviionmcnt (Piotcction) (Sccond amcndmcnt)
Rulcs, 1999. Somc of tlcm lavc bccn obscivcd to pioducc noisc ncai
tlc tlicslold of pain. Tlc dctails aic givcn in Tablc 5.3.
*Ciackci mccting tlc noisc pollution standaids.
Scurcc. Tcst icpoit on fiicciackcis, National Plysical Laboiatoiy, Ncv Oclli,
Apiil 21, 2OO3
Tlc noisc lcvcls vcic mcasuicd undci standaid conditions i.c. in
aicas not laving noisc-icflccting suifaccs vitlin a 15 mctic iadius. Tvo
gadgcts, foi mcasuiing sound lcvcls vcic installcd at a lciglt of 1.3
mctics and at a distancc of 4 mctics fiom tlc souicc of sound.
Bcsidcs mcntioning tlc sound lcvcls on cacl of tlc typcs of
fiicciackcis oi banning tlc pioduction of sucl fiicciackcis vlicl
pioducc noisc abovc pcimissiblc lcvcls, it is impoitant to cducatc pcoplc
about tlc laimful cffccts of noisc duiing sucl fcstivals likc Oivali. It
Tablc 5.3. Nnisc lcvcls gcncratcd by firccrackcrs
Ccncratcd
Typc nf firccrackcr Manufacturcr nnisc lcvcl
in dccibcls
Atom bomb (timing bomb) Coionation Iiicvoiks, Sivakasi 135 2
Clincsc ciackcis (a stiing of
1,OOO in onc piccc)
Sii Kalisvaii Iiicvoiks,
Sivakasi
128
Clincsc ciackcis (a stiing of
6OO in onc piccc)
Sii Kalisvaii Iiicvoiks,
Sivakasi
132
Nazi (atom bomb) Coionation Iiicvoiks, Sivakasi 135 O
Magic foimula (f lovci
bomb)
Rajan Iiicvoiks, Sivakasi 136 1
Atom bomb (foilcd) Sii Kailsvaii Iiicvoiks,
Sivakasi
131 2
Hydiogcn bomb Sii Patiakali Iiicvoiks,
Sivakasi
134 2
Rajan classic dlamaka
(foilcd bomb)
Rajan Iiicvoiks, Sivakasi 136 O
Samiat classic bomb
(dcluxc)
Vcnkatcsvaia Iiicvoiks,
Sivakasi
136 O
Hydio foilcd (bomb) Sii Kalisvaii Iiicvoiks,
Sivakasi
132 2
*Tlicc sound (bomb) Coionation Iiicvoiks, Sivakasi 119 7
Atom bomb Local 136 O
can bc donc by giving public noticcs in tlc lcading ncvspapcis and
mcssagcs tliougl otlci mass mcdia likc iadio and tclcvision.
Honouiablc Supicmc Couit in a Wiit Pctition (civil) of 1998
conccining noisc pollution lad passcd tlc folloving diicctions as an
intciim mcasuic.
Tlc Lnion Covcinmcnt, Tlc Lnion Tciiitoiics as vcll as all tlc
Statc Covcinmcnts slall in paiticulai comply vitl amcndcd Rulc 89
of tlc Enviionmcntal (Piotcction) Rulcs, 1986 fiamcd undci tlc
Enviionmcntal (Piotcction) Act, 1986 vlicl csscntially icads as
follovs.
1. (t) Tlc manufactuic, salc oi usc of fiic-ciackcis gcnciating
noisc lcvcl cxcccding 125 dB (AI) oi 145 dB (C) pk at 4
mctcis distancc fiom tlc point of buisting slall bc
piolibitcd.
(tt) Ioi individual fiic-ciackci constituting tlc sciics (joincd
fiic-ciackcis), tlc abovc mcntioncd limit bc icduccd by 5
log 1O (N) dB, vlcic N = Numbci of ciackcis joincd
togctlci.
2. Tlc usc of fiic voiks oi fiic ciackcis slall not bc pcimittcd
cxccpt bctvccn 6.OO p.m. and 1O.OO p.m. No fiic voiks oi
fiic ciackcis slall bc uscd bctvccn 1O.OO p.m. and 6.OO a.m.
3. Iiic ciackcis slall not bc uscd at any timc in silcncc zoncs, as
dcfincd by tlc Ministiy of Enviionmcnt and Ioicsts. Silcncc
Zonc las bccn dcfincd as:
''Silcncc Zonc in an aica compiising not lcss tlat 1OO mctcis
aiound lospitals, cducational institutions, couits, icligious
placcs oi any otlci aica vlicl is dcclaicd as sucl by tlc
compctcnt autloiity.
4. Tlc Statc Education Rcsouicc Ccntics in all tlc Statcs and
Lnion Tciiitoiics as vcll as tlc managcmcnt/piincipals of
sclools in all tlc Statcs and Lnion Tciiitoiics slall takc
appiopiiatc stcps to cducatc studcnts about tlc ill cffccts of
aii and noisc pollution and appiisc tlcm of diicctions (1) to
(3) abovc.
Control of Noise Pollution
1. Rcducttcn tn scurccs cf nctsc. Souiccs of noisc pollution likc
lcavy vcliclcs and old vcliclcs may not bc allovcd to ply in
tlc populatcd aicas.
2. Noisc making maclincs slould bc kcpt in containcis vitl
sound absoibing mcdia. Tlc noisc patl vill bc in intciiuptcd
and vill not icacl tlc voikcis.
3. Piopci oiling vill icducc tlc noisc fiom tlc maclinciy.
4. Usc cf scund ahscrhtng stlcnccrs. Silcnccis can icducc noisc
by absoibing sound. Ioi tlis puiposc vaiious typcs of fibious
matciial could bc uscd.
5. Planting moic ticcs laving bioad lcavcs.
6. Thrcugh Law. Lcgislation can cnsuic tlat sound pioduction
is minimizcd at vaiious social functions. Lnncccssaiy loin
bloving slould bc icstiictcd cspccially in vcliclc-congcstcd
aicas.
WATER POLLUTION
Watci pollution can bc dcfincd as altciation in plysical, clcmical oi
biological claiactciistics of vatci making it unsuitablc foi dcsignatcd
usc in its natuial statc.
Snurccs nf watcr pnllutinn: Watci is an csscntial commodity foi
suivival. Wc nccd vatci foi diinking, cooking, batling, vasling,
iiiigation, and foi industiial opciations. Most of vatci foi sucl uscs
comcs fiom iivcis, lakcs oi gioundvatci souiccs. Watci las tlc piopcity
to dissolvc many substanccs in it, tlcicfoic, it can casily gct pollutcd.
Pollution of vatci can bc causcd by point souiccs oi non-point souiccs.
Point souiccs aic spccific sitcs ncai vatci vlicl diicctly disclaigc
cfflucnts into tlcm. Majoi point souiccs of vatci pollution aic
industiics, povci plants, undcigiound coal mincs, offsloic oil vclls
ctc. Tlc disclaigc fiom non-point souiccs is not at any paiticulai sitc,
iatlci, tlcsc souiccs aic scattcicd, vlicl individually oi collcctivcly
pollutc vatci. Suifacc iun-off fiom agiicultuial ficlds, ovcifloving small
diains, iain vatci svccping ioads and ficlds, atmosplciic dcposition
ctc. aic tlc non-point souiccs of vatci pollution.
Crnund watcr pnllutinn: Ciound vatci foims about 6.2% of tlc
total vatci availablc on planct caitl and is about 3O timcs moic tlan
suifacc vatci (sticams, lakcs and cstuaiics). Ciound vatci sccms to bc
lcss pionc to pollution as tlc soil mantlc tliougl vlicl vatci passcs
lclps to ictain vaiious contaminants duc to its cation cxclangc capacity.
Hovcvci, tlcic aic a numbci of potcntial souiccs of giound vatci
pollution. Scptic tanks, industiy (tcxtilc, clcmical, tannciics), dccp vcll
injcction, mining ctc. aic mainly icsponsiblc foi giound vatci pollution,
vlicl is iiicvcisiblc. Ciound vatci pollution vitl aiscnic, fluoiidc
and nitiatc aic posing sciious lcaltl lazaids.
Surfacc watcr pnllutinn: Tlc majoi souiccs of suifacc vatci
pollution aic:
1. Scwagc: Pouiing tlc diains and scvcis in ficsl vatci bodics
causcs vatci pollution. Tlc pioblcm is scvcic in citics.
2. Industrial cfflucnts: Industiial vastcs containing toxic
clcmicals, acids, alkalis, mctallic salts, plcnols, cyanidcs,
ammonia, iadioactivc substanccs, ctc. aic souiccs of vatci
pollution. Tlcy also causc tlcimal (lcat) pollution of vatci.
3. Synthctic dctcrgcnts: Syntlctic dctcigcnts uscd in vasling
and clcaning pioducc foam and pollutc vatci.
4. Agrnchcmicals: Agioclcmicals likc fcitilizcis (containing
nitiatcs and plosplatcs) and pcsticidcs (insccticidcs,
fungicidcs, lcibicidcs ctc.) vaslcd by iain-vatci and suifacc
iun-off pollutc vatci.
5. Oil: Oil spillagc into sca-vatci duiing diilling and slipmcnt
pollutc it.
6. Wastc hcat: Wastc lcat fiom industiial disclaigcs incicascs
tlc tcmpciatuic of vatci bodics and affccts distiibution and
suivival of scnsitivc spccics.
Effects of Water Pollution
Iolloving aic somc impoitant cffccts of vaiious typcs of vatci
pollutants:
Oxygcn dcmanding wastcs: Oiganic mattci vlicl icaclcs vatci
bodics is dccomposcd by micio-oiganisms picscnt in vatci. Ioi tlis
dcgiadation oxygcn dissolvcd in vatci is consumcd. Oissolvcd oxygcn
(OO) is tlc amount of oxygcn dissolvcd in a givcn quantity of vatci at
a paiticulai tcmpciatuic and atmosplciic picssuic. Amount of dissolvcd
oxygcn dcpcnds on aciation, plotosyntlctic activity in vatci,
icspiiation of animals and plants and ambicnt tcmpciatuic.
Tlc satuiation valuc of OO vaiics fiom 8-15 mg/L. Ioi activc
fisl spccics (tiout and Salmon) 5-8 mg/L of OO is icquiicd vlcicas
lcss dcsiiablc spccics likc caip can suivivc at 3.O mg/L of OO.
Lovci OO may bc laimful to animals cspccially fisl population.
Oxygcn dcplction (dcoxygcnation) lclps in iclcasc of plosplatcs fiom
bottom scdimcnts and causcs cutioplication.
Nitrngcn and Phnsphnrus Cnmpnunds (Nutricnts): Addition of
compounds containing nitiogcn and plosploius lclps in tlc giovtl
of algac and otlci plants vlicl vlcn dic and dccay consumc oxygcn
of vatci. Lndci anaciobic conditions foul smclling gascs aic pioduccd.
Exccss giovtl oi dccomposition of plant matciial vill clangc tlc
conccntiation of CO
2
vlicl vill fuitlci clangc pH of vatci. Clangcs
in pH, oxygcn and tcmpciatuic vill clangc many plysico-clcmical
claiactciistics of vatci.
Pathngcns: Many vastcvatcis cspccially scvagc contain many
patlogcnic (discasc causing) and non-patlogcnic micio-oiganisms and
many viiuscs. Watci boinc discascs likc clolcia, dyscntciy, typloid,
jaundicc ctc. aic spicad by vatci contaminatcd vitl scvagc.
Tnxic Cnmpnunds: Pollutants sucl as lcavy mctals, pcsticidcs,
cyanidcs and many otlci oiganic and inoiganic compounds aic laimful
to aquatic oiganisms.
Tlc dcmand of OO incicascs vitl addition of biodcgiadablc
oiganic mattci vlicl is cxpicsscd as biological oxygcn dcmand (BOO).
BOO is dcfincd as tlc amount of OO icquiicd to aciobically dccomposc
biodcgiadablc oiganic mattci of a givcn volumc of vatci ovci a pciiod
of 5 days at 2OC. Moic BOO valucs of any vatci samplc aic associatcd
vitl pooi vatci quality. Tlc non-biodcgiadablc toxic compounds
biomagnify in tlc food clain and causc toxic cffccts at vaiious lcvcls of
food clain.
Somc of tlcsc substanccs likc pcsticidcs, mctlyl mcicuiy ctc. movc
into tlc bodics of oiganisms fiom tlc mcdium in vlicl tlcsc oiganisms
livc. Substanccs likc OOT aic not vatci solublc and lavc affinity foi
body lipids. Tlcsc substanccs tcnd to accumulatc in tlc oiganism's
body. Tlis pioccss is callcd binaccumulatinn. Tlc conccntiation of
tlcsc toxic substanccs builds up at succcssivc lcvcls of food clain. Tlis
pioccss is callcd binmagnificatinn. Iolloving is tlc cxamplc of
biomagnification of OOT in aquatic food clain:
Cnmpnncnt DDT cnnccntratinn (ppm)
Biids 1O.OO

Nccdlc fisl 1.O

Minnovs O.1

Zooplankton O.O1

Watci O.OOOOO1
Toxic substanccs polluting tlc vatci ultimatcly affcct luman
lcaltl. Somc lcavy mctals likc lcad, mcicuiy and cadmium causc
vaiious typcs of discascs. Mcicuiy dumpcd into vatci is tiansfoimcd
into vatci solublc mctlyl mcicuiy by bactciial action. Mctlyl mcicuiy
accumulatcs in fisl. In 1953, pcoplc in 1apan suffcicd fiom numbncss
of body paits, vision and lcaiing pioblcms and abnoimal mcntal
bclavioui. Tlis discasc callcd Minamata discasc occuiicd duc to
consumption of mctlyl mcicuiy contaminatcd fisl cauglt fiom
Minamata bay in 1apan. Tlc discasc claimcd 5O livcs and pcimancntly
paialyscd ovci 7OO pcisons. Pollution by anotlci lcavy mctal cadmium
lad causcd tlc discasc callcd Itai-itai in tlc pcoplc of 1apan. Tlc discasc
vas causcd by cadmium contaminatcd iicc. Tlc iicc ficlds vcic iiiigatcd
vitl cfflucnts of zinc smcltcis and diainagc vatci fiom mincs. In tlis
discasc boncs, livci, kidncy, lungs, pancicas and tlyioid aic affcctcd.
Aiscnic pollution of giound vatci in Bangladcsl and Wcst Bcngal
is causing vaiious typcs of abnoimalitics.
Nitiatc vlcn picscnt in cxccss in diinking vatci causcs bluc baby
syndrnmc oi mcthacmnglnbincmia. Tlc discasc dcvclops vlcn a pait
of lacmoglobin is convcitcd into non-functional oxidizcd foim.
Nitiatc in stomacl paitly gcts clangcd into nitiitcs vlicl can
pioducc cancci-causing pioducts in tlc stomacl.
Exccss of fluoiidc in diinking vatci causcs dcfccts in tcctl and
boncs callcd flunrnsis.
Pcsticidcs in diinking vatci ultimatcly icacl lumans and aic
knovn to causc vaiious lcaltl pioblcms. OOT, aldiin, dicldiin ctc.
lavc tlcicfoic, bccn banncd. Rcccntly, in Andlia Piadcsl, pcoplc
suffcicd fiom vaiious abnoimalitics duc to consumption of cndosulplan
contaminatcd caslcv nuts.
Control of Water Pollution
It is casy to icducc vatci pollution fiom point souiccs by lcgislation.
Hovcvci, duc to abscncc of dcfincd stiatcgics it bccomcs difficult to
picvcnt vatci pollution fiom non-point souiccs. Tlc folloving points
may lclp in icducing vatci pollution fiom non-point souiccs.
(t) 1udicious usc of agioclcmicals likc pcsticidcs and fcitilizcis
vlicl vill icducc tlcii suifacc iun-off and lcacling. Avoid usc of tlcsc
on slopcd lands.
(tt) Lsc of nitiogcn fixing plants to supplcmcnt tlc usc of
fcitilizcis.
(ttt) Adopting intcgiatcd pcst managcmcnt to icducc icliancc on
pcsticidcs.
(tv) Picvcnt iun-off of manuic. Oivcit sucl iun-off to basin foi
scttlcmcnt. Tlc nutiicnt iicl vatci can bc uscd as fcitilizci in tlc ficlds.
(v) Scpaiatc diainagc of scvagc and iain vatci slould bc piovidcd
to picvcnt ovciflov of scvagc vitl iainvatci.
(vt) Planting ticcs vould icducc pollution by scdimcnts and vill
also picvcnt soil ciosion.
Ioi contiolling vatci pollution fiom point souiccs, ticatmcnt of
vastcvatcis is csscntial bcfoic bcing disclaigcd. Paiamctcis vlicl aic
considcicd foi icduction in sucl vatci aic-
Total solids, biological oxygcn dcmand (BOO), clcmical oxygcn
dcmand (COO), nitiatcs and plosplatcs, oil and gicasc, toxic mctals
ctc.
Wastcvatcis slould bc piopcily ticatcd by piimaiy and sccondaiy
ticatmcnts to icducc tlc BOO, COO lcvcls upto tlc pcimissiblc lcvcls
foi disclaigc.
Advanccd ticatmcnt foi icmoval of nitiatcs and plosplatcs vill
picvcnt cutioplication. Bcfoic tlc disclaigc of vastcvatci, it slould
bc disinfcctcd to kill tlc discasc-causing oiganisms likc bactciia.
Piopci clloiination slould bc donc to picvcnt tlc foimation of
clloiinatcd lydiocaibons oi disinfcction slould bc donc by ozonc oi
ultiaviolct iadiations.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Tlcimal pollution can bc dcfincd as picscncc of vastc lcat in tlc vatci
vlicl can causc undcsiiablc clangcs in tlc natuial cnviionmcnt.
Causcs nf thcrmal pnllutinn: Hcat pioducing industiics i.c.,
tlcimal povci plants, nuclcai povci plants, icfinciics, stccl mills ctc.
aic tlc majoi souiccs of tlcimal pollution. Povci plants utilizc only
1/3 of tlc cncigy piovidcd by fossil fucls foi tlcii opciations. Rcmaining
2/3 is gcncially lost in tlc foim of lcat to tlc vatci uscd foi cooling.
Cold vatci, gcncially, is diavn fiom somc ncaiby vatci-body, passcd
tliougl tlc plant and ictuincd to tlc samc vatci body, vitl
tcmpciatuic 1O-16C liglci tlan tlc initial tcmpciatuic. Exccss of lcat
icacling sucl vatci bodics causcs tlcimal pollution of vatci.
Effects of Thermal Pollution
(t) Tlc dissolvcd oxygcn contcnt of vatci is dccicascd as tlc
solubility of oxygcn in vatci is dccicascd at ligl tcmpciatuic.
(tt) Higl tcmpciatuic bccomcs a baiiici foi oxygcn pcnctiation
into dccp cold vatcis.
(ttt) Toxicity of pcsticidcs, dctcigcnts and clcmicals in tlc cfflucnts
incicascs vitl incicasc in tcmpciatuic.
(tv) Tlc composition of floia and fauna clangcs bccausc tlc
spccics scnsitivc to incicascd tcmpciatuic duc to tlcimal slock vill bc
icplaccd by tcmpciatuic tolciant spccics.
(v) Mctabolic activitics of aquatic oiganisms incicasc at ligl
tcmpciatuic and icquiic moic oxygcn, vlcicas oxygcn lcvcl falls undci
tlcimal pollution.
(vt) Oisclaigc of lcatcd vatci ncai tlc sloics can distuib
spavning and can cvcn kill young fislcs.
(vtt) Iisl migiation is affcctcd duc to foimation of vaiious tlcimal
zoncs.
Cnntrnl nf Thcrmal Pnllutinn:
Tlc folloving mctlods can bc cmploycd foi contiol of tlcimal
pollution:
(t) Cooling ponds, (tt) Spiay Ponds,
(ttt) Cooling tovcis
(t) Cnnling Pnnds: Watci fiom condcnscis is stoicd in ponds
vlcic natuial cvapoiation cools tlc vatci vlicl can tlcn bc
icciiculatcd oi disclaigcd in ncaiby vatci body. (Iig. 5.2)
Condenser
Cooling pond
(a)
Condenser
Cooling pond
River
(b)
Fig. 5.2. Dissipation of heat by cooling ponds.
(tt) Spray Pnnds: Tlc vatci fiom condcnscis is icccivcd in spiay
ponds. Hcic tlc vatci is spiaycd tliougl nozzlcs vlcic finc dioplcts
aic foimcd. Hcat fiom tlcsc finc dioplcts is dissipatcd to tlc
atmosplcic. (Iig. 5.3)
Sprayer
Condenser
Condenser
River
Sprayer
Fig. 5.3. Dissipation of heat by spray ponds.
(ttt) Cnnling Tnwcrs:
(a) ct cccltng tcwcr. Hot vatci is spiaycd ovci bafflcs. Cool aii
cntciing fiom sidcs takcs avay tlc lcat and cools tlc vatci.
Tlis cool vatci can bc iccyclcd oi disclaigcd. Laigc amount
of vatci is lost tliougl cvapoiation and in tlc vicinity of vct
cooling tovci cxtcnsivc fog is foimcd vlicl is not good foi
cnviionmcnt and causcs damagc to vcgctation. (Iig. 5.4)
(h) Dry cccltng tcwcr. Tlc lcatcd vatci flovs in a systcm of pipcs.
Aii is passcd ovci tlcsc lot pipcs vitl fans. Tlcic is no vatci
loss in tlis mctlod but installation and opciation cost of diy
cooling tovci is many timcs liglci tlan vct cooling tovci.
Cool
air inlet
Hot
water
Cool
water
Wet cooling tower
Warm air
and steam
Coolwater
Hot water
Cool water
Cool
air inlet
Fan
Dry cooling tower
Warm air
Fig. 5.4. Cooling towers: Wet and dry.
MARINE POLLUTION
Tlc main souiccs of maiinc pollution aic (t) iivcis, vlicl biing
pollutants fiom tlcii diainagc basins, (tt) Catclmcnt aica i.c. coastlinc
vlcic luman scttlcmcnts in tlc foim of lotcls, industiy, agiicultuial
piacticcs lavc bccn cstablislcd, and (ttt) oil diilling and slipmcnt.
Most of tlc iivcis ultimatcly join tlc occan. Tlc pollutants vlicl
tlcsc iivcis caiiy fiom tlcii diainagc basins aic finally pouicd into tlc
sca. Tlcsc includc scvagc sludgc, industiial cfflucnts, syntlctic
dctcigcnts, agioclcmicals, solid vastcs, plastics, mctals and vastc lcat
iclcascd by industiics as discusscd cailici.
In tlc sca tlc pollutants gct dilutcd and tlc oiganic mattci is
fuitlci biokcn dovn as in iivci vatci. Still many pollutants spccially
tlc iccalcitiant oncs icmain unclangcd oi aic paitially dcgiadcd
causing maiinc pollution. Tlcsc pollutants gct biomagnificd and affcct
fislciics and otlci maiinc lifc. Anotlci impoitant souicc of maiinc
pollution is tlc lcaking toxic substanccs, iadioactivc vastcs ctc. vlicl
aic stoicd in laigc containcis and dumpcd in dccp sca considciing sca
to bc a bcttci disposal sitc tlan land.
Tankcis and otlci slipping mcans, industiics (pctiolcum, icfinciy,
lubiicating oil using industiy, mctal industiy, paint industiy),
automotivc vastcs, icfinciics, slip-accidcnts and off sloic pioduction
add to maiinc pollution. Tankcis tianspoiting oil contiibutc to oil
pollution significantly. Aftci dclivciing tlc oil tliougl sca-ioutc, cailici
cmpty tankcis uscd to bc fillcd vitl vatci callcd ballast-vatci to
maintain balancc. Tlc ballast-vatci containing icsidual oil fiom tankcis
vas iclcascd into tlc sca on complction of ictuin jouincy. Nov-a-days
tlc oil floating on tlc ballast vatci is icmovcd in tlc ncvly dcsigncd
'load-on-top-tankcis' bcfoic ballast-vatci is lct-off.
Oil in sca vatci can spicad ovci a laigc aica of tlc sca, icmain
dispciscd oi gct adsoibcd on scdimcnts. It can causc advcisc cffccts on
maiinc lifc.
Oil in tlc sca vatci affccts scnsitivc floia and fauna.
Plytoplankton, zooplankton, algal spccics, vaiious spccics of
invcitcbiatcs, coial iccfs, fisl, biids and mammals aic affcctcd by oil
pollution. Iislcs slov moitality (dcatl) bccausc tlc fisl gills gct ladcn
vitl oil aftci tlc slimy mucus of gills is affcctcd. Oil disiupts tlc
insulating capacity of fcatlcis. Ocatl occuis duc to loss of buoyancy
and subscqucnt diovning of biids. Lcakagc fiom oil tankci ncai Alaska
in 1989 causcd damagc to coial iccfs and icsultcd in dcatl of about
39O tlousand biids. Somc impoitant incidcnts of biid moitality duc to
oil lavc bccn icpoitcd at Biittany, Iiancc vlcic 2O tlousand biids
dicd duc to moic tlan 22O tonncs of oil spillagc in 1978. At Elbc,
Ccimany 5OO tlousand biids dicd in 1955. Ouiing tlc 1991 Culf Wai
2OO million gallons of oil spicad in tlc Pcisian Culf badly affcctcd tlc
maiinc ccosystcm.
Control of Marine Pollution
(t) Toxic pollutants fiom industiics and scvagc ticatmcnt plants
slould not bc disclaigcd in coastal vatcis.
(tt) Run off fiom non-point souiccs slould bc picvcntcd to icacl
coastal aicas.
(ttt) Scvci ovciflovs slould bc picvcntcd by laving scpaiatc scvci
and iain vatci pipcs.
(tv) Oumping of toxic, lazaidous vastcs and scvagc sludgc slould
bc banncd.
(v) Ocvclopmcntal activitics on coastal aicas slould bc mini-
mizcd.
(vt) Oil and gicasc fiom scivicc stations slould bc pioccsscd foi
icusc.
(vtt) Oil ballast slould not bc dumpcd into sca.
(vttt) Ecologically scnsitivc coastal aicas slould bc piotcctcd by not
alloving diilling.
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil is tlc uppci layci of tlc caitl ciust vlicl is foimcd by vcatlciing
of iocks. Oiganic mattci in tlc soil makcs it suitablc foi living oiganisms.
Oumping of vaiious typcs of matciials cspccially domcstic and
industiial vastcs causcs soil pollution. Oomcstic vastcs includc gaibagc,
iubbisl matciial likc glass, plastics, mctallic cans, papci, fibics, clotl
iags, containcis, paints, vainislcs ctc. Lcaclatcs fiom dumping sitcs
and scvagc tanks aic laimful and toxic, vlicl pollutc tlc soil.
Industiial vastcs aic tlc cfflucnts disclaigcd fiom clcmical
industiics, papci and pulp mills, tannciics, tcxtilc mills, stccl industiics,
distillciics, icfinciics, pcsticidcs and fcitilizci industiics, plaimaccutical
industiics, food pioccssing industiics, ccmcnt industiics, tlcimal and
nuclcai povci plants, mining industiics ctc. Tlcimal povci plants
gcnciatc a laigc quantity of 'Ily asl'. Hugc quantitics of tlcsc vastcs
aic dumpcd on soils, tlus contaminating tlcm.
Pcsticidcs aic uscd to kill pcsts tlat damagc ciops. Tlcsc pcsticidcs
ultimatcly icacl tlc soil and pcisist tlcic foi a long timc. Pcsticidcs
vlicl aic pcisistcnt in natuic aic clloiinatcd lydiocaibon insccticidcs
c.g. OOT, HCH, cndiin, lindanc, lcptaclloi, cndosulfan ctc. Rcsiducs
of tlcsc pcsticidcs in tlc soils lavc long tcim cffccts cspccially undci
tlc tcmpciatc conditions.
Industiial vastcs also contain somc oiganic and inoiganic
compounds tlat aic icfiactoiy and non-biodcgiadablc. Industiial sludgc
may contain vaiious salts, toxic substanccs, mctals likc mcicuiy, lcad,
cadmium, aiscnic ctc. Agioclcmicals iclcascd vitl tlc vastcs of
pcsticidc and fcitilizci factoiics oi duiing agiicultuial piacticcs also
icacl tlc soil and pollutc it.
Soil also icccivcs cxcicta fiom animals and lumans. Tlc scvagc
sludgc contains many patlogcnic oiganisms, bactciia, viiuscs and
intcstinal voims vlicl causc pollution in tlc soil.
Tlc souiccs of iadioactivc substanccs in soil aic cxplosion of
iadioactivc dcviccs, iadioactivc vastcs disclaigcd fiom industiics and
laboiatoiics, aciial fall out ctc. Isotopcs of iadium, uianium, tloiium,
stiontium, iodinc, cacsium and of many otlci clcmcnts icacl tlc soil
and pcisist tlcic foi a long timc and kccp on cmitting iadiations.
Effects of Soil Pollution
Scvagc and industiial cfflucnts vlicl pollutc tlc soil ultimatcly affcct
luman lcaltl. Vaiious typcs of clcmicals likc acids, alkalis, pcsticidcs,
insccticidcs, vccdicidcs, fungicidcs, lcavy mctals ctc. in tlc industiial
disclaigcs affcct soil fcitility by causing clangcs in plysical, clcmical
and biological piopcitics.
Somc of tlc pcisistcnt toxic clcmicals inlibit tlc non-taigct
oiganisms, soil floia and fauna and icducc soil pioductivity. Tlcsc
clcmicals accumulatc in food clain and ultimatcly affcct luman lcaltl.
Indisciiminatc usc of pcsticidcs spccially is a mattci of conccin.
Scvagc sludgc las many typcs of patlogcnic bactciia, viiuscs and
intcstinal voims vlicl may causc vaiious typcs of discascs.
Occomposing oiganic mattci in soil also pioduccs toxic vapouis.
Radioactivc fallout on vcgctation is tlc souicc of iadio-isotopcs
vlicl cntci tlc food clain in tlc giazing animals. Somc of tlcsc iadio
isotopcs icplacc csscntial clcmcnts in tlc body and causc abnoimalitics
c.g. stiontium-9O instcad of calcium gcts dcpositcd in tlc boncs and
tissucs. Tlc boncs bccomc biittlc and pionc to fiactuic.
Radioisotopcs vlicl attacl vitl tlc clay bccomc a souicc of
iadiations in tlc cnviionmcnt.
Nitiogcn and plosploius fiom tlc fcitilizcis in soil icacl ncaiby
vatci bodics vitl agiicultuial iun-off and causc cutioplication. Clcmi-
cals oi tlcii dcgiadation pioducts fiom soil may pcicolatc and con-
taminatc giound-vatci icsouiccs.
Control of Soil Pollution
(t) Efflucnts slould bc piopcily ticatcd bcfoic disclaiging tlcm
on tlc soil.
(tt) Solid vastcs slould bc piopcily collcctcd and disposcd off by
appiopiiatc mctlod.
(ttt) Iiom tlc vastcs, iccovciy of uscful pioducts slould bc donc.
(tv) Biodcgiadablc oiganic vastc slould bc uscd foi gcnciation
of biogas.
(v) Cattlc dung slould bc uscd foi mctlanc gcnciation. Niglt-
soil (luman facccs) can also bc uscd in tlc biogas plant to pioducc
inflammablc mctlanc gas.
(vt) Miciobial dcgiadation of biodcgiadablc substanccs is also onc
of tlc scicntific appioaclcs foi icducing soil pollution.
NUCLEAR HAZARDS
Radioactivc substanccs aic picscnt in natuic. Tlcy undcigo natuial
iadioactivc dccay in vlicl unstablc isotopcs spontancously givc out
fast moving paiticlcs, ligl cncigy iadiations oi botl, at a fixcd iatc
until a ncv stablc isotopc is foimcd. (Iig. 2.5.7)
Tlc isotopcs iclcasc cncigy citlci in tlc foim of gamma iays (ligl
cncigy clcctiomagnctic iadiation) oi ionization paiticlcs i.c. alpla
paiticlcs and bcta paiticlcs. Tlc alpla paiticlcs aic fast moving positivcly
claigcd paiticlcs vlcicas bcta paiticlcs aic ligl spccd ncgativcly
claigcd clcctions. Tlcsc ionization iadiations lavc vaiiablc pcnctiation
povci. (Iig. 5.5)
Concrete wall
Wood
Paper
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Fig. 5.5 Variable penetration power of ionisation radiations
emitted by radioisotopes.
Alpla paiticlcs can bc intciiuptcd by a slcct of papci vlilc bcta
paiticlcs can bc blockcd by a piccc of vood oi a fcv millimctcis of
aluminium slcct. Tlc gamma iays can pass tliougl papci and vood
but can bc stoppcd by concictc vall, lcad slabs oi vatci.
Sources of Radioactivity
Vaiious souiccs of iadioactivity can bc gioupcd into (t) Natuial souiccs
and (tt) Antliopogcnic (man madc) souiccs.
(t) Natural Snurccs: Souiccs of natuial iadioactivity includc
cosmic iays fiom outci spacc, iadioactivc iadon-222, soil, iocks, aii,
vatci and food, vlicl contain onc oi moic iadioactivc substanccs.
(tt) Anthrnpngcnic snurccs: Tlcsc souiccs aic nuclcai povci
plants, nuclcai accidcnts, X-iays, diagnostic kits, tcst laboiatoiics ctc.
vlcic iadioactivc substanccs aic uscd.
Effects of Radiations
Ionisation iadiations can affcct living oiganisms by causing laimful
clangcs in tlc body cclls and also clangcs at gcnctic lcvcl.
(t) Ccnctic damagc is causcd by iadiations, vlicl inducc
mutations in tlc ONA, tlcicby affccting gcncs and cliomosomcs. Tlc
damagc is oftcn sccn in tlc offspiings and may bc tiansmittcd upto
scvcial gcnciations.
(tt) Snmatic damagc includcs buins, miscaiiiagcs, cyc cataiact and
cancci of bonc, tlyioid, bicast, lungs and skin.
Many scicntists aic of tlc vicv tlat duc to tlc body's ability to
icpaii somc of tlc damagcs, tlc advcisc cffccts of iadiations aic
obscivcd only bcyond a tlicslold lcvcl. Hovcvci, tlc otlci gioup
bclicvcs tlat cvcn a small dosc of iadiations ovci a pciiod of timc may
causc advcisc cffccts. Tlcy bclicvc tlat tlc pcimissiblc limits of ionising
iadiations slould bc fuitlci icduccd.
Oamagc causcd by diffcicnt typcs of iadiations dcpcnds on tlc
pcnctiation povci and tlc picscncc of tlc souicc insidc oi outsidc tlc
body. Alpla paiticlcs lack pcnctiation povci but tlcy lavc moic cncigy
tlan bcta. Tlcy vill bc, tlcicfoic, dangcious vlcn tlcy cntci tlc body
by inlalation oi tliougl food. Alpla paiticlcs cannot pcnctiatc tlc
skin to icacl intcinal oigans vlcicas bcta paiticlcs can damagc tlc
intcinal oigans. Cicatci tlicat is poscd by iadioisotopcs vitl
intcimcdiatc lalf-livcs as tlcy lavc long timc to find cntiy insidc tlc
luman body.
Radioisotopcs cntci tlc cnviionmcnt duiing mining of uianium.
Tlc iadioactivity in tlc caitl's ciust cntcis tlc ciops giovn tlcic and
ultimatcly in luman bcings. Radionuclidcs cntci tlc vatci bodics oi
tlc gioundvatci coming in contact vitl tlc contaminatcd soil oi iock.
Radioactivc iodinc (I
131
) accumulatcs in tlyioid gland and causcs
cancci. Similaily, stiontium-9O accumulatcs in tlc boncs and causcs
lcukcmia oi cancci of bonc maiiov.
Control of Nuclear Pollution
(t) Siting of nuclcai povci plants slould bc caicfully donc aftci
studying long tcim and sloit tcim cffccts.
(tt) Piopci disposal of vastcs fiom laboiatoiy involving tlc usc
of iadioisotopcs slould bc donc.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Higlci standaids of living of cvci incicasing population las icsultcd in
an incicasc in tlc quantity and vaiicty of vastc gcnciatcd. It is nov
icalizcd tlat if vastc gcnciation continucs indisciiminatcly tlcn vciy
soon it vould bc bcyond icctification. Managcmcnt of solid vastc las,
tlcicfoic, bccomc vciy impoitant in oidci to minimizc tlc advcisc
cffccts of solid vastcs. Solid vastc (vastc otlci tlan liquid oi gascous)
can bc classificd as municipal, industiial, agiicultuial, mcdical, mining
vastc and scvagc sludgc.
Sources of Urban and Industrial Wastes
Liban vastc consists of mcdical vastc fiom lospitals, municipal solid
vastcs fiom lomcs, officcs, maikcts (commcicial vastc) small cottagc
units, and loiticultuic vastc fiom paiks, gaidcns, oiclaids ctc.
Wastc frnm hnmcs (Dnmcstic wastc) contains a vaiicty of
discaidcd matciials likc polyctlylcnc bags, cmpty mctal and
aluminium cans, sciap mctals, glass bottlcs, vastc papci,
diapcis, clotl/iags, food vastc ctc.
Wastc frnm shnps mainly consists of vastc papci, packaging
matciial, cans, bottlcs, polyctlylcnc bags, pcanut slclls,
cggslclls, tca lcavcs ctc.
Binmcdical wastc includcs anatomical vastcs, patlological
vastcs, infcctious vastcs ctc.
Cnnstructinn/dcmnlitinn wastc includcs dcbiis and iubblcs,
vood, concictc ctc.
Hnrticulturc wastc and wastc frnm slaughtcr hnuscs includc
vcgctablc paits, icsiducs and icmains of slaugltcicd animals,
icspcctivcly.
Tlc uiban solid vastc matciials tlat can bc dcgiadcd by micio-
oiganisms aic callcd bindcgradablc wastcs. Examplcs of tlis typc of
vastc aic vcgctablc vastcs, stalc food, tca lcavcs, cgg slclls, pcanut
slclls, diy lcavcs ctc. Wastcs tlat cannot bc dcgiadcd by micio-
oiganisms aic callcd nnn-bindcgradablc wastcs. Ioi cxamplc,
polyctlylcnc bags, sciap mctal, glass bottlcs ctc.
Industrial wastc: Industiial vastc consists of a laigc numbci
of matciials including factoiy iubbisl, packaging matciial,
oiganic vastcs, acids, alkalis and mctals ctc. Ouiing somc
industiial pioccssing laigc quantitics of lazaidous and toxic
matciials aic also pioduccd. Tlc main souiccs of industiial
vastcs aic clcmical industiics, mctal and mincial pioccssing
industiics. Radioactivc vastcs aic gcnciatcd by nuclcai povci
plants. Tlcimal povci plants pioducc fly asl in laigc
quantitics. Solid vastcs fiom otlci typcs of industiics includc
sciap mctal, iubbci, plastic, papci, glass, vood, oils, paints,
asplalt, tais, dycs, sciap lcatlci, cciamics, abiasivcs, slag,
lcavy mctals, asbcstos, battciics. In Euiopc and Noitl
Amciica tlc cnviionmcntal lavs and safcty lavs aic bccoming
moic stiingcnt duc to vlicl disposal of lazaidous vastcs is
bccoming a pioblcm. Cost of disposal of sucl vastcs is
incicasing. Tlcicfoic, tlcsc vastcs aic bcing cxpoitcd to
dcvcloping countiics vlicl do not cvcn lavc sufficicnt
knovlcdgc oi tcclniquc foi tlcii disposal.
Effects of Solid Wastes
Municipal solid vastcs lcap up on tlc ioads duc to impiopci disposal
systcm. Pcoplc clcan tlcii ovn louscs and littci tlcii immcdiatc
suiioundings vlicl affccts tlc community including tlcmsclvcs. Tlis
typc of dumping allovs biodcgiadablc matciials to dccomposc undci
uncontiollcd and unlygicnic conditions. Tlis pioduccs foul smcll and
biccds vaiious typcs of insccts and infcctious oiganisms bcsidcs spoiling
tlc acstlctics of tlc sitc.
Industiial solid vastcs aic souiccs of toxic mctals and lazaidous
vastcs, vlicl may spicad on land and can causc clangcs in plysico-
clcmical and biological claiactciistics tlcicby affccting pioductivity
of soils. Toxic substanccs may lcacl oi pcicolatc to contaminatc tlc
giound vatci.
In icfusc mixing tlc lazaidous vastcs aic mixcd vitl gaibagc
and otlci combustiblc vastc. Tlis makcs scgicgation and disposal all
tlc moic difficult and iisky. Vaiious typcs of vastcs likc cans, pcsticidcs,
clcaning solvcnts, battciics (zinc, lcad oi mcicuiy) iadioactivc matciials,
plastics aic mixcd up vitl papci, sciaps and otlci non-toxic matciials
vlicl could bc iccyclcd. Buining of somc of tlcsc matciials pioducc
dioxins, fuians and polyclloiinatcd biplcnyls, vlicl lavc tlc potcntial
to causc vaiious typcs of ailmcnts including cancci.
Managcmcnt nf Snlid Wastc: Ioi vastc managcmcnt vc sticss
on 'tlicc R's'-Rcducc, icusc and iccyclc bcfoic dcstiuction and safc
stoiagc of vastcs.
(t) Rcductinn in usc nf raw matcrials: Rcduction in tlc usc of
iav matciials vill coiicspondingly dccicasc tlc pioduction of vastc.
Rcduccd dcmand foi any mctallic pioduct vill dccicasc tlc mining of
tlcii mctal and causc lcss pioduction of vastc.
(tt) Rcusc nf wastc matcrials: Tlc icfillablc containcis vlicl
aic discaidcd aftci usc can bc icuscd. Villagcis makc cassciolcs and
silos fiom vastc papci and otlci vastc matciials. Making iubbci iings
fiom tlc discaidcd cyclc tubcs vlicl aic uscd by tlc ncvspapci vcndois,
instcad of iubbci bands, icduccs tlc vastc gcnciation duiing
manufactuiing of iubbci bands. Bccausc of financial constiaints pooi
pcoplc icusc tlcii matciials to tlc maximum.
(ttt) Rccycling nf matcrials: Rccycling is tlc icpioccssing of
discaidcd matciials into ncv uscful pioducts.
(t) Ioimation of somc old typc pioducts c.g. old aluminium cans
and glass bottlcs aic mcltcd and iccast into ncv cans and bottlcs.
(tt) Ioimation of ncv pioducts: Picpaiation of ccllulosc insula-
tion fiom papci, picpaiation of fucl pcllcts fiom kitclcn vastc. Picpa-
iation of automobilcs and constiuction matciials fiom stccl cans.
Tlc pioccss of icducing, icusing and iccycling savcs moncy, cn-
cigy, iav matciials, land spacc and also icduccs pollution. Rccycling
of papci vill icducc cutting of ticcs foi making ficsl papci. Rcusc of
mctals vill icducc mining and mclting of oics foi iccovciy of mctals
fiom oics and picvcnt pollution.
Ioi discarding wastcs tlc folloving mctlods can bc adoptcd:
(t) Sanitary landfill: In a sanitaiy landfill, gaibagc is spicad out
in tlin laycis, compactcd and covcicd vitl clay oi plastic foam.
In tlc modcin landfills tlc bottom is covcicd vitl an impcimcablc
linci, usually scvcial laycis of clay, tlick plastic and sand. Tlc linci
piotccts tlc giound vatci fiom bcing contaminatcd duc to pcicolation
of lcaclatc. Lcaclatc fiom bottom is pumpcd and scnt foi ticatmcnt.
Wlcn landfill is full it is covcicd vitl clay, sand, giavcl and top soil to
picvcnt sccpagc of vatci. Scvcial vclls aic diillcd ncai tlc landfill sitc
to monitoi if any lcakagc is contaminating giound vatci. Mctlanc
pioduccd by anaciobic dccomposition is collcctcd and buint to pioducc
clcctiicity oi lcat.
(tt) Cnmpnsting: Ouc to sloitagc of spacc foi landfill in biggci
citics, tlc biodcgiadablc yaid vastc (kcpt scpaiatc fiom tlc municipal
vastc) is allovcd to dcgiadc oi dccomposc in an oxygcn iicl mcdium.
A good quality nutiicnt iicl and cnviionmcntal fiicndly manuic is
foimcd vlicl impiovcs tlc soil conditions and fcitility.
(ttt) Incincratinn: Incinciatois aic buining plants capablc of
buining a laigc amount of matciials at ligl tcmpciatuic. Tlc initial
cost is vciy ligl. Ouiing incinciation ligl lcvcls of dioxins, fuians,
lcad and cadmium may bc cmittcd vitl tlc fly asl of incinciatoi. Oioxin
lcvcl may icacl many timcs moic tlan in tlc ambicnt cnviionmcnt.
Ioi incinciation of matciials, it is bcttci to icmovc battciics containing
lcavy mctals and plastic containing clloiinc bcfoic buining tlc
matciial. Piioi icmoval of plastics vill icducc cmissions of dioxins and
polyclloiinatcd biplcnyls (PCBs)
ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION
Tlc iolc of cvciy individual in picvcnting pollution is of paiamount
impoitancc bccausc if cvciy individual contiibutcs substantially tlc
cffcct vill bc visiblc not only at tlc community, city, statc oi national
lcvcl but also at tlc global lcvcl as cnviionmcnt las no boundaiics. It is
tlc icsponsibility of tlc luman iacc vlicl las occupicd tlc
commanding position on tlis caitl to piotcct tlc caitl and piovidc
conducivc cnviionmcnt foi itsclf and innumciablc otlci spccics vlicl
cvolvcd on tlis caitl. A small cffoit madc by cacl individual at lis
ovn placc vill lavc pionounccd cffcct at tlc global lcvcl. It is aptly
said, "Thtnk glchally act lccally".
Eacl individual slould clangc lis oi lci lifc stylc in sucl a vay
as to icducc cnviionmcntal pollution. It can bc donc by folloving somc
of tlc folloving suggcstions.
Hclp moic in pollution picvcntion tlan pollution contiol.
Lsc ccofiicndly pioducts.
Cut dovn tlc usc of clloiofluoiocaibons (CICs) as tlcy
dcstioy tlc ozonc layci. Oo not usc polystyicnc cups tlat lavc
clloiofluoiocaibon (CIC) molcculcs in tlcm vlicl dcstioy
ozonc layci.
Lsc tlc clcmicals dciivcd fiom pcaclcs and plums to clcan
computci clips and ciicuit boaids instcad of CICs.
Lsc CIC ficc icfiigciatois.
Tlc manufactuic and opciation of sucl dcviccs slould bc
cncouiagcd tlat don't pollutc. If tlcy cost moic tlcn tlcii liglci piiccs
may bc offsct by including cnviionmcntal and tlc social costs of
pollution in tlc piicc of sucl pioducts vlicl pollutc cnviionmcnt.
Aii pollution can bc picvcntcd by using ically clcan fucl i.c.
lydiogcn fucl. Hydiogcn foi tlat mattci slould not bc pioduccd by
passing cuiicnt in vatci as foi gcnciation of tlis cuiicnt, again tlc
cnviionmcnt vill bc pollutcd. So solai povcicd lydiogcn fucl is tlc
nccd of tlc loui.
Rcducc youi dcpcndcncy on fossil fucl cspccially coal oi oil.
Savc clcctiicity by not vasting it vlcn not icquiicd bccausc
clcctiicity savcd is clcctiicity gcnciatcd vitlout polluting tlc
cnviionmcnt. Put on vaim clotlcs iatlci tlan svitcling on a
lcatci.
Adopt and populaiizc icncvablc cncigy souiccs.
Impiovc cncigy cfficicncy. Tlis vill icducc tlc amount of
vastc cncigy, i.c. moic is aclicvcd vitl lcss cncigy.
Piomotc icusc and iccycling vlcicvci possiblc and icducc
tlc pioduction of vastcs.
Lsc mass tianspoit systcm. Ioi sloit-visits usc bicyclc oi go
on foot. Occicasc tlc usc of automobilcs.
Lsc pcsticidcs only vlcn absolutcly ncccssaiy and tlat too in
iiglt amounts. Wlcicvci possiblc intcgiatcd pcst
managcmcnt, including altcinatc pcst contiol mctlods
(biological contiol), slould bc uscd.
Lsc icclaigcablc battciics. Rcclaigcablc battciics vill icducc
mctal pollution.
Lsc lcss lazaidous clcmicals vlcicvci tlcii application can
bc affoidcd. Baking soda, vincgai and boiax can lclp in
clcaning, blcacling and softcning. Baking soda can icplacc
modcin dcodoiants.
Tlc solid vastc gcnciatcd duiing onc manufactuiing pioccss
can bc uscd as a iav matciial foi somc otlci pioccsscs.
Lsc lov plosplatc, plosplatc-ficc oi biodcgiadablc disl
vasling liquid, laundiy dctcigcnt and slampoo. Tlis vill
icducc cutioplication of vatci bodics.
Lsc oiganic manuic instcad of commcicial inoiganic
fcitilizcis.
Oo not put pcsticidcs, paints, solvcnts, oils oi otlci laimful
clcmicals into tlc diain oi giound vatci.
Lsc only tlc minimum icquiicd amount of vatci foi vaiious
activitics. Tlis vill picvcnt ficsl vatci fiom pollution.
Wlcn building a lomc, savc (don't cut) as many ticcs as pos-
siblc in tlc aica.
Plant moic ticcs, as ticcs can absoib many toxic gascs and
can puiify tlc aii by iclcasing oxygcn
Clcck population giovtl so tlat dcmand of matciials is undci
contiol.
POLLUTION CASE STUDIES
Air Pnllutinn Episndcs: A sciics of aii pollution disastcis lavc
occuiicd in tlc past 75 ycais fiom Mcusc Vallcy, Bclgium (193O)
to Clcinobyl nuclcai disastci in, tlc cistvlilc LSSR (1986). Somc
of tlc impoitant oncs aic givcn bclov:
Dnnnra air pnllutinn disastcr: Oonoia of Pcnnsylvania (in
LSA) is a small mill tovn dominatcd by stccl mill, zinc smcltci
and sulpluiic acid plant. A foui days fog occuiicd fiom Octobci
25-31, 1948. Ouc to anticyclonic vcatlci conditions tlcic vas
no aii movcmcnt and tcmpciatuic invcision lad sct in duc to sca
bicczc conditions. Oonoia lics in a loisc sloc slapcd vallcy on
tlc Monongalcla iivci, soutl of Pittsbuigl vitl stccp iaising lills
on cacl sidc of tlc iivci.
Iog vlicl foimcd duc to accumulation of cold aii at tlc
bottom of tlc iivci vallcy pcisistcd foi 4 consccutivc days. Tlis
condition, vlcn cold layci is tiappcd bclov tlc vaim layci, is
callcd invcrsinn. Tlc top fog layci icflcctcd tlc solai iadiations
duiing tlc day timc. So tlc lcat icccivcd by it vas not sufficicnt
to bicak tlc invcision. Ouiing niglt timcs tlc top layci lad bccn
loosing lcat vlicl fuitlci coolcd tlc layci to stabilizc. Wind spccd
in tlc invcision layci vas also slov. Tlc dcadly pollutants cmittcd
by tlc stccl mill, zinc smcltci and sulpluiic acid plant got tiappcd
and conccntiatcd in tlc stablc vcatlci conditions of tlc vallcy
and icmaincd tlcic foi foui days. About 6OOO of tlc tovn's 14,OOO
inlabitants fcll ill and 2O of tlcm dicd.
Thc Bhnpal Cas Tragcdy: Tlc voild's voist industiial
accidcnt occuiicd in Blopal, M.P., India on tlc niglt of 2nd and
moining of 3id Occcmbci, 1984. It lappcncd at Lnion Caibidc
Company vlicl uscd to manufactuic Caibaiyl (Caibamatc)
pcsticidc using Mctlyl isocyanatc (MIC). Ouc to accidcntal cntiy
of vatci in tlc tank, tlc icaction mixtuic got ovcilcatcd and
Ccntd.
cxplodcd bccausc its cooling systcm lad failcd. Otlci safcty
dcviccs also did not voik oi vcic not in tlc voiking condition.
Ioity tons of MIC lcakcd into tlc atmosplcic vlicl miglt lavc
containcd 4O kg of plosgcnc as an impuiity. MIC gas at lovci
conccntiations affccts lungs and cycs and causcs iiiitation in tlc
skin. Higlci amounts icmovc oxygcn fiom tlc lungs and can causc
dcatl. In tlc vintci niglt of Occcmbci tlcic vcic fog likc clouds
ovci soutl and cast of tlc plant. Tlc gas spicad ovci 4O Km
2
aica. About 51OO pcisons vcic killcd (26OO duc to diicct cxposuic
to MIC and otlci 25OO duc to aftcicffccts of cxposuic) accoiding
to Indian officials. About 2,5O,OOO pcisons got cxposcd to MIC.
An cstimatcd 65,OOO pcoplc suffcicd fiom scvcic cyc, icspiiatoiy,
ncuiomusculai, gastiointcstinal and gynccological disoidcis.
About 1OOO pcisons bccamc blind. Witlout counting tlc damagc
of luman livcs, it cost about $ 57O million in clcan up and damagc
scttlcmcnt. Tlis tiagcdy could lavc bccn avcitcd lad tlc company
spcnd about $ 1 million on safcty impiovcmcnt.
The Love Canal Tragedy
Tlc Lovc canal tiagcdy occuiicd in a subuib of Niagaia Ialls,
Ncv Yoik. Tlc lovc canal vas built by William Lovc vlicl vas
latci dug up and vas uscd to dump scalcd stccl diums of clcmi-
cal vastcs by Hookci Clcmicals and Plastics Coipoiation bctvccn
1942-1953. In 1953, tlc dump sitc vas covcicd vitl clay and top-
soil by tlc company and vas sold to tlc city Boaid of Education
vlicl built an clcmcntaiy sclool on tlat sitc. Houscs vcic also
built ncai tlc sclool. In 1976, tlc icsidcnts staitcd complaining
of foul smcll. Clildicn playing in tlc canal aica icccivcd clcmi-
cal buins.
In 1977, tlc coiiodcd stccl containcis staitcd lcaking tlc
clcmicals into stoim scvcis, bascmcnt of lomcs and tlc sclool
playgiound. About 26 toxic oiganic compounds vcic idcntificd.
Tlc dump sitc vas covcicd vitl clay and tlc lcaking vastcs vcic
pumpcd to ncv ticatmcnt plant. Tlc affcctcd familics vcic
iclocatcd.
Tlcic could bc many moic dump sitcs similai to Lovc canal
cspccially in tlc tliid voild countiics. Wlo knovs vlat amount
of laim sucl dump sitcs aic causing to tlc undcigiound aquifcis!
Arscnic pnllutinn in grnundwatcr: Wcst Bcngal and
Bangladcsl aic scvcicly contaminatcd by tlc toxic lcavy mctal
aiscnic. Tlc fiist icpoit of aiscnic pollution in Wcst Bcngal camc
in 1978 and tlat in Bangladcsl in 1993, vlcic it vas found to bc
cvcn moic vidcspicad. Aiscnic poisoning las fai icacling
conscqucnccs. Tlc local pcoplc vcic found to bc ingcsting lov
doscs of aiscnic foi 1O-14 ycais aftci vlicl suddcnly vlitc oi
black spots callcd mclanosis staitcd mottling tlc skin. Tlc spots
vcic latci found to gct convcitcd into lcpiosy likc skin lcsions
cnciusting tlc palms and solcs, cvcntually iotting into gangicnous
ulccis. Long cxposuics oftcn lcd to bladdci and lung cancci.
Clildicn aic moic badly affcctcd by aiscnicosis, tlc affcctcd pcoplc
aic socially isolatcd, clildicn baiicd fiom attcnding sclools and
young vomcn icmain singlc oi lavc biokcn maiiiagc. Tlc WHO
las picsciibcd tlc maximum pcimissiblc limits of aiscnic as 1O
mg/L. In Wcst Bcngal 4O million out of 9O million pcoplc aic
fcaicd to lavc likcly cxposuic to aiscnic tlicat duc to contaminatcd
vatci. Tlc 24 Paiaganas, Hooglly and Muislidabad distiicts as
also Bclala and Soutl Eastcin fiingcs of Kolkata lic in Aiscnic
Risk Zonc. Eailici it vas postulatcd tlat tlc aiscnic las cntcicd
into gioundvatci duc to gcologic icasons in tlc Canga Oclta.
Rcccntly, lovcvci, it is bcing linkcd vitl antliopogcnic causcs.
Exccssivc usc of lcad aiscnatc and coppci aiscnitc as
pcsticidcs in ligl yiclding vaiictics of summci paddy and jutc
ciop sccms to bc tlc majoi causc of aiscnic pollution. Nov tlc
aiscnic contaminatcd tubcvclls in tlc statc aic bcing paintcd icd
vlilc safc vatci tubcvclls aic paintcd giccn foi usc by pcoplc.
Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster
Clcinobyl nuclcai accidcnt is tlc voist nuclcai disastci in tlc
listoiy of luman civilization vlicl occuiicd at Clcinobyl,
Lkiainc in tlc cistvlilc LSSR (nov CIS). On 26 Apiil, 1986 tlc
accidcnt occuiicd at tlc icactoi of tlc Clcinobyl povci plant
dcsigncd to pioducc 1OOO MW clcctiical cncigy. Tlc icactoi lad
bccn voiking continuously foi 2 ycais. It vas slut dovn on Apiil
25, 1986 foi intcimcdiatc icpaiis. Tlis pciiod coincidcd vitl tlc
pciiod vlcn pcoplc including tlc top cxccutivcs vcic busy in tlc
picpaiations foi national loliday, Tlc May Oay. Ouc to faulty
opciations of slutting dovn tlc plant, an cxplosion occuiicd in
Ccntd.
tlc icactoi at O1.23 lis on Apiil 26, 1986. Tlicc scconds latci
anotlci cxplosion occuiicd.
Tlc cxplosion vas so scvcic tlat tlc 1OOO tonnc stccl con-
cictc lid of tlc icactoi 4 blcv off. Iiic staitcd at tlc icactoi duc to
combustion of giaplitc iods. Tlc icactoi tcmpciatuic soaicd to
moic tlan 2OOOC. Iucl and iadioactivc dcbiis spcvcd out in a
volcanic cloud of moltcn mass of tlc coic and gascs. Tlc dcbiis
and gascs diiftcd ovci most of tlc noitlcin lcmisplcic. Poland,
Ocnmaik, Svcdcn and Noivay vcic affcctcd.
On fiist day of tlc accidcnt 31 pcisons dicd and 239 pcoplc
vcic lospitalizcd. Sincc tlc plumc vas iicl in Iodinc-131, Ccsium-
134 and Ccsium-137, it vas fcaicd tlat somc of tlc 5,76,OOO pco-
plc cxposcd to tlc iadiations vould suffci fiom cancci spccially
tlyioid cancci and lcukcmia. Clildicn vcic moic susccptiblc as
Iodinc-131 is ingcstcd mainly tliougl milk and milk pioducts.
Sincc clildicn consumc moic milk and tlcii tlyioid glands aic in
tlc gioving stagc, an incicasc in tlyioid cancci in clildicn fiom
aicas ncai Clcinobyl vas icgistcicd. Moic tlan 2OOO pcoplc dicd.
Pcoplc suffcicd fiom ulcciating skin, loss of laii, nausca and
ancmia.
Agiicultuial pioducc vas damagcd foi ycais. Intcnsc
iadiations dcstioycd scvcial ficlds, ticcs, sliubs, plants ctc. Iloia
and fauna vcic dcstioycd. Blood abnoimalitics, lcmoiilagic
discascs, clangcs in lungs, cyc discascs, cataiact, icpioductivc
failuic and cancci cascs incicascd. Svcdcn and Ocnmaik banncd
tlc impoit of contaminatcd Russian pioducts.
Tlc nuclcai cncigy is clcap, incxlaustiblc and non-pollut-
ing souicc of cncigy. Hovcvci, in tlc abscncc of piopci caic and
caution, disastcis likc Clcinobyl can iock tlc socicty.
Pnllutinn Prnblcm Arcas nf India as Idcntificd by CPCB
S. Nn. Namc Statc/U.T.
1. Bladiavati Kainataka
2. Clcmbui Malaiasltia
3. Oigboi Assam
4. Olanbad Bilai
5. Ouigapui W.B.
6. Covindgail Punjab
Ccntd.
7. Cicatci Coclin Kciala
8. Hovial W.B.
9. 1odlpui Rajastlan
1O. Kala-Amb H.P.
11. Koiba M.P.
12. Manali T.N.
13. Nagda-Ratlam M.P.
14. Najafgail Oiain Basin Oclli
15. Noitl Aicot T.N.
16. Pali Rajastlan
17. Paivanoo H.P.
18. Patanclciu-Bollaiam A.P.
19. Singiauli L.P.
2O. Talclci Oiissa
21. Vapi Cujaiat
22. Vislaklapatnam A.P.
23. Taiapui Malaiasltia
24. Anklcslvai Cujaiat
Scurcc . Annual Rcpoit CPCB, 2OO2-2OO3.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Ccological pioccsscs likc caitlquakcs, volcanocs, floods and landslidcs
aic noimal natuial cvcnts vlicl lavc icsultcd in tlc foimation of tlc
caitl tlat vc lavc today. Tlcy aic, lovcvci, disastious in tlcii impacts
vlcn tlcy affcct luman scttlcmcnts. Human socictics lavc vitncsscd
a laigc numbci of sucl natuial lazaids in diffcicnt paits of tlc voild
and lavc tiicd to lcain to contiol tlcsc pioccsscs, to somc cxtcnt.
Earthquakcs: Eaitlquakcs occui duc to suddcn movcmcnts of
caitl's ciust. Tlc caitl's ciust las scvcial tcctonic platcs of solid iock
vlicl slovly movc along tlcii boundaiics. Wlcn fiiction picvcnts tlcsc
platcs fiom slipping, sticss builds up and icsults in suddcn fiactuics
vlicl can occui along tlc boundaiics of tlc platcs oi fault lincs (plancs
of vcakncss) vitlin tlc platcs. Tlis causcs caitlquakcs, tlc violcnt,
sloit-tcim vibiations in tlc caitl. Tlc point on a fault at vlicl tlc
fiist movcmcnt occuis duiing an caitlquakc is callcd tlc cpiccntcr.
Tlc scvciity of an caitlquakc is gcncially mcasuicd by its magnitudc
on Ricltci Scalc, as slovn bclov:
RIchter ScaIe SeverIty of earthquake
Lcss tlan 4 Insignificant
4 - 4.9 Minoi
5 - 5.9 Oamaging
6 - 6.9 Ocstiuctivc
7 - 7.9 Majoi
Moic tlan 8 Cicat
Tlc laigcst caitlquakc cvci iccoidcd occuiicd on May 22, 196O
in Clilc vitl tlc cstimatcd magnitudc of 9.5 on Ricltci Scalc, affccting
9O,OOO squaic milcs and killing 6,OOO pcoplc.
Tlc dcvastating caitlquakc vlicl lit Bluj Tovn in Cujaiat lad
causcd massivc damagc, killing 2O,OOO-3O,OOO pcoplc and lcaving many
injuicd. It lad an cncigy cquivalcnt to a 5.3 mcgaton lydiogcn bomb.
Eaitlquakc-gcnciatcd vatci vavcs callcd tsunamis can scvcicly
affcct coastal aicas. Tlcsc giant sca svclls can movc at a spccd upto
1OOO Km/li oi cvcn fastci. Wlilc appioacling tlc sca sloic tlcy may
oftcn icacl 15 m oi somctimcs upto 65 m in lciglt and causc massivc
dcvastation in coastal aicas. In Clina sucl vavcs killcd 8,3O,OOO pcoplc
in 1556 and 5O,OOO in 1976.
Antliopogcnic activitics can also causc oi cnlancc tlc ficqucncy
of caitlquakcs. Tlicc sucl activitics idcntificd aic:
(a) Impoundmcnt of lugc quantitics of vatci in tlc lakc bclind
a big dam.
(h) Lndci giound nuclcai tcsting.
(c) Occp vcll disposal of liquid vastc.
Oamagc to piopcity and lifc can bc picvcntcd by constiucting
caitlquakc-icsistant buildings in tlc caitlquakc pionc zoncs oi scis-
mic aicas. Ioi tlis, tlc stiuctuics aic lcavily icinfoiccd, vcak spots
aic stiatcgically placcd in tlc building tlat can absoib vibiations fiom
tlc icst of tlc building, pads oi floats aic placcd bcncatl tlc building
on vlicl it can slift laimlcssly duiing giound motion. Woodcn louscs
aic picfciicd in caitlquakc pionc aicas as in 1apan.
Floods
Ccncially tlc sticam clanncls accommodatc somc maximum sticam
flov. Hovcvci, duc to lcavy iains oi suddcn snov mclt tlc quantity of
vatci in sticams cxcccds tlcii capacity and vatci ovciflovs tlc banks
and causcs inundation of tlc suiiounding land. Tlis situation is callcd
flood.
A flood gcncially docsn't damagc piopcity oi causc casualitics to
an cxtcnt as donc by otlci natuial disastcis. Hovcvci, it causcs a gicat
cconomic loss and lcaltl iclatcd pioblcms duc to vidcspicad contami-
nation. Viitually anytling tlc flood vatci touclcs gcts contaminatcd,
posing sciious tlicat to lcaltl duc to outbicak of cpidcmics.
Human activitics lavc bccn tlc main causcs foi incicasing tlc
scvciity and ficqucncy of floods. Constiuction of ioads, paiking spacc
and buildings tlat covci tlc caitl's suifacc laidly allovs infiltiation of
vatci into tlc soil and spccds up tlc iunoff. Clcaiing of foicsts foi
agiicultuic las also incicascd tlc scvciity of floods.
In India, Lttai Piadcsl is considcicd to bc amongst tlc voist
flood lit statcs of tlc countiy. It las ncaily 2O% of tlc total 4O million
lcctaics of flood pionc zonc of tlc countiy.
Ilood plains, tlc lov lying aicas vlicl gct inundatcd duiing floods
lclp to icducc floods. Building up of flood contiol stiuctuics likc flood
valls oi dccpcning of iivci clanncls lavc only tiansfciicd tlc piob-
lcms dovnsticam. Building valls picvcnts spilling out tlc flood vatci
ovci flood plains, but it incicascs tlc vclocity of vatci to affcct tlc
aicas dovnsticam vitl gicatci foicc.
Tablc 5.4 slovs tlc occuiicncc of natuial lazaids in oui countiy.
On an avciagc, cvciy ycai onc majoi disastci lits India, causing lugc
cconomic losscs and loss of luman lifc. Tlcic is a nccd foi systcmatic
studics and stiatcgics to cvolvc a Oisastci Managcmcnt Plan foi oui
countiy.
To clcck tlc floods, cffoits nccd to bc madc to icstoic vctlands,
icplacc giound covci on vatci-couiscs, build clcck-dams on small
sticams, movc buildings off tlc flood plains ctc. Instcad of iaising build-
ings on flood plains, it is suggcstcd tlat floodplains slould bc uscd foi
vildlifc labitat, paiks, iccicational aicas and otlci uscs, vlicl aic not
susccptiblc to flood damagc. Rivci-nctvoiking in tlc countiy is also
bcing pioposcd to dcal vitl tlc flood pioblcm.
Tablc 5.4. Frcqucntly nccurring natural disastcrs in India
Affcctcd
Typc Lncatinn/Arca Pnpulatinn
(in Millinn)
Iloods 8 majoi iivci vallcys spicad ovci 4O million
lcctaics of aica in tlc cntiic countiy
26O
Oiouglt Spicad in 14 statcs of Andlia Piadcsl, Bilai,
Cujaiat, Haiyana, 1ammu & Kaslmii,
Kainataka, Madlya Piadcsl, Malaiasltia,
Oiissa, Rajastlan, Tamil Nadu, Lttai
Piadcsl, Wcst Bcngal and Himaclal
Piadcsl covciing a total of 116 distiicts and
74O blocks
86
Eaitlquakc 4OO
Cycloncs Entiic 57OO km long coastlinc of Soutlcin,
Pcninsulai India covciing 9 Statcs viz.
Cujaiat, Malaiastia, Coa, Kai nataka,
Kciala, Tamil Nadu, Andlia Piadcsl, Oiissa
and Wcst Bcngal and Lnion Tciiitoiy of
Pondiclciiy bcsidcs Islands of Laksladvccp
and Andaman and Nicobai
1O
Landslidc Entiic sub Himalayan icgion and Wcstcin
Clats
1O
Scurcc. Statc of Enviionmcnt, 1995, Ministiy of Enviionmcnt and Ioicsts,
Covcinmcnt of India.
Ncaily 55% of tlc total aica of tlc countiy
falling in tlc scismic zonc IV and V.
Landslides
Landslidc occuis vlcn colcicnt iock of soil masscs movc dovnslopc
duc to giavitational pull. Slov landslips don't causc mucl voiiy but
suddcn iockslidcs and mudslidcs aic dangcious.
Watci and vcgctation influcncc landslidcs. Clcmical action of
vatci giadually causc clcmical vcatlciing of iocks making tlcm pionc
to landslidcs. Vcgctation consolidatcs tlc slopc matciial, piovidcs
colcsion by its ioot systcm and also ictaids tlc flov of vatci and its
ciosion capacity.
Hovcvci, tlis can bc maskcd by many otlci cxciting factois likc:
(t) Eaitlquakcs, vibiations ctc.
(tt) Oistuibanccs in icsistant iock ovcilying iock of lov icsistancc.
(ttt) Satuiation of tlc unconsolidatcd scdimcnts vitl vatci.
(tv) Lnconsolidatcd scdimcnts cxposcd duc to logging, ioad oi
lousc building.
Landslidcs aic govcincd by tlc foiccs vlicl tcnd to pull tlc caitl
matciial dovn slopc (movc in casc of slopcs vitl stccpci slip planc)
and icsisting foiccs vlicl tcnd to icsist sucl movcmcnts.
It is difficult to contiol landslidcs. Hovcvci, tlcsc can bc mini-
mizcd by stabilizing tlc slopc by:
(t) Oiaining tlc suifacc and subsuifacc vatci.
(tt) Pioviding slopc suppoit likc gabions (viicd stonc blocks)
(ttt) Concictc suppoit at tlc basc of a slopc.
Cyclones
Cycloncs aic iccuiiing plcnomcna in tlc tiopical coastal icgions.
Tiopical cycloncs in tlc vaim occans aic foimcd bccausc of lcat and
moistuic. Onc of tlc icquiicmcnts foi foimation of tiopical cycloncs is
tlat tlc sca suifacc tcmpciatuic (SST) slould bc abovc 26C. Tiopical
cycloncs movc likc a spinning top at tlc spccd of 1O-3O Km pci loui.
Tlcy can last foi a vcck oi so and lavc a diamctci vaiying bctvccn
1OO to 15OO Km. Sincc in tlc vcstcin paits of tlc main occan no cold
cuiicnts cxist, tiopical cycloncs oiiginatc tlcic. Tiopical cycloncs aic
callcd hurricancs in tlc Atlantic, Caiibbcan and noitl castcin Pacific,
'typhnnns' in tlc vcstcin Pacific, and 'cyclnncs' in tlc Indian Occan
and 'willy willics' in tlc sca aiound Austialia.
Moic stoims occui in tlc Bay of Bcngal tlan in tlc Aiabian Sca.
Of 5-6 stoims tlat foim in tlc ycai about lalf of tlcm aic scvcic. Hui-
iicanc vinds (74 milcs pci loui oi moic), iains and stoim suigc (oftcn
5O-1OO milcs vidc domc of vatci) oftcn dcvastatc tlc aica vlcic it
stiikcs on land. Tlc dcvastation is moic vlcn stoim suigc and noimal
astionomical tidc coincidc. Sca vatci vitl combincd foicc iuslcs
inlands and inundatcs tlc lov lying aicas.
Managcmcnt: It is difficult to stop tlc iccuiicncc of cycloncs.
Somc long tcim dcfcncc mcasuics can lclp to piotcct us fiom
dcvastation. Sucl mcasuics includc, planting moic ticcs on tlc coastal
bclt, constiuction of dams, dykcs, cmbankmcnts, stoim slcltci, vind
bicaks, piopci diainagc and vidc ioads foi quick cvacuation.
QUESTIONS
1. Ocfinc pollution. Namc vaiious atmosplciic pollutants.
2. Wlat aic tlc natuial and man madc pollutants tlat causc aii
pollution.
3. Civc an account of indooi aii pollution.
4. Civc an account of tlc advcisc cffccts of aii pollution.
5. Enumciatc vaiious mctlods foi contiol of aii pollution.
6. Oiffcicntiatc bctvccn
(t) Sound and noisc
(tt) Loudncss and pitcl of noisc
(ttt) Tlicslold of pain and tlicslold of lcaiing foi a luman cai.
7. Biicfly dcsciibc tlc souiccs, cffccts and contiol of noisc pollu-
tion.
8. Civc an account of noisc gcnciatcd duiing divali. Wlat vould
you suggcst to icducc tlis mcnacc !
9. Enumciatc vitl cxamplcs tlc majoi souiccs of suifacc vatci pol-
lution and giound vatci pollution.
10. Wiitc sloit notcs on
(a) Minamata discasc
(h) Biomagnification
(c) Itai-itai discasc
(d) Bluc baby syndiomc
(c) B.O.O.
11. Oiscuss advcisc cffccts and contiol of vatci pollution.
12. Wlat do you undcistand by tlc tcim tlcimal pollution ! Oiscuss
vaiious cffccts and contiol mcasuics of tlcimal pollution.
13. Oiscuss vaiious souiccs of maiinc pollution. Hov can you pic-
vcnt pollution of oui occans !
14. Wlat aic tlc majoi souiccs of soil pollution ! Hov docs soil pol-
lution affcct soil pioductivity ! Wlat mcasuics can bc takcn to
picvcnt soil pollution.
15. Ocfinc iadioactivity. Mcntion tlc souiccs of iadioactivity.
16. Wlat typc of tlc damagc ionisation iadiations can causc !
17. Classify solid vastc. Wlat aic tlc souiccs of uiban and industiial
solid vastcs !
18. Wlat advcisc cffccts can solid vastcs causc ! Hov can tlc solid
vastc bc managcd !
19. Hov can you, as an individual, picvcnt cnviionmcntal pollution !
Wly sucl an cffoit at individual lcvcl is impoitant !
20. Wiitc sloit notcs on :
(a) Oonoia aii pollution cpisodc
(h) Blopal gas tiagcdy
(c) Lovc canal tiagcdy
(d) Clcinobyl nuclcai disastci.
21. Wly do caitlquakcs occui ! Explain tlc casc of any caitlquakc
tlat occuiicd in India.
22. Wiitc notcs on.
(a) Iloods
(h) Landslidcs
(c) Cycloncs.
Human bcings livc in botl natuial and social voild. Oui tcclnological
dcvclopmcnt las stiong impacts on tlc natuial as vcll as tlc social
componcnts. Wlcn vc talk of dcvclopmcnt, it cannot bc pciccivcd as
dcvclopmcnt only foi a piivilcgcd fcv vlo vould lavc a ligl standaid
of living and vould dciivc all tlc bcncfits. Ocvclopmcnt also docs not
mcan an incicasc in tlc CNP (Cioss National Pioduct) of a fcv afflu-
cnt nations. Ocvclopmcnt las to bc visualizcd in a lolistic mannci,
vlcic it biings bcncfits to all, not only foi tlc picscnt gcnciation, but
also foi tlc futuic gcnciations.
Tlcic is an uigcnt nccd to intci-link tlc social aspccts vitl dcvcl-
opmcnt and cnviionmcnt. In tlis unit vc slall discuss vaiious social
issucs in iclation to cnviionmcnt.
FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Sustainablc dcvclnpmcnt is dcfincd as "mccting thc nccds nf thc
prcscnt withnut cnmprnmising thc ability nf futurc gcncratinns tn
mcct thcir nwn nccds." Tlis dcfinition vas givcn by tlc Noivcgian
Piimc Ministci, C.H. Biundtland, vlo vas also tlc Oiicctoi of Woild
Hcaltl Oiganisation (WHO). Today sustainablc dcvclopmcnt las bc-
comc a buzz void and lundicds of piogiammcs lavc bccn initiatcd in
tlc namc of sustainablc dcvclopmcnt. If you vant to tcst vlctlci oi
not a pioposal vill aclicvc tlc goals of sustainability just tiy to find
out tlc folloving. Oocs it piotcct oui biodivcisity! Oocs it picvcnt soil
ciosion! Oocs it slov dovn population giovtl! Oocs it incicasc foicst
covci! Oocs it cut off tlc cmissions of CIC, SOx, NOx and CO
2
! Oocs
it icducc vastc gcnciation and docs it biing bcncfits to all! Tlcsc aic
only a fcv paiamctcis foi aclicving sustainablc giovtl.
Lntil nov dcvclopmcnt las bccn luman-oiicntcd, tlat too
mainly, foi a fcv iicl nations. Tlcy lavc touclcd tlc gicatcst lciglts
7EJ
$
SociuI Issues und
the Environment
161
of scicntific and tcclnological dcvclopmcnt, but at vlat cost! Tlc aii
vc bicatlc, tlc vatci vc diink and tlc food vc cat lavc all bccn
badly pollutcd. Oui natuial icsouiccs aic just dvindling duc to ovci
cxploitation. If giovtl continucs in tlc samc vay, vciy soon vc vill
bc facing a "doom's day" - as suggcstcd by Mcadovs ct al (1972) in
tlcii voild famous acadcmic icpoit "The LImIts to Growth" Tlis is
unsustainablc dcvclopmcnt vlicl vill lcad to a collapsc of tlc intci-
iclatcd systcms of tlis caitl.
Altlougl tlc fcais about sucl unsustainablc giovtl and dcvcl-
opmcnt staitcd in 197O's, yct a clcai discussion on sustainablc dcvclop-
mcnt cmcigcd on an intcinational lcvcl in 1992, in tlc LN Confcicncc
on Enviionmcnt and Ocvclopmcnt (LNCEO), populaily knovn as Tlc
Eaitl Summit, lcld at Rio dc 1anciio, Biazil. Tlc Rio Occlaiation
aims at "a ncw and cquttahlc glchal partncrshtp thrcugh thc crcattcn cf ncw
lcvcls cf cccpcrattcn amcng statcs .." Out of its fivc significant agicc-
mcnts Agcnda-21 pioposcs a global piogiammc of action on sustain-
ablc dcvclopmcnt in social, cconomic and political contcxt foi tlc 21st
Ccntuiy.
Tlcsc aic tlc kcy aspccts foi sustainablc dcvclopmcnt:
(a) Intcr-gcncratinnal cquity: Tlis cmplasizcs tlat vc slould
minimizc any advcisc impacts on icsouiccs and cnviionmcnt foi fu-
tuic gcnciations i.c. vc slould land ovci a safc, lcaltly and icsouicc-
ful cnviionmcnt to oui futuic gcnciations. Tlis can bc possiblc only if
vc stop ovci-cxploitation of icsouiccs, icducc vastc disclaigc and
cmissions and maintain ccological balancc.
(h) Intra-gcncratinnal cquity: Tlis cmplasizcs tlat tlc dcvclop-
mcnt pioccsscs slould scck to minimizc tlc vcaltl gaps vitlin and
bctvccn nations. Tlc Human Ocvclopmcnt Rcpoit of Lnitcd Nations
(2OO1) cmplasizcs tlat tlc bcncfits of tcclnology slould scck to aclicvc
tlc goals of intia-gcnciational cquity. Tlc tcclnology slould addicss
to tlc pioblcms of tlc dcvcloping countiics, pioducing diouglt tolci-
ant vaiictics foi unccitain climatcs, vaccincs foi infcctious discascs,
clcan fucls foi domcstic and industiial usc. Tlis typc of tcclnological
dcvclopmcnt vill suppoit tlc cconomic giovtl of tlc pooi countiics
and lclp in naiioving tlc vcaltl gap and lcad to sustainability.
Mcasurcs fnr Sustainablc Dcvclnpmcnt: Somc of tlc impoitant
mcasuics foi sustainablc dcvclopmcnt aic as follovs:
Using apprnpriatc tcchnnlngy is onc vlicl is locally adapt-
ablc, cco-fiicndly, icsouicc-cfficicnt and cultuially suitablc. It
mostly involvcs local icsouiccs and local laboui. Indigcnous
tcclnologics aic moic uscful, cost-cffcctivc and sustainablc.
Social Issues and the Environment 163
Natuic is oftcn takcn as a modcl, using tlc natuial conditions
of tlat icgion as its componcnts. Tlis conccpt is knovn as
"dcstgn wtth naturc".
Tlc Tcclnology slould usc lcss of icsouiccs and slould pioducc
minimum vastc.
Rcducc, Rcusc, Rccyclc apprnach: Tlc 3-R appioacl advo-
cating minimization of icsouicc usc, using tlcm again and
again instcad of passing it on to tlc vastc sticam and iccy-
cling tlc matciials gocs a long vay in aclicving tlc goals of
sustainability. It icduccs picssuic on oui icsouiccs as vcll as
icduccs vastc gcnciation and pollution.
Prnmpting cnvirnnmcntal cducatinn and awarcncss: Mak-
ing cnviionmcntal cducation tlc ccntic of all lcaining pioc-
css vill gicatly lclp in clanging tlc tlinking and attitudc of
pcoplc tovaids oui caitl and tlc cnviionmcnt. Intioducing
tlc subjcct iiglt fiom tlc sclool stagc vill inculcatc a fccling
of bclongingncss to caitl in tlc small clildicn. 'Eaitl tlink-
ing' vill giadually gct incoipoiatcd in oui tlinking and ac-
tion vlicl vill gicatly lclp in tiansfoiming oui lifc stylcs to
sustainablc oncs.
Rcsnurcc utilizatinn as pcr carrying capacity: Any systcm
can sustain a limitcd numbci of oiganisms on a long-tcim
basis vlicl is knovn as its carrying capacity. In casc of lu-
man bcings, tlc caiiying capacity conccpt bccomcs all tlc
moic complcx. It is bccausc unlikc otlci animals, luman bc-
ings, not only nccd food to livc, but nccd so many otlci tlings
to maintain tlc quality of lifc.
Sustainability of a systcm dcpcnds laigcly upon tlc caiiying ca-
pacity of tlc systcm. If tlc caiiying capacity of a systcm is ciosscd
(say, by ovci cxploitation of a icsouicc), cnviionmcntal dcgiadation
staits and continucs till it icaclcs a point of no ictuin.
Caiiying capacity las tvo basic componcnts:
Suppnrting capacity i.c. tlc capacity to icgcnciatc
Assimilativc capacity i.c. tlc capacity to tolciatc diffcicnt
sticsscs.
In oidci to attain sustainability it is vciy impoitant to utilizc tlc
icsouiccs bascd upon tlc abovc tvo piopcitics of tlc systcm. Con-
sumption slould not cxcccd icgcnciation and clangcs slould not bc
allovcd to occui bcyond tlc tolciancc capacity of tlc systcm.
The Indian Context
India las still to go a long vay in implcmcnting tlc conccpt of sustain-
ablc dcvclopmcnt. Wc lavc to lay cmplasis on fiaming a vcll-planncd
stiatcgy foi oui dcvclopmcntal activity vlilc incicasing oui cconomic
giovtl. Wc lavc ticmcndous natuial divcisity as vcll as a lugc popu-
lation vlicl makcs planning foi sustainablc giovtl all tlc moic im-
poitant and complcx. Tlc National Council of Enviionmcntal Plan-
ning and Cooidination (NCPC) sct up in 1972 vas tlc focal agcncy in
tlis icgaid. Tlc Ministiy of Enviionmcnt & Ioicsts, sct up in 1985 las
foimulatcd guidclincs foi vaiious dcvclopmcntal activitics kccping in
vicv tlc sustainability piinciplcs.
URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY
Citics aic tlc main ccntcis of cconomic giovtl, tiadc, cducation,
innovations and cmploymcnt. Lntil icccntly, a big majoiity of luman
population livcd in iuial aicas and tlcii cconomic activitics ccntcicd
aiound agiicultuic, cattlc icaiing, fisling, lunting oi somc cottagc
industiy. It vas somc 2OO ycais ago, vitl tlc davn of Industiial cia,
tlc citics slovcd a iapid dcvclopmcnt. Nov about 5O pciccnt of tlc
voild population livcs in uiban aicas and tlcic is incicasing movcmcnt
of iuial folk to citics in scaicl of cmploymcnt. Tlc uiban giovtl is so
fast tlat it is bccoming difficult to accommodatc all tlc industiial,
commcicial and icsidcntial facilitics vitlin a limitcd municipal
boundaiy. As a icsult, tlcic is spicading of tlc citics into tlc sub-uiban
oi iuial aicas too, a plcnomcnon knovn as urhan sprawl.
In dcvcloping countiics too uiban giovtl is vciy fast and in most
of tlc cascs it is uncontiollablc and unplanncd giovtl. In contiast to
tlc iuial sct-up tlc uiban sct-up is dcnscly populatcd, consumcs a lot
of cncigy and matciials and gcnciatcs a lot of vastc.
Tlc cncigy icquiicmcnts of uiban population aic mucl liglci
tlan tlat of iuial oncs. Tlis is bccausc uiban pcoplc lavc a liglci
standaid of lifc and tlcii lifc stylc dcmands moic cncigy inputs in cvciy
splcic of lifc. Tlc cncigy dcmanding activitics includc:
(t) Rcsidcntial and commcicial liglting.
(tt) Tianspoitation mcans including automobilcs and public tians-
poit foi moving fiom icsidcncc to voikplacc.
(ttt) Modcin lifc-stylc using a laigc numbci of clcctiical gadgcts in
cvciyday lifc.
(tv) Industiial plants using a big piopoition of cncigy.
(v) A laigc amount of vastc gcnciation vlicl las to bc disposcd
off piopcily using cncigy bascd tcclniqucs.
(vt) Contiol and picvcntion of aii and vatci pollution vlicl nccd
cncigy dcpcndcnt tcclnologics.
Ouc to ligl population dcnsity and ligl cncigy dcmanding ac-
tivitics, tlc uiban pioblcms iclatcd to cncigy aic mucl moic magni-
ficd as compaicd to tlc iuial population.
WATER CONSERVATION
Watci bcing onc of tlc most piccious and indispcnsablc icsouiccs nccds
to bc conscivcd. Tlc folloving stiatcgics can bc adoptcd foi consciva-
tion of vatci.
(t) Dccrcasing run-nff lnsscs: Hugc vatci-loss occuis duc to iun-
off on most of tlc soils, vlicl can bc icduccd by alloving most of tlc
vatci to infiltiatc into tlc soil. Tlis can bc aclicvcd by using contoui
cultivation, tciiacc faiming, vatci spicading, clcmical ticatmcnt oi
impiovcd vatci-stoiagc systcm.
Cnntnur cultivatinn on small fuiiovs and iidgcs acioss tlc
slopcs tiap iainvatci and allov moic timc foi infiltiation.
Tciiacing constiuctcd on dccp soils lavc laigc vatci-stoiagc
capacity. On gcntlc slopcs tiappcd iun off is spicad ovci a
laigc aica foi bcttci infiltiation.
Cnnscrvatinn-bcnch tcrracing involvcs constiuction of a sciics
of bcnclcs foi catcling tlc iun off vatci.
Watcr sprcading is donc by clanncling oi lagoon-lcvclling. In
clanncling, tlc vatci-flov is contiollcd by a sciics of
divcisions vitl vcitical intcivals. In lagoon lcvcling, small
dcpicssions aic dug in tlc aica so tlat tlcic is tcmpoiaiy
stoiagc of vatci.
Chcmical wctting agcnts (Surfactants) incicasc tlc vatci
intakc iatcs vlcn addcd to noimal iiiigatcd soils.
Surfacc crnp rcsiducs, Tillagc, mulcl, animal icsiducs ctc.
lclp in icducing iun-off by alloving moic timc foi vatci to
pcnctiatc into tlc land.
Chcmical cnnditinncrs likc gypsum (CaSO
4
.2H
2
O) vlcn ap-
plicd to sodic soils impiovc soil pcimcability and icducc iun
off. Anotlci uscful conditionci is HPAN (lydiolyscd
polyaciylonitiilc).
Watcr-stnragc structurcs likc faim ponds, dug-outs ctc. built
by individual faimcis can bc uscful mcasuics foi consciving
vatci tliougl icduction of iunoff.
(tt) Rcducing cvapnratinn lnsscs: Tlis is moic iclcvant in lumid
icgions. Hoiizontal baiiicis of asplalt placcd bclov tlc soil suifacc
incicasc vatci availability and incicasc ciop yicld by 35-4O%. Tlis is
moic cffcctivc on sandy soil but lcss cffcctivc on loamy sand soils.
A co-polymci of staicl and aciylonitiilc callcd 'supci sluipci' las
bccn icpoitcd to absoib vatci upto 14OO timcs its vciglt. Tlc clcmi-
cal las bccn found to bc uscful foi sandy soils.
(ttt) Stnring watcr in snil: Stoiagc of vatci takcs placc in tlc soil
ioot zonc in lumid icgions vlcn tlc soil is vcttcd to ficld capacity. By
lcaving tlc soil fallov foi onc scason vatci can bc madc availablc foi
tlc ciop giovn in ncxt scason.
(tv) Rcducing irrigatinn lnsscs
Lsc of lincd oi covcicd canals to icducc sccpagc.
Iiiigation in caily moining oi latc cvcning to icducc cvapoia-
tion losscs.
Spiinkling iiiigation and diip iiiigation to conscivc vatci by
3O-5O%.
Cioving lybiid ciop vaiictics vitl lcss vatci icquiicmcnts
and tolciancc to salinc vatci lclp conscivc vatci.
(v) Rc-usc nf watcr
Ticatcd vastcvatci can bc uscd foi fciti-iiiigation.
Lsing gicy vatci fiom vaslings, batl-tubs ctc. foi vatciing
gaidcns, vasling cais oi patls lclp in saving ficsl vatci.
(vt) Prcvcnting wastagc nf watcr: Tlis can bc donc in lousc-
lolds, commcicial buildings and public placcs.
Closing taps vlcn not in usc
Rcpaiiing any lcakagc fiom pipcs
Lsing small capacity flusl in toilcts.
(vtt)Incrcasing blnck pricing: Tlc consumci las to pay a piopoi-
tionatcly liglci bill vitl liglci usc of vatci. Tlis lclps in cconomic
usc of vatci by tlc consumcis.
RAINWATER HARVESTING
Rainwatcr harvcsting is a tcchniquc nf incrcasing thc rcchargc nf
grnundwatcr by capturing and stnring rainwatcr. This is dnnc by
cnnstructing spccial watcr-harvcsting structurcs likc dug wclls,
pcrcnlatinn pits, lagnnns, chcck dams ctc. Rainvatci, vlcicvci it falls,
is captuicd and pollution of tlis vatci is picvcntcd. Rainvatci
laivcsting is not only pioving uscful foi pooi and scanty iainfall icgions
but also foi tlc iicl oncs.
Tlc annual avciagc iainfall in India is 12OO mm, Hovcvci, in
most placcs it is conccntiatcd ovci tlc iainy scason, fiom 1unc to Scp-
tcmbci. It is an astonisling fact tlat Clciapunji, tlc placc iccciving
tlc sccond liglcst annual iainfall as 11OOO mm still suffcis fiom vatci
scaicity. Tlc vatci flovs vitl iun off and tlcic is littlc vcgctation to
clcck tlc iun off and allov infiltiation. Till nov tlcic is laidly any
iain-vatci laivcsting bcing donc in tlis icgion, tlcicby losing all tlc
vatci tlat comcs tliougl iainfall.
Rainvatci laivcsting las tlc folloving objcctivcs:
(t) to icducc iun off loss
(tt) to avoid flooding of ioads
(ttt) to mcct tlc incicasing dcmands of vatci
(tv) to iaisc tlc vatci tablc by icclaiging giound vatci
(v) to icducc gioundvatci contamination
(vt) to supplcmcnt gioundvatci supplics duiing lcan scason.
Rainvatci can bc mainly laivcstcd by any onc of tlc folloving
mctlods:
(t) by stoiing in tanks oi icscivoiis abovc oi bclov giound.
(tt) by constiucting pits, dug-vclls, lagoons, ticncl oi clcck-dams
on small iivulcts
(ttt) by icclaiging tlc gioundvatci.
Bcfoic adopting a iain-vatci laivcsting systcm, tlc soil claiac-
tciistics, topogiaply, iainfall pattcin and climatic conditions slould
bc undcistood.
Traditional Rain Water Harvesting
In India, it is an old piacticc in ligl iainfall aicas to collcct iainvatci
fiom ioof-tops into stoiagc tanks. In foot lills, vatci floving fiom
spiings aic collcctcd by cmbankmcnt typc vatci stoiagc. In Himalayan
foot-lills pcoplc usc tlc lollov bamboos as pipclincs to tianspoit tlc
vatci of natuial spiings. Rajastlan is knovn foi its 'tankas (undci-
giound tanks) and khadtns (cmbankmcnts) foi laivcsting iainvatci.
In oui ancicnt timcs vc lad adcquatc Talaahs, Baawarts, Jchars, Hauz
ctc. in cvciy city, villagc and capital citics of oui kings and loids, vlicl
vcic uscd to collcct iain-vatci and cnsuicd adcquatc vatci supply in
diy pciiods.
Modern Techniques of Rain Water Harvesting
In aiid and scmi-aiid icgions aitificial giound vatci icclaiging is donc
by constiucting slallov pcicolation tanks. Clcck-dams madc of any
suitablc nativc matciial (biusl, polcs, iocks, plants, loosc iocks, viic-
ncts, stoncs, slabs, sacks ctc.) aic constiuctcd foi laivcsting iunoff fiom
laigc catclmcnt aicas. Rajcndia Singl of Rajastlan populaily knovn
as "vatci man" las bccn doing a commcndablc job foi laivcsting iain-
vatci by building clcckdams in Rajastlan and lc vas lonouicd vitl
tlc picstigious Magsaysay Avaid foi lis voik.
Cioundvatci flov can bc intciccptcd by building gioundvatci
dams foi stoiing vatci undcigiound. As compaicd to suifacc dams,
gioundvatci dams lavc scvcial advantagcs likc minimum cvapoiation
loss, icduccd clanccs of contamination ctc.
In ioof top iainvatci laivcsting, vlicl is a lov cost and cffcctivc
tcclniquc foi uiban louscs and buildings, tlc iain-vatci fiom tlc top
of tlc ioofs is divcitcd to somc suifacc tank oi pit tliougl a dclivciy
Water table
Dug well
Water pipe
Water
pipe
Hand pump
Rain water
Iig. 6.1. Roof-top iainvatci laivcsting by icclaiging
(t) tliougl land pump oi (tt) tliougl abondoncd dugvcll.
systcm vlicl can bc latci uscd foi scvcial puiposcs. Also, it can bc
uscd to icclaigc undcigiound aquifcis by divciting tlc stoicd vatci to
somc abandoncd dug-vcll oi by using a land pump (Iig. 6.1).
All tlc abovc tcclniqucs of iainvatci laivcsting aic lov-cost
mctlods vitl littlc maintcnancc cxpcnscs. Rainvatci laivcsting lclps
in icclaiging tlc aquifcis, impiovcs gioundvatci quality by dilution,
impiovcs soil moistuic and icduccs soil ciosion by minimizing iun-off
vatci.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Tlc land aica diaincd by a iivci is knovn as tlc iivci basin. Tlc
watcrshcd is dcfincd as thc land arca frnm which watcr drains undcr
gravity tn a cnmmnn drainagc channcl. Thus, watcrshcd is a
dclincatcd arca with a wcll-dcfincd tnpngraphic bnundary and nnc
watcr nutlct. Tlc vatcislcd can iangc fiom a fcv squaic kilomctcis
to fcv tlousand squaic kilomctcis in sizc. In tlc vatcislcd tlc
lydiological conditions aic sucl tlat vatci bccomcs conccntiatcd
vitlin a paiticulai location likc a iivci oi a icscivoii, by vlicl tlc
vatcislcd is diaincd. Tlc vatcislcd compiiscs complcx intciactions
of soil, landfoim, vcgctation, land usc activitics and vatci. Pcoplc and
animals aic an intcgial pait of a vatcislcd laving mutual impacts on
cacl otlci. Wc may livc anyvlcic, vc vould bc living in somc
vatcislcd.
A vatcislcd affccts us as it is diicctly involvcd in sustaincd food
pioduction, vatci supply foi iiiigation, povci gcnciation, tianspoita-
tion as vcll as foi influcncing scdimcntation and ciosion, vcgctation
giovtl, floods and diouglts. Tlus, managcmcnt of vatcislcds, ticat-
ing tlcm as a basic functional unit, is cxticmcly impoitant and tlc
fiist sucl Intcgiatcd Watcislcd Managcmcnt vas adoptcd in 1949 by
tlc Oamodai Vallcy Coipoiation.
Watcrshcd dcgradatinn: Tlc vatcislcds aic vciy oftcn found to
bc dcgiadcd duc to uncontiollcd, unplanncd and unscicntific land usc
activitics. Ovcigiazing, dcfoicstation, mining, constiuction activitics,
industiialization, slifting cultivation, natuial and aitificial fiics, soil
ciosion and ignoiancc of local pcoplc lavc bccn icsponsiblc foi dcgia-
dation of vaiious vatcislcds.
Ob|cctivcs nf Watcrshcd Managcmcnt: Rational utilization of
land and vatci icsouiccs foi optimum pioduction causing minimum
damagc to tlc natuial icsouiccs is knovn as vatcislcd managcmcnt.
Tlc objcctivcs of vatcislcd managcmcnt aic as follovs:
(t) To iclabilitatc tlc vatcislcd tliougl piopci land usc adopt-
ing conscivation stiatcgics foi minimizing soil ciosion and moistuic
ictcntion so as to cnsuic good pioductivity of tlc land foi tlc faimcis.
(tt) To managc tlc vatcislcd foi bcncficial dcvclopmcntal activi-
tics likc domcstic vatci supply, iiiigation, lydiopovci gcnciation ctc.
(ttt) To minimizc tlc iisks of floods, diouglts and landslidcs.
(tv) To dcvclop iuial aicas in tlc icgion vitl clcai plans foi im-
pioving tlc cconomy of tlc icgion.
Watershed Management Practices
In tlc Iiftl Iivc Ycai Plan, vatcislcd managcmcnt appioacl vas in-
cludcd vitl a numbci of piogiammcs foi it and a national policy vas
dcvclopcd. In vatcislcd managcmcnt, tlc aspccts of dcvclopmcnt aic
considcicd vitl icgaid to tlc availability of icsouiccs.
Tlc piacticcs of conscivation and dcvclopmcnt of land and vatci
aic takcn up vitl icspcct to tlcii suitability foi pcoplcs' bcncfit as vcll
as sustainability. Vaiious mcasuics takcn up foi managcmcnt includc
tlc folloving:
(t) Watcr harvcsting: Piopci stoiagc of vatci is donc vitl pio-
vision foi usc in diy scasons in lov iainfall aicas. It also lclps in mod-
ciation of floods.
(tt) Affnrcstatinn and Agrnfnrcstry: In vatcislcd dcvclopmcnt,
affoicstation and ciop plantation play a vciy impoitant iolc. Tlcy lclp
to picvcnt soil ciosion and ictcntion of moistuic. In ligl iainfall aicas
voody ticcs aic giovn in bctvccn ciops to substantially icducc tlc
iunoff and loss of fcitilc soil. In Ocliadun, ticcs likc Eucalyptus and
Lcucacna and giasscs likc Chryscpcgcn aic giovn along vitl maizc oi
vlcat to aclicvc tlc abovc objcctivcs. Woody ticcs giovn succcssfully
in sucl agiofoicstiy piogiammcs includc Dalhcrgta stsscc (Slccslam),
Tcctcna grandts (Tcak) and Acacta ntlcttca (Kcckai) vlicl lavc bccn uscd
in vatcislcd aicas of iivci Yamuna.
(ttt) Mcchanical mcasurcs fnr rcducing snil crnsinn and runnff
lnsscs: Scvcial mcclanical mcasuics likc tciiacing, bunding, bcncl
tciiacing, no-till faiming, contoui ciopping, stiip ciopping ctc. aic uscd
to minimizc iunoff and soil ciosion paiticulaily on tlc slopcs of vatci-
slcds. Bunding las piovcd to bc a vciy uscful mctlod in icducing iun-
off, pcak disclaigc and soil loss in Ocliadun and Sivaliks.
(tv) Scicntific mining and quarrying: Ouc to impiopci mining,
tlc lills losc stability and gct distuibcd icsulting in landslidcs, iapid
ciosion ctc. Contoui ticncling at an intcival of 1 mctci on ovcibuidcn
dump, planting somc soil binding plants likc Ipcmcca and Vttcx and
diaining of vatci couiscs in tlc mincd aica aic iccommcndcd foi mini-
mizing tlc dcstiuctivc cffccts of mining in vatcislcd aicas.
(v) Public participatinn: Pcoplc's involvcmcnt including tlc
faimcis and tiibals is tlc kcy to tlc succcss of any vatcislcd managc-
mcnt piogiammc, paiticulaily tlc soil and vatci conscivation. Pco-
plc's coopciation as vcll as paiticipation las to bc cnsuicd foi tlc samc.
Tlc communitics aic to bc motivatcd foi piotccting a ficslly plantcd
aica and maintaining a vatci laivcsting stiuctuic implcmcntcd by tlc
govcinmcnt oi somc cxtcinal agcncy (NCO) indcpcndcntly oi by in-
volving tlc local pcoplc. Piopcily cducating tlc pcoplc about tlc cam-
paign and its bcncfits oi somctimcs paying ccitain inccntivcs to tlcm
can lclp in cffcctivc pcoplc's paiticipation.
Succcssful vatcislcd managcmcnt las bccn donc at Suklomajii
Panclkula, Haiyana tliougl activc paiticipation of tlc local pcoplc.
Watcislcd managcmcnt in Himalayan icgion is of vital impoi-
tancc sincc most of tlc vatcislcds of oui countiy lic lcic. Scvcial
antliopogcnic activitics accclciatc its slopc instability vlicl nccd to
bc picvcntcd and cffoits slould bc madc to piotcct tlc vatcislcd by
picvcnting ovcigiazing, tciiacing and contoui faiming to clcck iunoff
and ciosion ctc. On stccpci slopcs vitl sliding faccs, stiav mulcling
ticd vitl tlin viics and iopcs lclps in cstablisling tlc vcgctation and
stabilizing tlc slopcs.
RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION ISSUES
Problems and Concerns
Economic dcvclopmcnt iaiscs tlc quality and standaid of living of tlc
pcoplc of a countiy. Ocvclopmcntal piojccts aic planncd to biing
bcncfits to tlc socicty. Hovcvci, in tlc pioccss of dcvclopmcnt, vciy
oftcn tlcic is ovci-cxploitation of natuial icsouiccs and dcgiadation of
tlc cnviionmcnt. Bcsidcs tlis, quitc oftcn, tlc nativc pcoplc of tlc
piojcct sitc aic diicctly affcctcd. Tlcsc nativc pcoplc aic gcncially tlc
pooicst of tlc pooi, undcipiivilcdgcd tiibal pcoplc. Vaiious typcs of
piojccts icsult in tlc displaccmcnt of tlc nativc pcoplc vlo undcigo
ticmcndous cconomic and psyclological disticss, as tlc socio-cconomic
and ccological basc of tlc local community is distuibcd.
(a) Displaccmcnt prnblcms duc tn dams: Tlc big iivci vallcy
piojccts lavc onc of tlc most sciious socio-cconomic impacts duc to
laigc scalc displaccmcnt of local pcoplc fiom tlcii anccstial lomc and
loss of tlcii tiaditional piofcssion oi occupation. India is onc of coun-
tiics in tlc voild lcading in big dam constiuction and in tlc last 5O
ycais moic tlan 2O million pcoplc aic cstimatcd to lavc bccn diicctly
oi indiicctly affcctcd by tlcsc dams.
Tlc Hirakund Dam las displaccd moic tlan 2O,OOO pcoplc ic-
siding in about 25O villagcs. Tlc Bhakra Nangal Dam vas constiuctcd
duiing 195O's and till nov it las not bccn possiblc to iclabiltatc cvcn
lalf of tlc displaccd pcisons.
Samc is tlc casc vitl Tchri Dam on tlc iivci Blagiiatli, con-
stiuction of vlicl vas giccn signallcd aftci tlicc dccadcs of long cam-
paign against tlc piojcct by tlc notcd activist Sundcilal Baluguna tlc
piopagatoi of Chipkn Mnvcmcnt . Tlc immcdiatc impact of tlc Tclii
Oam vould bc on tlc 1O,OOO icsidcnts of tlc Tclii tovn. Wlilc dis-
placcmcnt is looming laigc ovci tlc pcoplc, iclabilitation las bccomc
a moic buining issuc.
CASE STUDY
Tlc mucl dcbatcd Sardar Sarnvar Prn|cct vlicl plans to build
3O big, 135 mcdium and 3OOO minoi dams on tlc Naimada iivci
and its tiibutaiics is cstimatcd to submcigc almost as mucl aica
as it is mcant to iiiigatc. A total of 573 villagcs, consisting of about
tlicc lakl pcoplc aic going to bc affcctcd duc to submcigcncc
undci vatci. As a icsult of tlc big dams tlc community iiglts of
tlc tiibals is bicaclcd. It is a tiaumatic cxpciicncc to gct upiootcd
fiom oncs nativc placc vlcic its gcnciations lavc livcd and movc
to a ncv placc as a total stiangci. Vciy oftcn tlc family bicaks up.
It is a big piicc tlat tlc tiibals lavc to pay foi a big dam piojcct
vlicl is supposcd to biing lappincss and piospciity to tlc countiy.
In ictuin of tlis big saciificc, tlc tiibals must bc givcn adcquatc
compcnsation in tlc foim of land, jobs, casl compcnsation ctc.
and caic slould bc takcn to impiovc tlcii quality of lifc.
(h) Displaccmcnt duc tn Mining: Mining is anotlci dcvclopmcn-
tal activity, vlicl causcs displaccmcnt of tlc nativc pcoplc. Scvcial
tlousands of lcctaics of land aica is covcicd in mining opciation and
tlc nativc pcoplc aic displaccd. Somctimcs displaccmcnt of local pco-
plc is duc to accidcnts occuiiing in mincd aicas likc subsidcncc of land
tlat oftcn lcads to slifting of pcoplc.
CASE STUDY
Jharia cnal ficlds, Jharkhand lavc bccn posing a big pioblcm to
tlc local icsidcnts duc to undcigiound fiics and tlcy aic askcd to
vacatc tlc aica. Tlc pioposal of laigc scalc cvacuation of about
O.3 million population of 1laiia immcdiatcly iaiscs tlc qucstion
of tlcii iclocation and iclabilitation foi vlicl piopci planning is
icquiicd. Somc 115 cioics of iupccs lavc bccn spcnt to put out
tlc fiics sincc 1976, still tlc pioblcm pcisists.
Tlc pcoplc of 1laiia aic bcing askcd to cvacuatc tlc aica, but till
nov tlcic is no altcnativc land and iclabilitation packagc
picpaicd. As a icsult of it, tlc local pcoplc lavc foimcd a "1laiia
coalficld Baclao Samiti". Tlcy lavc appiclcnsions tlat tlcy aic
going to bc lcft in tlc luicl. Tlc latcst cstimatcs slov tlan about
Rs. 18,OOO cioics vill bc spcnt foi slifting tlc 1laiia population
vlilc tlc cost foi cxtinguisling tlc fiic vould bc aiound 8,OOO
cioic. Pcilaps scicntific fiic-figlting vill picvcnt tlc 1laiia
icsidcnts fiom undcigoing tlc laidslip of displaccmcnt.
(c) Displaccmcnt duc tn Crcatinn nf Natinnal Parks: Wlcn somc
foicst aica is covcicd undci a National Paik, it is a vclcomc stcp foi
conscivation of tlc natuial icsouiccs. Hovcvci, it also las a social as-
pcct associatcd vitl it vlicl is oftcn ncglcctcd. A majoi poition of tlc
foicst is dcclaicd as coic-aica, vlcic tlc cntiy of local dvcllcis oi tiibals
is piolibitcd. Wlcn tlcsc villagcis aic dcpiivcd of tlcii anccstial iiglt
oi acccss to tlc foicsts, tlcy usually ictaliatc by staiting dcstiuctivc
activitics. Tlcic is a nccd to look into tlcii pioblcms and piovidc tlcm
somc cmploymcnt.
CASE STUDY
Tlc tiibals bclonging to Tlaiu Community in 142 villagcs in Bilai
in tlc Valmiki Tigcr Rcscrvc aica in tlc distiict of Wcst
Clampaian fccl tlat tlcy lavc bccn dcpiivcd of tlcii lcgitimatc
anccstial iiglts to collcct fiicvood and foddci fiom tlc foicst.
Ccntd.
Tlcii cmploymcnt is also lost duc to tlc 'Piojcct Tigci' initiativc.
Tlc joblcss villagcis fccl clcatcd and aic found to indulgc in
dcstiuction of foicst and foicst vcaltl in connivancc vitl foicign
agcnts vlo supply tlcm aims and ammunition foi illcgal logging
and poacling. In oidci to stop tlc local tiibals fiom bccoming
ciiminals, tlc foicmost cffoit of tlc planncis slould bc to
compcnsatc foi tlc loss to tlc locals by pioviding tlcm job
oppoitunitics.
Tlc Wayanad Wildlifc Sanctuary in Kciala las causcd
displaccmcnt of 53,472 tiibal familics. At tlc timc of its initiation
it vas dccidcd to tiansfci land to tlcsc tiibal familics in oidci to
scttlc tlcm. Hovcvci, till 2OO3 only 843 familics could gct tlc
land. As a icsult of tlis tlc tiibals fclt clcatcd and in 1anuaiy,
2OO3 tlcy cncioaclcd into tlc foicst in laigc numbcis, cut dovn
tlc ticcs, staitcd constiucting luts and digging vclls causing a
violcnt cncountci vitl tlc foicst officials, ultimatcly causing
injuiics and dcatls to tlc pcoplc.
REHABILITATION ISSUES
Tlc Lnitcd Nations Lnivcisal Occlaiation on Human Riglts |Aiticlc
25(1)] las dcclaicd tlat right tn hnusing is a basic human right.
In India, most of tlc displaccmcnts lavc icsultcd duc to land ac-
quisition by tlc govcinmcnt foi vaiious icasons. Ioi tlis puiposc, tlc
govcinmcnt las tlc Land Acquisition Act, 1894 vlicl cmpovcis it to
scivc noticc to tlc pcoplc to vacatc tlcii lands if tlcic is a nccd as pci
govcinmcnt planning. Piovision of casl compcnsation in licu of tlc
land vacatcd cxists in scction 16 of tlc Act. Tlc majoi issucs iclatcd to
displaccmcnt and iclabilitation aic as follovs:
(t) Tiibals aic usually tlc most affcctcd amongst tlc displaccd
vlo aic alicady pooi. Oisplaccmcnt fuitlci incicascs tlcii povcity duc
to loss of land, lomc, jobs, food insccuiity, loss of acccss to common
piopcity asscts, incicascd moibidity and moitality and social isola-
tion.
(tt) Bicak up of familics is an impoitant social issuc aiising duc
to displaccmcnt in vlicl tlc vomcn aic tlc voist affcctcd and tlcy
aic not cvcn givcn casl/land compcnsation.
(ttt) Tlc tiibals aic not familiai vitl tlc maikct policics and ticnds.
Evcn if tlcy gct casl compcnsation, tlcy gct alicnatcd in tlc modcin
cconomic sct-up.
(tv) Tlc land acquisition lavs ignoic tlc communal ovncislip of
piopcity, vlicl is an inbuilt systcm amongst tlc tiibals. Tlus tlc tiibals
losc tlcii communitaiian basis of cconomic and cultuial cxistcncc. Tlcy
fccl likc fisl out of vatci.
(v) Kinslip systcms, maiiiagcs, social and cultuial functions, tlcii
folk-songs, danccs and activitics vanisl vitl tlcii displaccmcnt. Evcn
vlcn tlcy aic icscttlcd, it is individual-bascd icscttlcmcnt, vlicl to-
tally ignoics communal scttlcmcnt.
(vt) Loss of idcntity and loss of tlc intimatc link bctvccn tlc pco-
plc and tlc cnviionmcnt is onc of tlc biggcst loss. Tlc agc-long indig-
cnous knovlcdgc, vlicl las bccn inlciitcd and cxpciicnccd by tlcm
about tlc floia, fauna, tlcii uscs ctc. gcts lost.
Rehabilitation Policy
Tlcic is a nccd foi a compiclcnsivc National Rclabilitation Policy.
Oiffcicnt statcs aic folloving diffcicnt piacticcs in tlis icgaid.
CASE STUDIES
In casc of Sardar Sarnvar Prn|cct, Cujaiat Covcinmcnt is
foimulating its policy tliougl vaiious govcinmcnt icsolutions. It
las dccidcd tlat cacl landcd oustcc slall bc cntitlcd to allotmcnt
of iiiigablc land in tlc statc vlicl lc clooscs foi lis icscttlcmcnt.
Tlc aica of tlc land vould bc cqual to tlat ovncd by lim cailici
and tlc minimum land givcn to an oustcc vould bc 2 lcctaics.
Hovcvci, tlcic aic pioblcms of landlcss oustccs and tlosc nativcs
vlo vcic cultivating foicst land. Tlc cut-off datc foi idcntifying
an adult son in a family las not bccn fixcd. It is impoitant sincc
tlc adult son is to bc ticatcd as a scpaiatc family. Tlc pcoplc of 2O
submcigcd villagcs in Cujaiat lavc bccn icscttlcd at diffcicnt
locations lcading to disintcgiation of joint familics.
Tlc casc of Pnng Dam is diffcicnt. Tlc dam vas constiuctcd on
Bcas Rivci in Himaclal Piadcsl in 196O, vlilc it vas a pait of
Panjab. Tlc vatci is laincsscd to iiiigatc Rajastlan. Rajastlan,
tlcicfoic, agiccd to piovidc land to tlc oustccs in tlc command
aica of Indiia Candli Canal. Hovcvci, to caiiy Bcas Watci to
Rajastlan, anotlci dam lad to bc built adding 2O,722 moic
familics tlat vcic displaccd and lad to bc icscttlcd by Rajastlan.
Out of 3O,OOO familics upiootcd duc to Pong dam, only 16,OOO
vcic considcicd cligiblc foi allotmcnt, as only tlcy vcic bonafidc
Ccntd.
cultivatois foi vlom 2.25 lakl acic land vas caimaikcd. Wlat
lappcncd to tlc icst of tlc 14,OOO familics is not ansvcicd. Panjab,
vlicl is onc of tlc bcncficiaiics of tlc dam is totally out of tlc
iclabilitation issuc. Only Rajastlan and Himaclal Piadcsl aic
tiying to scttlc tlc mattci. Evcn tlosc vlo lavc bccn scttlcd, tlcy
aic in icscttlcmcnt sitcs in dcscit boidciing Pakistan, moic tlan
tlousand kilomctcis fiom tlcii nativc placc, tlus bicaking tlcii
kinslip tics.
Tlcic is a nccd to iaisc public avaicncss on tlcsc issucs to biing
tlc icscttlcmcnt and iclabilitation plans on a lumanc footing and to
lonoui tlc luman iiglts of tlc oustccs.
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICSIssues and Possible Solutions
Enviionmcntal ctlics icfcis to tlc issucs, piinciplcs and guidclincs
iclating to luman intciactions vitl tlcii cnviionmcnt. It is iigltly said,
"Thc cnvtrcnmcntal crtsts ts an cutward mantfcstattcn cf thc crtsts cf mtnd
and sptrtt". It all dcpcnds on lov do vc tlink and act. If vc tlink "Man
ts all pcwcrful and thc suprcmc crcaturc cn thts carth and man ts thc mastcr cf
naturc and can harncss tt at hts wtll", tt rcf lccts cur human-ccntric thinking.
On thc cthcr hand, tf wc thtnk "Naturc has prcvtdcd us wtth all thc rcscurccs
fcr lcadtng a hcauttful ltfc and shc ncurtshcs us ltkc a mcthcr, wc shculd rcspcct
hcr and nurturc hcr", tlis is an carth-ccntric thinking.
Tlc fiist vicv uigcs us to maicl alcad gloiiously to conquci tlc
natuic and cstablisl oui supicmacy ovci natuic tliougl tcclnological
innovations, cconomic giovtl and dcvclopmcnt vitlout mucl
botlciation to caic foi tlc damagc donc to tlc planct caitl. Tlc scc-
ond vicv uigcs us to livc on tlis caitl as a pait of it, likc any otlci
cication of Natuic and livc sustainably. So, vc can scc tlat oui acts
vill follov vlat vc tlink. If vc vant to clcck tlc cnviionmcntal cii-
sis, vc vill lavc to tiansfoim oui tlinking and attitudc. Tlat in tuin,
vould tiansfoim oui dccds, lcading to a bcttci cnviionmcnt and bcttci
futuic.
Tlcsc tvo voild-vicvs aic discusscd lcic in iclation to cnviion-
mcntal piotcction:
(a) Anthrnpnccntric Wnrldvicw: Tlis vicv is guiding most in-
dustiial socictics. It puts luman bcings in tlc ccntci giving tlcm tlc
liglcst status. Man is considcicd to bc most capablc foi managing tlc
planct caitl. Tlc guiding piinciplcs of tlis vicv aic:
(t) Man is tlc planct's most impoitant spccics and is tlc in-claigc
of tlc icst of natuic.
(tt) Eaitl las an unlimitcd supply of icsouiccs and it all bclongs
to us.
(ttt) Economic giovtl is vciy good and moic tlc giovtl, tlc bct-
tci it is, bccausc it iaiscs oui quality of lifc and tlc potcntial foi cco-
nomic giovtl is unlimitcd.
(tv) A lcaltly cnviionmcnt dcpcnds upon a lcaltly cconomy.
(v) Tlc succcss of mankind dcpcnds upon lov good managcis
vc aic foi dciiving bcncfits foi us fiom natuic.
(h) Ecn-ccntric Wnrldvicw: Tlis is bascd on caitl-visdom. Tlc
basic bclicfs aic as follovs:
(t) Natuic cxists not foi luman bcings alonc, but foi all tlc spc-
cics.
(tt) Tlc caitl icsouiccs aic limitcd and tlcy do not bclong only
to luman bcings.
(ttt) Economic giovtl is good till it cncouiagcs caitl-sustaining
dcvclopmcnt and discouiagcs caitl-dcgiading dcvclopmcnt.
(tv) A lcaltly cconomy dcpcnds upon a lcaltly cnviionmcnt.
(v) Tlc succcss of mankind dcpcnds upon lov bcst vc can coop-
ciatc vitl tlc icst of tlc natuic vlilc tiying to usc tlc icsouiccs of
natuic foi oui bcncfit.
Enviionmcntal ctlics can piovidc us tlc guidclincs foi putting
oui bclicfs into action and lclp us dccidc vlat to do vlcn faccd vitl
ciucial situations. Somc impoitant ctlical guidclincs knovn as Earth
cthics oi Envirnnmcntal Ethics aic as follovs:
You slould lovc and lonoui tlc caitl sincc it las blcsscd you
vitl lifc and govcins youi suivival.
You slould kccp cacl day sacicd to caitl and cclcbiatc tlc
tuining of its scasons.
You slould not lold youisclf abovc otlci living tlings and
lavc no iiglt to diivc tlcm to cxtinction.
You slould bc giatcful to tlc plants and animals vlicl noui-
isl you by giving you food.
You slould limit youi offspiings bccausc too many pcoplc
vill ovcibuidcn tlc caitl.
You slould not vastc youi icsouiccs on dcstiuctivc vcapons.
You slould not iun aftci gains at tlc cost of natuic, iatlci
slould stiivc to icstoic its damagcd majcsty.
You slould not conccal fiom otlcis tlc cffccts you lavc causcd
by youi actions on caitl.
You slould not stcal fiom futuic gcnciations tlcii iiglt to
livc in a clcan and safc planct by impovciisling oi polluting
it.
You slould consumc tlc matciial goods in modciatc amounts
so tlat all may slaic tlc caitl's piccious ticasuic of icsouiccs.
If vc ciitically go tliougl tlc abovc tcn commandmcnts foi caitl
ctlics and icflcct upon tlc samc, vc vill find tlat vaiious icligions tcacl
us tlc samc tlings in onc foim oi tlc otlci. Oui Vcdas lavc gloiificd
cacl and cvciy componcnt of natuic as gods oi goddcsscs so tlat pco-
plc lavc a fccling of icvcicncc foi tlcm. Oui icligious and cultuial iituals
makc us pcifoim sucl actions tlat vould lclp in tlc conscivation of
natuic and natuial icsouiccs. Tlc conccpt of 'alimsa' (non-violcncc) in
Buddlism and 1ainism cnsuic tlc piotcction and conscivation of all
foims of lifc, tlcicby kccping tlc ccological balancc of tlc caitl intact.
Oui tcaclings on "havtng fcwcr wants" cnsuics to put "ltmtts tc grcwth"
and tlus, guidc us to lavc an cco-ccntiic lifc stylc.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climatc is tlc avciagc vcatlci of an aica. It is tlc gcncial vcatlci
conditions, scasonal vaiiations and cxticmcs of vcatlci in a icgion.
Sucl conditions vlicl avciagc ovci a long pciiod- at lcast 3O ycais is
callcd climatc.
Tlc Intcrgnvcrnmcntal Pancl nn Climatc Changc (IPCC) in
199O and 1992 publislcd bcst availablc cvidcncc about past climatc
clangc, tlc giccn lousc cffcct and icccnt clangcs in global tcmpcia-
tuic. It is obscivcd tlat caitl's tcmpciatuic las clangcd considciably
duiing tlc gcological timcs. It las cxpciicnccd scvcial glacial and intci-
glacial pciiods. Hovcvci, duiing tlc past 1O,OOO ycais of tlc cuiicnt
intciglacial pciiod tlc mcan avciagc tcmpciatuic las fluctuatcd by O.5-
1C ovci 1OO to 2OO ycai pciiod. Wc lavc iclativcly stablc climatc foi
tlousands of ycais duc to vlicl vc lavc piactiscd agiicultuic and in-
cicascd in population. Evcn small clangcs in climatic conditions may
distuib agiicultuic tlat vould lcad to migiation of animals including
lumans.
Antliopogcnic (man-madc) activitics aic upsctting tlc dclicatc
balancc tlat las cstablislcd bctvccn vaiious componcnts of tlc cnvi-
ionmcnt. Ciccn lousc gascs aic incicasing in tlc atmosplcic icsult-
ing in incicasc in tlc avciagc global tcmpciatuic.
Tlis may upsct tlc lydiological cyclc, icsult in floods and diouglts
in diffcicnt icgions of tlc voild, causc sca lcvcl iisc, clangcs in agii-
cultuic pioductivity, famincs and dcatl of lumans as vcll as livc stock.
Tlc global clangc in tcmpciatuic vill not bc unifoim cvciyvlcic
and vill fluctuatc in diffcicnt icgions. Tlc placcs at liglci latitudcs
vill bc vaimcd up moic duiing latc autumn and vintci tlan tlc placcs
in tiopics. Polcs may cxpciicncc 2 to 3 timcs moic vaiming tlan tlc
global avciagc, vlilc vaiming in tlc tiopics may bc only 5O to 1OO%
on an avciagc. Tlc incicascd vaiming at polcs vill icducc tlc tlcimal
giadicnt bctvccn tlc cquatoi and ligl latitudc icgions dccicasing tlc
cncigy availablc to tlc lcat cnginc tlat diivcs tlc global vcatlci ma-
clinc. Tlis vill distuib tlc global pattcin of vinds and occan cuiicnts
as vcll as tlc timing and distiibution of iainfall. Slifting of occan
cuiicnts may clangc tlc climatc of Iccland and Biitain and may icsult
in cooling at a timc vlcn icst of tlc voild vaims. By a tcmpciatuic
incicasc of 1.5 to 4.5C tlc global lydiological cyclc is cxpcctcd to
intcnsify by 5 to 1O%. Oistuibcd iainfall vill icsult in somc aicas bc-
coming vcttci and tlc otlcis diici. Altlougl iainfall may incicasc,
liglci tcmpciatuics vill icsult in moic cvapo-tianspiiation lcading to
annual vatci dcficit in ciop ficlds.
GLOBAL WARMING
Tioposplcic, tlc lovcimost layci of tlc atmosplcic, tiaps lcat by a
natuial pioccss duc to tlc picscncc of ccitain gascs. Tlis cffcct is callcd
Crccn Hnusc Effcct as it is similai to tlc vaiming cffcct obscivcd in
tlc loiticultuial giccn lousc madc of glass. Tlc amount of lcat tiappcd
in tlc atmosplcic dcpcnds mostly on tlc conccntiations of "lcat
tiapping" oi "giccn lousc" gascs and tlc lcngtl of timc tlcy stay in
tlc atmosplcic. Tlc majoi giccn lousc gascs aic caibon dioxidc, ozonc,
mctlanc, nitious oxidc, clloiofluoiocaibons (CICs) and vatci vapouis.
Tlc avciagc global tcmpciatuic is 15C. In tlc abscncc of giccn lousc
gascs tlis tcmpciatuic vould lavc bccn 18C. Tlcicfoic, Ciccn Housc
Effcct contiibutcs a tcmpciatuic iisc to tlc tunc of 33C. Hcat tiappcd
by giccn lousc gascs in tlc atmosplcic kccps tlc planct vaim cnougl
to allov us and otlci spccics to cxist. Tlc tvo picdominant giccn lousc
gascs aic vatci vapouis, vlicl aic contiollcd by lydiological cyclc,
and caibon dioxidc, vlicl is contiollcd mostly by tlc global caibon
cyclc. Wlilc tlc lcvcls of vatci vapoui in tlc tioposplcic lavc iclativcly
icmaincd constant, tlc lcvcls of caibon dioxidc lavc incicascd. Otlci
gascs vlosc lcvcls lavc incicascd duc to luman activitics aic mctlanc,
nitious oxidc and clloiofluoiocaibons. Ocfoicstation las fuitlci
icsultcd in clcvatcd lcvcls of caibon dioxidc duc to non-icmoval of
caibon dioxidc by plants tliougl plotosyntlcsis.
Waiming oi cooling by moic tlan 2C ovci tlc past fcv dccadcs
may piovc to bc disastious foi vaiious ccosystcms on tlc caitl includ-
ing lumans, as it vould altci tlc conditions fastci tlan somc spccics
could adapt oi migiatc. Somc aicas vill bccomc inlabitablc bccausc
of diouglt oi floods folloving a iisc in avciagc sca lcvcl.
Sun
Solar
radiations
Heat
radiations
Space
Carbon dioxide, water vapours,
methane, nitrous oxide, ozone
in the atmosphere
A
tm
o
s
p
h
e
re
Re-radiated
heat radiations
Earth
Iig. 6.2. Tlc giccnlousc cffcct.
Greenhouse Gases
Tlc plcnomcnon tlat voiiics tlc cnviionmcntal scicntists is tlat duc
to antliopogcnic activitics tlcic is an incicasc in tlc conccntiation of
tlc giccnlousc gascs in tlc aii tlat absoib infia-icd liglt containing
lcat and icsults in tlc ic-iadiation of cvcn moic of tlc out going tlci-
mal infia-icd cncigy, tlcicby incicasing tlc avciagc suifacc tcmpcia-
tuic bcyond 15C. Tlc plcnomcnon is icfciicd to as tlc cnhanccd
grccn hnusc cffcct to distinguisl its cffcct fiom tlc onc tlat las bccn
opciating natuially foi millcnnia.
Tlc giccnlousc gascs picscnt in tlc tioposplcic and icsulting in
an incicasc in tlc tcmpciatuic of aii and tlc caitl aic discusscd lcic:
Carbon dioxide
It contiibutcs about 55% to global vaiming fiom giccn lousc gascs
pioduccd by luman activity. Industiial countiics account foi about
76% of annual cmissions. Tlc main souiccs aic fossil fucl buining
(67%) and dcfoicstation, otlci foims of land clcaiing and buining
(33%). CO
2
stays in tlc atmosplcic foi about 5OO ycais. CO
2
conccn-
tiation in tlc atmosplcic vas 355 ppm in 199O tlat is incicasing at a
iatc of 1.5 ppm cvciy ycai.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Tlcsc aic bclicvcd to bc icsponsiblc foi 24% of tlc luman contiibution
to giccnlousc gascs. Tlcy also dcplctc ozonc in tlc stiatosplcic. Tlc
main souiccs of CICs includc lcaking aii conditioncis and icfiigciatois,
cvapoiation of industiial solvcnts, pioduction of plastic foams, aciosols,
piopcllants ctc. CICs takc 1O-15 ycais to icacl tlc stiatosplcic and
gcncially tiap 15OO to 7OOO timcs moic lcat pci molcculc tlan CO
2
vlilc tlcy aic in tlc tioposplcic. Tlis lcating cffcct in tlc tioposplcic
may bc paitially offsct by tlc cooling causcd vlcn CICs dcplctc ozonc
duiing tlcii 65 to 11O ycais stay in tlc stiatosplcic. Atmosplciic
conccntiation of CIC is O.OO225 ppm tlat is incicasing at a iatc of
O.5% annually.
Methane (CH
4
)
It accounts foi 18% of tlc incicascd giccnlousc gascs. Mctlanc is pio-
duccd vlcn bactciia bicak dovn dcad oiganic mattci in moist placcs
tlat lack oxygcn sucl as svamps, natuial vctlands, paddy ficlds,
landfills and digcstivc tiacts of cattlc, slccp and tcimitcs. Pioduction
and usc of oil and natuial gas and incomplctc buining of oiganic matc-
iial aic also significant souiccs of mctlanc. Mctlanc stays in tlc at-
mosplcic foi 7-1O ycais. Eacl mctlanc molcculc tiaps about 25 timcs
as mucl lcat as a CO
2
molcculc. Atmosplciic conccntiation of mctl-
anc is 1.675 ppm and it is incicasing at a iatc of 1% annually.
Nitrous Oxide (N
2
O)
It is icsponsiblc foi 6% of tlc luman input of giccn lousc gascs. Bc-
sidcs tiapping lcat in tlc tioposplcic it also dcplctcs ozonc in tlc stiato-
splcic. It is iclcascd fiom nylon pioducts, fiom buining of biomass
and nitiogcn iicl fucls ( cspccially coal ) and fiom tlc bicak dovn of
nitiogcn fcitilizcis in soil, livcstock vastcs and nitiatc contaminatcd
giound vatci. Its lifc span in tlc tioposplcic is 14O-19O ycais and it
tiaps about 23O timcs as mucl lcat pci molcculc as CO
2
. Tlc atmos-
plciic conccntiation of N
2
O is O.3 ppm and is incicasing at a iatc of
O.2% annually.
Impacts of Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
Tlc cnlanccd giccnlousc cffcct vill not only causc global vaiming
but vill also affcct vaiious otlci climatic and natuial pioccsscs.
(t) Clnbal tcmpcraturc incrcasc: It is cstimatcd tlat tlc caitl's
mcan tcmpciatuic vill iisc bctvccn 1.5 to 5.5C by 2O5O if input of
giccnlousc gascs continucs to iisc at tlc picscnt iatc. Evcn at tlc lovci
valuc, caitl vould bc vaimci tlan it las bccn foi 1O,OOO ycais.
(tt) Risc in Sca Lcvcl: Witl tlc incicasc in global tcmpciatuic sca
vatci vill cxpand. Hcating vill mclt tlc polai icc slccts and glacicis
icsulting in fuitlci iisc in sca lcvcl. Cuiicnt modcls indicatc tlat an
incicasc in tlc avciagc atmosplciic tcmpciatuic of 3C vould iaisc
tlc avciagc global sca lcvcl by O.21.5 mctcis ovci tlc ncxt 5O1OO
ycais.
Onc mctci iisc in sca lcvcl vill inundatc lov lying aicas of citics
likc Slanglai, Caiio, Bangkok, Sydncy, Hambuig and Vcnicc as vcll
as agiicultuial lovlands and dcltas in Egypt, Bangladcsl, India, Clina
and vill affcct iicc pioductivity. Tlis vill also distuib many commci-
cially impoitant spavning giounds, and vould piobably incicasc tlc
ficqucncy of stoim damagc to lagoons, cstuaiics and coial iccfs.
In India, tlc Laksladvccp Islands vitl a maximum lciglt of 4
mctcis abovc tlc lcvcl may bc vulnciablc. Somc of tlc most bcautiful
citics likc Mumbai may bc savcd by lcavy invcstmcnt on cmbankmcnt
to picvcnt inundation.
Lifc of millions of pcoplc vill bc affcctcd, by tlc sca lcvcl iisc
vlo lavc built lomcs in tlc dcltas of tlc Cangcs, tlc Nilc, tlc Mckong,
tlc Yangtzc and tlc Mississippi iivcis.
(ttt) Effccts nn Human Hcalth: Tlc global vaiming vill lcad to
clangcs in tlc iainfall pattcin in many aicas, tlcicby affccting tlc dis-
tiibution of vcctoi-boinc discascs likc malaiia, filaiiasis, clcplantiasis
ctc.
Aicas vlicl aic picscntly ficc fiom discascs likc malaiia,
sclistosomiasis ctc. may bccomc tlc biccding giounds foi tlc vcctois
of sucl discascs. Tlc aicas likcly to bc affcctcd in tlis mannci aic
Etliopia, Kcnya and Indoncsia. Waimci tcmpciatuic and moic vatci
stagnation vould favoui tlc biccding of mosquitocs, snails and somc
insccts, vlicl aic tlc vcctois of sucl discascs.
Higlci tcmpciatuic and lumidity vill incicasc/aggiavatc icspi-
iatoiy and skin discascs.
(tv) Effccts nn Agriculturc: Tlcic aic diffcicnt vicvs icgaiding
tlc cffcct of global vaiming on agiicultuic. It may slov positivc oi
ncgativc cffccts on vaiious typcs of ciops in diffcicnt icgions of tlc
voild. Tiopical and subtiopical icgions vill bc moic affcctcd sincc tlc
avciagc tcmpciatuic in tlcsc icgions is alicady on tlc liglci sidc. Evcn
a iisc of 2C may bc quitc laimful to ciops. Soil moistuic vill dccicasc
and cvapo-tianspiiation vill incicasc, vlicl may diastically affcct
vlcat and maizc pioduction.
Incicasc in tcmpciatuic and lumidity vill incicasc pcst giovtl
likc tlc giovtl of vcctois foi vaiious discascs. Pcsts vill adapt to sucl
clangcs bcttci tlan tlc ciops.
To copc up vitl tlc clanging situation diouglt icsistant, lcat
icsistant and pcst icsistant vaiictics of ciops lavc to bc dcvclopcd.
Measures to Check Global Warming
To slov dovn cnlanccd global vaiming tlc folloving stcps vill bc
impoitant:
(t) Cut dovn tlc cuiicnt iatc of usc of CICs and fossil fucl.
(tt) Lsc cncigy moic cfficicntly.
(ttt) Slift to icncvablc cncigy icsouiccs.
(tv) Incicasc Nuclcai Povci Plants foi clcctiicity pioduction.
(v) Slift fiom coal to natuial gas.
(vt) Tiap and usc mctlanc as a fucl.
(vtt) Rcducc bccf pioduction.
(vttt) Adopt sustainablc agiicultuic.
(tx) Stabilizc population giovtl.
(x) Efficicntly icmovc CO
2
fiom smokc stacks.
(xt) Plant moic ticcs.
(xtt) Rcmovc atmosplciic CO
2
by utilizing plotosyntlctic algac.
ACID RAIN
Oxidcs of sulfui and nitiogcn oiiginating fiom industiial opciations
and fossil fucl combustion aic tlc majoi souiccs of acid foiming gascs.
Acid foiming gascs aic oxidiscd ovci scvcial days by vlicl timc tlcy
tiavcl scvcial tlousand kilomctcis. In tlc atmosplcic tlcsc gascs aic
ultimatcly convcitcd into sulfuiic and nitiic acids. Hydiogcn clloiidc
cmission foims lydioclloiic acid. Tlcsc acids causc acidic iain. Acid
iain is only onc componcnt of acidic dcposition. Acidic dcposition is
tlc total of vct acidic dcposition (acid iain) and diy dcposition.
Rain vatci is tuincd acidic vlcn its pH falls bclov 5.6 (Iig. 6.3).
In fact clcan oi natuial iain vatci las a pH of 5.6 at 2OC bccausc of
foimation of caibonic acid duc to dissolution of CO
2
in vatci.
Iig. 6.3. Tlc pH scalc of common substanccs.
Tlc Adiiondack Lakcs locatcd in tlc statc of Ncv Yoik aic knovn
to icccivc acid iains.
Tlc stiong acids likc sulpluiic acid (H
2
SO
4
) and nitiic acid
(HNO
3
) dissolvcd oi foimcd in iainvatci dissociatc oi iclcasc lydio-
gcn ions tlcicby incicasing tlc acidity in iain diops.
Ccncially sulfuiic acid foims a majoi fiaction of acid iain,
follovcd by nitiic acid and a vciy small fiaction of otlci acids. Hovcvci,
in uiban aicas calcium (Ca
2-
), Magncsium (Mg
2-
) and ammonium
(NH
4-
) ions lclp to ncutializc tlc iain diops slifting tlc ovciall H
-
tovaids basic scalc. Tlc ovciall pH of any iaindiop is duc to tlc nct
cffcct of caibonic acid, sulfuiic acid, nitiic acid and otlci acidic
constitucnts oi any ncutializcis sucl as ammonia.
Gases
NO , SO , HNO
2 2 3
Ammonium sulphate
Ammonium nitrate
(Fine particulate)
Gaseous deposition
(Dry)
Particulate deposition
(Dry)
Deposition on earth or water bodies
NO
2
SO
3
SO
4
NO
2
NH
3
SO
2
HNO
3
H SO
2 4
Scrubbing off
Acid gases and
fine particulate
Wet deposition Dry deposition
NO
3
Iig. 6.4. Acid dcposition (diy dcposition and vct dcposition).

In tlc abscncc of iain, diy dcposition of acid may occui. Acid
foiming gascs likc oxidcs of sulplui and nitiogcn and acid aciosols gct
dcpositcd on tlc suifacc of vatci bodics, vcgctation, soil and otlci
matciials. On moist suifaccs oi in liquids tlcsc acid foiming gascs can
dissolvc and foim acids similai to tlat foimcd in acid iain. If tlc
oxidizcis aic picscnt on tlc liquid suifaccs tlcn tlcsc gascs undcigo
oxidation to foim acids. Iinc paiticlcs oi acid dioplcts can act as nuclci
foi vatci to condcnsc to foim iain dioplcts. By sucl pioccss sulfuiic
acid is incoipoiatcd into tlc dioplcts. In tlc clouds additional SO
2
and
NO
2
contact tlc dioplcts and gct absoibcd vlicl can bc oxidizcd by
tlc dissolvcd lydiogcn pcioxidc (H
2
O
2
) oi otlci oxidizcis. In tlc
dioplcts falling fiom tlc clouds additional acidic gascs and aciosol
paiticlcs gct incoipoiatcd, fuitlci dccicasing tlcii pH. A unit dccicasc
in pH valuc causcs 1O timcs incicasc in acidity. Avciagc pH in iainfall
ovci castcin Lnitcd Statcs fiom Apiil 1979 to Maicl 198O vas lcss
tlan 5.O. In India acid iain is iccoidcd fiom ccitain placcs:
Namc nf placc pH nf rainwatcr
Kodaikanal 5.18
Minicoy 5.52
Molanbaii 5.5O
Effects of acid rain
Acid iain causcs a numbci of laimful cffccts bclov pH 5.1. Tlc cf-
fccts aic visiblc in tlc aquatic systcm cvcn at pH lcss tlan 5.5.
It causcs dctciioiation of buildings cspccially madc of maiblc
c.g. monumcnts likc Taj Malal. Ciystals of calcium and mag-
ncsium sulplatc aic foimcd as a icsult of coiiosion causcd by
acid iain.
It damagcs stonc statucs. Piicclcss stonc statucs in Cicccc
and Italy lavc bccn paitially dissolvcd by acid iain.
It damagcs mctals and cai finislcs.
Aquatic lifc cspccially fisl aic badly affcctcd by lakc acidifi-
cation.
Aquatic animals suffci fiom toxicity of mctals sucl as alu-
minium, mcicuiy, mangancsc, zinc and lcad vlicl lcak fiom
tlc suiiounding iocks duc to acid iain.
It icsults in icpioductivc failuic, and killing of fisl.
Many lakcs of Svcdcn, Noivay, Canada lavc bccomc fisllcss
duc to acid iain.
It damagcs foliagc and vcakcns ticcs.
It makcs ticcs moic susccptiblc to sticsscs likc cold tcmpcia-
tuic, diouglt, ctc. Many insccts and fungi aic moic tolciant
to acidic conditions and lcncc tlcy can attack tlc susccptiblc
ticcs and causc discascs.
Control of Acid Rain
Emission of SO
2
and NO
2
fiom industiics and povci plants
slould bc icduccd by using pollution contiol cquipmcnts.
Liming of lakcs and soils slould bc donc to coiicct tlc ad-
vcisc cffccts of acid iain.
A coating of piotcctivc layci of incit polymci slould bc givcn
in tlc intciioi of vatci pipcs foi diinking vatci.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Ioi tlc last 45O million ycais tlc caitl las lad a natuial sunsciccn in
tlc stiatosplcic callcd tlc ozonc layci. Tlis layci filtcis out laimful
ultiaviolct iadiations fiom tlc sunliglt and tlus piotccts vaiious lifc
foims on tlc caitl.
Ozonc is a foim of oxygcn. Tlc molcculc of oxygcn contains tvo
atoms vlcicas tlat of ozonc contains tlicc (O
3
). In tlc stiatosplcic
ozonc is continuously bcing cicatcd by tlc absoiption of sloit vavc-
lcngtl ultiaviolct (LV) iadiations. Lltiaviolct iadiations lcss tlan 242
nanomctcis dccomposc molcculai oxygcn into atomic oxygcn (O) by
plotolytic dccomposition.
O
2
- hv O - O
Tlc atomic oxygcn iapidly icacts vitl molcculai oxygcn to foim
ozonc.
O - O
2
- M O
3
- M
(M is a tliid body ncccssaiy to caiiy avay tlc cncigy iclcascd in
tlc icaction).
Ozonc tlus foimcd distiibutcs itsclf in tlc stiatosplcic and ab-
soibs laimful ultiaviolct iadiations (2OO to 32O nm) and is continu-
ously bcing convcitcd back to molcculai oxygcn.
O
3
- hv O
2
- O
Absoiption of LV iadiations icsults in lcating of tlc stiatosplcic.
Tlc nct icsult of tlc abovc icactions is an cquilibiium conccntia-
tion of ozonc. Ozonc conccntiation in about 24 km of tlc stiatosplcic
i.c. fiom 16 km to 4O Km avay fiom caitl is about 1O ppm (as com-
paicd to O.O5 ppm conccntiation of laimful tioposplciic ozonc). Tlis
cquilibiium is distuibcd by icactivc atoms of clloiinc, biominc ctc.
vlicl dcstioy ozonc molcculcs and icsult is tlinning of ozonc layci
gcncially callcd ozonc lolc.
Tlc amount of atmosplciic ozonc is mcasuicd by 'Oobson
Spcctiomctci' and is cxpicsscd in Dnbsnn units (DU). Onc OL is
cquivalcnt to a O.O1 mm tlickncss of puic ozonc at tlc dcnsity it vould
posscss if it vcic biouglt to giound lcvcl (1atm) picssuic. Noimally
ovci tcmpciatc latitudc its concctiation is about 35O OL, ovci tiopics it
is 25O OL vlcicas at subpolai icgions (cxccpt vlcn ozonc tlinning
occuis) it is on an avciagc 45O OL. It is bccausc of tlc stiatosplciic
vinds vlicl tianspoit ozonc fiom tiopical tovaids polai icgions.
Thinning of Ozone Layer
Tlc Antaictic ozonc lolc vas discovcicd by Oi 1oc C. Iaiman and lis
collcagucs in tlc Biitisl Antaictic Suivcy vlo lad bccn iccoiding
ozonc lcvcls ovci tlis icgion sincc 1957. Ouiing spiing scason of soutl
polc t.c. Scptcmbci to Novcmbci cacl ycai ozonc dcplction is obscivcd.
Stccp dcclinc las bccn obscivcd sincc mid 197Os vitl a iccoid lov
conccntiation of 9O OL in caily Octobci of 1993.
Clloiofluoiocaibons (CIC) aic mainly icsponsiblc foi ozonc
dcplction in tlc stiatosplcic. CICs aic a gioup of syntlctic clcmicals
fiist discovcicd by Tlomas Midglcy 1i. in 193O. CIC-11 and CIC-12
aic tlc CICs most commonly uscd. CICs aic uscd as coolants in
icfiigciatois and aii conditioncis, as piopcllants, clcaning solvcnts,
stciilant and in styiofoam ctc. CICs iclcascd in tlc tioposplcic icacl
tlc stiatosplcic and icmain tlcic foi 65-11O ycais dcstioying O
3
mol-
cculcs. In 1974, Rovland and Molina vaincd tlat CIC aic lovciing
tlc conccntiation of ozonc in tlc stiatosplcic and picdictcd scvcic
conscqucnccs. It vas lovcvci, in 1985 tlat scicntists foi tlc fiist timc
discovcicd tlat 5O% (98% in somc aicas) of uppci stiatosplciic ozonc
ovci Antaictica vas dcstioycd duiing tlc Antaictic spiing and caily
summci (Scptcmbci-Occcmbci). At Antaictic icgion tlc tcmpciatuic
duiing vintci diops to 9OC. Tlc vinds bloving in a ciiculai pattcin
ovci caitl's polcs cicatc polai voiticcs. Watci dioplcts in clouds vlcn
cntci tlcsc voiticcs foim icc ciystals. CICs gct collcctcd on tlc sui-
faccs of tlcsc icc ciystals and dcstioy ozonc mucl fastci. Similai dc-
stiuction of ozonc ovci Noitl Polc occuis duiing Aictic spiing and
caily summci (Icbiuaiy-1unc). Tlc dcplction is 1O-25% and it is lcss
tlan tlat obscivcd at soutl polc.
Nitious oxidc cmittcd by supcisonic aiiciafts, duiing combustion
of fossil fucl and usc of nitiogcn fcitilizcis bicaks ozonc molcculcs.
Clloiinc libciatcd fiom clloiofluoiocaibons also bicak ozonc
molcculcs. Tlc clain icaction staitcd in Antaictic spiing t.c. August/
Scptcmbci continucs till nitiogcn dioxidc is libciatcd fiom nitiic acid
foimcd in tlc stiatosplcic by plotolysis (bicakdovn by sunliglt).
Nitiogcn dioxidc combincs vitl clloiinc and stops fuitlci dcstiuction
of ozonc.
Effects of Ozone Depletion
Ozonc dcplction in tlc stiatosplcic vill icsult in moic LV
iadiation icacling tlc caitl cspccially LV-B (29O-32O nm). Tlc
LV-B iadiations affcct ONA and tlc plotosyntlctic clcmicals.
Any clangc in ONA can icsult in mutation and cancci. Cascs
of skin cancci (basal and squamous ccll caicinoma) vlicl do
not causc dcatl but causc disfiguicmcnt vill incicasc.
Easy absoiption of LV iays by tlc lcns and coinca of cyc vill
icsult in incicasc in incidcnts of cataiact.
Mclanin pioducing cclls of tlc cpidcimis (impoitant foi lu-
man immunc systcm) vill bc dcstioycd by LV-iays icsulting
in immuno-suppicssion. Iaii pcoplc (can't pioducc cnougl
mclanin) vill bc at a gicatci iisk of LV cxposuic.
Plytoplanktons aic scnsitivc to LV cxposuic. Ozonc dcplc-
tion vill icsult in dccicasc in tlcii population tlcicby affcct-
ing tlc population of zooplankton, fisl, maiinc animals, in
fact tlc vlolc aquatic food clain.
Yicld of vital ciops likc coin, iicc, soybcan, cotton, bcan, pca,
soiglum and vlcat vill dccicasc.
Ocgiadation of paints, plastics and otlci polymci matciial
vill icsult in cconomic loss duc to cffccts of LV iadiation
icsulting fiom ozonc dcplction.
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST
Nuclcai accidcnts can occui at any stagc of tlc nuclcai fucl cyclc. Hov-
cvci, tlc possibility of icactoi accidcnts is vicvcd moic sciiously bc-
causc tlc cffccts of icactoi accidcnts aic moic diastic.
Many cstimatcs of lypotlctical accidcnts in a nuclcai povci sta-
tion aic madc. Sucl cstimatcs aic madc taking into considciation vaii-
ous paiamctcis likc icactoi safcty mcasuics vlicl if fail vould iclcasc
laigc amount of icactoi contcnts, tlat is, iadioactivc dcbiis affccting a
substantial poition of luman population vitlin a paiticulai sitc in a
paiticulai aica.
Tlc modcin fusion bombs (nuclcai bombs) aic of tlc cxplosivc
foicc of 5OO kilotons and 1O mcgatons. In casc of a voild vai total
nuclcai cxclangc of moic tlan 5,OOO mcgatons can bc cxpcctcd.
Nuclcai bombaidmcnt vill causc combustion of vood, plastics,
pctiolcum, foicsts ctc. Laigc quantity of black soot vill bc caiiicd to
tlc stiatosplcic. Black soot vill absoib solai iadiations and von't allov
tlc iadiations to icacl tlc caitl. Tlcicfoic, cooling vill icsult. Tlc
infiaicd iadiations vlicl aic ic-iadiatcd fiom tlc atmosplcic to tlc
caitl vill lavc vciy lcss vatci vapouis and caibon dioxidc to absoib
tlcm. If tlcy lcavc tlc lovci atmosplcic tlc giccn lousc cffcct vill bc
distuibcd and cooling vill occui. Ouc to tlis cooling cffcct, vatci
cvapoiation vill also icducc. Tlcicfoic, infia-icd iadiations absoibing
vatci vapouis vill icducc in tlc atmosplcic. Tlis vill also causc
cooling. In tlc stiatosplcic tlcic von't bc significant moistuic to iain-
out tlc tlick soot. So, duc to nuclcai cxplosions, a plcnomcnon
oppositc to global vaiming vill occui. Tlis is callcd nuclcar wintcr. It
may icsult in lovci global tcmpciatuic. Evcn tlc summci timc vill
cxpciicncc ficczing tcmpciatuic. It vill diastically affcct ciop
pioduction. Ciop pioductivity vill icducc substantially causing famincs
and luman suffciings.
Tlc Clcinobyl nuclcai accidcnt, 1986 las icsultcd in vidc spicad
contamination by iadioactivc substanccs. (alicady mcntioncd in aii
pollution cpisodcs). Tlc dcvastation causcd by nuclcai bombs aic not
only immcdiatc but may bc long lasting. Tovaids, tlc cnd of Woild
Wai II, bombing of Oicsdcn, Ccimany causcd lugc fiicstoims. Tlis
causcd paiticlc laddcn updiafts in tlc atmosplcic.
CASE STUDY
In Nuclcar hnlncaust in Japan 1945, tvo nuclcai bombs vcic
dioppcd on Hiioslima and Nagasaki citics of 1apan. Onc fission
bomb vas dioppcd on Hiioslima. Tlis lolocaust (laigc scalc
dcstiuction of luman livcs by fiic) killcd about 1OO,OOO pcoplc
and dcstioycd tlc city. Tlis foiccful cxplosion cmittcd ncutions
and gamma iadiations. It lad tlc foicc of 12 kilotons of
tiinitiotolucnc (TNT). Tlc iadioactivc stiontium (Si9O) libciatcd
in tlc cxplosion icscmblcs calcium and las tlc piopcity of
icplacing calcium of tlc boncs. As a icsult laigc scalc bonc-
dcfoimitics occuiicd in tlc inlabitants of tlcsc citics. Evcn aftci
moic tlan 5O ycais tlc impacts of tlc nuclcai fallout aic still visiblc.
WASTELAND RECLAMATION
Economically unpioductivc lands suffciing fiom cnviionmcntal
dctciioiation aic knovn as vastclands. Tlc vastclands includc salt-
affcctcd lands, sandy aicas, gullicd aicas, undulating uplands, baiicn
lill-iidgc ctc. Snov covcicd aicas, glacial aicas and aicas icndcicd
baiicn aftci 1lum cultivation aic also includcd in vastclands. Moic
tlan lalf of oui countiy's gcogiaplical aica (about 175 million la) is
cstimatcd to bc vastcland, tlus indicating tlc sciiousncss of tlc pioblcm
foi a countiy likc ouis vlicl las to suppoit 1/6tl of tlc voild's population.
Maximum vastcland aicas in oui countiy lic in Rajastlan (36
million la) follovcd by M.P. and Andlia Piadcsl. In Haiyana tlc
vastclands covci about 8.4% of tlc total land aica and most of it com-
piiscs salinc, sodic oi sandy land aicas.
Wastclands aic foimcd by natuial pioccsscs, vlicl includc un-
dulating uplands, snov-covcicd lands, coastal salinc aicas, sandy ai-
cas ctc. oi by antliopogcnic (man-madc) activitics lcading to ciodcd,
salinc oi vatciloggcd lands.
Tlc majoi antliopogcnic activitics lcading to vastc land foima-
tion aic dcfoicstation, ovcigiazing, mining and ciioncous agiicultuial
piacticcs. Altlougl dcscits aic vastclands foimcd by natuial pioccss,
but tlcic aic many luman activitics vlicl accclciatc tlc spicading of
dcscit as vc lavc alicady discusscd.
Wasteland Reclamation Practices
Wastcland icclamation and dcvclopmcnt in oui countiy falls undci
tlc puivicv of Wastcland Dcvclnpmcnt Bnard, vlicl voiks to fulfill
tlc folloving objcctivcs:
To impiovc tlc plysical stiuctuic and quality of tlc maiginal
soils.
To impiovc tlc availability of good quality vatci foi iiiigat-
ing tlcsc lands.
To picvcnt soil ciosion, flooding and landslidcs.
To conscivc tlc biological icsouiccs of tlc land foi sustain-
ablc usc.
Somc impoitant icclamation piacticcs aic discusscd lcic.
(t) Land dcvclnpmcnt and lcaching: Ioi icclamation of tlc salt
affcctcd soil, it is ncccssaiy to icmovc tlc salts fiom tlc ioot-zonc vlicl
is usually aclicvcd by lcacling i.c. by applying cxccss amount of vatci
to pusl dovn tlc salts. Aftci a suivcy of tlc cxtcnt of salinity pioblcm,
soil tcxtuic, dcptl of impcimcablc layci and vatci tablc, land lcvcling
is donc to facilitatc cfficicnt and unifoim application of vatci. Aftci
lcvcling and plougling, tlc ficld is bundcd in small plots and lcacling
is donc. In continuous lcacling, O.5 to 1.O cm vatci is icquiicd to
icmovc 9O% of solublc salts fiom cacl cm of tlc soil dcpcnding upon
tcxtuic. If vc usc intcimittcnt spiinkling vitl 25 cm vatci, it icduccs
about 9O% salinity in tlc uppci 6O cm layci.
(tt) Drainagc: Tlis is icquiicd foi vatci-loggcd soil icclamation
vlcic cxccss vatci is icmovcd by aitificial diainagc.
(a) Surfacc drainagc: Tlis is uscd in aicas vlcic vatci stands
on tlc ficlds aftci lcavy iains by pioviding ditclcs to iunoff tlc cxccss
vatci. Lsually 3O-45 cm dccp ditclcs lying paiallcl to cacl otlci at
2O-6O m distancc aic ablc to icmovc 5 cm of vatci vitlin 24 louis.
(h) Sub-surfacc drainagc: Hoiizontal sub-suifacc diainagc is
piovidcd in tlc foim of pcifoiatcd coiiugatcd PVC pipcs oi opcn-jointcd
pipcs vitl an cnvclopc of giavcl 2-3 m bclov tlc land suifacc. Clanccs
of cvapoiation of vatci lcading to accumulation of salts almost bccomc
nil in tlis mctlod.
Tlc Woild Bank las fundcd sub-suifacc diainagc systcm at
Sampla, Roltak (Haiyana) foi icducing soil salinity by tlis mctlod.
(ttt) Irrigatinn Practiccs: Suifacc iiiigation vitl piccisc land
lcvcling, smootlcning and cfficicnt lydiaulic dcsign lclp to icducc
vatci logging and salinity. Higl ficqucncy iiiigation vitl contiollcd
amount of vatci lclps to maintain bcttci vatci availability in tlc up-
pci ioot zonc. Tlin and ficqucnt iiiigations lavc bccn found to bc
moic uscful foi bcttci ciop yicld vlcn tlc iiiigation vatci is salinc as
compaicd to fcv lcavy iiiigations.
(tv) Sclcctinn nf tnlcrant crnps and crnp rntatinns: Tolciancc of
ciops to salts is found to iangc fiom scnsitivc, scmi-tolciant, tolciant to
liglly tolciant. Bailcy, sugai bcct and datc-palm aic liglly tolciant
ciops vlicl do not suffci fiom any icduction in ciop yicld cvcn at a
ligl salinity vitl clcctiical conductivity (EC) of 1O dS/m. Wlcat, soi-
glum, pcail millct, soyabcan, mustaid and coconut aic salt-tolciant
ciops. Ricc, millcts, maizc, pulscs, sunflovci, sugaicanc and many vcg-
ctablcs likc bottlc gouid, biinjal ctc. aic scmi-tolciant. Tlcsc diffcicnt
ciop combinations can bc giovn on salinc soils.
(v) Cypsum amcndmcnt: Amcndmcnt of sodic soils vitl gyp-
sum is iccommcndcd foi icducing soil sodicity as calcium of gypsum
icplaccs sodium fiom tlc cxclangcablc sitcs.
(vt) Crccn-manurcs, fcrtilizcrs and binfcrtilizcrs: Application of
faim yaid manuic oi nitiogcn fcitilizcis lavc bccn found to impiovc
salinc soils. Ciccn manuiing vitl dlaincla (Scshanta aculcata)
sunlcmp oi guai lavc also bccn icpoitcd to impiovc salt-affcctcd soils.
Bluc giccn algac lavc bccn found to bc quitc piomising as biofcitilizcis
foi impioving salt-affcctcd soils.
(vtt) Affnrcstatinn Prngrammcs: Tlc National Commission on
Agiicultuic (NCA) launclcd scvcial affoicstation sclcmcs in tlc VItl
plan to copc up vitl tlc pioblcm of spicading vastcland. Tlc National
Wastcland Ocvclopmcnt Boaid, in tlc Ministiy of Enviionmcnt and
Ioicsts las sct a taigct of biinging 5 million la of vastcland annually
undci fiicvood and foddci plantation.
(vttt) Sncial Fnrcstry Prngrammcs: Tlcsc piogiammcs mostly
involvc stiip plantation on ioad, iail and canal-sidcs, iclabilitation of
dcgiadcd foicst lands, faim-foicstiy, vastc-land foicst dcvclopmcnt ctc.
CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS
Consumciism icfcis to tlc consumption of icsouiccs by tlc pcoplc.
Wlilc caily luman socictics uscd to consumc mucl lcss icsouiccs,
vitl tlc davn of industiial cia, consumciism las slovn an cxponcntial
iisc. It las bccn iclatcd botl to tlc incicasc in tlc population sizc as
vcll as incicasc in oui dcmands duc to clangc in lifc-stylc. Eailici vc
uscd to livc a mucl simplci lifc and uscd to lavc fcvci vants. In tlc
modcin socicty oui nccds lavc multiplicd and so consumciism of
icsouiccs las also multiplicd.
Oui population vas lcss tlan 1 million foi tlousands of ycais
cvci sincc vc cvolvcd on tlis caitl. Today vc lavc ciosscd tlc six
billion maik and aic likcly to icacl 11 billion by 2O45 as pci Woild
Bank cstimatcs. Lct us scc lov tlc clanging population ticnds influ-
cncc consumciism of natuial icsouiccs and gcnciation of vastcs. Tvo
typcs of conditions of population and consumciism cxist.
(t) Pcnplc nvcr-pnpulatinn: It occuis vlcn tlcic aic moic pco-
plc tlan availablc supplics of food, vatci and otlci impoitant icsouiccs
in tlc aica. Exccssivc population picssuic causcs dcgiadation of tlc
limitcd icsouiccs, and tlcic is absolutc povcity, undci-nouiislmcnt
and picmatuic dcatls.
Tlis occuis in lcss dcvclopcd countiics (LOCs). Hcic duc to laigc
numbci of pcoplc, adcquatc icsouiccs aic not availablc foi all. So tlcic
is lcss pci capita consumption altlougl ovciall consumption is ligl.
(tt) Cnnsumptinn nvcr-pnpulatinn: Tlis occuis in tlc moic
dcvclopcd countiics (MOCs). Hcic population sizc is smallci vlilc
icsouiccs aic in abundancc and duc to luxuiious lifc-stylc pci capita
consumption of icsouiccs is vciy ligl. Moic tlc consumption of
icsouiccs moic is tlc vastc gcnciation and gicatci is tlc dcgiadation
of tlc cnviionmcnt.
Tlis conccpt can bc cxplaincd by using tlc modcl of Paul Elilicl
and 1oln Hodlicn (1972):
Number
of
People
=
Per Capita
use of
resources
Waste generated
per unit of
resource used
Over all
Environmental
Impact
Tlis can bc illustiatcd diagiammatically as slovn in Iig. 6.5.
In LOC's - No. of pcoplc is vciy ligl, but pci capita usc of ic-
souiccs and vastc gcnciatcd aic lcss.
In MOC's - No. of pcoplc is lov, but pci capita usc of icsouiccs
and vastcs gcnciatcd aic vciy ligl.
Tlc ovciall cnviionmcntal impact of tlcsc tvo typcs of consum-
ciism may bc samc oi cvcn gicatci in casc of MOC's.
I
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.

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n
Tlus, consumciism vaiics vitl tlc countiy and LSA is knovn
foi maximum consumciism. Tlc tliov-avay attitudc and luxuiious
lifc-stylc of tlc vcst icsults in vciy ligl icsouicc usc as compaicd to
lcss dcvclopcd countiics. Witl cvciy unit of cncigy, mincial oi any
icsouicc uscd tlcic is vastc gcnciation and pollution in tlc cnviion-
mcnt.
A compaiison of LSA and India can illustiatc tlis point moic
clcaily (Tablc 6.1).
Tablc 6.1. Cnmparisnn nf cnnsumcrism and wastc gcncratinn
Pcrccnt glnbal valucs
Paramctcr USA India
Population 4.7% 16 %
Pioduction of Coods 21% 1 %
Encigy usc 25% 3 %
Pollutants/vastcs 25% 3 %
CIC's Pioduction 22% O.7 %
Tlc tablc slovs tlat altlougl tlc population of India is 3.4 timcs
moic tlan tlat of L.S.A. its ovciall cncigy usc and vastc gcnciation
aic lcss tlan 1/8tl tlat of LSA. Tlus moic consumciism lcads to moic
vastc pioduction
Cnnsumcrism highlights (Paul Ehrlich)
On an avciagc, a L.S. citizcn consumcs 5O timcs as mucl as an
Indian.
A L.S. boin baby duc to ligl consumciism vill damagc tlc
planct caitl 2O-1OO timcs moic in a lifctimc tlan a baby boin
in a pooi family of LOC.
A 1apancsc vitl a similai lifc-stylc as tlat of an Amciican causcs
lalf tlc impact on cnviionmcnt. Tlis is duc to bcttci tcclnology.
By adopting cncigy cfficicnt and cco-fiicndly tcclnologics and
by folloving 3'R piinciplc of Rcducc, Rcusc, Rccyclc tlcy lavc
minimizcd tlc vastc gcnciatcd duc to consumciism.
ENVIRONMENTAL LECISLATION
India is tlc fiist countiy in tlc voild to lavc madc piovisions foi
tlc piotcction and conscivation of cnviionmcnt in its constitution. On
5tl 1unc, 1972, cnviionmcnt vas fiist discusscd as an itcm of intcina-
tional agcnda in tlc U.N. Cnnfcrcncc nn Human Envirnnmcnt in Stock-
lolm and tlcicaftci 5th Junc is cclcbiatcd all ovci tlc voild as Wnrld
Envirnnmcnt Day. Soon aftci tlc Stocklolm Confcicncc oui countiy
took substantivc lcgislativc stcps foi cnviionmcntal piotcction. Tlc
Wildlifc (Piotcction) Act vas passcd in 1972, follovcd by tlc Watci
(Picvcntion and Contiol of Pollution) Act 1974, tlc Ioicst (Consciva-
tion) Act, 198O, Aii (Picvcntion and Contiol of Pollution) Act, 1981
and subscqucntly tlc Enviionmcnt (Piotcction) Act, 1986.
Constitutional Provisions
Tlc piovisions foi cnviionmcntal piotcction in tlc constitution vcic
madc vitlin foui ycais of Stocklolm Confcicncc, in 1976, tliougl
tlc 42nd amcndmcnt as follovs :
Articlc 48-A of tlc constitution piovidcs: "Thc statc shall
cndcavcur tc prctcct and tmprcvc thc cnvtrcnmcnt and tc safcguard
fcrcsts and wtldltfc cf thc ccuntry."
Articlc 51A(g) piovidcs: "It shall hc thc duty cf cvcry ctttzcn cf
Indta tc prctcct and tmprcvc thc natural cnvtrcnmcnt tncludtng fcr-
csts, lakcs, rtvcrs and wtldltfc and tc havc ccmpasstcn fcr ltvtng crca-
turcs."
Tlus oui constitution includcs cnviionmcntal piotcction and con-
scivation as onc of oui fundamcntal dutics.
Somc of tlc impoitant Acts passcd by tlc Covcinmcnt of India
aic discusscd lcic.
WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972
Tlc act, a landmaik in tlc listoiy of vildlifc lcgislation in oui coun-
tiy, camc into cxistcncc in 1972. Wildlifc vas tiansfciicd fiom Statc
list to concuiicnt list in 1976, tlus giving povci to tlc Ccntial Covt. to
cnact tlc lcgislation.
Tlc Indian Bnard nf Wildlifc (IBWL) vas cicatcd in 1952 in
oui countiy, vlicl aftci tlc cnactmcnt of tlc Wildlifc (Piotcction)
Act activcly took up tlc task of sctting up vildlifc National Paiks and
sanctuaiics. Tlc majoi activitics and piovisions in tlc act can bc
summcd up as follovs:
(t) It dcfincs tlc vild-lifc iclatcd tciminology.
(tt) It piovidcs foi tlc appointmcnt of vildlifc advisoiy Boaid,
Wildlifc vaidcn, tlcii povcis, dutics ctc.
(ttt) Lndci tlc Act, compiclcnsivc listing of cndangcicd vild lifc
spccics vas donc foi tlc fiist timc and piolibition of lunting of tlc
cndangcicd spccics vas mcntioncd.
(tv) Piotcction to somc cndangcicd plants likc Bcddomc cycad,
Bluc Vanda, Ladics Slippci Oiclid, Pitclci plant ctc. is also piovidcd
undci tlc Act.
(v) Tlc Act piovidcs foi sctting up of National Paiks, Wildlifc
Sanctuaiics ctc.
(vt) Tlc Act piovidcs foi tlc constitution of Ccntial Zoo Autloiity.
(vtt) Tlcic is piovision foi tiadc and commcicc in somc vildlifc
spccics vitl liccnsc foi salc, posscssion, tiansfci ctc.
(vttt) Tlc Act imposcs a ban on tlc tiadc oi commcicc in sclcd-
ulcd animals.
(tx) It piovidcs foi lcgal povcis to officcis and punislmcnt to of-
fcndcis.
(x) It piovidcs foi captivc biccding piogiammc foi cndangcicd
spccics.
Scvcial Conscivation Piojccts foi individual cndangcicd spccics
likc lion (1972) Tigci (1973), Ciocodilc (1974) and Biovn antlcicd
Occi (1981) vcic staitcd undci tlis Act. Tlc Act is adoptcd by all
statcs in India cxccpt 1 & K, vlicl las it ovn Act.
Somc of tlc majoi diavbacks of tlc Act includc mild pcnalty to
offcndcis, illcgal vild lifc tiadc in 1 & K, pcisonal ovncislip ccitifi-
catc foi animal aiticlcs likc tigci and lcopaid skins, no covciagc of foi-
cign cndangcicd vildlifc, pitiablc condition of vildlifc in mobilc zoos
and littlc cmplasis on piotcction of plant gcnctic icsouiccs.
FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980
Tlis act dcals vitl tlc conscivation of foicsts and iclatcd aspccts. Ex-
ccpt 1 & K, tlc act is adoptcd all ovci India. Tlc Act covcis undci it all
typcs of foicsts including icscivcd foicsts, piotcctcd foicsts oi any
foicstcd land iiicspcctivc of its ovncislip.
Tlc salicnt fcatuics of tlc Act aic as follovs:
(t) Tlc Statc Covt. las bccn cmpovcicd undci tlis Act to usc
tlc foicsts only foi foicstiy puiposcs. If at all it vants to usc it in any
otlci vay, it las to takc piioi appioval of ccntial Covcinmcnt, aftci
vlicl it can pass oidcis foi dcclaiing somc pait of icscivc foicst foi
non-foicst puiposcs (c.g mining) oi foi clcaiing somc natuially giov-
ing ticcs and icplacing tlcm by cconomically impoitant ticcs (icfoi-
cstation).
(tt) It makcs piovision foi conscivation of all typcs of foicsts and
foi tlis puiposc tlcic is an Advisoiy committcc vlicl iccommcnds
funding foi it to tlc Ccntial Covcinmcnt.
(ttt) Any illcgal non-foicst activity vitlin a foicst aica can bc im-
mcdiatcly stoppcd undci tlis Act.
Non-foicst activitics includc clcaiing of foicst land foi cultivation
of any typc of plants/ciops oi any otlci puiposc (cxccpt ic-affoicsta-
tion). Hovcvci, somc constiuction voik in tlc foicst foi vildlifc oi
foicst managcmcnt is cxcmptcd fiom non-foicst activity (c.g. fcncing,
making vatci-lolcs, ticncl, pipclincs, clcck posts, viiclcss communi-
cation ctc.)
1992 Amendment in the Forest Act
In 1992, somc amcndmcnt vas madc in tlc Act vlicl madc
piovisions foi alloving somc non-foicst activitics in foicsts,
vitlout cutting ticcs oi limitcd cutting vitl piioi appioval of
Ccntial Covt. Tlcsc activitics aic sctting of tiansmission lincs,
scismic suivcys, cxploiation, diilling and lydioclcctiic
piojccts. Tlc last activity involvcs laigc scalc dcstiuction of
foicst, foi vlicl piioi appioval of tlc Ccntic is ncccssaiy.
Wildlifc sanctuaiics, National Paiks ctc. aic totally piolib-
itcd foi any cxploiation oi suivcy undci tlis Act vitlout piioi
appioval of Ccntial Covt. cvcn if no ticc-fclling is involvcd.
Cultivation of tca, coffcc, spiccs, iubbci and plants vlicl aic
casl-ciops, aic includcd undci non-foicstiy activity and not
allovcd in icscivc foicsts.
Evcn cultivation of fiuit-bcaiing ticcs, oil-yiclding plants oi
plants of mcdicinal valuc in foicst aica nccd to bc fiist appiovcd
by tlc Ccntial Covt. Tlis is bccausc ncvly intioduccd spccics
in tlc foicst aica may causc an imbalancc in tlc ccology of
tlc foicst. If tlc spccics to bc plantcd is a nativc spccics, tlcn
no piioi clcaiancc is icquiicd.
Tussci cultivation (a typc of silk-yiclding inscct) in foicst aicas
by tiibals as a mcans of tlcii livclilood is ticatcd as a foicstiy
activity as long as it docs not involvc somc spccific lost ticc
likc Asan oi Aijun. Tlis is donc in oidci to discouiagc
monocultuic piacticcs in tlc foicsts vlicl aic otlcivisc iicl
in biodivcisity.
Plantation of mulbciiy foi icaiing silkvoim is considcicd a
non-foicst activity. Tlc icason is samc as dcsciibcd abovc.
Mining is a non-foicstiy activity and piioi appioval of Ccntial
Covt. is mandatoiy. Tlc Supicmc Couit in a casc T.N.
Codavaiman Tliiumulkpad Vs. Lnion of India (1997)
diicctcd all on-going mining activity to bc ccascd immcdiatcly
in any foicst aica of India if it lad not got piioi appioval of
Ccntial govcinmcnt.
Rcmoval of stoncs, bajii, bouldci ctc fiom iivci-bcds locatcd
vitlin tlc foicst aica fall undci non-foicst activity.
Any pioposal scnt to ccntial govt. foi non-foicst activity must
lavc a cost-bcncfit analysis and Enviionmcntal Impact statc-
mcnt (EIS) of tlc pioposcd activity vitl icfcicncc to its cco-
logical and socio-cconomic impacts.
Tlus, tlc Ioicsts (Conscivation) Act las madc amplc piovisions
foi conscivation and piotcction of foicsts and picvcnt dcfoicstation.
WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION)
ACT, 1974
It piovidcs foi maintaining and icstoiing tlc vlolcsomcncss of vatci
by picvcnting and contiolling its pollution. Pollution is dcfincd as such
ccntamtnattcn cf watcr, cr such altcrattcn cf thc phystcal, chcmtcal cr htclcgt-
cal prcpcrttcs cf watcr, cr such dtschargc as ts ltkcly tc causc a nutsancc cr
rcndcr thc watcr harmful cr tnfurtcus tc puhltc hcalth and safcty cr harmful
fcr any cthcr usc cr tc aquattc plants and cthcr crgantsms cr antmal ltfc.
Tlc dcfinition of vatci pollution las tlus cncompasscd tlc cn-
tiic piobablc agcnts in vatci tlat may causc any laim oi lavc a potcn-
tial to laim any kind of lifc in any vay.
Tlc salicnt fcatuics and piovisions of tlc Act aic summcd up as
follovs:
(t) It piovidcs foi maintcnancc and icstoiation of quality of all
typcs of suifacc and giound vatci.
(tt) It piovidcs foi tlc cstablislmcnt of Ccntial and Statc Boaids
foi pollution contiol.
(ttt) It confcis tlcm vitl povcis and functions to contiol pollu-
tion.
Tlc Ccntial and Statc Pollution Contiol Boaids aic vidcly icpic-
scntcd and aic givcn compiclcnsivc povcis to advisc, cooidinatc and
piovidc tcclnical assistancc foi picvcntion and contiol of pollution of
vatci.
(tv) Tlc Act las piovisions foi funds, budgcts, accounts and audit
of tlc Ccntial and Statc Pollution Contiol Boaids.
(v) Tlc Act makcs piovisions foi vaiious pcnaltics foi tlc dc-
faultcis and pioccduic foi tlc samc.
Tlc main icgulatoiy bodics aic tlc Pollution Contiol Boaids,
vlicl lavc bccn, confciicd tlc folloving dutics and povcis:
Ccntral Pnllutinn Cnntrnl Bnard (CPCB):
It adviscs tlc ccntial govt. in mattcis iclatcd to picvcntion
and contiol of vatci pollution.
Cooidinatcs tlc activitics of Statc Pollution Contiol Boaids
and piovidcs tlcm tcclnical assistancc and guidancc.
Oiganizcs tiaining piogiams foi picvcntion and contiol of
pollution.
Oiganizcs compiclcnsivc piogiams on pollution iclatcd is-
sucs tliougl mass mcdia.
Collccts, compilcs and publislcs tcclnical and statistical data
iclatcd to pollution.
Picpaics manuals foi ticatmcnt and disposal of scvagc and
tiadc cfflucnts.
Lays dovn standaids foi vatci quality paiamctcis.
Plans nation-vidc piogiams foi picvcntion, contiol oi abatc-
mcnt of pollution.
Establislcs and iccognizcs laboiatoiics foi analysis of vatci,
scvagc oi tiadc cfflucnt samplc.
Tlc Statc Pnllutinn Cnntrnl Bnards also lavc similai functions
to bc cxccutcd at statc lcvcl and aic govcincd by tlc diicctions of CPCB.
Tlc Boaid adviscs tlc statc govt. vitl icspcct to tlc location
of any industiy tlat miglt pollutc a sticam oi a vcll.
It lays dovn standaids foi cfflucnts and is cmpovcicd to takc
samplcs fiom any sticam, vcll oi tiadc cfflucnt oi scvagc
passing tliougl an industiy.
Tlc Statc Boaid is cmpovcicd to takc lcgal samplcs of tiadc
cfflucnt in accoidancc vitl tlc pioccduic laid dovn in tlc
Act. Tlc samplc takcn in tlc picscncc of tlc occupici oi lis
agcnt is dividcd into tvo paits, scalcd, signcd by botl paitics
and scnt foi analysis to somc iccognizcd lab. If tlc samplcs
do not confoim to tlc picsciibcd vatci quality standaids
(ciossing maximum pcimissiblc limits), tlcn 'conscnt' is ic-
fuscd to tlc unit.
Evciy industiy las to obtain conscnt fiom tlc Boaid (giantcd
foi a fixcd duiation) by applying on a picsciibcd Piofoima
pioviding all tcclnical dctails, along vitl a picsciibcd fcc fol-
loving vlicl analysis of tlc cfflucnt is caiiicd out.
Tlc Boaid suggcsts cfficicnt mctlods foi utilization, ticatmcnt
and disposal of tiadc cfflucnts.
Tlc Act las madc dctailcd piovisions icgaiding tlc povci of tlc
Boaids to obtain infoimation, takc tiadc samplcs, icstiict ncv outlcts,
icstiict cxpansion, cntci and inspcct tlc units and sanction oi icfusc
conscnt to tlc industiy aftci cfflucnt analysis.
Wlilc dcvclopmcnt is ncccssaiy, it is all tlc moic impoitant to
picvcnt pollution, vlicl can jcopaidizc tlc livcs of tlc pcoplc.
Installation and piopci functioning of cfflucnt ticatmcnt plants (ETP)
in all polluting industiics is a must foi clccking pollution of vatci and
land. Ocspitc ccitain vcakncsscs in tlc Act, tlc Watci Act las amplc
piovisions foi picvcnting and contiolling vatci pollution tliougl lcgal
mcasuics.
THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION)
ACT, 1981
Salicnt fcatuics of tlc act aic as follovs:
(t) Tlc Act piovidcs foi picvcntion, contiol and abatcmcnt of
aii pollution.
(tt) In tlc Act, atr pclluttcn has hccn dcftncd as thc prcscncc cf any
scltd, ltqutd cr gasccus suhstancc (tncludtng nctsc) tn thc atmcsphcrc tn such
ccnccntrattcn as may hc cr tcnd tc hc harmful tc human hctngs cr any cthcr
ltvtng crcaturcs cr plants cr prcpcrty cr cnvtrcnmcnt.
(ttt) Noisc pollution las bccn inscitcd as pollution in tlc Act in
1987.
(tv) Pollution contiol boaids at tlc ccntial oi statc lcvcl lavc tlc
icgulatoiy autloiity to implcmcnt tlc Aii Act. 1ust paiallcl to tlc
functions iclatcd to Watci (Picvcntion and Contiol of Pollution) Act,
tlc boaids pcifoims similai functions iclatcd to impiovcmcnt of aii
quality. Tlc boaids lavc to clcck vlctlci oi not tlc industiy stiictly
follovs tlc noims oi standaids laid dovn by tlc Boaid undci scction
17, icgaiding tlc disclaigc of cmission of any aii pollutant. Bascd upon
analysis icpoit conscnt is giantcd oi icfuscd to tlc industiy.
(v) 1ust likc tlc Watci Act, tlc Aii Act las piovisions foi dcfin-
ing tlc constitution, povcis and function of Pollution Contiol Boaids,
funds, accounts, audit, pcnaltics and pioccduics.
(vt) Scction 2O of tlc Act las piovision foi cnsuiing cmission
standaids fiom automobilcs. Bascd upon it, tlc statc govt. is cmpovcicd
to issuc instiuctions to tlc autloiity inclaigc of icgistiation of motoi
vcliclcs (undci Motoi Vcliclcs Act, 1939) tlat is bound to comply
vitl sucl instiuctions.
(vtt) As pci Scction 19, in consultation vitl tlc Statc Pollution
Contiol Boaid, tlc statc govcinmcnt may dcclaic an aica vitlin tlc
statc as "air pnllutinn cnntrnl arca" and can piolibit tlc usc of any
fucl otlci tlan appiovcd fucl in tlc aica causing aii pollution. No pci-
son slall, vitlout piioi conscnt of Statc Boaid opciatc oi cstablisl any
industiial unit in tlc "aii pollution contiol aica".
Tlc Watci and Aii Acts lavc also madc spccial piovisions foi
appcals. Lndci Scction 28 of Watci Act and Scction 31 of Aii Act, a
piovision foi appcals las bccn madc. An Appcllatc Authnrity consist-
ing of a singlc pcison oi tlicc pcisons appointcd by tlc Hcad of tlc
Statc, Covcinoi is constitutcd to lcai sucl appcals as filcd by somc
aggiicvcd paity (industiy) duc to somc oidci madc by tlc Statc Boaid
vitlin 3O days of passing tlc oidcis.
Tlc Appcllatc Autloiity aftci giving tlc appcllant and tlc Statc
Boaid an oppoitunity of bcing lcaid, disposcs off tlc appcal as cxpc-
ditiously as possiblc.
THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986
Tlc Act camc into foicc on Nov. 19, 1986, tlc biitl annivcisaiy of oui
Latc Piimc Ministci Indiia Candli, vlo vas a pioncci of cnviion-
mcntal piotcction issucs in oui countiy. Tlc Act cxtcnds to vlolc of
India. Somc tcims iclatcd to cnviionmcnt lavc bccn dcsciibcd as fol-
lovs in tlc Act:
(t) Envirnnmcnt includcs vatci, aii and land and tlc intci-icla-
tionslips tlat cxists among and bctvccn tlcm and luman bcings, all
otlci living oiganisms and piopcity.
(tt) Envirnnmcntal pnllutinn mcans tlc picscncc of any solid,
liquid oi gascous substancc picscnt in sucl conccntiation, as may bc,
oi tcnd to bc, injuiious to cnviionmcnt.
(ttt) Hazardnus Substancc mcans any substancc oi picpaiation
vlicl by its plysico-clcmical piopcitics oi landling is liablc to causc
laim to luman bcings, otlci living oiganisms, piopcity oi cnviion-
mcnt.
Tlc Act las givcn povcis to tlc Ccntial Covcinmcnt to takc
mcasuics to piotcct and impiovc cnviionmcnt vlilc tlc statc govcin-
mcnts cooidinatc tlc actions. Tlc most impoitant functions of Ccn-
tial Covt. undci tlis Act includc sctting up of:
(a) Tlc standaids of quality of aii, vatci oi soil foi vaiious aicas
and puiposcs.
(h) Tlc maximum pcimissiblc limits of conccntiation of vaiious
cnviionmcntal pollutants (including noisc) foi diffcicnt aicas.
(c) Tlc pioccduics and safcguaids foi tlc landling of lazaidous
substanccs.
(d) Tlc piolibition and icstiictions on tlc landling of lazaid-
ous substanccs in diffcicnt aicas.
(c) Tlc piolibition and icstiiction on tlc location of industiics
and to caiiy on pioccss and opciations in diffcicnt aicas.
(f) Tlc pioccduics and safcguaids foi tlc picvcntion of accidcnts
vlicl may causc cnviionmcntal pollution and pioviding foi
icmcdial mcasuics foi sucl accidcnts.
Tlc povci of cntiy and inspcction, povci to takc samplc ctc. undci
tlis Act lics vitl tlc Ccntial Covcinmcnt oi any officci cmpovcicd
by it.
Ioi tlc puiposc of piotccting and impioving tlc quality of tlc
cnviionmcnt and picvcnting and abating pollution, standaids lavc bccn
spccificd undci Sclcdulc I- IV of Enviionmcnt (Piotcction) Rulcs, 1986
foi cmission of gascous pollutants and disclaigc of cfflucnts/vastc
vatci fiom industiics. Tlcsc standaids vaiy fiom industiy to industiy
and also vaiy vitl tlc mcdium into vlicl tlc cfflucnt in disclaigcd
oi tlc aica of cmission. Ioi instancc, tlc maximum pcimissiblc limits
of B.O.O. (Bioclcmical Oxygcn Ocmand) of tlc vastc vatci is 3O ppm
if it is disclaigcd into inland vatcis, 35O ppm if disclaigcd into a pub-
lic scvci and 1OO ppm, if disclaigcd onto land oi coastal icgion. Likc-
visc, cmission standaids vaiy in icsidcntial, scnsitivc and industiial
aica. Natuially tlc standaids foi scnsitivc aicas likc lospitals aic moic
stiingcnt. It is tlc duty of tlc Pollution Contiol Boaid to clcck vlctlci
tlc industiics aic folloving tlc picsciibcd noims oi not.
Lndci tlc Envirnnmcntal (Prntcctinn) Rulcs, 1986 tlc Statc
Pollution Contiol Boaids lavc to follov tlc guidclincs piovidcd undci
Sclcdulc VI, somc of vlicl aic as follovs:
(a) Tlcy lavc to advisc tlc Industiics foi ticating tlc vastc va-
tci and gascs vitl tlc bcst availablc tcclnology to aclicvc tlc
picsciibcd standaids.
(h) Tlc industiics lavc to bc cncouiagcd foi iccycling and icus-
ing tlc vastcs.
(c) Tlcy lavc to cncouiagc tlc industiics foi iccovciy of biogas,
cncigy and icusablc matciials.
(d) Wlilc pcimitting tlc disclaigc of cfflucnts and cmissions into
tlc cnviionmcnt, tlc Statc Boaids lavc to takc into account
tlc assimilativc capacity of tlc iccciving vatci body.
(c) Tlc Ccntial and Statc Boaids lavc to cmplasizc on tlc im-
plcmcntation of clcan tcclnologics by tlc industiics in oidci
to incicasc fucl cfficicncy and icducc tlc gcnciation of cnvi-
ionmcntal pollutants.
Lndci tlc Enviionmcnt (Piotcction) Rulcs, 1986 an amcndmcnt
vas madc in 1994 foi Enviionmcntal Impact Asscssmcnt (EIA) of
Vaiious Ocvclopmcnt Piojccts. Tlcic aic 29 typcs of piojccts listcd
undci Sclcdulc I of tlc iulc vlicl icquiic clcaiancc fiom tlc Ccntial
Covcinmcnt bcfoic cstablisling.
Otlcis icquiic clcaiancc fiom tlc Statc Pollution Contiol Boaid,
vlcn tlc pioposcd piojcct oi cxpansion activity is going to causc pol-
lution load cxcccding tlc cxisting lcvcls. Tlc piojcct pioponcnt las to
piovidc EIA icpoit, iisk analysis icpoit, NOC fiom Statc Pollution
Contiol Boaid, Commitmcnt icgaiding availability of vatci and clcc-
tiicity, Summaiy of piojcct icpoit/fcasibility icpoit, fillcd in a qucs-
tionnaiic foi cnviionmcntal appiaisal of tlc piojcct and compiclcn-
sivc iclabilitation plan, if moic tlan 1OOO pcoplc aic likcly to bc dis-
placcd duc to tlc piojcct.
Lndci tlc Enviionmcnt (Piotcction) Act, 1986 tlc Ccntial Cov-
cinmcnt also madc tlc Hazaidous Wastcs (Managcmcnt and Handling)
Rulcs, 1989. Lndci tlcsc iulcs, it is tlc icsponsibility of tlc occupici
to takc all piactical stcps to cnsuic tlat sucl vastcs aic piopcily lan-
dlcd and disposcd off vitlout any advcisc cffccts. Tlcic aic 18 Haz-
aidous Wastc catcgoiics iccognizcd undci tlis iulc and tlcic aic guidc-
lincs foi tlcii piopci landling, stoiagc, ticatmcnt, tianspoit and dis-
posal vlicl slould bc stiictly follovcd by tlc ovnci.
Tlc Enviionmcnt (Piotcction) Act, 1986 las also madc piovi-
sion foi cnviionmcntal Audit as a mcans of clccking vlctlci oi not a
company is complying vitl tlc cnviionmcntal lavs and icgulations.
Tlus, amplc piovisions lavc bccn madc in oui countiy tliougl lav
foi impioving tlc quality of oui cnviionmcnt.
ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
MAJOR ISSUES
Wc lavc sccn tlat tlcic aic a numbci of impoitant cnviionmcntal lavs
in tlc foim of Acts foi safcguaiding oui cnviionmcntal quality. But
inspitc of tlcsc acts, vc find tlat vc aic not ablc to aclicvc tlc taigct of
biinging 33% of oui land covci undci foicsts. Still vc aic losing oui
vild lifc. Tlc iivcis lavc bccn tuincd into opcn scvcis in many placcs
and tlc aii in oui big citics is badly pollutcd. Tlc status of cnviionmcnt
slovs tlat tlcic aic diavbacks in cnviionmcntal lcgislations and
pioblcms in tlcii cffcctivc implcmcntation.
Lct us cxaminc somc impoitant issucs iclatcd to oui acts:
(a) Drawbacks nf thc Wildlifc (Prntcctinn) Act, (1972)
It sccms as if tlc Act las bccn cnactcd just as a fallout of
Stocklolm Confcicncc lcld in 1972 and it las not includcd
any locally cvolvcd conscivation mcasuics.
Tlc ovncislip ccitificatcs foi animal aiticlcs (tigci, lcopaid
skins ctc.) aic pcimissiblc vlicl vciy oftcn scivc as a tool foi
illcgal tiading.
Tlc vildlifc tiadcis in 1ammu and Kaslmii casily gct illcgal
fuis and skins fiom otlci statcs vlicl aftci making caps, bclts
ctc. aic sold oi smugglcd to otlci countiics. Tlis is so lap-
pcning bccausc 1 & K las its ovn Wildlifc Act and it docs not
follov tlc Ccntial Wild Lifc Act. Moicovci, lunting and tiad-
ing of scvcial cndangcicd spccics piolibitcd in otlci statcs
aic allovcd in 1 & K, tlcicby opcning avcnucs foi illcgal tiad-
ing in sucl animals and aiticlcs.
Tlc offcndci of tlc Act is not subjcct to vciy laisl pcnaltics.
It is just upto 3 ycais impiisonmcnt oi a finc of Rs. 25,OOO oi
botl.
(h) Drawbacks nf thc Fnrcst (Cnnscrvatinn) Act, 1980: Tlis Act
las inlciitcd tlc cxploitativc and consumciist clcmcnts fiom tlc Ioicst
lavs of Biitisl pciiod. It las just tiansfciicd tlc povcis fiom statc to
ccntic, to dccidc tlc convcision of icscivc foicst lands to non-foicst
aicas. Tlus povci las bccn ccntializcd at tlc top. At tlc samc timc,
tlc local communitics lavc bccn complctcly kcpt out fiom tlc dccision-
making pioccss icgaiding tlc natuic of usc of foicst aica. Vciy oftcn,
tlc tiibals vlo livcd in tlc foicst and vcic totally dcpcndcnt on foicsts
ictaliatc vlcn stoppcd fiom taking any icsouiccs fiom tlcic and stait
ciiminal activitics including smuggling, killing ctc. Tlc Act las failcd
to attiact public suppoit bccausc it las infiingcd upon tlc luman iiglts
of tlc pooi nativc pcoplc. Tlcy aiguc tlat tlc lav is conccincd about
piotccting tlc ticcs, biids and animals, but is ticating tlc pooi pcoplc
as maiginal. Very poor communIty partIcIpatIon In the Act remaIns
one of the major drawbacks whIch affects proper executIon of the Act.
Tlc foicst-dvclling tiibal communitics lavc a iicl knovlcdgc about
tlc foicst icsouiccs, tlcii impoitancc and conscivation. But, tlcii iolc
and contiibution is ncitlci acknovlcdgcd noi lonouicd.
Effoits aic nov bcing madc to makc up foi tlc gaps in lavs by
intioducing tlc piinciplcs of Public tiust oi Human iiglts Piotcction.
DRAWBACKS OF POLLUTION RELATED ACTS
Tlc povci and autloiity las bccn givcn to ccntial govcin-
mcnt vitl littlc dclcgation of povci to statc govcinmcnt. Ex-
ccssivc ccntialization vciy oftcn lindcis cfficicnt cxccution
of tlc piovisions of tlc Acts in tlc statcs. Illcgal mining is
taking placc in many foicst aicas. In Rajastlan alonc, about
14OOO cascs of illcgal mining lavc bccn icpoitcd. It bccomcs
moic difficult to clcck sucl activitics at tlc ccntial lcvcl.
Tlc piovision of pcnaltics in tlc Act is vciy insignificant as
compaicd to tlc damagc causcd by tlc big industiics duc to
pollution. Tlc pcnalty is mucl lcss tlan tlc cost of tlc ticat-
mcnt/ pollution contiol cquipmcnts. Tlis alvays givcs a loosc
iopc to tlc industiics.
Tlc Act las not includcd tlc "iiglt to infoimation" foi tlc
citizcns. Tlis gicatly icstiicts tlc involvcmcnt oi paiticipa-
tion of tlc gcncial public.
Tlc Enviionmcnt (Piotcction) Act, 1986 icgaidcd as an um-
biclla Act, cncompassing tlc cailici tvo Acts oftcn sccms su-
pcifluous duc to ovcilapping aicas of juiisdiction. Ioi instancc
Scction 24 (2) of tlc ncv Act las madc a piovision tlat if tlc
offcndci is punislablc undci tlc otlci Acts likc Watci Act oi
Aii Act also, tlcn lc may bc considcicd undci tlcii piovi-
sions. Intcicstingly, tlc pcnalty undci tlc oldci tvo Acts is
mucl ligltci tlan tlc ncv Act. So tlc offcndci casily gcts
avay vitl a ligltci punislmcnt.
Lndci Scction 19, a pcison cannot diicctly filc a pctition in
tlc couit on a qucstion of cnviionmcnt and las to givc a no-
ticc of minimum 6O days to tlc ccntial govcinmcnt. In casc
no action is takcn by tlc lattci, tlcn alonc tlc pcison can filc
a pctition vlicl ccitainly dclays tlc icmcdial action.
Litigation, paiticulaily iclatcd to cnviionmcnt is vciy cxpcn-
sivc, tcdious and difficult sincc it involvcs cxpcit tcstimony,
tcclnical knovlcdgc of tlc issucs and tciminologics, tcclni-
cal undcistanding of tlc unit pioccss, lcngtly piosccutions
ctc.
Tlc Statc Boaids vciy oftcn lack adcquatc funds and cxpci-
tisc to puisuc tlcii objcctivcs.
A tcndcncy to scck to cxcicisc gcntlc picssuic on tlc pollutci
and out of tlc couit scttlcmcnts usually lindci tlc implcmcn-
tation of lcgal mcasuics.
Ioi small units it is vciy cxpcnsivc to install Efflucnt Ticat-
mcnt Plant (ETP) oi Aii pollution contiol dcviccs and somc-
timcs tlcy lavc no otlci option but to closc tlc unit. Tlc Act
slould makc somc piovision foi pioviding subsidics foi in-
stalling ticatmcnt plants oi common cfflucnt ticatmcnt plants
foi scvcial small units.
Tlc pollution contiol lavs aic not backcd by sound policy
pionounccmcnts oi guiding piinciplcs.
Tlc position of claiiman of tlc boaids is usually occupicd by
political appointcc. Hcncc it is difficult to kccp political intci-
fcicncc at bay.
Tlc policy statcmcnt of tlc Ministiy of Enviionmcnt and Ioi-
csts (1992) of involving public in dccision-making and facili-
tating public monitoiing of cnviionmcntal issucs las mostly
icmaincd on papci.
Enviionmcntal policics and lavs nccd to bc aimcd at dcmociatic
dcccntialization of povci, community-statc paitncislip, administia-
tivc tianspaicncy and accountability and moic stiingcnt pcnaltics to
tlc offcndci. Tlcic is also a nccd foi cnviionmcntal lav cducation and
capacity building in cnviionmcntal issucs foi managcis.
PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
Public avaicncss about cnviionmcnt is at a stagc of infancy. Of latc,
somc avaicncss las takcn placc iclatcd to cnviionmcntal dcgiadation,
pollution ctc. but incomplctc knovlcdgc and infoimation and igno-
iancc about many aspccts las oftcn lcd to misconccptions.
Ocvclopmcnt las pavcd tlc patl foi iisc in tlc lcvcls oi standaids
of living but it las simultancously lcd to sciious cnviionmcntal disastcis.
Issucs iclatcd to cnviionmcnt lavc oftcn bccn biandcd as anti-
dcvclopmcnt. Tlc visdom lics in maintaining a balancc bctvccn oui
nccds and supplics so tlat tlc dclicatc ccological balancc is not
disiuptcd.
Somc of tlc main icasons icsponsiblc foi vidcspicad cnviion-
mcntal ignoiancc can bc summcd up as follovs:
(t) Oui couiscs in Scicncc, tcclnology, cconomics ctc. lavc so
fai failcd to intcgiatc tlc knovlcdgc in cnviionmcntal aspccts as an
csscntial componcnt of tlc cuiiiculum.
(tt) Oui planncis, dccision-makcis, politicians and administiatois
lavc not bccn tiaincd so as to considci tlc cnviionmcntal aspccts asso-
ciatcd vitl tlcii plans.
(ttt) In a zcal to go alcad vitl somc ambitious dcvclopmcnt
piojccts, quitc oftcn tlcic is puiposcful conccalmcnt of infoimation
about cnviionmcntal aspccts.
(tv) Tlcic is gicatci considciation of cconomic gains and issucs
iclatcd to climinating povcity by pioviding cmploymcnt tlat ovcislad-
ovs tlc basic cnviionmcntal issucs.
Methods to Propagate Environmental Awareness
Enviionmcntal avaicncss nccds to bc cicatcd tliougl foimal and in-
foimal cducation to all scctions of tlc socicty. Evciyonc nccds to un-
dcistand it bccausc 'cnviionmcnt bclongs to all' and 'cvciy individual
mattcis' vlcn it comcs to conscivation and piotcction of cnviionmcnt.'
Vaiious stagcs and mctlods tlat can bc uscful foi iaising cnviion-
mcntal avaicncss in diffcicnt scctions of tlc socicty aic as follovs:
(t) Amnng studcnts thrnugh cducatinn: Enviionmcntal cduca-
tion must bc impaitcd to tlc studcnts iiglt fiom tlc clildlood stagc. It
is a vclcomc stcp tlat nov all ovci tlc countiy vc aic intioducing
cnviionmcntal studics as a subjcct at all stagcs including sclool and
collcgc lcvcl, folloving tlc diicctivcs of tlc Supicmc Couit.
(tt) Amnng thc Masscs thrnugh mass-mcdia: Mcdia can play an
impoitant iolc to cducatc tlc masscs on cnviionmcntal issucs tliougl
aiticlcs, cnviionmcntal iallics, plantation campaigns, sticct plays, ical
cco-disastci stoiics and succcss stoiics of conscivation cffoits. TV scii-
als likc Vtrasat, Racc tc savc thc Flanct, Hcads and Tatls, Tcrra-vtcw,
Captatn planct and tlc likc lavc bccn cffcctivc in piopagating tlc sccds
of cnviionmcntal avaicncss amongst tlc vicvcis of all agc gioups.
(Platc VI, VII)
Plate VI. Awareness through Environmental rally, small children can be very
effective in spreading the message of environmental protection among
general public through their spontaneous love for nature.
Plate VII. Tree plantation compaigns serve as the most effective environmental
conservation efforts involving local people. Sh. Sunderlal Bahuguna,
the Chipko movement leader, planting a sapling.
(ttt) Amnng thc planncrs, dccisinn-makcrs and lcadcrs: Sincc
tlis clitc scction of tlc socicty plays tlc most impoitant iolc in slaping
tlc futuic of tlc socicty, it is vciy impoitant to givc tlcm tlc ncccssaiy
oiicntation and tiaining tliougl spccially oiganizcd voikslops and
tiaining piogiammcs.
Publication of cnviionmcnt - iclatcd icsouicc matciial in tlc foim
of pampllcts oi booklcts publislcd by Ministiy of Enviionmcnt &
Ioicsts can also lclp in kccping tlis scction abicast of tlc latcst dcvcl-
opmcnts in tlc ficld.
Role of Non-Government Organisations (NGOs)
Voluntaiy oiganizations can lclp by advising tlc govcinmcnt about
somc local cnviionmcntal issucs and at tlc samc timc intciacting at
tlc giass-ioot lcvcls. Tlcy can act as an cffcctivc and viablc link bc-
tvccn tlc tvo. Tlcy can act botl as an 'actinn grnup' oi a 'prcssurc
grnup'. Tlcy can bc vciy cffcctivc in oiganizing public movcmcnts foi
tlc piotcction of cnviionmcnt tliougl cication of avaicncss.
Tlc "Chipkn Mnvcmcnt" foi conscivation of ticcs by Dashnli
Cram Swara|ya Mandal in Copcslvai oi tlc "Narmada Bachan
Andnlan" oiganizcd by Kalpavriksh, aic somc of tlc instanccs vlcic
NCO's lavc playcd a landmaik iolc in tlc socicty foi conscivation of
cnviionmcnt.
Tlc Bnmbay Natural Histnry Sncicty (BNHS), tlc Wnrld Widc
Fund fnr Naturc - India (WWF, India) Kcrala Sastra Sahitya Parishad,
Ccntrc fnr Scicncc and Envirnnmcnt (CSE) and many otlcis aic play-
ing a significant iolc in cicating cnviionmcntal avaicncss tliougl ic-
scaicl as vcll as cxtcnsion voik. Tlc icccnt icpoit by CSE on moic
tlan pcimissiblc limits of pcsticidcs in tlc cola diinks scnsitizcd tlc
pcoplc all ovci tlc countiy.
Bcfoic vc can all takc up tlc task of cnviionmcntal piotcction
and conscivation, vc lavc to bc cnviionmcntally cducatcd and avaic.
It is aptly said "If you want to act green, fIrst thInk green."
QUESTIONS
1. Wlat do you mcan by sustainablc dcvclopmcnt ! Wlat aic tlc
majoi mcasuics to attain sustainability !
2. Wly is uiban icquiicmcnt of cncigy moic tlan iuial icquiic-
mcnt !
3. Oiscuss tlc mcasuics to conscivc vatci.
4. Wlat is iainvatci laivcsting ! Wlat aic tlc puiposcs scivcd by it !
5. Wlat is a vatcislcd ! Ciitically discuss tlc objcctivcs and piac-
ticcs of vatcislcd managcmcnt.
6. Wlat do vc mcan by 'cnviionmcnt icfugccs' oi 'oustccs' ! Wlat
aic tlc majoi causcs foi displaccmcnt of nativc tiibal pcoplc !
Oiscuss in tlc liglt of somc casc studics.
7. Wlat aic tlc majoi issucs and pioblcms iclatcd to iclabilitation
of tlc displaccd tiibals ! Oiscuss in tlc liglt of somc casc study.
8. Ciitically discuss tlc antliopoccntiic and ccoccntiic voild vicv.
Wlicl voild vicv appcals to you moic and vly !
9. Wlat aic giccnlousc gascs and giccnlousc cffcct ! Oiscuss tlc
potcntial and contiibution of tlcsc gascs to global vaiming plc-
nomcnon.
10. Wlat aic tlc majoi implications of cnlanccd global vaiming !
11. Wlat is mcant by acid iain ! Hov docs it foim ! In vlicl icgions
of India acid iain las bccn iccoidcd !
12. Wlat aic tlc majoi impacts of acid iain and lov can vc contiol
it !
13. Oiscuss tlc natuial foimation and occuiicncc of ozonc in tlc
stiatosplcic.
14. Wlicl aic tlc agcnts icsponsiblc foi ozonc dcplction !
15. Wiitc a ciitical notc on Nuclcai lolocaust.
16. Oiscuss vaiious mcasuics foi vastcland icclamation.
17. "Population, consumciism and vastc pioduction aic intci-
iclatcd"Commcnt.
18. Oiscuss tlc salicnt fcatuics of (a) Wildlifc (Piotcction) Act, 1972
(h) Ioicst (Conscivation Act), 198O.
19. Hov do you dcfinc pollution as pci Watci (Picvcntion and Con-
tiol of Pollution) Act, 1974 ! Wlat aic tlc salicnt fcatuics of tlc
Act !
20. Wlo las tlc autloiity to dcclaic an aica as "aii pollution contiol
aica" in a statc undci tlc Aii (Picvcntion and Contiol of Pollu-
tion) Act, 1981 ! Wlcn vas noisc inscitcd in tlis act !
21. Wly do vc icfci to Enviionmcntal Piotcction Act, 1986 as an
Lmbiclla Act. Oiscuss tlc Majoi Enviionmcntal Piotcction Rulcs,
1986.
22. Wlat aic tlc majoi limitations to succcssful implcmcntation of
oui cnvioinmcntal lcgislation !
23. Wlat aic tlc diffcicnt mctlods to piopagatc cnviionmcntal avaic-
ncss in tlc socicty !
POPULATION GROWTH
In 18OO, tlc caitl vas lomc to about 1 billion pcoplc. Tlc diamatic
vay in vlicl global luman population gicv tlcicaftci is slovn in
Iig. 7.1. It took about tliity ninc tlousand ycais of luman listoiy to
icacl 1 billion, 13O ycais to icacl tlc sccond billion, 45 ycais to icacl
4 billion and tlc ncxt doubling is likcly vitlin a span of a fcv dccadcs.
Wc lavc alicady ciosscd 6 billion and may icacl 11 billion by 2O45 as
pci tlc Woild Bank cstimatcs.
Iig. 7.1. Clobal population giovtl ticnds in tlc last foui ccntuiics.
Lct us look at tlc icasons of tlis ticnd of luman population
giovtl. In tlc bcginning of luman civilization, duiing tlc Stonc Agc,
population vas quitc stablc. Enviionmcntal conditions vcic lostilc
and lumans lad not yct dcvclopcd adcquatc aitificial mcans foi
adaptations to tlcsc sticsscs. Oiouglts and outbicak of discascs uscd
to bc quitc common lcading to mass dcatls. Tlc 14tl ccntuiy A.O.
7EJ
%
Humun PopuIution
und the Environment
211
cxpciicnccd laigc scalc moitality duc to bubonic plaguc vlcn about
5O% of pcoplc in Asia and Euiopc dicd duc to tlc discasc.
Witl scicntific and tcclnological advanccmcnt, lifc cxpcctancy
of lumans impiovcd. Pcoplc staitcd living in dcfinitc scttlcmcnts lcad-
ing a moic stablc lifc vitl bcttci sanitation, food and mcdical facili-
tics. Victoiy ovci faminc-iclatcd dcatls and infant moitality bccamc
instiumcntal foi a iapid incicasc in population sizc. In agiicultuic bascd
socictics clildicn vcic considcicd as cconomic asscts vlo vould lclp
tlc paicnts in tlc ficlds and tlat is vly in tlc dcvcloping countiics,
population giovtl climbcd to untlouglt-of lciglts, at tlc iatc of 3-
4% pci ycai, accounting foi about 9O-95% of total population giovtl
of tlc voild in tlc last 5O ycais.
POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS AND VARIATIONS
AMONG NATIONS
ExponentIaI growth: Wlcn a quantity incicascs by a constant amount
pci unit timc c.g. 1, 3, 5, 7 ctc. it is callcd lincai giovtl. But, vlcn it
incicascs by a fixcd pciccntagc it is knovn as cxponcntial giovtl c.g.
1O, 1O
2
, 1O
3
, 1O
4
, oi 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 ctc. Population giovtl takcs placc
cxponcntially and tlat cxplains tlc diamatic incicasc in global popu-
lation in tlc past 15O ycais.
DoubIIng tIme: Tlc timc nccdcd foi a population to doublc its
sizc at a constant annual iatc is knovn as doubling timc. It is calcu-
latcd as follovs:
Td = 7O/i
vlcic Td = Ooubling timc in ycais
i = annual giovtl iatc
If a nation las 2% annual giovtl iatc, its population vill doublc
in 35 ycais.
TotaI FertIIIty rates (TFR) : It is onc of tlc kcy mcasuics of a na-
tion's population giovtl. TIR is dcfincd as tlc avciagc numbci of clil-
dicn tlat vould bc boin to a voman in lci lifctimc if tlc agc spccific
biitl iatcs icmain constant. Tlc valuc of TIR vaiics fiom 1.9 in dcvcl-
opcd nations to 4.7 in dcvcloping nations. In 195O's tlc TIR las bccn
6.1. Hovcvci, duc to clangcs in cultuial and tcclnological sct up of
socictics and govcinmcnt policics tlc TIR las comc dovn vlicl is a
vclcomc clangc.
Infant mortaIIty rate: It is an impoitant paiamctci affccting futuic
giovtl of a population. It is tlc pciccntagc of infants dicd out of tlosc
boin in a ycai. Altlougl tlis iatc las dcclincd in tlc last 5O ycais, but
tlc pattcin diffcis vidcly in dcvclopcd and dcvcloping countiics.
Human Population and the Environment 213
RepIacement IeveI: Tlis is an impoitant conccpt in population
dynamics oi dcmogiaply. Tvo paicnts bcaiing tvo clildicn vill bc
icplaccd by tlcii offspiing. But, duc to infant moitality tlis icplacc-
mcnt lcvcl is usually clangcd. Ioi dcvcloping nations, vlcic infant
moitality is ligl and lifc cxpcctancy is lov, tlc icplaccmcnt lcvcl is
appiox 2.7, vlcicas in dcvclopcd nations it is 2.1.
Age Structure: Agc stiuctuic of population of a nation can bc
icpicscntcd by agc pyiamids, bascd upon pcoplc bclonging to diffcicnt
agc classcs likc pic-icpioductivc (O-14 ycais), icpioductivc (15-44 ycais)
and post icpioductivc (45 ycais and abovc). Wc gct tlicc typcs of agc
pyiamids:
(a) Pyramid shapcd: Hcic tlc vciy young population is moic,
making a bioad basc and old pcoplc aic lcss. Tlis typc indicatcs giov-
ing population. India, Bangladcsl, Etliopia, Nigciia aic cxamplcs of
tlis typc. Tlc laigc numbci of individuals in vciy young agc vill soon
cntci into icpioductivc agc, tlus causing an incicasc in population,
vlcicas lcss numbci of pcoplc in old agc indicatc lcss loss of popula-
tion duc to dcatl (Iig. 7.2(a)).
(h) Bcll shapcd: It occuis in countiics likc Iiancc, LSA and
Canada vlcic biitl iatcs lavc in tlc past onc oi tvo dccadcs dcclincd
icsulting in pcoplc of almost cqual numbci in agc gioup O-35 ycais. So
in tlc ncxt 1O ycais, tlc pcoplc cntciing into icpioductivc agc gioup is
not going to clangc mucl and sucl agc-pyiamids indicatc stablc
populations (Iig 7.2(h)).
(c) Urn shapcd: Hcic numbci of individuals in vciy young class
is smallci tlan tlc middlc icpioductivc agc class. In tlc ncxt 1O ycais
tlc numbci in icpioductivc agc class vill tlus bccomc lcss tlan bcfoic
icsulting in a dcclinc of population giovtl. Ccimany, Italy, Hungaiy,
Svcdcn and 1apan aic cxamplcs of tlis typc (Iig. 7.2(c)).
Iig. 7.2. Agc pyiamids (a) Pyiamid slapcd cxpanding
populationIndia, (h) Bcll-slapcd stablc populationIiancc,
(c) Lin-slapcd dcclining populationCcimany.
(Snurcc: LN Ocmogiaply ycai book, 2OOO)
Tlc TIR, agc stiuctuic, infant moitality and icplaccmcnt lcvcl
aic all impoitant paiamctcis dctcimining population giovtl. But population
vill not stop gioving cvcn vlcn all couplcs lavc only 2 clildicn.
CASE STUDIES
Etliopia is a dcvcloping nation vitl a pyiamid slapcd agc stiuc-
tuic indicating cxpanding population. Its TIR is 6.9 picscntly.
Evcn if it aims to icacl tlc icplaccmcnt lcvcl by tlc ycai 2O5O,
its population tlat is 57 million nov vould iisc to 225 million
by 2O5O vlcn TIR bccomcs 2.1 and continuc gioving until it
lcvcls off, 1OO ycais latci, at 37O million.
Population giovtl is also affcctcd duc to AIOS in tlc HIV-
picvalcnt countiics mainly in Afiica. Tlc cailici population
piojcctions of LN aic nov found to bc icduccd by 8% in tlc
sciiously HIV-affcctcd countiics i.c. Mali, Rvanda, Lganda
and Zambia. In Zimbabvc, HIV affccts a quaitci of tlc
population agcd bctvccn 15-49 yis. In Botsvana, 2/3id of tlc
15 ycai olds aic picdictcd to dic of AIOS bcfoic icacling 5O
ycais of agc. About 3O% of adult population in many Afiican
countiics is HIV-positivc. Tlis las diastically icduccd lifc
cxpcctancy in tlcsc countiics.
Zero popuIatIon growth (ZPG): Wlcn biitl plus immigiation in
a population aic just cqual to dcatls plus cmigiation, it is said to bc
zcio population giovtl.
MaIe-FemaIe ratIo: Tlc iatio of boys and giils slould bc faiily
balanccd in a socicty to flouiisl. Hovcvci, duc to fcmalc infanticidcs
and gcndci-bascd aboitions, tlc iatio las bccn upsct in many coun-
tiics including India. In Clina, tlc iatio of boys to giils bccamc 14O:1OO
in many icgions vlicl lcd to scaicity of biidcs.
LIfe expectancy: It is tlc avciagc agc tlat a ncvboin infant is
cxpcctcd to attain in a givcn countiy. Tlc avciagc lifc cxpcctancy, ovci
tlc globc, las iiscn fiom 4O to 65.5 ycais ovci tlc past ccntuiy. In
India, lifc cxpcctancy of malcs and fcmalcs vas only 22.6 ycais and
23.3 ycais, icspcctivcly in 19OO. In tlc last 1OO ycais impiovcd mcdical
facilitics and tcclnological advanccmcnt las incicascd tlc lifc
cxpcctancy to 6O.3 ycais and 6O.5 ycais, icspcctivcly foi tlc Indian
malcs and fcmalcs. In 1apan and Svcdcn, lifc cxpcctancy is quitc liglci,
bcing 82.1-84.2 foi fcmalcs and 77-77.4 foi malcs, icspcctivcly.
DemographIc transItIon: Population giovtl is usually iclatcd to
cconomic dcvclopmcnt. Tlcic occuis a typical fall in dcatl iatcs and
biitl iatcs duc to impiovcd living conditions lcading to lov popula-
tion giovtl, a plcnomcnon callcd dcmogiaplic tiansition.
It is associatcd vitl ubianisation and giovtl and occuis in foui
plascs:
(a) Prc industrial phasc claiactciizcd by ligl giovtl and dcatl
iatcs and nct population giovtl is lov.
(h) Transitinnal phasc tlat occuis vitl tlc advcnt of industiiali-
zation pioviding bcttci lygicnc and mcdical facilitics and adcquatc
food, tlcicby icducing dcatls. Biitl iatcs, lovcvci, icmain ligl and
tlc population slovs 2.5-3% giovtl iatc.
(c) Industrial phasc vlilc tlcic is a fall in biitl iatcs tlcicby lov-
ciing giovtl iatc.
(d) Pnst industrial phasc duiing vlicl zcio population giovtl is
aclicvcd.
Ocmogiaplic tiansition is alicady obscivcd in most dcvcloping
nations. As a icsult of dcmogiaplic tiansition tlc dcvclopcd nations
aic nov gioving at a iatc of about O.5% vitl a doubling timc of 118
ycais. Hovcvci, tlc mattci of conccin is tlat moic tlan 9O% of tlc
global population is conccntiatcd in dcvcloping nations vlicl lavc a
giovtl iatc a littlc moic tlan 2%, and a doubling timc of lcss tlan 35
ycais.
POPULATION EXPLOSION
Tlcic las bccn a diamatic icduction in tlc doubling timc of tlc global
luman population, as vc lavc alicady discusscd. In tlc 2Otl ccntuiy,
luman population las giovn mucl fastci tlan cvci bcfoic. Bctvccn
195O-199O, in just 4O ycais tlc population ciosscd 5 billion maik vitl
cuiicnt addition of about 92 million cvciy ycai, oi so to say, adding a
ncv Mcxico cvciy ycai. In tlc ycai 2OOO, tlc voild population vas 6.3
billion and it is picdictcd to giov foui timcs in tlc ncxt 1OO ycais. Tlis
unpicccdcntcd giovtl of luman population at an alaiming iatc is ic-
fciicd to as pnpulatinn cxplnsinn.
Thc Indian Sccnarin: India is tlc sccond most populous countiy
of tlc voild vitl 1 billion pcoplc. If tlc cuiicnt giovtl iatcs continuc,
it vill lavc 1.63 billion pcoplc by 2O5O and vill bccomc tlc most popu-
lous countiy suipassing Clina. So vc aic lcading foi vciy sciious iami-
fications of tlc population cxplosion pioblcm. Oo vc lavc tlc icsouiccs
and piovisions foi fccding, lousing, cducating and cmploying all tlosc
pcoplc bcing addcd cvciy ycai! If vc look at tlc population statistics
of oui countiy vc find tlat in just 35 ycais aftci indcpcndcncc vc addcd
anotlci India in tcims of population. On 11tl May, 2OOO vc bccamc 1
billion and nov vc can say tlat cvciy 6tl pcison in tlis voild is an
Indian.
Thc Pnpulatinn Clnck
Evciy sccond, on an avciagc 4-5 clildicn aic boin and 2 pcoplc
dic, tlus icsulting in nct gain of ncaily 2.5 pcison cvciy sccond.
Tlis mcans tlat cvciy loui vc aic gioving by about 9OOO and
cvciyday by about 2,14,OOO.
Population cxplosion is causing scvcic icsouicc dcplction and
cnviionmcntal dcgiadation. Oui icsouiccs likc land, vatci, fossil fu-
cls, mincials ctc. aic limitcd and duc to ovci cxploitation tlcsc icsouiccs
aic gctting cxlaustcd. Evcn many of tlc icncvablc icsouiccs likc foi-
csts, giasslands ctc. aic undci ticmcndous picssuic. Industiial and cco-
nomic giovtl aic iaising oui quality of lifc but adding toxic pollutants
into tlc aii, vatci and soil. As a icsult, tlc ccological lifc-suppoit sys-
tcms aic gctting jcopaidizcd. Tlcic is a ficicc dcbatc on tlis issuc as to
vlctlci vc slould immcdiatcly icducc fcitility iatcs tliougl voild-
vidc biitl contiol piogiams in oidci to stabilizc oi cvcn sliink tlc
population oi vlctlci luman bcings vill dcvisc ncv tcclnologics foi
altcinatc icsouiccs, so tlat tlc pioblcm of ciossing tlc caiiying capac-
ity of tlc caitl vill ncvci actually comc.
Tlcic aic tvo vciy impoitant vicvs on population giovtl vlicl
nccd a mcntion lcic:
Malthusian Thcnry: Accoiding to Maltlus, luman populations
tcnd to giov at an cxponcntial oi compound iatc vlcicas food pio-
duction incicascs vciy slovly oi icmains stablc. Tlcicfoic, staivation,
povcity, discasc, ciimc and misciy aic invaiiably associatcd vitl popu-
lation cxplosion. Hc bclicvcs "positivc clccks" likc famincs, discasc
outbicak and violcncc as vcll as "picvcntivc clccks" likc biitl contiol
nccd to stabilizc population giovtl.
Marxian Thcnry: Accoiding to Kail Maix, population giovtl is
a symptom iatlci tlan tlc causc of povcity, icsouicc dcplction, pollu-
tion and otlci social ills. Hc bclicvcd tlat social cxploitation and op-
picssion of tlc lcss piivilcgcd pcoplc lcads to povcity, ovciciovding,
uncmploymcnt, cnviionmcntal dcgiadation tlat in tuin, causcs ovci
population.
A compiomisc bctvccn tlc tvo vicvs is icquiicd bccausc all tlcsc
factois sccm to bc intcidcpcndcnt and intciiclatcd. Equity and social
justicc to all, alloving cvciyonc to cnjoy a good standaid of living is
tlc nccd of tlc loui tlat can voluntaiily lclp in aclicving a stabilizcd
global population.
Family Welfare Programmes
Population cxplosion is likc a timc bomb tlat must bc diffuscd vcll in
timc. Tlc population must bc kcpt mucl bclov tlc caiiying capacity
and stabilizcd, so tlat tlc aftcimatl of cxplosion could bc avoidcd.
It is not picciscly knovn as to lov long can vc continuc oui
cxponcntial giovtl in population and icsouicc usc vitlout suffciing
ovcisloot oi dicback. Wc aic gctting vaining signals tlat if not con-
tiollcd, tlc incicasing population is going to dcplctc all tlc icsouiccs
bcyond tlcii icgcnciation capacity. A catastioplic doomsday modcl
vains us tlat tlc caitl cannot sustain moic tlan tvo moic doublings
t.c. 25 billion.
Iig. 7.3. Stabilization iatio of dcvcloping & dcvclopcd nations,
Afiica and Asia. A iatio of 1 aclicvcd in dcvclopcd nations
aiound 2OOO indicatcs zcio population giovtl in dcvclopcd
nations vlilc Afiica is picscntly laving tlc liglcst iatio.
Tlc Lnitcd Nations piojcctions about pnpulatinn stabilizatinn of
dcvclopcd and dcvcloping nations and tlat of Asia aic slovn in Iig. 7.3.
Tlc iatio is dciivcd by dividing ciudc biitl iatc by ciudc dcatl iatc. As
cvidcnt, dcvclopcd nations lavc alicady aclicvcd a stabilization iatio
of 1 aiound tlc ycai 2OOO, vlicl is moic oi lcss stabilizcd indicating
zcio population giovtl. Ocvcloping nations including Asia, on tlc
otlci land, is yct laving a ligl stabilization iatio ncaiing 3, vlicl is
lovcvci, on a dcclinc and is cxpcctcd to lovci dovn substantially by
2O25. Stabilization in dcvcloping nations is possiblc only tliougl vaii-
ous family vclfaic piogiammcs.
Thc Kcrala Mndcl (A casc study)
Kciala las caincd tlc distinction of laving lovcst biitl iatcs
among all tlc statcs of India. Tlc main paiamctcis dcciding tlc
cffcctivity of tlis modcl dcpcnds upon tlc agc of maiiiagc foi
vomcn at 21 ycais, as against and Indian avciagc of 18 ycais,
fcmalc litciacy of 53% against Indian avciagc of 13%, gicatci
cmplasis on piimaiy cducation vitl 6O% budgct piovision foi
tlc samc, as against 5O% in many otlci statcs, bcttci public
distiibution systcm of food among 97% of population, bcttci
mcdical facilitics in iuial aicas and gicatci succcss of family
planning piogiammcs. Tlc Kciala Modcl las its ovn succcss stoiy
cmplasizing tlc cffcctivity of social justicc appioacl foi family
planning.
FAMILY PLANNING
Iamily planning allovs couplcs to dccidc tlcii family sizc and also tlc
timc spacing of tlcii offspiing. Almost cvciy cultuic in tlc past uscd to
piactisc somc tiaditional fcitility contiol mctlods tliougl somc tiadi-
tions, taboos and folk mcdicinc.
Modcin scicncc las piovidcd scvcial biitl contiol tcclniqucs
including mcclanical baiiicis, suigical mctlods, clcmical pills and
plysical baiiicis to implantation. Moic tlan a lundicd contiaccptivc
mctlods aic on tiial. Tlc Unitcd Natinns Family Planning Agcncy
piovidcs funds to 135 countiics. Many of tlcsc countiics includc
aboition as a pait of tlc population contiol piogiammc vlicl vciy
oftcn cncouiagcs fcmalc infanticidc tlcicby distuibing tlc optimal malc:
fcmalc iatio in a socicty. Tlc biitl contiol piogiammcs lavc oftcn
faccd stiong opposition fiom icligious gioups.
Nonctlclcss, Wnrld Hcalth Orgaizatinn (WHO) cstimatcs tlat
today about 5O pciccnt of tlc voilds' maiiicd couplcs adopt somc
family planning mcasuics as compaicd to just 1O% about 3O ycais back.
Still somc 3OO million couplcs do not lavc acccss to family planning.
The Indian Context
India staitcd tlc family planning piogiammc in 1952 vlilc its
population vas ncaily 4OO million. In 197O's, foiccd family planning
campaign by tlc Covcinmcnt icsultcd in a tuimoil all ovci tlc countiy.
In 1978, tlc govcinmcnt iaiscd tlc lcgal minimum agc of maiiiagc
fiom 18 to 21 foi mcn and 15 to 18 ycais foi vomcn. Evcn in 1981
ccnsus no diop in population giovtl vas obscivcd. Sincc tlcn funding
foi family planning piogiammcs las bccn incicascd fuitlci.
Lnablc to icacl a conscnsus icgaiding population policy, tlc statc
govcinmcnts in 2OOO vcic allovcd to adopt tlcii ovn appioacl. In
Kciala, tlc population las bccn stabilizcd vitl a focus on social jus-
ticc as alicady discusscd. It is nov compaiablc to many industiializcd
nations including LSA and it las piovcd tlat vcaltl is not a pic-icqui-
sitc foi zcio population giovtl. Andlia Piadcsl las also just aclicvcd
tlc taigct of ZPC in 2OO1, but it las bccn donc vitl a diffcicnt ap-
pioacl. Tlc pooi class vas cncouiagcd to bc stciilizcd aftci tvo clil-
dicn by paying casl inccntivcs, bcttci land, lousing, vclls and subsi-
dizcd loans. In contiast, Bilai and L.P. lavc slovcd incicasc in tlcii
giovtl iatcs (moic tlan 2.5%).
Succcssful family planning piogiams nccd significant socictal
clangcs including social, cducational and cconomic status foi vomcn,
social sccuiity, political stability, piopci avaicncss and confidcncc build-
ing alongvitl acccssibility and cffcctivity of tlc biitl contiol mcas-
uics.
ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
In gcncial tcims a plysically fit pcison not suffciing fiom any discasc
is callcd a lcaltly pcison. Hovcvci, tlcic aic many otlci dimcnsions
associatcd vitl tlc statc of bcing lcaltly. Accoiding to Woild Hcaltl
Oiganisation (WHO) lcaltl is "a statc nf cnmplctc physical, mcntal
and sncial wcll-bcing and nnt mcrcly thc abscncc nf discasc nr
infirmity". Human lcaltl is influcnccd by many factois likc nutiitional,
biological, clcmical oi psyclological. Tlcsc factois may causc laimful
clangcs in tlc body's conditions callcd discasc.
Infcctinus nrganisms: Oiscasc causing oiganisms posc gicatci
cnviionmcntal tlicats to lcaltl, moic scvcicly in tlc dcvcloping
countiics cspccially tlc tiopical oncs. Higl tcmpciatuic and moistuic
along vitl malnutiition lclp many discascs to spicad in tlcsc countiics.
Miciobcs cspccially bactciia can causc food poisoning by pioducing
toxins in tlc contaminatcd food. Somc moulds giov on food and
pioducc poisonous toxins.
Infcctious oiganisms can also causc icspiiatoiy discascs
(pncumonia, tubciculosis, influcnza ctc.) and gastiointcstinal discascs
(diaiiloca, dyscntciy, clolcia ctc.).
Tlcic aic vaiious typcs of paiasitcs tlat causc discascs likc ma-
laiia, sclistosomiasis, filaiiasis ctc. Most of tlcsc infcctions takc placc
vlcn tlc cnviionmcntal conditions aic unclcan and unlygicnic.
Chcmicals: A laigc numbci of clcmicals aic intioduccd in tlc
cnviionmcnt by antliopogcnic activitics. Industiial cfflucnts containing
vaiious clcmicals aic of majoi conccin. Clcmicals can bc dividcd into
tvo catcgoiics i.c. lazaidous and toxic clcmicals. Hazaidous aic tlc
dangcious clcmicals likc cxplosivcs, inflammablc clcmicals ctc. Toxic
clcmicals (tnxins) aic poisonous clcmicals vlicl kill cclls and can
causc dcatl. Many otlci clcmicals can causc cancci (carcinngcnic),
affcct gcnctic matciial (ONA) in cclls (mutagcnic) oi causc
abnoimalitics duiing cmbiyonic giovtl and dcvclopmcnt (tcratngcnic),
vlilc tlcic aic otlcis tlat affcct ncivous systcm (ncurntnxins) and tlc
icpioductivc systcm. Somc of tlc pcsticidcs and otlci industiial
pollutants may act as loimonc analogs in lumans and otlci spccics.
Tlcsc cnviionmcntal loimoncs affcct icpioduction, dcvclopmcnt and
causc vaiious typcs of ailmcnts including tumois.
Many clcmicals likc OOT and otlci clloiinatcd pcsticidcs
bioaccumulatc in food-clain and slov dclctciious cffccts at tlc top of
tlc food clain. Many clcmical substanccs picscnt in vastcvatcis likc
lcavy mctals (mcicuiy, cadmium, lcad ctc.) fluoiidc and nitiatc can
affcct luman lcaltl. Tlc advcisc cffccts of somc of tlcsc lavc alicady
bccn discusscd in Lnit 5. Mctals can contaminatc food vlilc cooking
in vaiious typcs of utcnsils including alloys likc stccl. Containcis foi
canncd food, cspccially vlicl aic acidic in natuic, contaminatc tlc
food vitl lcad. Lcad also comcs in vatci fiom tlc vatci-pipcs vlcic
it is addcd foi plumbing puiposcs. Vaiious alcololic bcvciagcs contain
lcad vlilc tobacco contains cadmium tlat gocs in tlc body and affccts
luman lcaltl.
Vaiious clcmicals, gascs and paiticulatcs ladcn vitl clcmicals,
spcvcd into tlc cnviionmcnt fiom vaiious industiics causc aii pollu-
tion and affcct luman lcaltl. Tlc dctails of cffccts of aii pollution on
luman lcaltl lavc alicady bccn givcn in Lnit 5.
Nnisc: Altlougl luman cai is capablc of tolciating a iangc of
sound lcvcls, yct if sound lcvcls bcyond tlc pcimissiblc lcvcl cxist foi
ccitain duiation, it bccomcs painful and somctimcs iiicpaiablc damagc
occuis. Bcsidcs lcaiing damagc vaiious typcs of plysiological and
psyclological clangcs aic induccd by noisc pollution. Tlc dctails of
cffccts of noisc on luman lcaltl aic givcn in Lnit 5.
Radiatinns: Radiations aic knovn to causc sloit-tcim and long-
tcim clangcs in vaiious oigans. Cosmic iays and ultia-violct iays causc
laimful cffccts on luman lcaltl vlicl may includc cancci. Tlc dctails
of ill cffccts of iadiations on luman lcaltl aic givcn in Lnit 5.
Dict: Oict las a vciy impoitant iolc in maintaining lcaltl.
Malnutiition makcs lumans pionc to otlci discascs. Tlcic is a stiong
coiiclation bctvccn caidiovasculai discascs and tlc amount of salt and
fat in onc's dict. Iood contamination can causc vaiious ill cffccts. Tlcic
lad bccn cascs of Oiopsy in India, a discasc vlicl occuiicd duc to
contamination of mustaid oil vitl tlc poisonous sccds of Argcmcnc
mcxtcana. Likcvisc vaiious adultciatcd pulscs, condimcnts, oils ctc.
sold in tlc maikct to cain piofit affcct luman lcaltl.
Scttlcmcnt: Piopci cnviionmcnt, availability of basic ncccssitics
of lifc likc, vatci, sanitation ctc. aic csscntial foi lcaltly living. Housing
is vciy impoitant fiom sccuiity point of vicv. Impiopci scttlcmcnt and
pooi plysical cnviionmcnt may causc vaiious psyclological pioblcms
vlicl affcct vaiious vital plysiological pioccsscs in tlc body.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Human iiglts aic tlc iiglts tlat a luman bcing must cnjoy on tlis
caitl sincc lc/slc is a luman bcing. Altlougl tlc foundation of luman
iiglts vas laid in tlc 13tl ccntuiy vlcn icsistancc to icligious
intolciancc, socio-cconomic icstiaints and scicntific dogmas icsultcd
in somc icvolts mainly duc to tlc libcial tlouglts of somc plilosoplcis.
Hovcvci, tiuc lopcs foi all pcoplc foi lappy, dignificd and sccuic living
conditions vcic iaiscd vitl tlc Univcrsal Dcclaratinn nf Human Rights
(UNDHR) by tlc LNO on Dcccmbcr 10, 1948. Tlis dcclaiation
piovidcd compiclcnsivc piotcction to all individuals against all foims
of injusticc and luman iiglts violations. Tlc LNOHR dcfincs spccific
iiglts, civil, political, cconomic, social as vcll as cultuial. It dcfincs
tlc iiglts to lifc, libcity, sccuiity, faii tiial by lav, ficcdom of tlouglt,
cxpicssion, conscicncc, association and ficcdom of movcmcnt. It
cmplasizcs iiglt to cqual pay foi cqual voik, iiglt to foim and join
tiadc unions, iiglt to lcaltl caic, cducation, adcquatc icst ctc.
Altlougl tlc luman iiglts aic considcicd to bc univcisal, tlcic
is a vidc dispaiity bctvccn tlc dcvcloping and tlc dcvclopcd countiics.
Population and povcity aic oftcn found to bc tlc most impoitant causcs
of violation of luman iiglts in tlc tliid voild countiics. Povcity oftcn
undcimincs luman dignity and vitlout dignity tlcic is no mcaning of
luman iiglt. In fact, talks of luman iiglts sccm justificd only vlcn
onc can just managc to livc on. Tlc WorId HeaIth OrganIsatIon
estImates IndIcate that one out of every fIve persons In thIs worId Is
maInourIshed, Iacks cIean drInkIng water, Iacks proper hygIenIc condItIons
and adequate heaIth facIIItIes; one out of three persons does not have enough
fueI to cook or keep warm and one out of fIve persons Is desperateIy poor for
whom IIfe Is nothIng but struggIe for survIvaI. Every year 40 mIIIIon peopIe
are dyIng due to consumptIon of contamInated drInkIng water. Tlcic is
acutc scaicity of cmploymcnt in tlc tliid voild countiics. Lndci sucl
conditions, a pooi man fccls tlat pcilaps lis clild can cain somctling
foi limsclf oi tlc family. Ioi lim, tlc mciit of univcisal cducation and
clild laboui picvcntion is of mucl lcss impoitancc tlan lis giim stiugglc
foi cxistcncc.
Ioi tlc dcvclopcd countiics, vlicl lavc alicady attaincd a ligl
stagc of dcvclopmcnt in matciial and cconomic icsouiccs, tlc social
and cconomic iiglts aic not tlat impoitant as civil and political iiglts.
Wlcicas, tlc icvcisc is tiuc foi tlc dcvcloping countiics vlicl aic
stiuggling foi lifc undci conditions of cxticmc povcity, ignoiancc,
illitciacy, malnutiition and discascs. Ioi tlcm tlc civil and political
iiglts caiiy littlc mcaning. In 1unc 1993, duiing tlc Vicnna Wnrld
Cnnfcrcncc nn Human Rights tlc nccd foi cconomic and social iiglts
vcic considcicd as cqual to tlc vcst's political and civil iiglts. Rcspcct
tovaids luman iiglts is nov considcicd to bc onc of tlc impoitant
ciitciia foi giving dcvclopmcnt assistancc to a countiy. In 1992, tlc
Buiton Bill passcd in LSA slaslcd 24 million dollais of dcvclopmcnt
assistancc to somc dcvcloping countiics including India on tlc giounds
of sloving pooi luman iiglts iccoids.
In India, luman iiglt issucs lavc mostly ccntcicd aiound slav-
ciy, bondcd laboui, vomcn suboidination, custodial dcatls, violcncc
against vomcn and minoiitics, clild abusc, doviy dcatls, mass kill-
ings of dalits, toituic, aibitiaiy dctcntions ctc. Tlc constitution of In-
dia contains a long list of pcoplc's civil, political, cconomic and social
iiglts foi impioving tlcii lifc. Yct, it is an iiony tlat violation of lu-
man iiglts takcs placc iatlci too oftcn in oui countiy. Social
disciiminations, untouclability, patiiaiclal socicty vitl malc domi-
nation ctc. still picvail in tlc socicty vlicl lindci tlc lonoui of lu-
man iiglts. Civil libcitics and fundamcntal ficcdom aic also oftcn vio-
latcd by tlosc vlo lavc moncy povci. Communal violcncc against
minoiitics las bccomc quitc picvalcnt in oui countiy. Tlcic is a nccd
to icspcct tlc luman iiglts of all pcoplc in cvciy nation foi ovciall
dcvclopmcnt and pcacc.
As tlc iiglt to dcvclopmcnt vas dcfincd, anotlci aspcct of luman
iiglt iclatcd to cnviionmcnt cmcigcd. Aftci tlc Eaitl Summit 1992,
tlc nccd foi sustainablc dcvclopmcnt vas iccognizcd. Soon aftci on
May 16, 1994 at Ccncva, tlc Lnitcd Nations diaftcd tlc fiist cvci
Dcclaratinn nf Human Rights and Envirnnmcnt, vlicl cmbodics tlc
iiglt of cvciy luman bcing to a lcaltly, sccuic and ccologically sound
cnviionmcnt. A sustainablc socicty affiims, cquity, sccuiity, attainmcnt
of basic luman nccds and cnviionmcntal justicc to all.
It is quitc dislcaitcning to look at tlc cnviionmcntal incquitics.
Tlc dcvclopcd nations utilizing most of tlc natuial icsouiccs and
icaping tlc bcncfits of industiial dcvclopmcnt aic not bcaiing tlc buidcn
of tlcii lazaidous vastcs, as tlcy cxpoit sucl vastcs to many
dcvcloping countiics vlo lavc to facc tlc toxic impacts of tlc lazaidous
vastcs. Tlc voikci class and tlc pooi aic tlc main victims and suffcicis
of advcisc cffccts of industiial toxins, foul smclling pollutcd aii, unclcan
and unsafc diinking vatci, unlcaltly voiking conditions, occupational
lcaltl lazaids ctc. Tlc indigcnous pcoplc and tiibal pcoplc aic tlc
voist victims of dcvclopmcnt vlo losc tlcii lomcs and lands to dams
and icscivoiis and aic dcpiivcd of tlcii luman iiglts to nativc lomcs.
Draft Declaration of Human Rights and Environment
Tlc diaft dcclaiation dcsciibcs tlc iiglts as vcll as dutics tlat apply to
individuals, govcinmcnts, intcinational oiganizations and tians-
national coipoiations.
Tlc picamblc cnvisagcs a dccp conccin icgaiding tlc consc-
qucnccs of cnviionmcntal laim causcd by povcity, dcbt piogiammcs
and intcinational tiadc. Enviionmcntal damagcs aic oftcn iiicvcisiblc.
Human iiglts violations may lcad to fuitlci cnviionmcntal dcgiada-
tion on a long-tcim basis and tlc cnviionmcntal dcgiadation, in tuin
vould lcad to fuitlci luman iiglts violation.
Tlc piinciplcs of tlc diaft dcclaiation aic dividcd into fivc paits.
Part I: It dcals vitl luman iiglts foi an ccologically sound
cnviionmcnt, sustainablc dcvclopmcnt and pcacc foi all. It also
cmplasizcs tlc picscnt gcnciation's iiglts to fulfill its nccds to lcad a
dignificd and good quality lifc. But, at tlc samc timc it lays sticss on
tlc fact tlat it slould bc vitlout impaiiing tlc iiglts of tlc futuic
gcnciations to mcct tlcii nccds.
Part II: It mainly dcals vitl luman iiglts iclatcd to an
cnviionmcnt ficc fiom pollution and dcgiadation. It also cmplasizcs
tlc iiglts to cnjoymcnt of natuial ccosystcms vitl tlcii iicl biodivcisity.
It dcfincs iiglt to ovn nativc land oi lomc. No onc can bc cvictcd
fiom onc's nativc placc cxccpt in cmcigcncy oi duc to a compclling
puiposc bcncfitting tlc socicty as a vlolc vlicl is not attainablc by
otlci mcans. All pcisons lavc tlc iiglt to timcly assistancc in tlc cvcnt
of any natuial oi tcclnological disastci.
Part III: It dcals vitl iiglt of cvciy pcison to cnviionmcntal in-
foimation, cducation, avaicncss and also public paiticipation in cnvi-
ionmcntal dccision making.
Part IV: It dcals vitl tlc dutics to piotcct and picscivc tlc cnvi-
ionmcnt and picvcnt cnviionmcntal laim. It includcs all icmcdics foi
cnviionmcntal dcgiadation and mcasuics to bc takcn foi sustainablc
icsouicc usc. It cmplasizcs tlat statcs slall avoid using cnviionmcnt
as a mcans of vai and slall icspcct intcinational lav foi piotcction of
cnviionmcnt.
Part V: Tlis lays sticss on social justicc and cquity vitl icspcct to
usc of natuial icsouiccs and sustainablc dcvclopmcnt.
Till nov, lovcvci, it las not bccn dcfincd in piactical tcims tlc
tlicslold, bclov vlicl lcvcl of cnviionmcntal quality must fall bcfoic
a bicacl of individual luman iiglt vill said to lavc occuiicd oi abovc
vlicl tlc lcvcl of cnviionmcntal quality must iisc. 'Riglt to dcvclop-
mcnt' las to bc linkcd to 'iiglt to safc and clcan cnviionmcnt' vlicl
las to bc considcicd not only at tlc lcvcl of individual but at commu-
nity, national and global lcvcl.
VALUE EDUCATION
Education is onc of tlc most impoitant tools in biinging about socio-
cconomic and cultuial piogicss of a countiy. Hovcvci, tlc objcctivc of
cducation slould not mcicly bc impaiting coacling to tlc studcnts
tlat tlcy gct tliougl tlc cxaminations vitl good icsults and gct somc
good job. Education docs not simply mcan acquiiing a lot of
infoimation but also its iigltcousncss and usc vitlin tlc fiamcvoik of
a spcctium of ctlical valucs.
Tlc iapid stiidcs of scicntific and tcclnological advanccmcnts lavc
no doubt, biouglt icvolutionaiy clangcs in oui cvciy day lifc and in-
foimation tcclnology las sliunk tlc vlolc voild into a "global vil-
lagc", vitl acccss to vciy infoimation sitting in onc coinci ovci tlc
intcinct. But, in tlis ficnzy foi dcvclopmcnt and mad iacc foi piogicss
pcilaps man las bccomc too matciialistic, sclf-ccntcicd and ovci am-
bitious and tlc dcsiicd idcals of a ical good lifc lavc bccn puslcd to
tlc backgiound. Valuc-bascd cducation tlus las a vciy significant iolc
in pioviding piopci diicction to oui youtl, to inculcatc a positivc atti-
tudc in tlcm and to tcacl tlcm tlc distinction bctvccn iiglt and viong.
It tcaclcs tlcm to bc compassionatc, lclpful, pcacc loving, gcncious
and tolciant so tlat tlcy can movc tovaids a moic laimonious, pcacc-
ful, cnjoyablc and sustainablc futuic.
Valuc cducation lclps in aiiiving at valuc-bascd judgcmcnts in
lifc bascd on piactical undcistanding of vaiious natuial piinciplcs iatlci
tlan acquiiing ccitain picjudiccs. Valuc cducation cncompasscs luman
valucs, social valucs, piofcssional valucs, icligious valucs, national
valucs, acstlctic valucs and cnviionmcntal valucs. Valuc cducation
incicascs avaicncss about oui national listoiy, oui cultuial lciitagc,
national piidc, constitutional iiglts and dutics, national intcgiation,
community dcvclopmcnt and cnviionmcnt.
Valuc cducation las diffcicnt plascs t.c. valuc avaicncss, valuc
oiicntation, valuc appiaisal, valuc sclcction, valuc commitmcnt and
valuc action. Tlc basic aim is to cicatc and dcvclop avaicncss about
tlc valucs, tlcii significancc and iolc. Aftci knoving tlcm tlc stu-
dcnt's mindsct vould gct oiicntcd tovaids tlosc valucs and lc vill tiy
to ciitically analysc tlc samc and tlcn sclcct tlc valucs vlicl ically
appcal to lim. Tlis vill bc follovcd by commitmcnt tlat nccds to bc
ic-affiimcd ovci and ovci again so tlat cvciy action is takcn kccping
tlosc valucs in vicv.
Value-based Environmental Education
Enviionmcntal cducation oi cnviionmcntal litciacy is somctling tlat
cvciy pcison slould bc vcll vciscd vitl. Tlc piinciplcs of ccology and
fundamcntals of cnviionmcnt can ically lclp cicatc a scnsc of caitl-
citizcnslip and a scnsc of duty to caic foi tlc caitl and its icsouiccs
and to managc tlcm in a sustainablc vay so tlat oui clildicn and
giand clildicn too inlciit a safc and clcan planct to livc on.
Wc lavc alicady discusscd about cnviionmcntal ctlics, caitl-citi-
zcnslip and vays and mcans to piopagatc cnviionmcntal cducation
and avaicncss. Fnllnwing thc Suprcmc Cnurt dircctivcs (in M.C. Mchta
Vs. Uninn nf India, 1988) cnvirnnmcntal cducatinn has bccn includcd
in thc curriculum right frnm thc schnnl stagc tn cnllcgc/univcrsity lcvcl.
Thc primc nb|cctivc nf thc samc is tn makc cvcrynnc cnvirnnmcnt lit-
cratc. Tlc cnviionmcnt bclongs to cacl onc of us and oui actions af-
fcct tlc cnviionmcnt. Wlcn tlc cnviionmcnt gcts dcgiadcd it affccts
oui lcaltl, vcll-bcing and oui futuic. So vc lavc a iiglt to knov tlc a
b c of cnviionmcnt and also lavc a iiglt to safc and clcan cnviion-
mcnt.
Lct us nov scc lov cnviionmcntal cducation bc madc valuc-
bascd.
1. Picpaiation of tcxt-books and icsouicc matciials about cnvi-
ionmcntal cducation can play an impoitant iolc in building positivc
attitudcs about cnviionmcnt. Tlc basic human valuc 'man in natuic'
iatlci tlan 'natuic foi man' nccds to bc infuscd tliougl tlc samc.
2. Sncial valucs likc lovc, compassion, tolciancc and justicc vlicl
aic tlc basic tcaclings of most of oui icligions nccd to bc vovcn into
cnviionmcntal cducation. Tlcsc aic tlc valucs to bc nuituicd so tlat
all foims of lifc and tlc biodivcisity on tlis caitl aic piotcctcd.
3. Cultural and rcliginus valucs cnsliincd in Vcdas likc "Dcht mc
dadamt tc" i.c. "you givc mc and I givc you" (Yajuivcda) cmplasizc
tlat man slould not cxploit natuic vitlout nuituiing lci. Oui cultuial
customs and iituals in many vays tcacl us to pcifoim sucl functions
as vould piotcct and nuituic natuic and icspcct cvciy aspcct of natuic,
ticating tlcm as sacicd, bc it iivcis, caitl, mountains oi foicsts.
4. Enviionmcntal cducation slould cncompass tlc cthical valucs
of caitl-ccntiic iatlci tlan luman-ccntiic voild-vicv. Tlc cducational
systcm slould piomotc tlc caitl-citizcnslip tlinking. Instcad of con-
sidciing luman bcing as supicmc vc lavc to tlink of tlc vclfaic of tlc
caitl.
5. Clnbal valucs sticss upon tlc conccpt tlat tlc luman civiliza-
tion is a pait of tlc planct as a vlolc and similaily natuic and vaiious
natuial plcnomcna ovci tlc caitl aic intciconncctcd and intci-linkcd
vitl spccial bonds of laimony. If vc distuib tlis laimony anyvlcic
tlcic vill bc an ccological imbalancc lcading to catastioplic icsults.
6. Spiritual valucs liglliglt tlc piinciplcs of sclf-icstiaint, sclf-
disciplinc, contcntmcnt, icduction of vants, ficcdom fiom giccd and
austciity. All tlcsc valucs piomotc conscivationism and tiansfoim oui
consumciistic appioacl.
Tlc abovc-mcntioncd luman valucs, socio-cultuial, ctlical, spii-
itual and global valucs incoipoiatcd into cnviionmcntal cducation can
go a long vay in attaining tlc goals of sustainablc dcvclopmcnt and
cnviionmcntal conscivation. Valuc-bascd cnviionmcntal cducation can
biing in a total tiansfoimation of oui mind-sct, oui attitudcs and oui
lifc-stylcs. "Wlat is tlc usc of building a bcautiful lousc if you don't
lavc a dcccnt planct to placc it on!"- pcilaps tlis singlc qucstion can
ansvci tlc main buining qucstion- "Wlat is ical dcvclopmcnt and
piogicss!" Wc ccitainly do not vant dcvclopmcnt in cxclangc of cnvi-
ionmcntal disastcis, lcaltl lazaids, loss of mcntal pcacc and mcici-
lcss dcstiuction of natuic's bcauty and natuial icsouiccs. Tlc valuc
clcmcnts in cnviionmcntal cducation alonc can succccd in aclicving
tlc ical goals of cnviionmcntal litciacy.
HIV/AIDS
AIOS, tlc Acquiicd Immuno Ocficicncy Syndiomc is not a lcicditaiy
discasc but is causcd by HIV (Human Immunodcficicncy Viius). HIV
fiom an infcctcd pcison can pass to a noimal pcison tliougl blood
contact gcncially duiing unpiotcctcd scx vitl infcctcd pcison and slai-
ing nccdlcs oi syiingcs contaminatcd vitl small quantitics of blood
fiom HIV positivc pcison. HIV can also pass fiom infcctcd motlcis to
tlcii babics duiing picgnancy, dclivciy oi bicast fccding. HIV, lov-
cvci, docsn't spicad tliougl tcais, svcat, uiinc, facccs oi saliva duiing
noimal kissing. It also docs not spicad by slaiing utcnsils, tovcls, clotl-
ing, toilct scats oi inscct bitc likc tlat of mosquito oi bcd bug.
Accoiding to a icccnt cstimatc about 4O million pcoplc aic living
vitl HIV/AIOS voildvidc and 7O% of tlcm in Sub Salaian Afiica.
HIV/AIOS las bccn idcntificd as tlc fouitl laigcst causc of moitality.
About 3 million pcoplc dicd duc to HIV/AIOS in 2OO3. AIOS is iap-
idly spicading in castcin Euiopc and Asia. It is cxpcctcd tlat in tlc
coming dccadcs tlcic vill bc slaip incicasc in HIV/AIOS cascs in
Russia, Clina, and India.
AIOS vas discovcicd in 1983. Altlougl sufficicnt knovlcdgc las
bccn gaincd about tlc discasc yct a dcfinitc souicc of tlis viius could
not bc idcntificd.
Most cvidcnccs lavc suggcstcd tlat AIOS las spicad fiom Af-
iica. It is bclicvcd tlat tlc viius las bccn tiansfciicd to lumans fiom
piimatcs likc Afiican Monkcy (Wlitc sooty mangabcys) oi climpan-
zccs.
Accoiding to anotlci tlcoiy HIV las spicad tliougl vaccinc pio-
giammcs in vaiious paits of tlc voild in tlc folloving mannci:
1. HIV las spicad in Afiica tliougl HIV contaminatcd polio vac-
cinc picpaicd by using monkcy's kidncy.
2. It lad spicad tliougl lcpatitis B viial vaccinc in Ncv Yoik,
Los Angclcs and San Iiancisco.
3. It las spicad tliougl small pox vaccinc piogiammc of Afiica.
It is also lypotlcsizcd tlat AIOS is a man madc cpidcmic
pioduccd by gcnctically cnginccicd laboiatoiy pioduccd viius. AIOS
itsclf docs not kill lumans. Tlc dcatls occui duc to attack by otlci
discascs bccausc of tlc vcakcning of immunc systcm. Tlcic is dcclinc
in T-cclls vlicl aic tlc kcy infcction figltcis in tlc immunc systcm.
HIV dcstioys oi disablcs tlcsc cclls as a icsult of vlicl vaiious typcs
of infcctious discascs duc to miciobial invasion occui. Evcn dicadcd
discasc likc cancci can casily dcvclop in tlc HIV infcctcd pcisons.
Consumption of alcolol is undcistood to incicasc tlc susccptibility to
infcction and piogicssion of AIOS.
Effects of HIV/AIDS on Environment
Wlcn tlcic is an AIOS cpidcmic laigc numbci of dcatls occui vlicl
advciscly affcct local cnviionmcnt and natuial icsouiccs. Ouc to laigc
numbci of dcatls tlcic is loss of laboui and tlc lcvcl of pioduction
dccicascs. Witl fcvci adults, young mcmbcis vitl limitcd icsouiccs
likc land and lack of cxpciicncc and knovlcdgc find it difficult to look
aftci tlc pcicnnial ciops and picfci ciops icquiiing lcss laboui and
timc. Tlcy dcvotc lcss timc foi soil conscivation, foicstiy conscivation,
cspccially if tlcic aic dcatls of piofcssional foicst voikcis. Ocmand of
casily acccssiblc fucl vood incicascs. Moic timbci is icquiicd foi making
coffins oi foi pyic making. Moic vatci is icquiicd foi maintaining
lygicnc in AIOS affcctcd locality. Tlc HIV caiiicis aic also not ablc to
pcifoim vcll duc to lack of cncigy and ficqucnt fcvci and svcating.
WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE
Womcn and clildicn aic usually tlc soft taigcts, vlo suffci in a numbci
of vays mainly bccausc tlcy aic vcakci, lclplcss and cconomically
dcpcndcnt.
Women Welfare
Womcn usually suffci gcndci disciimination and dcvaluation at lomc,
at voikplacc, in matiimony, in inlciitancc, in public lifc and povci,
paiticulaily in dcvcloping countiics. Tlc gcndci violcncc, victimization
and laiassmcnt takc many foims acioss cultuic, iacc oi nation. Tlc
statistical data piovidcd by tlc Ministiy of Womcn and Clild
Ocvclopmcnt is an cyc opcnci tlat dcgloiifics tlc cclcbiatcd cultuic of
oui countiy. Tlc cxccptionally ligl numbci of cascs of abduction,
doviy dcatls, iapc, domcstic violcncc, ciiminal offcnccs and mcntal
toituic to vomcn is somctling tlat nccds immcdiatc attcntion and
icfoims in tlc intcicst of tlc vomcn. Womcn aic oftcn tlc voist victims
of communal cnimitics. Tlc luman iiglts of vomcn aic violatcd too
oftcn in a malc dominatcd patiiaiclal socicty. Tlus, tlcic is an uigcnt
nccd foi policy icfoims and moic stiingcnt lcgislation as vcll as
cducational and lcgal avaicncss amongst vomcn foi clccking tlc
atiocitics and injusticc tovaids lci. Tlcic aic nov many 'Wnmcn
Crnups' vlo activcly takc up vomcn vclfaic issucs and lcgally
constitutcd "Wnmcn cclls" tlat cxist almost cvciyvlcic and figlt foi
piotcction of vomcn iiglts and dignity. Tlcic is a full-flcdgcd Ministry
fnr Wnmcn and Child dcvclnpmcnt vlosc solc aim is to voik foi tlc
vclfaic and upliftmcnt of vomcn cncompassing family planning, lcaltl
caic, cducation and avaicncss. Tlcic is a nccd foi complctc
tiansfoimation and icoiicntation of social ctlos foi icstoiing tlc dignity,
status, cquality and icspcct foi vomcn.
Womcn aic also tlc victims of capitalism, dcvclopmcnt and cnvi-
ionmcnt. Tlc cxploitativc natuic of capitalist dcvclopmcnt not only
affccts tlc natuial cnviionmcnt but tlc tiaditional, social, cultuial and
family lifc of vomcn. Aftci losing tlc foicsts and gctting dclabilitatcd
fiom tlcii nativc placcs, mcn folk usually migiatc to tovns in scaicl of
somc job vlilc tlc vomcn aic lcft bclind to look aftci tlc family and
lousclold vitl littlc icsouiccs. Ocvclopmcnt piojccts likc mining vciy
oftcn play lavoc vitl tlc lifc of vomcn. Mcn can still voik in tlc
mincs oi migiatc to tovns aftci gctting compcnsation fiom tlc govcin-
mcnt. Tlc Natinnal Nctwnrk fnr Wnmcn and Mining (NNWM) vitl
about 2O gioups in diffcicnt mining statcs of India is iigltly figlting
foi a "gcndcr audit" of India's mining companics. Tlc displaccd vomcn
aic tlc voist affcctcd as tlcy do not gct any compcnsation and aic
totally dcpcndcnt upon tlc malcs foi vagcs. Tlc displaccd vomcn
diivcn out fiom tlcii land-bascd voik aic foiccd to takc up maiginalizcd
voik vlicl is liglly un-oiganiscd and oftcn socially lumiliating. Is-
sucs iclatcd to tlcii dignity and lonoui lavc not yct icccivcd any at-
tcntion. Tlc NNWM is nov voiking foi iiglts of vomcn ovci natuial
icsouiccs, icscttlcmcnt and compcnsation issucs.
Bcsidcs tlc govcinmcnt initiativcs tlcic aic nov a numbci of non-
govcinmcnt oiganizations (NCO's), mostly as "Mahila Mandals" to
cicatc avaicncss amongst vomcn of icmotc villagcs cvcn to cmpovci
tlcm, tiain tlcm, cducatc tlcm and lclp tlcm to bccomc cconomi-
cally sclf-dcpcndcnt.
On an intcinational lcvcl, tlc Unitcd Natinns Dccadc fnr Wnmcn
(1975-85) vitncsscd inclusion of scvcial vomcn vclfaic iclatcd issucs
on intcinational agcnda. Tlc CEDAW (Intcrnatinnal Cnnvcntinn nn
thc Eliminatinn nf all fnrms nf Discriminatinn Against Wnmcn, 1979)
las bccn a landmaik outcomc of tlc dccadc to bc acccptcd as an
intcinational standaid foi tlc piotcction and piomotion of vomcn's
luman iiglts and socio-cconomic upliftmcnt. It is, lovcvci, most
impoitant foi all vomcn, in tlc mainsticam, tiibals, icfugccs and tlc
dovn-tioddcn to bc cducatcd about tlcsc issucs.
Child Welfare
Clildicn aic considcicd to bc tlc asscts of a socicty. But, iionically, tlc
statistical figuics tcll us tlat about a million babics, out of 21 million
boin cvciy ycai in India aic abandoncd soon aftci tlcii biitl duc to
diffcicnt socio-cconomic icasons. Aiound 2O million clildicn in oui
countiy aic cstimatcd to bc voiking as clild labouis, somc of tlcm in
vaiious lazaidous industiics likc tlc matcl industiy, fiicvoik indus-
tiy, biassvaic industiy and pottciy industiy. Povcity is tlc main ica-
son to diivc tlcsc clildicn into long louis of voik in misciablc, un-
lcaltly conditions and yct tlcy do not gct tlc minimum nutiitivc food,
vlat to talk of cducational and iccicational facilitics, vlicl aic tlcii
clildlood iiglts.
Tlc LN Ccncial Asscmbly in 1959 adoptcd tlc Dcclaratinn nf
thc Rights nf a child. Aftci tlc LN convcntion on Riglts of Clild, it
bccamc Intcrnatinnal Law in tlc ycai 199O, consisting of 54 aiticlcs
and a sct of intcinational standaids and mcasuics to piomotc and pio-
tcct tlc vcll bcing of clildicn in a socicty.
Tlc lav dcfincs iiglt of tlc clild to suivival, piotcction, dcvclop-
mcnt and paiticipation. Tlc iiglt to suivival cmplasizcs on adcquatcly
good standaids of living, good nutiition and lcaltl. Tlc iiglt to pio-
tcction mcans ficcdom fiom cxploitation, abusc, inluman ticatmcnt
and ncglcct. Tlc iiglt to dcvclopmcnt cnsuics acccss to cducation,
caily clildlood caic and suppoit, social sccuiity and iiglt to lcisuic
and iccication. Tlc iiglt to paiticipation mcans ficcdom of tlouglt,
conscicncc and icligion and appiopiiatc infoimation to tlc clild.
Tlc Wnrld Summit nn Childrcn, lcld on Scptcmbci 3O, 199O lad
a focusscd agcnda foi tlc vcll bcing of tlc clildicn taigctcd to bc
aclicvcd in tlc bcginning of tlc ncv millcnnium. India is also a
signatoiy to tlc Wnrld Dcclaratinn nn Survival, prntcctinn and
dcvclnpmcnt nf childrcn. A national plan of action foi clildicn las
bccn foimulatcd by tlc Ministry nf Human Rcsnurcc Dcvclnpmcnt
(MHRD), Covcinmcnt of India in vlicl a stiatcgic plan las bccn
foimulatcd foi clildicn's vclfaic in tlc piioiity aicas of lcaltl,
cducation, nutiition, clcan and safc diinking vatci, sanitation and
cnviionmcnt. Lnivcisalisation of cffcctivc acccss to at lcast piimaiy
lcvcl sclooling, spccial cmplasis on giil clild's cducation including
lcaltl and nutiition, upgiadation of lomc-bascd skills, mid-day mcals
sclcmc, cxpansion of caily clildlood dcvclopmcnt activitics including
lov-cost family bascd involvcmcnts aic somc of tlc impoitant actions
cnvisagcd.
Clildicn aic also tlc most affcctcd duc to cnviionmcntal pollu-
tion. They consume more water, food and aIr than aduIts, hence more
susceptIbIe to any envIronmentaI contamInatIon"- says onc of tlc sci-
cntific icpoits of Ccntci foi Scicncc and Enviionmcnt (CSE), Ncv
Oclli. Watci boinc discascs aic tlc biggcst tlicat to clildicn, affccting
aiound 6 million clildicn in India. Clildlood cancci iatcs aic also
incicasing by 6% cvciy ycai. Evcn tlc gioving foctus in tlc motlci's
vomb is not safc and ficc fiom tlc advcisc cffccts of cnviionmcntal
toxins. It is ligl timc to voik togctlci foi a sccuic and clcanci cnvi-
ionmcnt so as to givc oui clildicn a clcanci and safci voild to livc in.
ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT
AND HUMAN HEALTH
Infoimation tcclnology las ticmcndous potcntial in tlc ficld of cnvi-
ionmcntal cducation and lcaltl as in any otlci ficld likc busincss, cco-
nomics, politics oi cultuic. Ocvclopmcnt of intcinct facilitics, voild-
vidc vcb, gcogiaplical infoimation systcm (CIS) and infoimation
tliougl satcllitcs las gcnciatcd a vcaltl of up-to-datc infoimation on
vaiious aspccts of cnviionmcnt and lcaltl. A numbci of soft-vaics
lavc bccn dcvclopcd foi cnviionmcnt and lcaltl studics vlicl aic usci
fiicndly and can lclp an caily lcainci in knoving and undcistanding
tlc subjcct.
Database
Oatabasc is tlc collcction of intci-iclatcd data on vaiious subjccts. It is
usually in computciizcd foim and can bc ictiicvcd vlcncvci icquiicd.
In tlc computci tlc infoimation of databasc is aiiangcd in a systcmatic
mannci tlat is casily managcablc and can bc vciy quickly ictiicvcd.
Tlc Ministiy of Enviionmcnt and Ioicsts, Covcinmcnt of India las
takcn up tlc task of compiling a databasc on vaiious biotic communitics.
Tlc compiclcnsivc databasc includcs vildlifc databasc, conscivation
databasc, foicst covci databasc ctc. Oatabasc is also availablc foi discascs
likc HIV/AIOS, Malaiia, Iluoiosis, ctc.
Natinnal Managcmcnt Infnrmatinn Systcm (NMIS) of tlc
Ocpaitmcnt of Scicncc and Tcclnology las compilcd a databasc on
Rcscaicl and Ocvclopmcnt Piojccts along vitl infoimation about
icscaicl scicntists and pcisonncl involvcd.
Envirnnmcntal Infnrmatinn Systcm (ENVIS): Tlc Ministiy of
Enviionmcnt and Ioicsts, Covcinmcnt of India las cicatcd an
Infoimation Systcm callcd Enviionmcntal Infoimation Systcm
(ENVIS). Witl its lcadquaitcis in Oclli, it functions in 25 diffcicnt
ccntcis all ovci tlc countiy. Tlc ENVIS ccntcis voik foi gcnciating a
nctvoik of databasc in aicas likc pollution contiol, clcan tcclnologics,
icmotc scnsing, coastal ccology, biodivcisity, vcstcin glats and castcin
glats, cnviionmcntal managcmcnt, mcdia iclatcd to cnviionmcnt,
icncvablc cncigy, dcscitification, mangiovcs, vildlifc, Himalayan
ccology, mining, ctc. Tlc National Institutc of Occupational Hcaltl
piovidcs computciizcd infoimation on occupational lcaltl i.c. tlc
lcaltl aspccts of pcoplc voiking in vaiious lazaidous and non-
lazaidous industiics, safcty mcasuics ctc.
Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS)
Satcllitc imagciics piovidc us actual infoimation about vaiious plysical
and biological icsouiccs and also to somc cxtcnt about tlcii statc of
dcgiadation in a digital foim tliougl icmotc scnsing. Wc aic ablc to
gatlci digital infoimation on cnviionmcntal aspccts likc vatci logging,
dcscitification, dcfoicstation, uiban spiavl, iivci and canal nctvoik,
mincial and cncigy icscivcs and so on. Ccogiaplical Infoimation
Systcm (CIS) las piovcd to bc a vciy cffcctivc tool in cnviionmcntal
managcmcnt. CIS is a tcchniquc nf supcrimpnsing varinus thcmatic
maps using digital data nn a largc numbcr nf intcr-rclatcd nr intcr-
dcpcndcnt aspccts. Scvcial uscful soft-vaics lavc bccn dcvclopcd foi
voiking in tlc ficld of CIS. Oiffcicnt tlcmatic maps containing digital
infoimation on a numbci of aspccts likc vatci icsouiccs, industiial
giovtl, luman scttlcmcnts, ioad nctvoik, soil typc, foicst land, ciop
land oi giassland ctc. aic supciimposcd in a laycicd foim in computci
using softvaics. Sucl infoimation is vciy uscful foi futuic land-usc
planning. Evcn intcipictations of pollutcd zoncs, dcgiadcd lands oi
discascd ciopland ctc. can bc madc bascd on CIS. Planning foi locating
suitablc aicas foi industiial giovtl is nov bcing donc using CIS by
picpaiing Znning Atlas. CIS scivcs to clcck unplanncd giovtl and
iclatcd cnviionmcntal pioblcms. Oui satcllitc data also lclps in
pioviding coiicct, icliablc and vciifiablc infoimation about foicst covci,
succcss of conscivation cffoits ctc. Tlcy also piovidc infoimation of
atmosplciic plcnomcna likc appioacl of monsoon, ozonc layci
dcplction, invcision plcnomcna, smog ctc. Wc aic ablc to discovci
many ncv icscivcs of oil, mincials ctc. vitl tlc lclp of infoimation
gcnciatcd by icmotc scnsing satcllitcs. Tlus icmotc scnsing and CIS
play a kcy iolc in icsouicc mapping, cnviionmcntal conscivation,
managcmcnt, planning and cnviionmcntal impact asscssmcnt.
It also lclps in idcntifying scvcial discasc infcstcd aicas vlicl
aic pionc to somc vcctoi-boinc discascs likc malaiia, sclistosomiasis
ctc. bascd upon mapping of sucl aicas.
Tlcic aic scvcial Distributinn Infnrmatinn Ccntrcs (DICs) in
oui countiy tlat aic linkcd vitl cacl otlci and vitl tlc ccntial infoi-
mation nctvoik laving acccss to intcinational databasc.
Wnrld Widc Wcb: A vast quantum of cuiicnt data is availablc on
Woild Widc Wcb. Onc of tlc most impoitant on-linc lcaining ccntci
vitl povci vcb is vvv.mllc.com/cnviionmcntal scicncc and multi-
mcdia Oigital Contcnt Managci (OCM) in tlc foim of CO-ROM
piovidcs tlc most cuiicnt and iclcvant infoimation on piinciplcs of
cnviionmcntal scicncc, vaiious pioblcms, quciics, applications and
solutions.
Tlc Woild Widc Wcb vitl icsouicc matciial on cvciy aspcct,
class-ioom activitics, digital filcs of plotos, povci-point lcctuic
picscntations, animations, vcb-cxciciscs and quiz las piovcd to bc
cxticmcly uscful botl foi tlc studcnts and tlc tcaclcis of cnviionmcntal
studics.
Tlc iolc of onlinc lcaining ccntci vcbsitc las tlc folloving fca-
tuics:
(a) Studcnt fricndly fcaturcs: Tlcsc includc piacticc quiz, lov-to
study tips, lypcilinks on cvciy claptci topics vitl dctailcd infoima-
tion, vcb cxciciscs, casc studics, cnviionmcnt maps, kcy-tcims, caicci
infoimation, cuiicnt aiticlcs, intciactivc cncyclopcdia and lov to con-
tact youi clcctcd officials.
(h) Tcachcr-fricndly fcaturcs includc in addition to abovc supplc-
mcnt icsouicc claits, additional casc studics, ansvcis to vcb cxciciscs,
solutions to ciitical tlinking qucstions, cditing facility to add oi dclctc
qucstions and cicatc multiplc vcisions of samc tcst ctc.
Infoimation tcclnology is cxpanding iapidly vitl incicasing ap-
plications and ncv avcnucs aic bcing opcncd vitl cffcctivc iolc in cdu-
cation, managcmcnt and planning in tlc ficld of cnviionmcnt and
lcaltl.
QUESTIONS
1. Wlat do you mcan by (a) Ooubling timc (h) Total fcitility iatc (c)
Zcio population giovtl (d) Lifc cxpcctancy.
2. Hov can agc-stiuctuic pyiamids scivc as uscful tools foi picdicting
population giovtl ticnds of a nation ! Explain vitl cxamplcs.
3. Wlat is mcant by 'Population Explosion' ! Oiscuss tlc Indian
sccnaiio.
4. Wlat is mcant by population stabilization ! Oiscuss tlc family
vclfaic and family planning piogiam in Indian contcxt.
5. Oiscuss tlc influcncc of cnviionmcntal paiamctcis and pollution
on luman lcaltl.
6. Wlat is Lnivcisal Occlaiation of Human Riglts ! Wlat is its
impoitancc in aclicving tlc goals of cquity, justicc and
sustainability !
7. Oiscuss tlc salicnt fcatuics of Oiaft dcclaiation of Human Riglts
and Enviionmcnt.
8. Wlat aic tlc objcctivcs and clcmcnts of valuc cducation ! Hov
can tlc samc bc aclicvcd !
9. Biicfly discuss HIV/AIOS, modc of its spicad and its cffccts on
cnviionmcnt.
10. Oiscuss vaiious issucs and mcasuics foi vomcn and clild vcl-
faic at intcinational and national lcvcl.
11. Wlat is tlc iolc of NMIS, ENVIS and CIS in disscmination of
cnviionmcntal infoimation and cnviionmcntal managcmcnt.
VISIT TO A LOCAL AREA TO DOCUMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS
Visit may bc planncd to any ncaiby iivci, foicst, giassland, lill oi moun-
tain, dcpcnding upon casy acccss and impoitancc. Wiitc a icpoit bascd
on youi obscivations and undcistanding about vaiious aspccts of cnvi-
ionmcnt. Tlc contcnts of tlis book (Lnit 1-7) piovidc tlc icquiicd
infoimation foi tlc study and foi aiiiving at somc impoitant conclu-
sions about tlc systcm.
(A) STUDY OF RIVER ENVIRONMENT
1. Backgrnund data: Notc dovn tlc namc of tlc iivci oi tiibutaiy, its
placc of oiigin and its couisc oi ioutc. Iind out vlctlci tlc iivci is
pcicnnial oi scasonal in natuic.
2. Watcr quality nbscrvatinns:
(E) Notc dovn vlctlci tlc vatci of tlc iivci is clcai oi tuibid.
If it is clcai, vlat do you cxpcct! Pcnctiation of liglt into tlc
vatci vould bc moic, tlcicfoic giccn aquatic plants vill bc
gioving bcttci. Tlc piimaiy pioductivity vill bc ligl.
If it is tuibid, lov vould it affcct tlc piimaiy pioductivity of
tlc iivci! You knov tlat sunliglt pcnctiation is obstiuctcd by
tuibidity.
(EE) Notc tlc tcmpciatuic of vatci vitl a tlcimomctci oi
tlcimopiobc. Also notc tlc tcmpciatuic of tlc aii.
If tlc tcmpciatuic of tlc iivci vatci is quitc ligl (> 5C tlan
tlc ambicnt vatci tcmpciatuic), vlat can bc tlc icason! Iind
out if any tlcimal pollution is occuiiing in tlc iivci duc to
disclaigc of cfflucnts fiom somc industiy.
Wiitc dovn tlc piobablc impacts of tlcimal pollution on
aquatic lifc.
7EJ
&
FieId Work
236
Field Work 237
(EEE) Oo you obscivc any fiotl and foam oi daik colouicd oi gicasy
substanccs in tlc iivci!
If ycs, tlcn vlat aic tlcsc! Iind out tlc likcly souiccs of tlcsc
pollutants.
(EL) Is tlcic any point along tlc iivci stictcl undci study fiom
vlcic disclaigc of vastcvatci (industiial/municipal scvagc) is bcing
donc into tlc iivci! If ycs, tlcn look foi tlc visual diffcicnccs in vatci
quality at tlc upsticam and dovnsticam sitcs.
(L) Octciminc tlc pH of vatci using a poitablc pH-scan. Tlc pH
vould noimally iangc bctvccn 6.5 to 8.5. If tlc pH is quitc lov i.c.
acidic vatcis, it indicatcs pollution by industiics. If tlc pH is quitc
ligl i.c. alkalinc, it indicatcs contamination by municipal scvagc.
Is youi iivci vatci of good quality oi it is pollutcd!
3. Obscrvatinns nn aquatic lifc
(E) Look foi diffcicnt typcs of lifc foims. Oo you find somc ficc-
floating small plants (plytoplanktons) oi small animals (zooplanktons)!
Aic tlcic somc iootcd plants sccn undcincatl! Oo you obscivc aquatic
animals likc diffcicnt fislcs, toitoisc/tuitlc, ciocodilc/alligatci, vatci
snakc ctc.! Wlat aic tlc impoitant aquatic biids sccn by you!
(EE) Oiav a food-vcb diagiam tlat vould bc picscnt in tlc iivci.
4. Uscs: Hov is tlc iivci vatci uscd! Picpaic a list of tlc uscs.
5. Human impacts: Wlat aic tlc majoi impacts causcd by lu-
man bcings in youi aica on tlc iivci! Havc you lcaint of any majoi
incidcnt c.g. massivc fisl dcatl oi cattlc dcatl oi skin pioblcms to lu-
man bcings consuming tlc vatci! Tiy to intcipict tlc samc.
(B) STUDY OF A FOREST
(E) Backgrnund data: Notc dovn tlc namc of tlc foicst. Wlat
typc of a foicst is it i.c. a tiopical iain foicst/dcciduous foicst ctc. ! Is
tlc picscnt foicst, a pait of somc Biosplcic icscivc oi National paik oi
Sanctuaiy!
If ycs, tlcn vlat aic tlc spccial fcatuics associatcd vitl it!
(EE) Fnrcst structurc: Notc dovn tlc salicnt fcatuics of tlc foicst.
Wlat aic tlc dominant ticcs! Aic tlcic any lcibaccous climb-
cis oi voody climbcis! Is tlc foicst laving a closc canopy oi
las opcn spaccs!
Oocs tlc foicst slov a tlick/dcnsc giovtl oi it is dcgiadcd!
Is tlcic an undcistoiy of sliubs, lcibs and giasscs of lovci
lciglt!
Is tlcic a tlick oi tlin foicst flooi consisting of lcaf littci
(diy dcad lcavcs), algac, fungi ctc.! Wlat is tlc usc of
stiatificd stiuctuic i.c. multi-laycicd stiuctuic of vcgctation
in tlc foicst!
(EEE) Cnmmcrcial uscs: Picpaic a list of tlc vaiious uscs of tlc
picscnt foicst.
(EL) Ecnlngical utility: Oo you fccl coolci in tlc foicst! Is it moic
lumid! Is tlc aii moic ficsl tlan tlat in tlc city! Hov many typcs of
biids, animals oi insccts do you scc aiound! Makc a list of tlc ccologi-
cal uscs of tlc foicst bascd on youi obscivations.
(L) Human impacts: Oo you obscivc any antliopogcnic activi-
tics in tlc foicst AC mining, quaiiying, dcfoicstation, dam building,
giazing, timbci cxtiaction ctc.!
Wlat vould bc tlcii piobablc impacts!
(C) ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF A GRASSLAND
(E) Backgrnund infnrmatinn: Wlat typc of giassland is tlis! Is
it pcicnnial oi annual! Aic tlcic tall giasscs oi sloit giasscs! Is it
dominatcd by just a fcv spccics oi is it a mixcd typc of giassland! Is it
piotcctcd EA fcnccd oi distuibcd!
(EE) Crassland quality nbscrvatinns:
Tiy to idcntify tlc namcs of somc of tlc dominant giasscs oi
plants. Aic tlcsc dominant plants laving a soft, dclicatc, juicy
natuic vitl giccn coloui sloving good palatability! OR tlc
dominant plants lavc a coaisc, laid tcxtuic vitl spincs/
tloins!
Takc out a fcv plants to scc vlat typc of ioots do tlcy lavc,
Aic tlcic numcious fibious ioots in a buncl, (advcntitious
ioots), iunnci-typc, laving ilizomcs oi tlcic is a singlc, long
tap ioot!
If tlc ioots aic advcntitious, tlcy tcnd to bind tlc soil paiti-
clcs fiimly and lclp in consciving tlc soil. If tlc ioot is tap
ioot, tlcn it cannot lclp in binding tlc soil paiticlcs fiimly.
Wlat is tlc condition dominant in tlc picscnt giassland! Oo
you obscivc soil ciosion!
(EEE) Crazing and Ovcrgrazing: Iind out if tlcic is managcd giaz-
ing on tlc giassland i.c. only a limitcd numbci of livcstock (cattlc) is
bcing allovcd to giazc OR tlcic is unmanagcd giazing.
Noimal giazing is uscful foi incicasing tlc ovciall pioductivity/
yicld of tlc giassland. Ovcigiazing las scvcial fai icacling
Field Work 239
conscqucnccs. Makc youi ovn obscivations in tlc picscnt giassland
i.c. vlctlci tlcic is limitcd giazing oi ovcigiazing!
If you find tlat good quality giasscs/lcibs aic gioving tlcn
it is iigltly giazcd.
If you scc dcnudcd aicas vitl littlc giass covci it slovs
ovcigiazing.
If you obscivc tloiny, laid, piickly plants occupying somc
aicas, it indicatcs dcgiadation of tlc giassland duc to
ovcigiazing.
(EL) Uscs: Picpaic a list of tlc utilitics of tlc giassland.
(D) STUDY OF MOUNTAIN/HILLY AREA
(E) Backgrnund data: Notc dovn tlc namc of tlc mountain
iangcs oi tlc lills. Notc dovn tlc altitudc of tlc icgion. Iind out tlc
avciagc annual iainfall and tcmpciatuic in tlc aica.
(EE) Obscrvatinns nn natural vcgctatinn: Makc youi obscivations
on tlc foicsts picscnt on tlc lill slopcs. Oo you find dcnsc foicsts on
tlc lills oi dcfoicstation is obscivcd in somc aicas! Look foi somc
dominant ticc spccics and find out tlcii namcs and uscs fiom local
pcoplc.
(EEE) Landslidcs: You vill comc acioss somc icgions, vlcic land-
slidc vould lavc occuiicd icccntly oi in tlc past. Oo you obscivc any
majoi antliopogcnic activity tlcic! Wlat is tlc condition of foicst
giovtl in tlc icgion! Can you cstablisl somc links bctvccn tlcsc as-
pccts! You can gatlci somc infoimation about sucl aspccts fiom tlc
nativc pcoplc.
(EL) Watcr-shcds: Tiy to look foi somc spiings, iivcis and clan-
ncls coming out fiom tlc mountains. Tlc land aica fiom vlicl vatci
diains undci giavity to a common diainagc clanncl is callcd vatci-
slcd.
Catlci somc infoimation about tlc vatci slcd in tlc study aica,
its uscs and its status i.c. vlctlci it is vcll managcd oi dcgiadcd.
(L) Plantatinns/Farming: Look foi tlc typc of plantations (AC
tca plantation) oi faiming (c.g. maizc, vlcat) donc aitificially on tlc
lill slops.
Wlat typc of faiming is donc! Is it slifting cultivation, tiadi-
tional oi modcinizcd! Wlat vould bc tlcii impacts!
Oo you obscivc tciiacc faiming, contoui oi stiip ciopping!
Wly is sucl ciopping lclpful in lills!
Iind out tlc vatci and nutiicnt icquiicmcnts of tlcsc ciops.
Oo you find tlcsc ciops/plantations vcll suitcd to lill
cnviionmcnt OR do you tlink tlcy can lavc somc damaging
cffccts latci on! Oiscuss vitl local pcoplc.
(EL) Hov mucl antliopogcnic activitics do you obscivc on tlc
mountain/lill!
Tlcsc activitics usually includc mining, quaiiying, touiism,
constiuction, lydioclcctiic piojccts ctc. Wlat majoi impacts do you
obscivc oi picdict in futuic!
VISIT TO SOME LOCAL POLLUTED SITE
Human activitics iclatcd to uibanization and industiialization lavc
lcd to laigc scalc pollution of tlc cnviionmcnt. Agiicultuial piacticcs
lavc also lcd to pcsticidc pollution, vatci logging and salinization. A
visit to somc industiial aica oi dcgiadcd land aica vill bc vciy uscful
to obtain fiist land infoimation about tlc samc.
(A) STUDY OF AN INDUSTRIALLY POLLUTED AREA
(E) Backgrnund data: Notc dovn tlc namc of tlc industiy, its
capacity, ycai of cstablislmcnt, tlc typc of pioduct and tlc typc of
vastcs/cmissions pioduccd by it.
(EE) Pnllutinn aspccts: Look at tlc stacks (climncys) in tlc aica
vlicl miglt bc giving ccitain cmissions. Wlat aic tlc toxic gascs
picscnt in tlcm - aic tlcy obnoxious smclling! As tlc vind blovs, do
tlcy movc in a diicction tlat is tovaids tlc city oi in otlci diicction!
Oo you obscivc lugc lcaps of sludgc aiound/outsidc tlc factoiy!
Oo you find any ticcs oi otlci plants gioving in sucl dumping sitcs!
Iind out if tlcic is any Efflucnt Ticatmcnt Plant (ETP) vitlin
tlc industiy to ticat tlc vastcs bcfoic disclaiging tlcm. You can also
scc tlc voiking of an ETP, vitl piioi pcimission fiom tlc industiy
pcoplc.
(EEE) Crccn bclt: Oo you obscivc a giccn bclt plantcd aiound tlc
industiy! It las nov bccomc mandatoiy foi all big industiics to plant
giccn ticcs aiound tlc industiy.
Tlis is bccausc tlc ticc canopy (lcavcs) las got an cxccllcnt ca-
pacity to absoib vaiious pollutants and also icducc noisc. Tlcy also
iclcasc oxygcn to makc tlc atmosplcic puic.
(EL) Hcalth aspccts: Tiy to gct infoimation about any sciious
lcaltl impacts in tlc pcoplc living in tlc vicinity of tlc industiy. c.g.
Field Work 241
Tlc vatci diavn fiom tubcvclls/land pumps may bc con-
taminatcd vitl somc toxic substanccs/dycs ctc. vlicl on
diinking may causc lcaltl ailmcnts.
Tlc toxic gascs and suspcndcd paiticulatc mattci iclcascd by
tlc industiy is inlalcd by tlc pcoplc living ncaiby vlicl miglt
causc skin iiiitation/allcigy/icspiiatoiy pioblcms.
(B) STUDY OF A WATER-LOGGED/SALINE LAND
(E) Backgrnund infnrmatinn: Visit a vatci loggcd oi salt-affcctcd
land in somc iuial agiicultuial aica. An aica laving pcimancntly stand-
ing vatci on tlc soil is a vatci-loggcd soil. You can obscivc ciusts of
vlitc salts on tlc soil suifacc making it baiicn-tlat is a salinc soil.
Catlci infoimation fiom tlc faimcis about its listoiical back-
giound i.c. lov mucl iiiigation vas bcing donc in tlcsc aicas and foi
lov long! Was tlc aica fcitilc somc ycais ago and las giadually bc-
comc vatci-loggcd and salinc! Wlat vas tlc ciop giovn cailici! Tiy
to coiiclatc tlc pioblcm vitl tlc iiiigation piacticcs follovcd tlcic.
(EE) Salinity and crnp grnwth:
Iind out tlc salinity lcvcl (Elcctiical conductivity, EC) of tlc
soil. Ioi tlis you can takc 1O giams of soil and dissolvc it in
2O ml of vatci in a bcakci. Oip an EC piobc into it vlicl vill
indicatc tlc EC of tlc soil. Tlc non-salinc noimal soil las
EC < 4 dS/m. If tlc EC cxcccds 4, it is salinc. Tlc EC can bc
as ligl as 2O-4O dS/m also. But tlcn it vould laidly suppoit
any vcgctation.
Oo sucl soils suppoit any ciops! Notc dovn tlc namcs of tlc
salt-tolciant and salt-scnsitivc ciops.
(EEE) Rcmcdiatinn: Iind out vlat icmcdial mcasuics aic bcing
takcn by tlc faimci to dcal vitl tlc pioblcm. Wlat mcasuics can you
suggcst.
STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS AND BIRDS
Biodivcisity oi tlc vaiiability among plants, animals and miciobcs
found on tlis caitl is just icmaikablc and las ticmcndous potcntial in
tcims of its consumptivc, pioductivc, social, ctlical and ccological valuc.
It is voitlvlilc to knov about somc common plants, insccts and biids
of oui locality.
(=) Plants: Study tlc common plants of youi locality, including
ticcs, sliubs and lcibs. You can study tlcm mainly in iclation to tlcii
valuc.
(E) Mcdicinal plants: Local pcoplc oftcn lavc indigcnous knovl-
cdgc about tlc mcdicinal valuc of vaiious plants. Iind out vlicl of
tlc plants in youi locality lavc mcdicinal valuc !
(EE) Timbcr wnnd trccs: Notc dovn tlc impoitant ticcs of youi
locality vlicl yicld timbci vood.
(EEE) Misccllancnus: Notc dovn tlc namcs of plants vlicl lavc
otlci uscs likc pioducing gum, icsins, tannin, dyc, iubbci, fibic ctc.
(>) Insccts: Idcntify somc common insccts of youi locality
(E) vlicl may bc spicading discascs.
(EE) Wlicl aic ciop-pcsts oi animal pcsts.
(EEE) Wlicl lclp in pollination of oinamcntal/ciop flovcis.
(?) Birds: Idcntify somc common biids of youi locality. Iind out
lov somc of tlcm aic uscful to us and somc causc damagc to oui
ciops/fiuits. Obscivc small biids vitl long bcaks pollinating flovcis.
Obscivc tlc biids in tlc plouglcd ficlds cating insccts/laivac.
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Iig. 6.4. Acid dcposition (diy dcposition and vct dcposition).

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