Sear

Waste management

Wast e management or wast e disposal includes t he processes and act ions required t o manage
wast e from it s incept ion t o it s final disposal.[1] This includes t he collect ion, t ransport , t reat ment
and disposal of wast e, t oget her wit h monit oring and regulat ion of t he wast e management
process and wast e-relat ed laws, t echnologies, economic mechanisms.

A specialized trash collection truck providing regular municipal trash collection in a neighborhood in Stockholm,
Sweden
Waste pickers burning e-waste in Agbogbloshie, a site near Accra in Ghana that processes large volumes of
international electronic waste. The pickers burn the plastics off of materials, and collect the metals for recycling.
However this process exposes pickers and their local communities to toxic fumes.

Containers for consumer waste collection at the Gdańsk University of Technology

A recycling and waste-to-energy plant for waste that is not exported

Wast e can be solid, liquid, or gases and each t ype has different met hods of disposal and
management . Wast e management deals wit h all t ypes of wast e, including indust rial, biological,
household, municipal, organic, biomedical, radioact ive wast es. In some cases, wast e can pose a
t hreat t o human healt h.[2] Healt h issues are associat ed t hroughout t he ent ire process of wast e
management . Healt h issues can also arise indirect ly or direct ly. Direct ly, t hrough t he handling of
solid wast e, and indirect ly t hrough t he consumpt ion of wat er, soil and food. Wast e is produced
by[3] human act ivit y, for example, t he ext ract ion and processing of raw mat erials.[4] Wast e
management is int ended t o reduce adverse effect s of wast e on human healt h, t he environment ,
planet ary resources and aest het ics.

The aim of wast e management is t o reduce t he dangerous effect s of such wast e on t he

environment and human healt h. A big part of wast e management deals wit h municipal solid
wast e, which is creat ed by indust rial, commercial, and household act ivit y.

Wast e management pract ices are not uniform among count ries (developed and developing
nat ions); regions (urban and rural areas), and resident ial and indust rial sect ors can all t ake
different approaches.[5]

Proper management of wast e is import ant for building sust ainable and liveable cit ies, but it
remains a challenge for many developing count ries and cit ies. A report found t hat effect ive
wast e management is relat ively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of municipal budget s.
Operat ing t his essent ial municipal service requires int egrat ed syst ems t hat are efficient ,
sust ainable, and socially support ed.[6] A large port ion of wast e management pract ices deal wit h
municipal solid wast e (MSW) which is t he bulk of t he wast e t hat is creat ed by household,
indust rial, and commercial act ivit y.[7] According t o t he Int ergovernment al Panel on Climat e
Change (IPCC), municipal solid wast e is expect ed t o reach approximat ely 3.4 Gt by 2050;
however, policies and lawmaking can reduce t he amount of wast e produced in different areas
and cit ies of t he world.[8] Measures of wast e management include measures for int egrat ed
t echno-economic mechanisms[9] of a circular economy, effect ive disposal facilit ies, export and
import cont rol[10][11] and opt imal sust ainable design of product s t hat are produced.

In t he first syst emat ic review of t he scient ific evidence around global wast e, it s management
and it s impact on human healt h and life, aut hors concluded t hat about a fourt h of all t he
municipal solid t errest rial wast e is not collect ed and an addit ional fourt h is mismanaged aft er
collect ion, oft en being burned in open and uncont rolled fires – or close t o one billion t ons per
year when combined. They also found t hat broad priorit y areas each lack a "high-qualit y research
base", part ly due t o t he absence of "subst ant ial research funding", which mot ivat ed scient ist s
oft en require.[12][13] Elect ronic wast e (ewast e) includes discarded comput er monit ors,
mot herboards, mobile phones and chargers, compact discs (CDs), headphones, t elevision set s, air
condit ioners and refrigerat ors. According t o t he Global E-wast e Monit or 2017, India generat es ~
2 million t onnes (Mt e) of e-wast e annually and ranks fift h among t he e-wast e producing
count ries, aft er t he US, P.R. China, Japan and Germany.[14]

Principles of waste management

Diagram of the waste hierarchy

Waste hierarchy E…

The wast e hierarchy refers t o t he "3 Rs" Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, which classifies wast e
management st rat egies according t o t heir desirabilit y in t erms of wast e minimisat ion. The wast e
hierarchy is t he bedrock of most wast e minimizat ion st rat egies. The aim of t he wast e hierarchy is
t o ext ract t he maximum pract ical benefit s from product s and t o generat e t he minimum amount
of end wast e; see: resource recovery.[15] The wast e hierarchy is represent ed as a pyramid
because t he basic premise is t hat policies should promot e measures t o prevent t he generat ion
of wast e. The next st ep or preferred act ion is t o seek alt ernat ive uses for t he wast e t hat has
been generat ed i.e. by re-use. The next is recycling which includes compost ing. Following t his
st ep is mat erial recovery and wast e-t o-energy. The final act ion is disposal, in landfills or t hrough
incinerat ion wit hout energy recovery. This last st ep is t he final resort for wast e which has not
been prevent ed, divert ed or recovered.[16] The wast e hierarchy represent s t he progression of a
product or mat erial t hrough t he sequent ial st ages of t he pyramid of wast e management . The
hierarchy represent s t he lat t er part s of t he life-cycle for each product .

Life cycle of a product E…

The life-cycle begins wit h t he design, t hen proceeds t hrough manufact ure, dist ribut ion, and
primary use and t hen follows t hrough t he wast e hierarchy's st ages of reduce, reuse and recycle.
Each st age in t he life cycle offers opport unit ies for policy int ervent ion, t o ret hink t he need for
t he product , t o redesign t o minimize wast e pot ent ial, t o ext end it s use.[16] Product life cycle
analysis is a way t o opt imize t he use of t he world's limit ed resources by avoiding t he
unnecessary generat ion of wast e.

Resource efficiency E…

Resource efficiency reflect s t he underst anding t hat global economic growt h and development
can not be sust ained at current product ion and consumpt ion pat t erns. Globally, humanit y
ext ract s more resources t o produce goods t han t he planet can replenish.[16] Resource efficiency
is t he reduct ion of t he environment al impact from t he product ion and consumpt ion of t hese
goods, from final raw mat erial ext ract ion t o t he last use and disposal.

Polluter-pays principle E…

The pollut er-pays principle mandat es t hat t he pollut ing part y pays for t he impact on t he
environment . Wit h respect t o wast e management , t his generally refers t o t he requirement for a
wast e generat or t o pay for appropriat e disposal of t he unrecoverable mat erial.[17]

History

Throughout most of hist ory, t he amount of wast e generat ed by humans was insignificant due t o
low levels of populat ion densit y and exploit at ion of nat ural resources. Common wast e produced
during pre-modern t imes was mainly ashes and human biodegradable wast e, and t hese were
released back int o t he ground locally, wit h minimum environment al impact . Tools made out of
wood or met al were generally reused or passed down t hrough t he generat ions.

However, some civilizat ions have been more profligat e in t heir wast e out put t han ot hers. In
part icular, t he Maya of Cent ral America had a fixed mont hly rit ual, in which t he people of t he
village would gat her t oget her and burn t heir rubbish in large dumps.[18]

Modern era E…

Sir Edwin Chadwick's 1842 report The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population was influential in securing the
passage of the first legislation aimed at waste clearance and disposal.

Following t he onset of indust rialisat ion and t he sust ained urban growt h of large populat ion
cent res in England, t he buildup of wast e in t he cit ies caused a rapid det eriorat ion in levels of
sanit at ion and t he general qualit y of urban life. The st reet s became choked wit h filt h due t o t he
lack of wast e clearance regulat ions.[19] Calls for t he est ablishment of a municipal aut horit y wit h
wast e removal powers occurred as early as 1751, when Corbyn Morris in London proposed t hat "...
as t he preservat ion of t he healt h of t he people is of great import ance, it is proposed t hat t he
cleaning of t his cit y, should be put under one uniform public management , and all t he filt h
be...conveyed by t he Thames t o proper dist ance in t he count ry".[20]

However, it was not unt il t he mid-19t h cent ury, spurred by increasingly devast at ing cholera
out breaks and t he emergence of a public healt h debat e t hat t he first legislat ion on t he issue
emerged. Highly influent ial in t his new focus was t he report The Sanitary Condition of the
Labouring Population in 1842[21] of t he social reformer, Edwin Chadwick, in which he argued for
t he import ance of adequat e wast e removal and management facilit ies t o improve t he healt h and
wellbeing of t he cit y's populat ion.

In t he UK, t he Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevent ion Act of 1846 began what was t o be a
st eadily evolving process of t he provision of regulat ed wast e management in London. The
Met ropolit an Board of Works was t he first cit ywide aut horit y t hat cent ralized sanit at ion
regulat ion for t he rapidly expanding cit y and t he Public Healt h Act 1875 made it compulsory for
every household t o deposit t heir weekly wast e in "moveable recept acles" for disposal—t he first
concept for a dust -bin.[22] In t he Ashant i Empire by t he 19t h cent ury, t here exist ed a Public
Works Depart ment t hat was responsible for sanit at ion in Kumasi and it s suburbs. They kept t he
st reet s clean daily and commanded civilians t o keep t heir compounds clean and weeded.[23]

Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. 1894 destructor furnace. The use of incinerators for waste disposal became popular in the
late 19th century.

The dramat ic increase in wast e for disposal led t o t he creat ion of t he first incinerat ion plant s, or,
as t hey were t hen called, "dest ruct ors". In 1874, t he first incinerat or was built in Not t ingham by
Manlove, Alliot t & Co. Lt d. t o t he design of Alfred Fryer.[20] However, t hese were met wit h
opposit ion on account of t he large amount s of ash t hey produced and which waft ed over t he
neighbouring areas.[24]

Similar municipal syst ems of wast e disposal sprung up at t he t urn of t he 20t h cent ury in ot her
large cit ies of Europe and Nort h America. In 1895, New York Cit y became t he first U.S. cit y wit h
public-sect or garbage management .[22]

Early garbage removal t rucks were simply open bodied dump t rucks pulled by a t eam of horses.
They became mot orized in t he early part of t he 20t h cent ury and t he first closed body t rucks t o
eliminat e odours wit h a dumping lever mechanism were int roduced in t he 1920s in Brit ain.[25]
These were soon equipped wit h 'hopper mechanisms' where t he scooper was loaded at floor
level and t hen hoist ed mechanically t o deposit t he wast e in t he t ruck. The Garwood Load Packer
was t he first t ruck in 1938, t o incorporat e a hydraulic compact or.

Waste handling and transport

Moulded plastic, wheeled waste bin in Berkshire, England

Wast e collect ion met hods vary widely among different count ries and regions. Domest ic wast e
collect ion services are oft en provided by local government aut horit ies, or by privat e companies
for indust rial and commercial wast e. Some areas, especially t hose in less developed count ries,
do not have formal wast e-collect ion syst ems.

Waste handling practices E…

Curbside collect ion is t he most common met hod of disposal in most European count ries, Canada,
New Zealand, Unit ed St at es, and many ot her part s of t he developed world in which wast e is
collect ed at regular int ervals by specialised t rucks. This is oft en associat ed wit h curb-side
wast e segregat ion. In rural areas, wast e may need t o be t aken t o a t ransfer st at ion. Wast e
collect ed is t hen t ransport ed t o an appropriat e disposal facilit y. In some areas, vacuum
collect ion is used in which wast e is t ransport ed from t he home or commercial premises by
vacuum along small bore t ubes. Syst ems are in use in Europe and Nort h America.
In some jurisdict ions unsegregat ed wast e is collect ed at t he curb-side or from wast e t ransfer
st at ions and t hen sort ed int o recyclables and unusable wast e. Such syst ems are capable of
sort ing large volumes of solid wast e, salvaging recyclables, and t urning t he rest int o bio-gas and
soil condit ioner. In San Francisco, t he local government est ablished it s Mandatory Recycling and
Composting Ordinance in support of it s goal of "Zero wast e by 2020", requiring everyone in t he
cit y t o keep recyclables and compost ables out of t he landfill. The t hree st reams are collect ed
wit h t he curbside "Fant ast ic 3" bin syst em – blue for recyclables, green for compost ables, and
black for landfill-bound mat erials – provided t o resident s and businesses and serviced by San
Francisco's sole refuse hauler, Recology. The cit y's "Pay-As-You-Throw" syst em charges
cust omers by t he volume of landfill-bound mat erials, which provides a financial incent ive t o
separat e recyclables and compost ables from ot her discards. The cit y's Depart ment of t he
Environment 's Zero Wast e Program has led t he cit y t o achieve 80% diversion, t he highest
diversion rat e in Nort h America.[26] Ot her businesses such as Wast e Indust ries use a variet y of
colors t o dist inguish bet ween t rash and recycling cans. In addit ion, in some areas of t he world
t he disposal of municipal solid wast e can cause environment al st rain due t o official not having
benchmarks t hat help measure t he environment al sust ainabilit y of cert ain pract ices.[27]

Waste segregation E…

Recycling point at the Gdańsk University of Technology

This is t he separat ion of wet wast e and dry wast e. The purpose is t o recycle dry wast e easily
and t o use wet wast e as compost . When segregat ing wast e, t he amount of wast e t hat get s
landfilled reduces considerably, result ing in lower levels of air and wat er pollut ion. Import ant ly,
wast e segregat ion should be based on t he t ype of wast e and t he most appropriat e t reat ment
and disposal. This also makes it easier t o apply different processes t o t he wast e, like
compost ing, recycling and incinerat ion. It is import ant t o pract ice wast e management and
segregat ion as a communit y. One way t o pract ice wast e management is t o ensure t here is
awareness. The process of wast e segregat ion should be explained t o t he communit y.[28]

Segregat ed wast e is also oft en cheaper t o dispose of because it does not require as much
manual sort ing as mixed wast e. There are a number of import ant reasons why wast e segregat ion
is import ant such as legal obligat ions, cost savings and prot ect ion of human healt h and t he
environment . Inst it ut ions should make it as easy as possible for t heir st aff t o correct ly
segregat e t heir wast e. This can include labelling, making sure t here are enough accessible bins
and clearly indicat ing why segregat ion is so import ant .[29] Labeling is especially import ant when
dealing wit h nuclear wast e due t o how much harm t o human healt h t he excess product s of t he
nuclear cycle can cause.[30]

Financial models

In most developed count ries, domest ic wast e disposal is funded from a nat ional or local t ax
which may be relat ed t o income, or propert y values. Commercial and indust rial wast e disposal is
t ypically charged for as a commercial service, oft en as an int egrat ed charge which includes
disposal cost s. This pract ice may encourage disposal cont ract ors t o opt for t he cheapest
disposal opt ion such as landfill rat her t han t he environment ally best solut ion such as re-use and
recycling.

Financing of solid wast e management project s can be overwhelming for t he cit y government ,
especially if t he government see it as an import ant service t hey should render t o t he cit izen.
Donors and grant s are a funding mechanism t hat is dependent on t he int erest of t he donor
organizat ion. as much as it is a good way t o develop a cit y's wast e management infrast ruct ure,
at t ract ing and ut ilizing grant s is solely reliant on what t he donor considers as import ant .
Therefore, it may be a challenge for a cit y government t o dict at e how t he funds should be
dist ribut ed among t he various aspect of wast e management .[31]

In some areas like Taipei, t he cit y government charges it s households and indust ries for t he
volume of rubbish t hey produce. Wast e is collect ed by t he cit y council only if it is put in
government issued rubbish bags. This policy has successfully reduced t he amount of wast e t he
cit y produces and increased t he recycling rat e.[32]

Anot her example from a count ry t hat enforces a wast e t ax is It aly. Inst ead of using government
issued bags like Taipei, t he t ax is based on t wo rat es: fixed and variable. The fixed rat e is based
on t he size of t he house while t he variable is det ermined by t he amount of people living in t he
house.[33]
The World Bank finances and advises on solid wast e management project s using a diverse suit e
of product s and services, including t radit ional loans, result s-based financing, development policy
financing, and t echnical advisory. World Bank-financed wast e management project s usually
address t he ent ire lifecycle of wast e right from t he point of generat ion t o collect ion and
t ransport at ion, and finally t reat ment and disposal.[6]

Disposal methods

Landfill E…
A landfill sit e, also known as a t ip, dump, rubbish dump, garbage dump, or dumping ground, is a sit e
for t he disposal of wast e mat erials. Landfill is t he oldest and most common form of wast e
disposal, alt hough t he syst emat ic burial of t he wast e wit h daily, int ermediat e and final covers
only began in t he 1940s. In t he past , refuse was simply left in piles or t hrown int o pit s; in
archeology t his is known as a midden.

Some landfill sit es are used for wast e management purposes, such as t emporary st orage,
consolidat ion and t ransfer, or for various st ages of processing wast e mat erial, such as sort ing,
t reat ment , or recycling. Unless t hey are st abilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil
liquefact ion of t he ground during an eart hquake. Once full, t he area over a landfill sit e may be
reclaimed for ot her uses.

A landfill compaction vehicle in action.

Spittelau incineration plant in Vienna

Incineration E…

Tarastejärvi Incineration Plant in Tampere, Finland

Incinerat ion is a disposal met hod in which solid organic wast es are subject ed t o combust ion so
as t o convert t hem int o residue and gaseous product s. This met hod is useful for disposal of
bot h municipal solid wast e and solid residue from wast e wat er t reat ment . This process reduces
t he volumes of solid wast e by 80 t o 95 percent .[34] Incinerat ion and ot her high t emperat ure
wast e t reat ment syst ems are somet imes described as "t hermal t reat ment ". Incinerat ors convert
wast e mat erials int o heat , gas, st eam, and ash.

Incinerat ion is carried out bot h on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by indust ry. It is
used t o dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous wast e. It is recognized as a pract ical met hod of
disposing of cert ain hazardous wast e mat erials (such as biological medical wast e). Incinerat ion is
a cont roversial met hod of wast e disposal, due t o issues such as emission of gaseous pollut ant s
including subst ant ial quant it ies of carbon dioxide.
Incinerat ion is common in count ries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as t he facilit ies
generally do not require as much area as landfills. Wast e-t o-energy (Wt E) or energy-from-wast e
(EfW) are broad t erms for facilit ies t hat burn wast e in a furnace or boiler t o generat e heat , st eam
or elect ricit y. Combust ion in an incinerat or is not always perfect and t here have been concerns
about pollut ant s in gaseous emissions from incinerat or st acks. Part icular concern has focused on
some very persist ent organic compounds such as dioxins, furans, and PAHs, which may be
creat ed and which may have serious environment al consequences and some heavy met als such
as mercury[35] and lead which can be volat ilised in t he combust ion process..

Recycling

Steel crushed and baled for recycling

Recycling is a resource recovery pract ice t hat refers t o t he collect ion and reuse of wast e
mat erials such as empt y beverage cont ainers. This process involves breaking down and reusing
mat erials t hat would ot herwise be got t en rid of as t rash. There are numerous benefit s of
recycling, and wit h so many new t echnologies making even more mat erials recyclable, it is
possible t o clean up t he Eart h.[36] Recycling not only benefit s t he environment but also posit ively
affect s t he economy. The mat erials from which t he it ems are made can be made int o new
product s.[37] Mat erials for recycling may be collect ed separat ely from general wast e using
dedicat ed bins and collect ion vehicles, a procedure called kerbside collect ion. In some
communit ies, t he owner of t he wast e is required t o separat e t he mat erials int o different bins
(e.g. for paper, plast ics, met als) prior t o it s collect ion. In ot her communit ies, all recyclable
mat erials are placed in a single bin for collect ion, and t he sort ing is handled lat er at a cent ral
facilit y. The lat t er met hod is known as "single-st ream recycling."[38][39]
A recycling point in Lappajärvi, Finland

The most common consumer product s recycled include aluminium such as beverage cans,
copper such as wire, st eel from food and aerosol cans, old st eel furnishings or equipment , rubber
t yres, polyet hylene and PET bot t les, glass bot t les and jars, paperboard cart ons, newspapers,
magazines and light paper, and corrugat ed fiberboard boxes.

PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin ident ificat ion code) are also recyclable. These it ems are
usually composed of a single t ype of mat erial, making t hem relat ively easy t o recycle int o new
product s. The recycling of complex product s (such as comput ers and elect ronic equipment ) is
more difficult , due t o t he addit ional dismant ling and separat ion required.

The t ype of mat erial accept ed for recycling varies by cit y and count ry. Each cit y and count ry has
different recycling programs in place t hat can handle t he various t ypes of recyclable mat erials.
However, cert ain variat ion in accept ance is reflect ed in t he resale value of t he mat erial once it is
reprocessed. Some of t he t ypes of recycling include wast e paper and cardboard, plast ic
recycling, met al recycling, elect ronic devices, wood recycling, glass recycling, clot h and t ext ile
and so many more.[40] In July 2017, t he Chinese government announced an import ban of 24
cat egories of recyclables and solid wast e, including plast ic, t ext iles and mixed paper, placing
t remendous impact on developed count ries globally, which export ed direct ly or indirect ly t o
China.[41]

Re-use

Biological reprocessing E…
An active compost heap

Recoverable mat erials t hat are organic in nat ure, such as plant mat erial, food scraps, and paper
product s, can be recovered t hrough compost ing and digest ion processes t o decompose t he
organic mat t er. The result ing organic mat erial is t hen recycled as mulch or compost for
agricult ural or landscaping purposes. In addit ion, wast e gas from t he process (such as met hane)
can be capt ured and used for generat ing elect ricit y and heat (CHP/cogenerat ion) maximising
efficiencies. There are different t ypes of compost ing and digest ion met hods and t echnologies.
They vary in complexit y from simple home compost heaps t o large scale indust rial digest ion of
mixed domest ic wast e. The different met hods of biological decomposit ion are classified as
aerobic or anaerobic met hods. Some met hods use t he hybrids of t hese t wo met hods. The
anaerobic digest ion of t he organic fract ion of solid wast e is more environment ally effect ive t han
landfill, or incinerat ion.[42] The int ent ion of biological processing in wast e management is t o
cont rol and accelerat e t he nat ural process of decomposit ion of organic mat t er. (See resource
recovery).

Energy recovery E…
Energy recovery from wast e is t he conversion of non-recyclable wast e mat erials int o usable
heat , elect ricit y, or fuel t hrough a variet y of processes, including combust ion, gasificat ion,
pyrolyzat ion, anaerobic digest ion, and landfill gas recovery.[43] This process is oft en called wast e-
t o-energy. Energy recovery from wast e is part of t he non-hazardous wast e management
hierarchy. Using energy recovery t o convert non-recyclable wast e mat erials int o elect ricit y and
heat , generat es a renewable energy source and can reduce carbon emissions by offset t ing t he
need for energy from fossil sources as well as reduce met hane generat ion from landfills.[43]
Globally, wast e-t o-energy account s for 16% of wast e management .[44]

The energy cont ent of wast e product s can be harnessed direct ly by using t hem as a direct
combust ion fuel, or indirect ly by processing t hem int o anot her t ype of fuel. Thermal t reat ment
ranges from using wast e as a fuel source for cooking or heat ing and t he use of t he gas fuel (see
above), t o fuel for boilers t o generat e st eam and elect ricit y in a t urbine. Pyrolysis and
gasificat ion are t wo relat ed forms of t hermal t reat ment where wast e mat erials are heat ed t o
high t emperat ures wit h limit ed oxygen availabilit y. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel
under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid wast e convert s t he mat erial int o solid, liquid and gas
product s. The liquid and gas can be burnt t o produce energy or refined int o ot her chemical
product s (chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be furt her refined int o product s such as
act ivat ed carbon. Gasificat ion and advanced Plasma arc gasificat ion are used t o convert organic
mat erials direct ly int o a synt het ic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
The gas is t hen burnt t o produce elect ricit y and st eam. An alt ernat ive t o pyrolysis is high
t emperat ure and pressure supercrit ical wat er decomposit ion (hydrot hermal monophasic
oxidat ion).

Pyrolysis E…

Pyrolysis is oft en used t o convert many t ypes of domest ic and indust rial residues int o a
recovered fuel. Different t ypes of wast e input (such as plant wast e, food wast e, t yres) placed in
t he pyrolysis process pot ent ially yield an alt ernat ive t o fossil fuels.[45] Pyrolysis is a process of
t hermo-chemical decomposit ion of organic mat erials by heat in t he absence of st oichiomet ric
quant it ies of oxygen; t he decomposit ion produces various hydrocarbon gases.[46] During pyrolysis,
t he molecules of object vibrat e at high frequencies t o an ext ent t hat molecules st art breaking
down. The rat e of pyrolysis increases wit h t emperat ure. In indust rial applicat ions, t emperat ures
are above 430 °C (800 °F).[47]

Slow pyrolysis produces gases and solid charcoal.[48] Pyrolysis hold promise for conversion of
wast e biomass int o useful liquid fuel. Pyrolysis of wast e wood and plast ics can pot ent ially
produce fuel. The solids left from pyrolysis cont ain met als, glass, sand and pyrolysis coke which
does not convert t o gas. Compared t o t he process of incinerat ion, cert ain t ypes of pyrolysis
processes release less harmful by-product s t hat cont ain alkali met als, sulphur, and chlorine.
However, pyrolysis of some wast e yields gases which impact t he environment such as HCl and
SO2.[49]
Resource recovery
E…
Resource recovery is t he syst emat ic diversion of wast e, which was int ended for disposal, for a
specific next use.[50] It is t he processing of recyclables t o ext ract or recover mat erials and
resources, or convert t o energy.[51] These act ivit ies are performed at a resource recovery
facilit y.[51] Resource recovery is not only environment ally import ant , but it is also cost -
effect ive.[52] It decreases t he amount of wast e for disposal, saves space in landfills, and
conserves nat ural resources.[52]

Resource recovery (as opposed t o wast e management ) uses LCA (life cycle analysis) at t empt s
t o offer alt ernat ives t o wast e management . For mixed MSW (Municipal Solid Wast e) a number of
broad st udies have indicat ed t hat administ rat ion, source separat ion and collect ion followed by
reuse and recycling of t he non-organic fract ion and energy and compost /fert ilizer product ion of
t he organic mat erial via anaerobic digest ion t o be t he favoured pat h.

As an example of how resource recycling can be beneficial, many it ems t hrown away cont ain
met als t hat can be recycled t o creat e a profit , such as t he component s in circuit boards. Wood
chippings in pallet s and ot her packaging mat erials can be recycled t o useful product s for
hort icult ure. The recycled chips can cover pat hs, walkways, or arena surfaces.

Applicat ion of rat ional and consist ent wast e management pract ices can yield a range of benefit s
including:

1. Economic – Improving economic efficiency t hrough t he means of resource use, t reat ment
and disposal and creat ing market s for recycles can lead t o efficient pract ices in t he
product ion and consumpt ion of product s and mat erials result ing in valuable mat erials being
recovered for reuse and t he pot ent ial for new jobs and new business opport unit ies.

2. Social – By reducing adverse impact s on healt h by proper wast e management pract ises,
t he result ing consequences are more appealing civic communit ies. Bet t er social advant ages
can lead t o new sources of employment and pot ent ially lift ing communit ies out of povert y
especially in some of t he developing poorer count ries and cit ies.

3. Environment al – Reducing or eliminat ing adverse impact s on t he environment t hrough

reducing, reusing and recycling, and minimizing resource ext ract ion can result in improved air
and wat er qualit y and help in t he reduct ion of greenhouse gas emissions.

4. Int er-generat ional Equit y – Following effect ive wast e management pract ises can provide
subsequent generat ions a more robust economy, a fairer and more inclusive societ y and a
cleaner environment .[16]
Waste valorization
E…
Wast e valorizat ion, beneficial reuse, value recovery or wast e reclamat ion[53] is t he process of
wast e product s or residues from an economic process being valorized (given economic value), by
reuse or recycling in order t o creat e economically useful mat erials.[54][53][55] The t erm comes
from pract ices in sust ainable manufact uring and economics, indust rial ecology and wast e
management . The t erm is usually applied in indust rial processes where residue from creat ing or
processing one good is used as a raw mat erial or energy feedst ock for anot her indust rial
process.[53][55] Indust rial wast es in part icular are good candidat es for valorizat ion because t hey
t end t o be more consist ent and predict able t han ot her wast e, such as household wast e.[53][56]

Hist orically, most indust rial processes t reat ed wast e product s as somet hing t o be disposed of,
causing indust rial pollut ion unless handled properly.[57] However, increased regulat ion of residual
mat erials and socioeconomic changes, such as t he int roduct ion of ideas about sust ainable
development and circular economy in t he 1990s and 2000s increased focus on indust rial
pract ices t o recover t hese resources as value add mat erials.[57][58] Academics focus on finding
economic value t o reduce environment al impact of ot her indust ries as well, for example t he
development of non-t imber forest product s t o encourage conservat ion.

Liquid waste-management

Liquid wast e is an import ant cat egory of wast e management because it is so difficult t o deal
wit h. Unlike solid wast es, liquid wast es cannot be easily picked up and removed from an
environment . Liquid wast es spread out , and easily pollut e ot her sources of liquid if brought int o
cont act . This t ype of wast e also soaks int o object s like soil and groundwat er. This in t urn carries
over t o pollut e t he plant s, t he animals in t he ecosyst em, as well as t he humans wit hin t he area of
t he pollut ion.[59]

Industrial wastewater E…
Wastewater from an industrial process can be converted at a treatment plant to solids and treated water for reuse.

Indust rial wast ewat er t reat ment describes t he processes used for t reat ing wast ewat er t hat is
produced by indust ries as an undesirable by-product . Aft er t reat ment , t he t reat ed indust rial
wast ewat er (or effluent ) may be reused or released t o a sanit ary sewer or t o a surface wat er in
t he environment . Some indust rial facilit ies generat e wast ewat er t hat can be t reat ed in sewage
t reat ment plant s. Most indust rial processes, such as pet roleum refineries, chemical and
pet rochemical plant s have t heir own specialized facilit ies t o t reat t heir wast ewat ers so t hat t he
pollut ant concent rat ions in t he t reat ed wast ewat er comply wit h t he regulat ions regarding
disposal of wast ewat ers int o sewers or int o rivers, lakes or oceans.[60]: 1412  This applies t o
indust ries t hat generat e wast ewat er wit h high concent rat ions of organic mat t er (e.g. oil and
grease), t oxic pollut ant s (e.g. heavy met als, volat ile organic compounds) or nut rient s such as
ammonia.[61]: 180  Some indust ries inst all a pre-t reat ment syst em t o remove some pollut ant s (e.g.,
t oxic compounds), and t hen discharge t he part ially t reat ed wast ewat er t o t he municipal sewer
syst em.[62]: 60 

Most indust ries produce some wast ewat er. Recent t rends have been t o minimize such
product ion or t o recycle t reat ed wast ewat er wit hin t he product ion process. Some indust ries
have been successful at redesigning t heir manufact uring processes t o reduce or eliminat e
pollut ant s.[63] Sources of indust rial wast ewat er include bat t ery manufact uring, chemical
manufact uring, elect ric power plant s, food indust ry, iron and st eel indust ry, met al working, mines
and quarries, nuclear indust ry, oil and gas ext ract ion, pet roleum refining and pet rochemicals,
pharmaceut ical manufact uring, pulp and paper indust ry, smelt ers, t ext ile mills, indust rial oil
cont aminat ion, wat er t reat ment and wood preserving. Treat ment processes include brine
t reat ment , solids removal (e.g. chemical precipit at ion, filt rat ion), oils and grease removal, removal
of biodegradable organics, removal of ot her organics, removal of acids and alkalis, and removal of
t oxic mat erials.

Sewage sludge treatment E…

Sludge treatment in anaerobic digesters at a sewage treatment plant in Cottbus, Germany

Sewage sludge t reat ment describes t he processes used t o manage and dispose of sewage
sludge produced during sewage t reat ment . Sludge t reat ment is focused on reducing sludge
weight and volume t o reduce t ransport at ion and disposal cost s, and on reducing pot ent ial healt h
risks of disposal opt ions. Wat er removal is t he primary means of weight and volume reduct ion,
while pat hogen dest ruct ion is frequent ly accomplished t hrough heat ing during t hermophilic
digest ion, compost ing, or incinerat ion. The choice of a sludge t reat ment met hod depends on t he
volume of sludge generat ed, and comparison of t reat ment cost s required for available disposal
opt ions. Air-drying and compost ing may be at t ract ive t o rural communit ies, while limit ed land
availabilit y may make aerobic digest ion and mechanical dewat ering preferable for cit ies, and
economies of scale may encourage energy recovery alt ernat ives in met ropolit an areas.

Sludge is most ly wat er wit h some amount s of solid mat erial removed from liquid sewage.
Primary sludge includes set t leable solids removed during primary t reat ment in primary clarifiers.
Secondary sludge is sludge separat ed in secondary clarifiers t hat are used in secondary
t reat ment bioreact ors or processes using inorganic oxidizing agent s. In int ensive sewage
t reat ment processes, t he sludge produced needs t o be removed from t he liquid line on a
cont inuous basis because t he volumes of t he t anks in t he liquid line have insufficient volume t o
st ore sludge.[64] This is done in order t o keep t he t reat ment processes compact and in balance
(product ion of sludge approximat ely equal t o t he removal of sludge). The sludge removed from
t he liquid line goes t o t he sludge t reat ment line. Aerobic processes (such as t he act ivat ed
sludge process) t end t o produce more sludge compared wit h anaerobic processes. On t he ot her
hand, in ext ensive (nat ural) t reat ment processes, such as ponds and const ruct ed wet lands, t he
produced sludge remains accumulat ed in t he t reat ment unit s (liquid line) and is only removed
aft er several years of operat ion.[65]
Sludge t reat ment opt ions depend on t he amount of solids generat ed and ot her sit e-specific
condit ions. Compost ing is most oft en applied t o small-scale plant s wit h aerobic digest ion for
mid-sized operat ions, and anaerobic digest ion for t he larger-scale operat ions. The sludge is
somet imes passed t hrough a so-called pre-t hickener which de-wat ers t he sludge. Types of pre-
t hickeners include cent rifugal sludge t hickeners,[66] rot ary drum sludge t hickeners and belt filt er
presses.[67] Dewat ered sludge may be incinerat ed or t ransport ed offsit e for disposal in a landfill
or use as an agricult ural soil amendment .[68]

Energy may be recovered from sludge t hrough met hane gas product ion during anaerobic
digest ion or t hrough incinerat ion of dried sludge, but energy yield is oft en insufficient t o
evaporat e sludge wat er cont ent or t o power blowers, pumps, or cent rifuges required for
dewat ering. Coarse primary solids and secondary sewage sludge may include t oxic chemicals
removed from liquid sewage by sorpt ion ont o solid part icles in clarifier sludge. Reducing sludge
volume may increase t he concent rat ion of some of t hese t oxic chemicals in t he sludge.[69]

Avoidance and reduction methods

An import ant met hod of wast e management is t he prevent ion of wast e mat erial being creat ed,
also known as wast e reduct ion. Wast e Minimizat ion is reducing t he quant it y of hazardous wast es
achieved t hrough a t horough applicat ion of innovat ive or alt ernat ive procedures.[70] Met hods of
avoidance include reuse of second-hand product s, repairing broken it ems inst ead of buying new
ones, designing product s t o be refillable or reusable (such as cot t on inst ead of plast ic shopping
bags), encouraging consumers t o avoid using disposable product s (such as disposable cut lery),
removing any food/liquid remains from cans and packaging,[71] and designing product s t hat use
less mat erial t o achieve t he same purpose (for example, light weight ing of beverage cans).[72]

International waste trade

The global wast e t rade is t he int ernat ional t rade of wast e bet ween count ries for furt her
t reat ment , disposal, or recycling. Toxic or hazardous wast es are oft en import ed by developing
count ries from developed count ries.

The World Bank Report What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management, describes
t he amount of solid wast e produced in a given count ry. Specifically, count ries which produce
more solid wast e are more economically developed and more indust rialized.[73] The report
explains t hat "Generally, t he higher t he economic development and rat e of urbanizat ion, t he
great er t he amount of solid wast e produced."[73] Therefore, count ries in t he Global Nort h, which
are more economically developed and urbanized, produce more solid wast e t han Global Sout h
count ries.[73]

Current int ernat ional t rade flows of wast e follow a pat t ern of wast e being produced in t he
Global Nort h and being export ed t o and disposed of in t he Global Sout h. Mult iple fact ors affect
which count ries produce wast e and at what magnit ude, including geographic locat ion, degree of
indust rializat ion, and level of int egrat ion int o t he global economy.

Numerous scholars and researchers have linked t he sharp increase in wast e t rading and t he
negat ive impact s of wast e t rading t o t he prevalence of neoliberal economic policy.[74][75][76][77]
Wit h t he major economic t ransit ion t owards neoliberal economic policy in t he 1980s, t he shift
t owards "free-market " policy has facilit at ed t he sharp increase in t he global wast e t rade. Henry
Giroux, Chair of Cult ural St udies at McMast er Universit y, gives his definit ion of neoliberal
economic policy:

"Neoliberalism ...removes economics and markets from the discourse of

social obligations and social costs. ...As a policy and political project,
neoliberalism is wedded to the privatization of public services, selling
off of state functions, deregulation of finance and labor, elimination of
the welfare state and unions, liberalization of trade in goods and
capital investment, and the marketization and commodification of
society."[78]
Given t his economic plat form of privat izat ion, neoliberalism is based on expanding free-t rade
agreement s and est ablishing open-borders t o int ernat ional t rade market s. Trade liberalizat ion, a
neoliberal economic policy in which t rade is complet ely deregulat ed, leaving no t ariffs, quot as, or
ot her rest rict ions on int ernat ional t rade, is designed t o furt her developing count ries' economies
and int egrat e t hem int o t he global economy. Crit ics claim t hat alt hough free-market t rade
liberalizat ion was designed t o allow any count ry t he opport unit y t o reach economic success, t he
consequences of t hese policies have been devast at ing for Global Sout h count ries, essent ially
crippling t heir economies in a servit ude t o t he Global Nort h.[79] Even support ers such as t he
Int ernat ional Monet ary Fund, “progress of int egrat ion has been uneven in recent decades” [80]
Specifically, developing count ries have been t arget ed by t rade liberalizat ion policies t o import
wast e as a means of economic expansion.[81] The guiding neoliberal economic policy argues t hat
t he way t o be int egrat ed int o t he global economy is t o part icipat e in t rade liberalizat ion and
exchange in int ernat ional t rade market s.[81] Their claim is t hat smaller count ries, wit h less
infrast ruct ure, less wealt h, and less manufact uring abilit y, should t ake in hazardous wast es as a
way t o increase profit s and st imulat e t heir economies.[81]
Challenges in developing countries

Areas wit h developing economies oft en experience exhaust ed wast e collect ion services and
inadequat ely managed and uncont rolled dumpsit es. The problems are worsening.[16][82] Problems
wit h governance complicat e t he sit uat ion. Wast e management in t hese count ries and cit ies is an
ongoing challenge due t o weak inst it ut ions, chronic under-resourcing and rapid urbanizat ion.[16] All
of t hese challenges, along wit h t he lack of underst anding of different fact ors t hat cont ribut e t o
t he hierarchy of wast e management , affect t he t reat ment of wast e.[83]

In developing count ries, wast e management act ivit ies are usually carried by poor, for t heir
survival. It has been est imat ed t hat 2% of populat ion in Asia, Lat in America and Africa are
dependent on wast e for t heir livelihood. Family organized, or individual manual scavengers are
oft en involved wit h wast e management pract ices wit h very lit t le support ive net work and
facilit ies wit h increased risk of healt h effect s. Addit ionally, t his pract ice prevent s t heir children
from furt her educat ion. Part icipat ion level of most cit izens in wast e management is very low,
resident s in urban areas are not act ively involved in t he process of wast e management .[84]

Technologies

Tradit ionally, t he wast e management indust ry has been a lat e adopt er of new t echnologies such
as RFID (Radio Frequency Ident ificat ion) t ags, GPS and int egrat ed soft ware packages which
enable bet t er qualit y dat a t o be collect ed wit hout t he use of est imat ion or manual dat a ent ry.[85]
This t echnology has been used widely by many organizat ions in some indust rialized count ries.
Radio frequency ident ificat ion is a t agging syst em for aut omat ic ident ificat ion of recyclable
component s of municipal solid wast e st ream.[86]

Waste management by region

China E…
Municipal solid wast e generat ion shows spat iot emporal variat ion. In spat ial dist ribut ion, t he point
sources in east ern coast al regions are quit e different . Guangdong, Shanghai and Tianjin produced
MSW of 30.35, 7.85 and 2.95 Mt , respect ively. In t emporal dist ribut ion, during 2009–2018, Fujian
province showed 123% increase in MSW generat ion while Liaoning province showed only 7%
increase, whereas Shanghai special zone had a decline of −11% aft er 2013. MSW composit ion
charact erist ics is complicat ed. The major component s such as kit chen wast e, paper and rubber &
plast ics in different east ern coast al cit ies have fluct uat ion in t he range of 52.8–65.3%, 3.5–
11.9%, and 9.9–19.1%, respect ively. Treat ment rat e of consumpt ion wast e is up t o 99% wit h a
sum of 52% landfill, 45% incinerat ion, and 3% compost ing t echnologies, indicat ing t hat landfill st ill
dominat es MSW t reat ment .[87]

Morocco E…

Morocco has seen benefit s from implement ing a $300 million sanit ary landfill syst em. While it
might appear t o be a cost ly invest ment , t he count ry's government predict s t hat it has saved
t hem anot her $440 million in damages, or consequences of failing t o dispose of wast e
properly.[88]

San Francisco E…

San Francisco st art ed t o make changes t o t heir wast e management policies in 2009 wit h t he
expect at ion t o be zero wast e by 2030.[89] Council made changes such as making recycling and
compost ing a mandat ory pract ice for businesses and individuals, banning St yrofoam and plast ic
bags, put t ing charges on paper bags, and increasing garbage collect ion rat es.[89][90] Businesses
are fiscally rewarded for correct disposal of recycling and compost ing and t axed for incorrect
disposal. Besides t hese policies, t he wast e bins were manufact ured in various sizes. The
compost bin is t he largest , t he recycling bin is second, and t he garbage bin is t he smallest . This
encourages individuals t o sort t heir wast e t hought fully in respect t o t he sizes. These syst ems
are working because t hey were able t o divert 80% of wast e from t he landfill, which is t he highest
rat e of any major U.S. cit y.[91] Despit e all t hese changes, Debbie Raphael, direct or of t he San
Francisco Depart ment of t he Environment , st at es t hat zero wast e is st ill not achievable unt il all
product s are designed different ly t o be able t o be recycled or compost able.[89]

Turkey E…
Turkey generat es 28,858,880 t ons of solid municipal wast e per year; t he annual amount of wast e
generat ed per capit a amount s t o 390 kilograms.[92] According t o Wast e At las, Turkey's wast e
collect ion coverage rat e is 77%, whereas it s unsound wast e disposal rat e is 69%.[92] While t he
count ry has a st rong legal framework in t erms of laying down common provisions for wast e
management , t he implement at ion process has been considered slow since t he beginning of
1990s.

United Kingdom E…
Wast e management policy in t he Unit ed Kingdom is a responsibilit y of t he Depart ment of t he
Environment , Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). In England, t he "Wast e management plan for
England" present s a compilat ion of wast e management policies.[93]

Zambia E…

In Zambia, ASAZA is a communit y-based organizat ion whose principal purpose is t o complement
t he effort s of Government and co-operat ing part ners t o uplift t he st andard of living for
disadvant aged communit ies. The project 's main object ive is t o minimize t he problem of
indiscriminat e lit t ering which leads t o land degradat ion and pollut ion of t he environment . ASAZA
is also at t he same t ime helping alleviat e t he problems of unemployment and povert y t hrough
income generat ion and payment of part icipant s, women and unskilled yout hs.[94]

E-waste

A record 53.6 million met ric t onnes (Mt ) of elect ronic wast e was generat ed worldwide in 2019,
up 21 per cent in just five years, according t o t he UN’s Global E-wast e Monit or 2020, released
t oday. The new report also predict s global e-wast e – discarded product s wit h a bat t ery or plug
– will reach 74 Mt by 2030, almost a doubling of e-wast e in just 16 years. This makes e-wast e
t he world’s fast est -growing domest ic wast e st ream, fueled mainly by higher consumpt ion rat es
of elect ric and elect ronic equipment , short life cycles, and few opt ions for repair. Only 17.4 per
cent of 2019’s e-wast e was collect ed and recycled. This means t hat gold, silver, copper,
plat inum and ot her high-value, recoverable mat erials conservat ively valued at US $57 billion – a
sum great er t han t he Gross Domest ic Product of most count ries – were most ly dumped or
burned rat her t han being collect ed for t reat ment and reuse.[95]

Transboundary movement of e-waste E…

The Transboundary E-wast e Flows Monit or quant ified t hat 5.1 Mt (just below 10 percent of t he
t ot al amount of global e-wast e, 53.6 Mt ) crossed count ry borders in 2019. To bet t er underst and
t he implicat ion of t ransboundary movement , t his st udy cat egorizes t he t ransboundary
movement of e-wast e int o cont rolled and uncont rolled movement s and also considers bot h t he
receiving and sending regions.[96]

Global E-Waste Data E…

ht t ps://globalewast e.org/map/ Fut ure: E-wast e will double by 2050.[97][98]

Method E…

1. Arrange t o t ake your e-wast e t o a recycling firm like Great Lakes Elect ronics Corporat ion. The
benefit s of doing so are enormous. 2. Recycling remains t he most effect ive way t o keep e-
wast e from damaging our environment and our healt h. 3. The best t hing you can do is t o resist
buying a new device unt il you really need it . Try t o get your old product repaired if possible and if
it can’t be fixed, resell or recycle it responsibly. 4. Before you recycle your device, seal up any
broken part s in separat e cont ainers so t hat hazardous chemicals don’t leak. Wear lat ex gloves
and a mask if you’re handling somet hing t hat ’s broken.[99]

Scientific journals

Relat ed scient ific journals in t his area include:

Environmental and Resource Economics

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment

Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management

Journal of Environmental Economics and Management

See also

Biomedical wast e

Co-processing

Curb mining

Ext ended producer responsibilit y

Int ernat ional Wast e Working Group – IWWG

Landfarming

List of wast e disposal incident s

List of wast e management acronyms

List of wast e t ypes

 Milorganit e

Nat ional Cleanup Day

Refill (scheme)

Solid wast e policy in India

Solid wast e policy in t he Unit ed St at es

Wast e management in Turkey

Wast e minimisat ion

Zabbaleen

Zero wast e

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