Cicind: Model Code For Steel Chimneys

CICIND
Model Code for

Steel Chimneys
(Revision 1 December 1999)
Amendment A March 2002
Commentaries and Appendices
(December 2000)
Copyright CICIND 2000
ISBN 1-902998-11-1
Office of The Secretary, 14 The Chestnuts, Beechwood Park, Hemel Hempstead, Herts., HP3 0DZ, UK
Tel: +44 (0)1442 211204 Fax: +44 (0)1442 256155 e-mail: secretary@cicind.org
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Commentary 1 Glossary of commonly used words . . . . . . . . .3
Commentary 2 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Commentary 3 Wind Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
C3.1. Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
C3.1.1. BasicWind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
C3.1.2. Wind Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
C3.1.3. The Inuence of Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
C3.2 The Gust Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
C3.3 Vortex Shedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
C3.4 Movements in the second mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
C3.5 Ovalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
C3.5.1 Static effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
C3.5.2 Dynamic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
C3.6 Interference effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Commentary 4 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Commentary 5 Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Commentary 6 Chemical Effects and Internal Corrosion . .26
C6.1. Chemical Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
C6.1.1. Attack Due to Sulphur Oxides . . . . . . . . . . .26
C6.1.2 Effects of Flue Gas Desuphurisation . . . . . . .26
C6.1.3. Attack Due to Chlorine, Chlorides
and Fluorides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
C6.2. Internal Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
C6.3 Selection of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Appendix 1 Base Plate Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
A1.1 Simple base plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
A1.2 Base plates with gussets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
A1.3 Baseplates with gussets and compression rings . . . . .28
A1.4 Grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Appendix 2 Insulation, Linings and Protective Coatings . . .30
A2.1. Insulation
A2.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
A2.1.2. Insulation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
A2.1.3. Aluminium Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
A2.1.4. Mineral Wool or Foam Insulation . . . . . . . . .31
A2.1.5. Lined and Multiue Chimneys . . . . . . . . . . .31
A2.2. Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
A2.2.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
A2.2.2. Design of Separate Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
A2.2.3. Design of Linings Attached
Continuously to the Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
A2.3. Recommended Start-up Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
A2.4. Protective and Decorative Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Appendix 3 Guyed Chimneys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
A3.1. Guyed Chimney expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
A3.2. Guyed Chimney calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
A3.3 Guy Ropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Appendix 4 Access Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.2. Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.3. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.4. Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.5. Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.6. Rungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.7. Safety Hoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A4.8. Rest Platforms and Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
A4.9. Attachment to Chimney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
A4.10. Access Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
CICIND
Model Code for Steel Chimneys
REVISION 1 DECEMBER 1999
COMMENTARIES AND APPENDICES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DISCLAIMER
This CICIND document is presented to the best of the knowledge of its members as a guide only. CICIND is not, nor are any of its
members, to be held responsible for any failure alleged or proved to be due to adherence to recommendations or acceptance of information
published by the association in a Model Code or in any other way.
CICIND, Talacker 50, CH-8001, Zurich, Switzerland
Copyright by CICIND, Zurich
CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices page 3
FOREWORD
In December 1999 the Second Edition of the Model Code for Steel
Chimneys was published. This is now expanded by the publication of
the Commentaries and Appendixes to this Model Code.
The Intention of this volume is to explain the reasons behind the
principles set out in the Model Code. It is divided into two parts. The
Commentaries cover the theoretical derivation of the formulae and
the principles used in the Model Code. The Appendices relate to
more practical considerations.
COMMENTARY No. 1
GLOSSARY OF COMMONLY USED TERMS
The numbers in brackets are given in gures C.1.1 and C.1.2.,
showing typical chimney designs.
Access door (2.01) Adoor for the entry of personnel or other means
of inspection.
Aerodynamic stabilizer (2.03) Adevice tted to the structural shell
to reduce wind excited oscillations by modifying vortex shedding
Anchor bolts See Holding down bolts
Base cone (2.04) Atruncated cone incorporated immediately above
the baseplate of a chimney.
Baseplate (2.05) Ahorizontal plate xed to the base of a chimney.
Also called a bearing plate.
Base stool (2.07) A construction comprising two vertical plates,
welded to the chimney shell and to the baseplate, supporting a
compression ring (2.14) through which a holding down bolt passes.
Blanking off plate (2.08) An imperforate plate tted immediately
beneath the inlet of a chimney to prevent the waste gases reaching the
lower portion of the chimney. Also known as a false bottom.
Boiler mounted chimney Achimney supported by a boiler and its
foundation.
Bracket (2.10) A construction providing resistance to lateral
displacement of the chimney and/or supporting part or all of the
weight of the chimney.
Bracketed chimney (2.11) A chimney in which not all external
applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural
shell and for which brackets, attached to an adjacent structure, are
provided to ensure stability. Also known as a braced chimney.
Breeching see inlet (2.28)
Cap plate (2.12) A sloping or convex plate tted to the top of the
structural shell, covering the area between it and the liners and
incorporating cravats through which the liners protrude.
Cleaning door (2.13) Adoor, normally at the base of the chimney,
to permit the remova! of ue dust.
Compression ring (2.14) A steel plate welded to the shell which
transfers the forces acting upon the chimney to the holding down
bolts. Also known as a base ring.
Cope band (2.15) Asteel section attached to the top of the chimney
around its perimeter to give added strength and corrosion resistance
at this level.
Cope hood (2.16) A hood tted externally to the top of a liner,
covering the upstand of the cap plate, to prevent the ingress of
rain water.
Corrosion test piece (2.17) Axed or removable steel plate insert,
generally of lesser thickness than the shell of the chimney, in contact
with the waste gases and tted at strategic points where maximum
corrosion is expected to occur.
Cowl (2.18) Aconical or dished cap tted to the top of the chimney
to reduce the ingress of rain water. Also known as a rain cap.
Cravat (2.19) An upstand xed to the roof, roofplate or cap plate
to prevent the ingress of rain water (see cope hood). Also known as
counter ashing.
Cross-section The section of the load bearing steel shell including
the corrosion allowance.
Damping device (2.20) A device tted to the structural shell to
increase its structural damping.
Doubling plate (2.21) A plate xed to the shell to reinforce it
where increased stresses occur.
Double skin chimney (2.22) A chimney consisting of an outer
load-bearing steel shell and an inner liner which carries the ue
gases. Also known as a dual wall chimney.
Drag coefficient see wind force coefficient
Drain pipe (2.23) A pipe which connects a tundish to a point
outside the structural shell and used to remove condensate.
Flue see liner
Guy (2.24) A wire rope attached at one end to a chimney and
anchored at the other so as to provide tensile resistance to the lateral
displacement of the chimney
Guy band (2.25) A steel section tted around the outside of a
chimney with provision for the attachment of guys.
Guyed chimney (2.26) A chimney in which not all externally
shell and for which guys are provided to ensure stability.
Holding down bolts (2.27) Bolts built into a concrete foundation,
brick base or supporting framework to provide anchorage at the base
of the chimney.
Hoops Horizontal rings forming a cage around ladders.
Inlet (2.28) Ashort duct xed to the shell or baseplate of a chimney
for the entry of ue gases.
Intermediate cone (2.29) A truncated cone incorporated in the
chimney shell at an intermediate level.
Jointing ange (2.30) Asteel section tted to the end of a chimney
section to enable sections to be connected together.
Ladder boss Aboss welded to the chimney shell into which an access
hook or eye can be screwed to provide xing for temporary ladders.
Lateral supports (2.31) Supports positioned at appropriate levels
within the structural shell to locate the liners, allowing independent
expansion of the shell.
Lightning protection system System to provide electrical
continuity between the chimney and earth.
Liners (2.32) Flue gas ducts contained within the structural shell.
Liner base (2.33) A suitable support positioned at a convenient
height above the baseplate of the structural steel shell to carry the
weight of the liners.
Lining (2.34) (see appendix No 2) Amaterial applied to the internal
face of the chimney to prevent the ue gases contacting the inner
surface of the steel shell.
Multiue chimney (2.35) Agroup of two or more chimneys within
a structural framework or a chimney comprising a group of two or
more liners within a structural shell.
Nett section The section of the load bearing steel shell without
corrosion allowance.
Reinforcement Structural shapes or plates at or near to shell
aperatures to strengthen the shell.
Roofplate (2.36) A plate which follows the contour of the roof
round the chimney where it passes through the roof of a building.
Also known as ashing.
Rungs Horizontal bars in ladders.
page 4 CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices
Safety system Proprietary fall arrest system xed to ladder rungs
or beside the ladder to give a safe xing for attachment of operatives
safety harnesses.
Self supporting chimney (2.37) A chimney in which externally
applied loads (e g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural
shell and which, together with the foundation, will remain stable
under all design conditions without additional support.
Splitter plate (2.38) A vertical plate welded to the interior of the
shell between two horizontally opposed inlets to divert the ow of the
ue gases into a vertical direction and to inhibit the passage of ue
gases from one inlet into the other.
Stay (2.39) Arigid member providing both tensile and compressive
resistance to the lateral displacement of the chimney. Also known as
a lateral brace.
Stayed chimney (2.40) A chimney in which not all externally
shell and for which stays, connected to another structure, are
provided to ensure stability.
Stiffening ring Horizontal members to prevent ovalling and to
maintain the chimney shell circular during fabrication and
transportation.
Strakes see aerodynamic stabilisers
Stringer Vertical member of a ladder to which the rungs are attached.
2.03
2.08
Typical general arrangement of three types of self supporting steel chimney.
The numbers are related to the text
Figure C1.1
2.11
Typical general arrangement of guyed, stayed and bracketed chimneys.
The numbers are related to the text
Figure C1.2
Structural shell (2.41) The main external structure of the chimney,
excluding any reinforcing or anges.
Top cone (2.42) A truncated cone or other device tted at the top
of a chimney to increase the gas exit velocity.
Tundish (2.43) A conical or sloping blanking off plate provided
with facilities for drainage. Also known as a false bottom.
Tuned mass damper A form of damping device which employs a
pendulum, tuned to the chimneys natural frequency. The moving
part of the pendulum is connected to the chimney by an energy
absorbing device.
Vanes See Aerodynamic stabilizers
Venturi. See Top cone
Weatherhood (2.44) A hood designed to shed rain water clear of
the cravat and prevent its entry into the building. Also known as
counter ashing.
Wind force coefficient The ratio between the wind pressure on the
chimney and the equivalent pressure on the same area normal to the
wind direction.
COMMENTARY No. 2
SAFETY
The safety of a chimney is ensured by the use of partial safety factors
at the ultimate limit state. These partial safety factors are listed in
paragraph 5.3 of the code. A chimney is thus deemed safe if the
maximum stress due to the characteristic load, increased by the
appropriate partial load factor, is less than the allowable stress,
divided by the partial material safety factor. The level of wind load
factor chosen ensures that premature failure due to low cycle fatigue,
caused by wind gusts in the wind direction, can not occur.
Derivation Of The Partial Load Factor In The Wind
Direction (Temperate Zones)
The partial load factor for wind load in the wind direction is derived
as follows by considering the social and economic consequences of
failure or damage requiring the chimneys repair or replacement. This
involves deriving the acceptable probability of failure (P) during the
chimneys lifetime, using the following expression given in CIRIA
(U.K.) Report No. 63, entitled Rationalisation of Safety and
Serviceability Factors in Structural Codes
[1]
:
P10
4
K
s
n
d
/ n
r
... (C2.1)
Where
n
r
average number of people near the structure during the
period of risk
n
d
design life of structure (assumed to be 20 years for a
steel chimney)
K
s
a social criterion factor, given in table C2.1
Table C2.1 - Social Criterion Factor
Nature of structure Ks
Places of public assembly, Dams 0.005
Domestic, Office or Trade and Industry 0.05
Bridges 0.5
Towers, Masts, Offshore Structures 5
In order to use equation C2.1 it is necessary to estimate the value of
n
r
. It is suggested
[1, 2]
that allowance be made for the number of
people likely to be close to the structure at the time that maximum
loading can be expected. Since maximum loading is most likely to
occur under extreme wind conditions, it can be assumed that no-one
will be climbing the chimney and no-one will be nearby, except
through necessity.
If we assume n
d
20 years and K
s
as 0.05 for normal chimneys
and 0.005 for critical chimneys, acceptable probabilities can be
estimated as summarised in table C2.2:
Table C2.2 Typical failure probabilities for
environmental economic risk
Environment nr Ks P
Chimney industrial area (normal chimney) 0.1 .05 10
3
Chimney in urban area or hospital (Critical chimney) 1 .05 10
4
Chimney serving critical plant (Critical chimney) 0.1 0.005 10
4
It follows that safety factors should be chosen to give probabilities of
failure of 10
3
for a Normal chimney and 10
4
for a Critical
chimney.
The probability of failure depends upon the statistical distributions of
resistance and loading.
The resistance of a steel chimney may be taken as normally
disributed with a coefficient of variation (ratio of standard deviation
to mean value) approximately 10%.
The principal load is due to wind. The moment is proportional to the
wind pressure, the extreme values of which follow a Fisher-Tippett
Type 1 (FT1) distribution as described in reference 3.
This distribution has a Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
given by P(q) exp(exp((q u)))
in which the constants are the mode u and the dispersion 1/. In
temperate climates the product u.5; other values may obtain
elsewhere (see ref.2)
Now, the characteristic wind is dened as having annual probability
of being exceeded 0.02
It follows that the characteristic pressure q
k
q
1

This is converted to standard measure by substituting q x. u
then P
s1
(x) exp(exp(u(x1)))
The probability distribution function (pdf)
P
s1
(x) u exp (u(x1)) P
s1
(x)
The 50-year wind pressure is x
s50
1
The resistance is assumed normally distributed with mean x
r
and
standard deviation
r
The characteristic value is x
r5%
x
r
1.645
r
The load factor F
x
r
F
1

1.645
r
the pdf of the resistance is p
r
(x) exp
The CDF for the wind pressure in period T years is P

sT
(q) (P
s1
(q))
T
The effect of altering the period of exposure from 1 to T years is to
shift the mode from 1 to 1 without altering the shape of
the distribution.
Hence the CDF is P
sT
(x) exp(exp(u(x1)In(T)))
The probability of failure is given by P
FT
(1P
sT
(x))p
r
(x)dx
Now the factor F
w

m
where
w
is the wind load factor and
m
the material factor.
Assuming
m
1.1, then
if
w
1.4 P
F20
810
4
if
w
1.5 P
F20
310
4
When failure is ductile, additional safety against collapse is derived
from the chimneys residual strength, after mobilisation of its
allowable (yield) strength at one point of its periphery (i.e., at the
ultimate limit state).
When failure is by buckling, additional safety is implicit in the
relationship used between the allowable (critical buckling) strength
and the yield strength of the material. This relationship includes an
additional partial safety factor to ensure that the critical buckling
stress is sufficiently below the lower bound of experimental curves
used as a basis for the design (see ref. 5 ). For normal steel chimneys,
this additional partial safety factor lies between 1.2 and 1.33,
depending upon the diameter/ thickness ratio.
It is, therefore, proved that wind load factors of 1.4 and 1.5, will
ensure failure (collapse) probabilities of 10
3
and 10
4
, required by
Normal and Critical chimneys, respectively.
In(T)
u
xx
r
r
1
2
1
2
In(50)
u
x
r
1.645
r
1
In(50)
u
x
r
5%
x
s
50
In(50)
u
d
dx
In(50)
u
References
(1) Report 63 Rationalisation of safety and serviceability factors
in structural codes CIRIA (U.K.), 1977
(2) BS 8100 Part 2, British Standards Institution, 1996
(3) Bierrum, N.R. Letter to the Editor,
CICIND REPORT Vol. 5, No. 1, 1989
(4) ENV 1991-2-4, CEN, 1995
(5) European Recommendations for steel construction
European Convention for Construction Steelwork (ECCS), 1978.
COMMENTARY 3
WIND LOAD
At the time of publication of the revised CICIND Model Code for
Steel Chimneys (1999), the wind load model currently used in ENV
1991-2-4 (eventually intended to form the basis of Eurocode 1, Part
24: Actions on Structures Wind Actions) has been shown by
calibration studies by CICIND and others to be unacceptable. In view
of the time expected to elapse before an acceptable model for
Eurocode 1 is agreed by all parties, CICIND have decided for the time
being to retain the wind load model described in the 1988 version of
this Model Code. A recent paper[1] has shown that this model gives
safe and reasonably accurate estimates of the wind load on chimneys.
C3.1 Wind-speed
As the basis for the wind-load, the hourly mean windspeed has been
retained. The wind-load is calculated after estimating a turbulence
intensity, by a gust factor method
[2]
.
C3.1.1. Basic wind-speed
The basic wind-speed used in deriving wind-loads is the wind-speed
averaged over one hour and measured at 10m above open ground at
the chimney location, which has a probability of exceedence of once
in 50 years.
The value of the basic wind-speed for a given location should be
obtained from data collected by meteorological stations.
When wind speeds have been measured over periods less than 50
years, the value of the basic windspeed must be extrapolated using
the Fisher-Tippett Type 1 expression for the statistical distribution of
extreme values, as follows:
P(V) exp {-exp [(Vu)]}
Where:
P(V) probability of excedence of velocity V during
the relevant period
slope of curve in Fig. C3.1
u intercept on vertical axis of curve in Fig. C3.1
For a probability of exceedence, once in 50 years, P(V) = 0.02
In some cases lower values for u and are found (see lit. [3] ).
The relationship between the wind-speed and the return period is
given in gure C3.1
If the averaging time of the measurement is shorter than one hour, the
hourly mean at 10m height may be determined using gure C3.2. In
this gure the ratio between the hourly mean and shorter averaging
periods of the wind-speed is given for various types of terrain. Table
C3.1 gives a quick reference for Open country terrain situations.
Fig. C3.1 Relationship between wind-speed
and its return period
Fig. C3.2 Relationship between windspeed
and its averaging time
Table C3.1 Relationship between commonly quoted
windspeeds at 10m height above grade for
open ground situations
Hourly 10-minute 5-second 3-second
mean mean gust gust
Hourly mean 1.0 1.05 1.45 1.5
10-minute mean 0.95 1.0 1.4 1.45
5-second gust 0.7 0.75 1.0 1.05
3-second gust 0.65 0.7 0.95 1.0
Note:- To convert Fastest mile windspeed to the above time-
averaged windspeeds, use the relationship (velocity distance /
time) to determine the time taken to traverse one mile. This time
should then be entered in g. C3.2.
C3.1.2 Wind Maps
When no results of wind-speed measurements are available an
indication of the basic wind-speed is given in the gures C3.3, C3.4,
C3.5, C3.6, C3.7 and C3.8 for Europe, USA, Asia, Australia, Africa
and Brazil.
Some countries have not published wind velocity maps, chosing
instead to specify wind pressure maps or wind velocities at specic
locations. In such cases the customer should specify the wind
velocity (v
b
) to be used in the design. The map showing isopleths for
Africa is unofficial and should be used with caution.
C3.1.3. The inuence of the height
The increase of the wind-speed with height is in accordance with the
power law:
V
z
V
b
k
p,z
0 (z / 10)
V
b
is the basic windspeed (i.e. measured at 10m above open, level
terrain, without obstructions). The scale factor k
p,z
0 and exponent
depend on the terrain roughness around the chimney. The values
kp,z
0 1 and 0.14 have been chosen in the Model Code. This is
assumed to cover the most common case when the chimney is not in
the centre of cities and not at the sea shore, but somewhere in
between and clear above the surrounding buildings.
When structures such as buildings are being designed, it is normal to
assume different values of and k
p,z
o, relevant to the terrain
considered. This, for instance, would give lower wind velocities in
town centres than in open country. When tall structures, such as
chimneys, are concerned, however, the wind velocity gradient
continues to be inuenced by the terrain over which it previously
travelled. In some cases, the previous terrain continues to be of
inuence after the wind has travelled by as much as 5km over
rougher terrain. In addition, the gust factor is a function of the
turbulence, so that in town centres, even though the wind velocity
may be less than in open country, the gust factor could be
considerably higher, partially cancelling out the reduction in dynamic
pressure. As a result of these considerations, it was decided to keep
the Model Code simple and use just one terrain category.
30 1
t (secs)
1

Fig. C3.3 Wind speeds in m/s for Europe (10 min. mean)
(note to convert to Vb hourly mean, divide by 1.05)
p
a
g
e

1
0
C
I
C
I
N
D

M
o
d
e
l

C
o
d
e

C
o
m
m
e
n
t
a
r
i
e
s

a
n
d

A
p
p
e
n
d
i
c
e
s
p
a
g
e

1
0
C
I
C
I
N
D

M
o
d
e
l

C
o
d
e

C
o
m
m
e
n
t
a
r
i
e
s

a
n
d

A
p
p
e
n
d
i
c
e
s
90(40)
100(40)
110(49)
120(54)
130(58)
140(63)
130(58)
140(63)
150(67)
140(63)
150(67)
140(63)
130(58)
120(54)
110(49)
100(45)
90(40)
90(40)
85(38)
90(40)
Fig C3.4 Wind Speeds in USA
Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour
(m/s) at 33ft (10m) above ground. To derive Vb divide by 1.5.
2. Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted.
3. Island and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind
speed contour of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind
regions shall be examined for unusal wind conditions.
Location V mph (m/s)
Hawaii 105 (47)
Puerto Rico 145 (65)
Guam 170 (76)
Virgin Islands 145 (65)
American Samoa 125 (56)
Special Wind Region
Fig C3.5 Basic windspeeds in m/s for Asia (hourly mean)
p
a
g
e

1
2
C
I
C
I
N
D

M
o
d
e
l

C
o
d
e

C
o
m
m
e
n
t
a
r
i
e
s

a
n
d

A
p
p
e
n
d
i
c
e
s
Basic windspeed V
b
(hourly mean)
Regions m/s
A 25
B 29
C 34
D 41
Fig 3.6 Basic Windspeeds for Australia
Fig C3.7 Basic wind speed Vb in m/s for Africa. Isopleths shown dotted should be used with caution. For nal designs local
regulations should be used in all cases.
70
65
60 55
50
45
40
35
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
35
45
40
35
Fig. C3.8 Windspeeds in m/s for Brazil (3-second gusts)
Note To convert to basic windspeed (hourly mean), divide by 1.5
C3.2 The gust factor
The proposed method for the calculation of the bending moments in
the chimney is based on the gust factor method (see lit. [4])
This conventional approach is:
w
g
(z) G w
m
(z)
where:
w
g
(z) the load at level z
Gthe gust factor a function of wind turbulence and the
chimneys natural frequency, damping and height
w
m
(z) the load due to the mean wind velocity
An extension of this method has been proposed by B.J. Vickery (see
lit. [5]) to account for the inertial response of a chimney and give
more accurate values of the bending moments at levels above the
base. This method has been adopted in the CICIND Model Code for
Concrete Chimneys, Part (a) for the design of concrete shells, where
steel reinforcement as well as shell thickness, varies often over the
chimney height. In the case of steel chimneys however, which are
lighter and shorter than concrete chimneys (giving a smaller inertial
response) and for which there is less scope for changes of thickness
with height, it was decided to use the simpler conventional method.
C3.3 Vortex shedding
Large vortex-induced vibrations perpendicular to the wind direction
may occur when the vortex shedding frequency coincides with a
natural frequency f of the chimney. This occurs at a mean wind
velocity V equal to the critical wind velocity V
cr
determined by:
VV
cr
f d / St ... (C3.3.1)
in which d is the predominant chimney diameter over the top third
and St is Strouhal number.
Vortex-induced vibrations depend strongly on mass and damping of
the chimney. The risk of large vibrations is judged by the Scruton
number Sc dened as:
Sc ... (C3.3.2)
in which is the structural damping ratio, mo is the effective mass
per unit height of the chimney as dened in the model code and is
the density of air.
The risk of large vortex-induced vibrations depends on a combination
of Scruton number and large-scale turbulence intensity of the
incoming wind eld. High intensity of large-scale turbulence or high
Scruton numbers reduces the risk of large vortex-induced vibrations.
Astructure with a given Scruton number may be stable in the kind of
turbulence ow normally encountered but become unstable in rare
cases with low turbulence occurring under stable atmospheric
stratication.
C3.3.1 Structural Amplitudes
The standard deviation
y
of the top structural deection is given
by, see ref. [6]:

... (C3.3.3)
in which C
a
, K
a
and
L
are aerodynamic parameters. The
aerodynamic parameter C
a
is found from the generalised vortex-
induced wind load on structures without any signicant additional
response induced by the chimneys own motion. The aerodynamic
parameters K
a
and
L
incorporate the effects of the motion-induced
response by means of aerodynamic damping:
The rst term {Ka d
2
/ m
o
} introduces negative
aerodynamic damping
The second term {1 [
y
/ (
L
d)]
2
} gives the positive
aerodynamic damping important for large amplitudes and
ensuring that the response is self-limiting.
For small amplitudes of up to approx. 5% of the diameter, the
aerodynamic damping is described sufficiently accurately by the rst
term only.
It can be seen that, when the structural damping is much greater
than the negative aerodynamic damping,
y
is quite small. As the two
values converge, however, the increase in
y
becomes dramatic, until
the self limiting amplitude is approached and increases become
smaller (see Fig. C3.9).
The maximum value y of the top deection amplitude is calculated
by multiplying the standard deviation
y
with a peak factor k
p
,
i.e. y k
p

y
. For small amplitudes below approx. 12% of the
diameter, the peak-factor is approx. 4, corresponding to a stochastic
type of vibration. For large amplitudes, the peak-factor is equal to
about 1.5, corresponding to sinusoidal vibrations with constant
amplitude. For intermediate amplitudes, the peak-factor increases
gradually with decreasing amplitude. However, for the sake of
simplicity, the Model Code assumes a sudden change at a value of
y
4% of diameter.
Fig. C3.9 Relationship between
y
and Structural Damping ()
for given values of K
a
, m
o
and d
Solving equation (C3.3.3) for the standard deviation shows that the
maximum value y of the top deection amplitude (i.e. zero to
maximum) can be expressed by (see Model Code equation 7.9):
y/dk
p
{c
1
(c
1
2
c
2
)
0.5
}
0.5
... (C3.3.4)
where the constants c
1
and c
2
are equal to:
c
1
0.5
L
2
{1 [ m
o
/ (K
a
d
2
)]} ... (C3.3.5)
or c
1
0.5
L
2
{1 [Sc / (4 K
a
)]}
c
2
... (C3.3.6)
In smooth ow conditions,
L
approximately 0.4 (see table 1),
which gives the following expressions for c
1
and c
2
(see Model Code,
7.2.4.2):
c
1
0.08 {1 [ m
o
/ (K
a
d
2
)]}
c
2
0.16 d
3
C
a
2
K
a
m
o
S
t
4
h
L
2
d
2
Ca
2
d
K
a
m
o
S
t
4
h
d
h
d
2
m
o
C
a
{K
a
d
2
/ m
o
} {1 [
y
/ (
L
d)]
2
}
1
S
t
2
y
d
4 m
o
d
2
For most non-heavily damped chimneys with Scruton numbers less
than 4K
a
, the inuence of the constant c
2
is negligible and the
amplitude of the structural deection (0 - max.) can be found from:
y / d k
p
(2 c
1
)
0.5
0.4 k
p
{1 [Sc / (4 K
a
)]}
0.5
... (C3.3.7)
In the present simplied and approximate approach, the aerodynamic
damping parameter K
a
is estimated for smooth ow cases as a
function of Reynolds number (R
e
) only. A function of longitudinal
turbulence intensity, I gives the reduction in turbulent ow, i.e.:
K
a
(R
e
, I) K
a,max
(R
e
) K
(I) ... (C3.3.8)

The aerodynamic damping parameter, K
a,max
for smooth ow at
various values of R
e
is given in Table 1.
The function K
may approximately be determined by:-

K
(I) 1-31 for 0 I 0.25 and

K
(I) 0.25 for I 0.25.

For terrain category 1 (i.e. within 5km of open sea), the minimum
turbulence intensity, I
min
can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities
less than or equal 10m/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than
10m/s. For all other terrain categories the minimum turbulence
intensity, I
min
can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities less than
or equal to 7 m/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than 7m/s.
Further studies are needed to clanfy the inuence of turbulence more
accurately.
Table C3.2. Aerodynamic parameters in smooth ow. For
Reynolds numbers between the limits given, the aerodynamic
parameters are determined by linear interpolation using
ln(Re) as argument
Aerodynamic parameter Re < 10
5
Re = 5 10
5
Re > 10
6
C
a,max
0.02 interpolation 0.01
K
a,max
1.5 1.0 1.0
L
0.4 0.4 0.4
Figure C3.10 shows the vortex-induced vibrations as a function of
turbulence intensity for Reynolds numbers equal to 10
5
and 10
6
, respectively.
C3.3.2 Bending Moments
The bending moments in the chimney can be calculated from the
inertial load per unit length (F
w
) corresponding to the relevant mode
shape (
i
), where:
F
w
m (2n
i
)
2

i
y
max
... (C3.3.9)
where n
i
relevant natural frequency
y
max
maximum amplitude at the relevant natural frequency
or from the bending moment due to a force at 1/6 of the chimney
height from the top, causing the same deection y
max
.
Figure C3.10. Vortex-induced vibrations as function of
turbulence intensity and Reynolds number. It is assumed that
m
0
/ d
2
50 and h/d30, which inuence the low amplitude
part of the curves shown.
The amplitude should be limited to ensure that stresses are within
permissible limits, both from the point of view of failure and fatigue
life. In addition, the amplitude should not be large enough to alarm
bystanders. This limit is difficult to dene in general terms as
bystanders alarm is subjective, depending upon how often the
response occurs, its frequency, the visibility of the chimney and the
bystanders perception of the risk. Definition of the limiting
amplitude for this aspect is, therefore left to the owner and the
designer to agree for each individual case. Some guidance for highly
visible chimneys with low values of Vcr (10m/s within 5km of sea
or lake-shore, 7m/s in inland locations) is given below:
Critical Chimneys Top double amplitude (peak to peak)
should be not more than 10% top diameter
Normal Chimneys Top double amplitude (peak to peak)
should be not more than 25% top diameter
These limits may be increased for less noticeable chimneys and/or
those with higher values of Vcr (i.e. those which rarely see large
amplitude response).
C3.4 Movements in the second mode
Just as in the case of cross-wind response in the fundamental mode,
a response to excitation in the second mode, giving a top amplitude
exceeding about 4% of the top diameter, triggers an increased
response, initiated by the chimneys own movement.
In the case of fundamental mode movements, response is only
important to vortices shed over a length near to the chimney top, equal
to about 5 top diameters, as demonstrated by Fig. C.3.11.
Vcr 5.9 m/s, Scr 4.8, f 40 hz
Vcr 4.2 m/s, Scr 18.7, f 29.5 hz
Fig. C3.11 Auto-Spectra of the anemometer signal
(velocity signal), measured at Vcr in the wake of the model,
measured over top half
The maximum ampltude in the second mode will occur at the top (see
g. C.3.12). The amplitude reduces to zero over a length of H / 4.
This steep reduction means that the length over which vortex
shedding is important will be much smaller in the case of second
mode response.
Fig. C3.12 Mode shapes, rst and second mode
In the second mode, the energy due to uctuating wind pressures will
be applied at the middle part of the chimney. The top amplitude of a
chimney responding in the second mode will never be as great as that
reached by the same chimney responding in the primary mode. This
is because much more wind-induced energy would be required in the
second mode. This is illustrated in Fig. C.3.13, which shows the
bending moment causing the same amplitude in the second mode as
in the rst mode would require about 50 times more energy. On the
other hand, the energy required to cause the same base stress in the
second mode is almost the same as that in the rst mode, even though
top deection in 2nd mode is much smaller.
The proposed calculation method is based upon the assumption that
more or less the same energy is applied in bending, whether the
chimney is in the rst or the second mode. It therefore follows that
the top amplitude in the second mode would only be about 1/6 of the
top amplitude in the rst mode. The stresses, however, will be about
the same in each case.
Fig. C3.13 Stresses and energy levels in rst and second mode
This is partly demonstrated by measured values in a full-scale
chimney see g. C.3.14. The measured values in this trace are of
stresses at the base and it can be seen that many of the stress cycles
in that part of the response in the second mode are much the same as
those in the rst mode. The second mode amplitudes were, however,
only about 15% of the rst mode amplitudes.
Fig. C3.14
The proposal for determining the top amplitudes in the second mode is
given in g. C.3.15. The stresses in both the rst and second modes
should be taken into account when dealing with the effects of fatigue.
Fig. C3.15 Relationship between Scruton Number
and top amplitude
Second Mode
First Mode
B
a
s
e

S
t
r
e
s
s
Time (secs)
1
= 0.7 Hz
2
= 2.6 Hz
[M/S r.m.s.]
2
Hz
0.0
10.000 100.00 HZ
REAL
[M/S r.m.s.]
2
Hz
2.0000
0.0
10.000 100.00 HZ
REAL
C3.5 Ovalling
The static as well as the dynamically uctuating pressure causes a
varying pressure over the circumference of the chimney. The varying
wind pressure around a circular cylinder causes a static ovalling
deformation of the cicle. The dynamics in the wind, including vortex
shedding can cause a vibration of the circular shape, the lowest order
mode and most likely to occur being that of ovalling.
C3.5.1 Static ovalling load
The distribution of the wind pressure around the circumference of the
shell can be written as:
p p
0
{0.823 0.448cos1.115cos20.400cos3
0.113cos40.027cos5} ... (C.3.5.1)
where: p
0
the wind pressure 0.5 v
2
Angle between wind direction and point on
circumference under consideration
The rst term (0.823 p
0
) is an overall suction and causes a small
uniform tensile force on vertical cross sections of the shell.
The second term (0.448 p
0
cos) is the pressure in the wind
direction (g. C.3.16) and provides the derivation of the force
coefficient (shape factor) of 0.7, to give a total load. It causes no
departure from a circular cross-section.
Fig. C.3.16 Wind pressure and deected
shape due to p
0
cos term
The third term (1.115 p
0
cos g. C.3.17) causes ovalling.
Fig. C.3.17 Wind pressure and deected
shape due to p
0
cos2 term
The remaining terms have little inuence.
C3.5.1.1 Unstiffened shells
C3.5.1.1.1 Effect on vertical moments
(stresses on horizontal sections)
An analysis of the deformation and stresses in an unstiffened shell
(assuming a rigidly xed circular base) due to the ovalling load has
been given elsewhere in the literature
[8]
. This considered stresses on
horizontal sections of an unstiffened shell due to the total wind
distribution, involving mainly the cos and cos2 terms (g. C.3.18)
A major part of the stresses on horizontal sections is due to the
transition from a circular shape at the base to an oval shape.
Fig. C.3.18 Circumferential wind pressure and deected shape
Derivation of the increase in tensile stress is fairly straight-forward,
as the maximum tensile stresses due to both beam exure and
restraint of ovalling deformation occur at the base at 180 to the wind
direction (i.e. on the up-wind side). Clause 8.2 of the Model Code
gives the expression:-
{tensile shell stress tensile beam sress (1 {6 / [(l/r)
2
(t/r)]}.
Therefore, for t/r 0.008 and l/r 50, the increase in tensile
stress 30%. This is probably unimportant in the design of chimney
shells, which are usually governed by compressive stresses, but it is
important in designing the base joint and holding-down bolts. The Model
Code, therefore, calls for shell theory (or the above approximation) to be
used for unstiffened chimneys with aspect ratio 25.
The position regarding compressive stresses is not so simple. Ref. (8)
limited itself to consideration of stresses at the base, at 0 to the wind
direction. Here, the compression due to beam exure is reduced or
even reversed by the shell stresses induced locally by restraint of
ovalling deformation. However, increases in compressive stress are
possible elsewhere. Increases in compressive stress are due to either
of two effects:
1) At the base and between values of about 60 and 120 to the
wind, the reduced compression stress due to beam exure (function
of ) has to be added to the compressive shell stress due to restraint
of ovalling (function of 2) see g. C3.19. Signicant increases
in total compressive stress only occurr at relatively small values of
t/r for l/r ratios less than 30 see table C3.5.1
2) For relatively thick shells at low l/r ratios, increases of
compression stress occurr on the down-wind side at 0 to the wind
direction, at heights about 6 diameters above the base see table
C3.5.2. This is due to contraexure effects, associated with
restraint of ovalling, causing compressive stresses at this height.
Fig. C3.19 Stresses at chimney base
Therefore, combining both tables it can be seen that consideration of
shell stresses leads to signicant increases in compressive stresses,
either at the base or at a height about 6 diameters above the base for l/r
ratios 30. Guidance regarding these increases is given by g. C3.20
Fig. C3.20 Increases in compressive stress over lower 6
diameters of an unstiffened chimney, due to shell effects
C.3.5.1.1.2 Effect on horizontal moments (stresses on
vertical sections)
The distribution of ovalling pressure 1.115 p
0
cos 2
Where p
0
is the wind pressure, averaged over 5 seconds.
Away from the ends of a long, unstiffened shell, the consequent
bending moment at position is m
0
, where:
m
0
R
2
p
0
cos 2 ... (C3.5.2)
and m
0
(max) 0.07 p
0
d
2
(Nm/m)
1.115
4
3.0
2.0
1.0
.004 .006 .008 .01 .011
CT
CB
t
/
R
= 20
l
R
= 30
l
R
Flexure
Oval
Circle
Ovalling
Wind
Total Tension
Upwind
Net
Compression Max Compression
0
90
180
Down
Wind
t/r l/r beam stress beam stress shell stress total stress ratio
max. at at
MPa degrees MPa MPa MPa
0.004 20 2.3 90 0.0 7.3 7.3 3.18
30 6.0 70 2.0 6.0 8.0 1.35
40 11.5 70 4.0 6.0 10.0 0.87
0.005 20 1.9 90 0.0 4.8 4.8 2.63
30 4.8 70 1.7 3.7 5.4 1.13
40 9.2 70 3.2 3.7 6.9 0.75
0.006 20 1.6 90 0.0 3.3 3.3 2.13
30 4.0 70 1.4 2.5 3.9 0.98
t/r l/r max. comp. height (z) beam stress total stress ratio
shell stress at z at z
MPa (x dia.) MPa MPa
0.011 20 0.9 6.2 1.3 2.2 1.64
30 0.9 6.2 8.8 9.7 1.11
0.010 20 0.9 6.2 1.5 2.3 1.57
30 0.9 6.2 8.8 9.7 1.10
40 0.9 6.2 23.1 24.0 1.04
0.008 20 0.8 6.2 1.8 2.7 1.43
30 0.8 6.2 11.0 11.8 1.03
0.006 20 0.4 7.4 1.2 1.6 1.32
30 0.4 7.8 11.0 11.4 1.03
Table C3.5.1 Max. Compression Stresses at
Base of Unstiffened Chimney
Table C3.5.2 Increases in compressive stress at 0o to wind (downwind side),
about 6 diameters above base of an unstiffened chimney.
(Note: 0.07 increased to 0.08 in Model Code (equation 7.11), to allow
for effect of initial curvature)
The associated deection of an unstiffened shell at point is w
0
,
where:
w
0
cos 2 ... (C3.5.2)
and w
0
(max) 0.06 p
0
d
4
/ (E t
3
)
C3.5.1.2 Stiffened shells
The addition of correctly sized circumferential stiffeners at the top and
at the correct spacing will reduce shell stresses due to ovalling to
negligible values. In considering the effect of stiffeners the following
approach is used:
Based upon the theory of shells
[9]
, the deformation (w) at a distance
(height) x from the stiffener is (with a small approximation) given by
the following function:
ww
0
{1 e
x/2
[cos(x/2)sin(x/2)]} ... (C3.5.4)
where: / 2 (t/R)
0.5
Substituting /2 1.52 (t)
0.5
/ (R)
1.5
, the deformation of the
stiffened shell becomes close to that of an unstiffened shell at a
distance 1.58 R (R/t)
0.5
, or 0.56 d (d/t)
0.5
The deformation of the
shell above and below the stiffener is shown in g. C3.21.
Fig. C3.21 Ovalling deformation of a cylinder
with a stiff ring at x 0
It can be seen that the ovalling deformations and, therefore stresses,
remain low (about 0.03w
0
) if the distance between stiffeners of
innitely high stiffness is smaller than 0.56 d (d/t)
0.5
.
The maximum bending moment in the stiffener at this spacing is
obtained after integration of the shear forces in the shell:-
M 0.028 p
0
d
3
(d/t)
0.5
(Nm) ... (C3.5.5)
In order to be effective, the deformation of the stiffener under this
moment must be much smaller than w
0
this requirement being
more important than its strength.
The deformation of the ring (with spacing L) is obtained by
integration of the bending moment M. The result is:
When L1.58 R (R/t)
0.5
:
w cos 2 ... (C3.5.6)
This must be much less than w
0
, say 1/5.
Therefore, I
r
must be, say, greater than 5 times (0.06 d
1.5
t
2.5
). This
will ensure ovalling stresses in the shell are reduced to about 20% of
those in an unstiffened shell.
i.e The spacing (L) of stiffening rings should be 0.56 d (d/t)
0.5
and the moment of inertia (I
r
) of the stiffening ring (including
participating shell (see Model Code Fig. 7.4) should be:
I
r
0.3 d
1.5
t
2.5
when L0.56 d (d/t)
0.5
... (C.3.5.7)
I
r
0.3 d
1.5
t
2.5
L / 0.56 d (d/t)
0.5
... (C.3.5.8)
when L0.56 d (d/t)
0.5
C3.5.2 Dynamic component of ovalling
C.3.5.2.1 - Unstiffened shells
The resonance frequency of the fundamental (ovalling) vibrations for
an unstiffened cylinder is given by:
f
1
0.49 ... (C3.5.9)
where E Youngs modulus of the shell
Density of the shell
A Cross-section area of shell (t m
2
/m)
I Moment of inertia of shell about its vertical axis
( m
4
/m)
R, d and t Radius, diameter and thickness of shell
In the case of steel:
f 2560 t / d
2
... (C3.5.11)
The frequency of vortex shedding relevant to ovalling 2 St V/ d
Therefore large scale resonant movemements can occur if:
2560 t/d
2
2 St V/ d
For St 0.2, therefore, Vcr 6500 t / d ... (C3.5.12)
To ensure that ovalling vibrations do not occur, it is necessary to
increase the moment of inertia of the shell to give a value of Vcr
sufficiently high to avoid a build up of periodic excitation. Assuming
that Vcr 30 m/s is high enough to achieve this, the required value
of I is then given by:
f 2 St Vcr / d
Giving:
I ... (C3.5.13)
For Vcr 30m/s, St 0.2, 7850 kg/m
3
and
E210 10
9
N/m
2
, therefore
I 7.4 10
6
A R
2
1.8 10
6
d
2
t (m4/m height)
For an unstiffened shell, this means t
3
/ 12 1.85 10
6
d
2
t
... (C3.5.14)
i.e. t/d must be 0.004, otherwise stiffening rings will be required
to avoid the risk of ovalling vibrations.
C.3.5.2.2 Stiffened shells
Assuming the top of the chimney is stiffened by a ring satisfying
equation (C3.5.8), ovalling vibrations can still occur at lower levels
if the t/d ratio is 0.004. These vibrations are dened by:
A R
4
7.2 E
4
2
St
2
Vcr
2
R
2
7.2 E I
A R
4
1
2
t
3
12
E
t
d
2
7.2 E I
A R
4
1
2
0.19 p
0
R
5.5
E I
r
(t)
0.5
152x
R
t
R
Deformation with rings
at distances x = 1.32R
R
t
Ring Saffener (Deformation Zero)
w
w
o
2
(3)
0.25
R
12 R
4
1.115 p
0
16 E t
3
w

4
w
t

2
w0 ... (C3.5.15)
Where wdeformation
x coordinate along the shell (i.e. vertical direction)
y coordinate along the circumference
TTime
The solution is approximated by:
ww
0
cos t cos (2y/R) cos ( x / L) ... (C3.5.16)
Where L distance between stiffening rings
w
0
deformation of unstiffened shell
2 f
f frequency
Substituting in equation (C3.5.12) gives:
2
... (C3.5.17)
An approximation is:
(E/ )
0.5
{1 / [R(4 L
2
) / (
2
R)]} ... (C3.5.18)
Therefore L
2
(/2)
2
{[(R/ 2 f) (E/ )
0.5
] R
2
}
Assuming that Vcr 30m/s is high enough to avoid oscillations and
f 0.2V
cr
/R and substituting E210109 N/m2 and 7850
Kg/m
3
:
L18 R, or 9 d ... (C3.5.19)
From equation (C3.5.14), we have seen that the minimum value of I
per unit height to avoid oscillations is:
I 1.85 10
6
d
2
t (m
4
/m height)
Assuming the stiffener to provide the equivalent I of a length of
shell 9 d, Ir of stiffener (including participating shell see Model
Code, Fig. 7.4) ) must be:
Ir >1.75 10
5
d
3
t ... (C3.5.20)
C3.6 Interference Effects
In considering the effect of aerodynamic interference by an upstream
cylindrical structure on the cross-wind response of a chimney, it is
generally accepted that the value of lift coefficient increases with the
localised small-scale turbulence associated with wake buffetting
[1]
.
In Reference [1], however, Vickery acknowledges in paragraph 5.2
that this does not explain the full increase in cross-wind response. He
states that: Across-wind response of the downstream structure is
enhanced but the mechanism is not completely clear. He assumes
that a second contribution comes from reinforcement of the
movement by buffeting at a similar frequency to that of vortex
shedding by the downwind chimney. Presumably this reinforcement
can be expressed by an increase in negative aerodynamic damping.
Unfortunately little research data is yet available to dene the way in
which the increase in negative aerodynamic damping is affected by
spacing, Scruton Number, or large-scale atmospheric turbulence.
Therefore, for spacings between chimney and interfering structure
less than 10 diameters, the Model Code merely recommends addition
of structural damping to increase the chimneys Scruton Number to
more than 25. At this point it is unlikely that excessive response will
be experienced. When research data is available, more denite design
guidance can be given.
{(/L)
2
(2/R)
2
}
4
{
4
/ (R
2
L
4
)}
{(/L)
2
(2/R)
2
}
2
E t
2
12
2
y
2
2
x
2
2
T
2
E t
4
w
R
2
x
4
2
y
2
2
x
2
Et
3
12(1
2
)
Literature
[1] B.J. Vickery Wind loads and Design for Chimneys
CICIND REPORT, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1998
[2] A.G. Davenport Wind structure and wind climate
Seminar on Safety of Structures, Trondheim, 1977.
[3] P.J. Rijkoort and J. Wieringa Extreme wind-speeds by
compound Weibull analysis of exposure-corrected data.
Journal of Wind Engineering, no. 13, 1983.
[4] A.G. Davenport Gust loading factors Proc. ASCE
Journal Struct. Div., Vol. 93, No, ST 5, June, 1967.
[5] B.J. Vickery Wind-induced loads on reinforced concrete
chimneys Nat. Seminar on Tall Reinforced Concrete
Chimneys, New Delhi, 1985.
[6] S. O. Hansen Vortex Induced Vibrations of Line-Like
Structures CICIND REPORT, Vol. 15, No. 1, March 1999
[7] Shoei-Sheng Chen Flow-induced vibration of circular
cylindrical structures. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation 1987.
[8] H. van Koten The Stress Distribution in Chimneys due to
Wind Pressure CICIND REPORT Vol. 11, No. 2, 1995
[9] H.van Koten Structural analysis of shells Technical
University of Delft.
COMMENTARY No. 4 FATIGUE
When we consider the long term history of movement of a chimney
subject to cross-wind movement in response to vortex excitation, we
must take into account the following phenomena:
(1) Movement is subject to a start-up and a wind-down phase at
the beginning and end of each response excursion (see Fig. C4.1)
(2) The stress at a point on the chimney tends to vary, reducing as the
wind direction changes and its speed departs from its critical
value, all due to atmospheric turbulence. The degree of reduction
depends upon the level of turbulence.
Fig. C4.1 Typical trace of cross-wind oscillations
Further, in inland locations and at relatively high critical windspeeds,
atmospheric turbulence is high enough to ensure that the maximum
amplitude rarely occurs. This was demonstrated by a series of long
term measurements (varying between 93 days and 322 days) of the
response of four steel chimneys in Germany
[1]
see g. C4.2. It can
be seen from these histograms that amplitudes exceeding 90% of
maximum occurred only rarely, varying from about 10 cycles during
93 days at Aachen to about 100 cycles during 264 days at Cologne.
The method in the Model Code takes these facts into account and
develops a spectrum of response, using the Miner Rule to determine
fatigue life. The Miner sum is:
M(
max
/
wn
)
k
(log
e
n)
k
... (4.1)
Where
max
the maximum stress, per section 7.2.4 of the
Model Code
wn
the stress causing cracks after n cycles
(per Wohler curve)
k 3 in the case of fatigue in steel
a function (dependent upon Vcr) dening the
shape of the load/cycle collective curve
(Fig. C4.3) as follows:-

max
{1 (log n / logn
1
)}
... (4.2)
(Vcr / 8)
1.2
... (4.3)
n Number of load cycles due to cross-wind excitation
during the lifetime T
Fig. C4.2 Histograms of long term response of
four full-scale chimneys
Fig. C4.3 Load/cycle collectives for various values of
To determine the number of load cycles(n), it is rst necessary to
know the number of occasions the wind will blow at its critical
velocity (Vcr). This is determined from considerations of the
probability of their occurrence P(Vcr):
P(Vcr) 2 e
(Vcr / V
0
)
2
... (4.4)
Where Vo wind velocity averaged over one year
approx. V
b
(h) / 4
V
b
(h) hourly mean velocity at chimney top, with
exceedance probability of once in 50 years.
It is assumed that the chimney responds at wind velocities between
1.1Vcr and 0.9Vcr.
Vcr
V
0
2
Also a reduction has to be introduced to account for changes in the
wind direction, so that the point of maximum stress is moved away
from the point under consideration. The stress at a given point is
proportional to cos
2
and the total effect is roughly:-
(1 / 2)
0
2
cos
2
d0.5
As a result,
n 3.15 10
7
T f 4 2 0.5 0.1 A e
A
2
n 1.26 10
7
T f A e
A
2
... (5) (see Model Code 8.5.2)
Where A4 Vcr /Vb(h)
f Resonance frequency
The load/cycle collective predictions over 20 years, calculated by
equations (3) & (5) are shown by the dotted lines in Fig. C4.2.
Because the spectrum was derived from long term measurements on
relatively few chimneys, a modelling safety factor 1.4 is
introduced in the expression for the Miner Number.
Literature
[1] W. Langer, H. Ruscheweyh & C. Verwiebe Untersuchungen
des Querschnittverhalten von Original Stahlschornstein
Forschungsbericht P. 230
[2] H. van Koten A Calculation Method for the Cross-Wind
Vibrations of Chimneys CICIND REPORT Vol. 14, No. 1,
June 1998
COMMENTARY No. 5 OPENINGS
Openings have to be strengthened to prevent local reduction of:
Strength
Resistance against fatigue
instability
The strength of the cross-section with openings is the same as the
strength of an undisturbed section if the section modulus is the same.
This equality of section moduli is sufficient to fullll the rst
condition of strength.
The moment of inertia of a circle with an opening subtended by the
angle 2 is:
I d
3
t / 8 {sincos[(2sin
2
) / ()]}
Derivation formulae for cross section properties of chimneys (both
unreinforced and reinforced) and of chimneys with more than one
opening at the same elevation are given in Table C5.1
If is small then the value of I is close to that of the complete circle
(0.125 d
3
t). As increases, however, the value of I drops
rapidly (see Fig. C.5.1). The same holds for section modulus. To
replace the lost material, reinforcing stiffeners are welded vertically
to the chimney on each side of the opening. To be effective, the cross-
section area (A) of each of the reinforcing stiffeners should be at least
equal to A1.25 Rt (sin)
0.5
.
Across section with an opening is sensitive to the effects of buckling.
This is due to the stiffness of the weakened cross-section being
reduced by the possibility of the shell bending in or out at the edges
of the opening. To prevent this the reinforcement stiffeners have to be
placed normal to the shell {see Figures C5.2 & C5.3) and
concentrated along the edge of the opening.
However, sudden ending of of the reinforcement above and below the
opening can cause stress concentrations. These can treble stresses
locally and lead to fatigue damage such as local cracks. To avoid this,
in the case of openings with width greater than 40% of the chimney
diameter locally, the vertical stiffeners should connect at each end
with a horizontal stiffener extending around the full circumference
(see g. C5.2).
Fig C5.1 Reduction of inertia at openings
When the width of opening is less than 40% of the chimneys diameter
locally, it is not necessary to provide a horizontal stiffener extending
around the full circumference and a more local arrangement may be
used (see g.. C5.3). Vertical reinforcement should be continued
above and below the opening to a point where the added stress is
unimportant. The code deems that continuing the reinforcement
beyond horizontal stiffeners above and below the opening a distance
at least 0.5 times the width of the opening will suffice.
2
1
2
1
2

W1
R
2
t
2
1
R
t
M
W2
2
=
1
=
W2
R
2
t
I
R
3
t
M
W1
Fig. C5.1 Derivation formulae for section properties of chimneys with openings (a reinforcement area)
G
1
G
1
G
G
G
G
G
1
G
1
a a
a a
G
1
G
1
G
G
e
2
1
G
1
G
1
G
G
e
2
1
a
a
0
0

A 2tr ( 2)
I
GG
2tr
3
(/2sincos)
Z
GG
I
GG
/ rcos
I
G
1
G
1 2tr
3
(/2sincos)
Z
G
1
G
1 I
G
1
G
1/r
I
G
1
G
1 2tr
3
(/2sincos)
4ar
2
sin
2
Z
G
1
G
1 I
G
1
G
1/r
I
G
1
G
1 tr
3
(sincos)
Z
G
1
G
1 I
G
1
G
1/r
I
G
1
G
1 tr
3
(sincos)
2ar
2
sin
2
Z
G
1
G
1 I
G
1
G
1/r
I
GG
2tr
3
(/2sincos)
4ar
2
cos
2
Z
GG
I
GG
/ rcos
I
GG
tr
3
{sincos
[2sin
2
/()]}
Z
1
GG
I
GG
/ (ercos)
Z
2
GG
I
GG
/ (re)
I
GG
I
00
Ae
2
Z
1
GG
I
GG
/ (ercos)
Z
2
GG
I
GG
/ (re)
A 2tr ( 2) 4a A 2tr ( )
e rsin / ()
A 2tr ( ) 2a
e
I
00
tr
3
( sin cos)
2ar
2
cos
2
tr
2
sin arcos
tr () a
Fig. C5.2 Suggested detail of reinforcement for
wide openings (> 0.4D)
If the vertical height of the opening is more than twice its horizontal
width, a stability check is needed. Guidance on such checks is given
in the chapter on bending of plates under lateral loads in Plates and
shells, by Timoshenko.
When the duty of the chimney requires ue gas inlets whose width
exceeds two-thirds of the structural shells diameter, a possible
solution would be to provide a large number of small circular
openings, giving a total area equivalent to that required.
Reinforcement could then be threaded between the small holes and
around the whole group, as required.
Fig. C5.3 Suggested detail of reinforcement for
narrow openings (< 0.4D)
Even though it is reinforced to ensure the section complies with
strength requirements, the presence of an opening can reduce locally
the stiffness of the chimney and affect its natural frequencies. This
reduced stiffness should therefore be taken into account when
deriving the chimneys dynamic response. This is done by taking
account of the reduced local stiffness at the opening when calculating
x for each section in equation 7.16 of the Model Code.
COMMENTARY 6
CHEMICAL EFFECTS AND INTERNAL
CORROSION
C6.1. Chemical effects
C6.1.1. Attack due to sulphur oxides
The most common form of internal chemical attack is due to acids
formed by the condensation of sulphur oxides in the ue gas. Sulphur
is found in all solid and liquid fuels to varying degrees and can also
be found in gaseous fuels. During the combustion process, nearly all
sulphur in the fuel is oxidised to sulphur dioxide (SO
2
) which can be
absorbed by condensing water vapour to form sulphurous acid.
A small quantity of sulphur dioxide (SO
2
) is further converted to
sulphur trioxide (S0
3
). The quantity depends in a complex manner
upon the sulphur content of the fuel, the amount of excess air
available during combustion, temperature in the combustion chamber
and the presence of catalysts such as iron oxides. This small
concentration of S0
3
(usually measured in PPM), gives rise to most
of the acid corrosion problems encountered in chimneys. This is
because on condensation, the S0
3
ions combine with water vapour to
form sulphuric acid whose concentration can be as high as 85%.
Condensation of these acids takes place when the temperature of the
ue gas falls below their respective acid dew point temperatures
(ADP), or when the ue gas comes into contact with a surface, at or
below the relevant acid dew point temperature.
The acid dew point temperature of sulphuric acid depends upon the
concentration of S0
3
in the ue gas (see Fig C6.1). Provided the
temperature of the ue gas and the surfaces with which it can come
into contact are maintained 10C above the acid dew point estirnated
from Fig. C6.1, there is no danger of acid corrosion due to this cause.
Alternatively, suitable acid resisting coatings can be applied to
protect the steel. Guidance on suitable coatings and their
performance is given in CICIND Manual for Chimney Protective
Coatings.
The acid dew point of sulphurous acid is about 65C, a little above
the water dew point. If the fuel is contaminated, other acids, such as
hydrochloric and nitric acid can be expected to condense in the same
temperature range. Thus, even if fuel and combustion processes are
chosen to minimise production of S0
3
, or if ue gases are scrubbed
to remove most of the S0
3
and SO
2
, severe corrosion can be expected
if the temperatures of the ue gas or the surfaces with which it can
come into contact fall below 65C, or the acid dew point temperature
relevant to the reduced S0
3
concentration, if this is higher. Again, a
safety margin is recommended of 10C above the acid dew point
temperature estimated from gure C6.1.
C.6.1.2 Effects of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)
Despite the removal of most of the sulphur oxides during FGD, a
severe corrosion risk remains. This is because, downstream of a
scrubber, the ue gas is usually very wet and its temperature is often
very low low enough to be below the (low) value of acid dew
point temperature (ADP) associated with the reduced sulphur oxide
content. Fig. C6.2 shows the relationship between temperature and
acid concentration to be expected and demonstrates that ue gas
condensing at temperatures as low as 80C can end up as quite
concentrated acid. Also the ue gas often contains chlorides, carried
over from the scrubbing materials.
All steels except the very expensive high nickel alloys and titanium
would deteriorate very quickly in this environment. To minimise the
expense, methods have been developed to apply very thin sheets of
alloy or titanium to the inner face of carbon steel or other vulnerable
liners. Some organic coating materials have also been developed for
this duty.
C6.1.3. Attack due to chlorine, chlorides and uorides
Chlorides are found in most solid fuels, including refuse and in many
liquid fuels. It is also sometimes found as a pollutant in some FGD
processes. Upon combustion chlorides are transformed into free
chloride ions which, on contact with water vapour are transformed
into hydrochloric acid. The highest condensation temperature at
which hydrochloric acid has been found is 60C. Thus, when any ue
surface falls below this acid dew point, very serious corrosion will
occur. This dew point is close to the water and sulphurous acid dew
point. Even very small amounts of chlorides in combination with
other condensed acids can cause serious corrosion problems.
Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen uoride and free chlorine in ue gases
also become corrosive in their vapour stage. Stainless steels are
attacked at temperatures above 320C. Fluoride vapours are
corrosive to stainless steels at temperature above 250C.
C6.2. Internal Corrosion
The internal corrosion allowances in table 8.2 of the Model Code are
based upon limited exposure to condensing sulphuric acid per Fig
C6.1. They are derived from the relationship between Peak
corrosion rate and S0
3
concentration shown in gure C6.3. This,
in turn, was derived from the upper bound of a family of curves
which show the same relationship observed in practical situations.
See lit. [2] and [3]. A safety factor of 4 has been used in arriving at
the corrosion allowances.
Fig. C.6.2 Phase diagram: sulphuric acid water vapour
C6.3 Guideline to choice of liner metallic materials
Guidelines on the suitability of various metals and alloys for the
range of chemical risks to be found in chimneys will be given in
CICINDs Metallic Materials Manual (to be published in 2001).
Literature
[1] Desulphurisation Systems and their Effect on Operational
Conditions in Chimneys, Henseler, F., CICIND REPORT,
Vol. 3, No. 2, 1987
[2] Inuence of fuel oil characteristics and combustion
conditions on the gas properties in water tube boilers Bunz
G., Diepenberg H, and Rundle A. Jnl of the Institute of
Fuel Sept 1967
[3] Prevention of cold end corrosion in industrial boilers. Lech
and Landowski Corrision March 1979
Fig. C6.1 Relationship between ADP and SO
3
concentration
peak corrosion
rates
(micron/
1000 hours)
*)
ppm = part per million (10
6
)
SO1 concentration (ppm by vol)
*)
Fig. C6-3 Relationship between peak internal corrosion rates and SO
3
concentration
page 28 CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices Amendment A March 2002
APPENDIX 1
DESIGN OF CHIMNEY BASE PLATES
This appendix is intended to give guidance on rationalising baseplate
details. In the following calculations, base plate bearing stress (*
c
)
and maximum bolt tension (P
b
*) are calculated for factored load and
overturning moment. In the case of bases with a compression ring
and/or gussets the values of *
c
and P
b
* are calculated using elastic
analysis as a reinforced concrete ring assuming the modular ratio of
12
[1],[2]
. The area of steel bolts is taken as the thread root cross
section area of the bolts. In chimneys requiring an increase in design
tensile stress at the base on account of clause 8.2 of the Model Code,
the value of P
b
* should be factored accordingly.
A.1.1 Simple baseplates, with no gussets or compression
rings (Fig. A.1.1)
Fig. A1.1 Simple Baseplate
On the compression side, the vertical shell force is distributed over a
strip of width (2.l
3
t
s
), where l
3
is chosen to limit the pressure on
the grout (*c) to no greater than f
kg
/ 1.5.
The maximum baseplate stress (*)is then given by:
* 3 . *c . (l
3
/ t
b
)
2
f
k
/ 1.1 ... (A1.1)
where f
k
characteristic strength of the bottom plate steel
*
c
pressure on the grout
t
s
thickness of shell
f
kg
characteristic compressive strength of the grout
On the tension side, the values of l
1
and l
4
should be adjusted to give
vertical and rotational equilibrium. The active circumferential length
of the baseplate may be taken as 3 l
2
or the bolt spacing, whichever
is the lesser.
The bolt tension (P
b
*) then p* (l
1
l
2
) / l
1
... (A1.2)
Where p* is the vertical tensile force in the shell per bolt.
Assuming a distribution of baseplate stress over a length of 3 l
2
:
* 2 p* / t
b
2
f
k
/ 1.1 ... (A1.3)
Both equations A1.1 and A1.3 have to be satised.
A1.2 Baseplates with Gussets (Fig. A1.2)
Fig. A1.2 Baseplate with gussets
The maximum baseplate stress (*) is given by the following
expression:
*
1
. *
c
. l
2
/ t
b
2
f
k
/ 1.1 ... (A1.4)
where
1
is given by:
l / b
1
0 3.00
0.2 2.68
0.3 2.30
0.4 1.85
0.6 1.25
0.8 0.83
1.0 0.51
1.25 0.30
1.5 0.22
and l the outstand of the basplate from the chimney shell
b distance between gussets
The baseplate stresses (*) on the tension side may be calculated using
the method described in lit. [1]. For the particular case of l 4 D:
*
2
P
b
* / t
b
2
f
k
/ 1.1 ... (A1.5)
Where
2
is obtained as follows:
l / b
2
0.2 2.38
0.3 2.28
0.4 2.07
0.5 1.87
0.6 1.65
0.8 1.33
1.0 1.06
1.25 0.81
1.5 0.62
Both equations A1.4 and A1.5 must be satised.
The height of the gussets (h) should be sufficient to maintain
acceptable shell stresses. The stress in the shell (*s) is given by the
following expression:
*
s
w* . [(/ t
s
) (
3
. R
s
/ t
s
2
)] f
k
/ 1.1 ... (A1.6)
Where: and
3
are given by:
No. of gussets
3
(equally spaced)
6 1.00 0.53
12 1.93 0.26
16 2.50 0.20
20 3.20 0.16
24 3.83 0.13
28 4.47 0.11
32 5.10 0.098
40 6.37 0.079
60 9.55 0.052
80 12.74 0.039
100 15.92 0.031
and R
s
shell radius
w* the radial force on the shell per unit height of gusset
at the top of the gussets, given by the following
expression:
w* 3 . M* / h
2
Where M* is the bending moment at the base of each gusset
plate due to out of balance forces under the baseplate.
M* P* . 2D per gusset on the tension side
*c . 6 . D
2
. b per gusset on the compression side
CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices Amendment A March 2002 page 29
Allowance should be made for stress concentrations that may occur
at the top of the gussets.
A1.3 Baseplate with gussets and compression ring
(See Fig. A1.3)
Fig. A1.3 Baseplate with gussets & compression ring
The baseplate stresses are calculated in the same way as in section
A1.2 above using equation A1.4.
The compression ring bending stresses (*) are calculated in the
same way as in section A1.2 above, using equation A1.5, substituting
t
c
(thickness of compression ring) for t
b
(baseplate thickness). Added
to this is a direct circumferential stress arising from the out of balance
moment caused by the eccentricity of the bolts, giving a total stress:
*
2
P
b
* / t
c
2
P
b
* N/ (30 D t
c
) f
K
/ 1.1
where Nnumber of bolts
Agusset plate thickness of 0.25D will suffice if it is of a steel whose
yield strength at least equals that of the bolts.
Notes regarding the derivation of
1
and
2
Stress coefficients
1
and
2
were obtained as follows:
1
is the coefficient applicable to the compression side and is derived
from Timoshenkos work on a rectangular plate xed on three sides
and free on the fourth. This is a reasonable assumption because
pressure under the base inside the shell will produce xity. At the
gussets there is xity by virtue of the continuity of the basplate.
2
is the coefficient applicable to the tension side. In the literature [1]
this is taken from a model comprising a rectangular plate simply
supported on all sides, with a patch load at the centre representing the
bearing of the nut. This is not a true reection of the boundary
conditions which are more truly xed on two opposite sides (at the
gusstes), one side being pinned (at the shell) and the fourth side free.
Neither is the effect of the holding down bolt hole considered. In this
Appendix, therefore, the values of
2
have been derived from plate
element FE analysis, using the more realistic above boundary
conditions and allowing for the bolt hole in the plate.
A1.4 Grouting
Note If the chimney is intially levelled using a nut placed on the
holding down bolt under the baseplate, this nut should be loosened
after packers are introduced.
Fig. A1.4 provides guidance on the grouting procedure to be
used under chimney baseplates.
References:
[1] Brownell & Young Process Equipment Design,
Chapter 10
[2] Pinfold, G.M. Reinforced Concrete Chimneys and Towers
APPENDIX 2 INSULATION AND PROTECTIVE
LININGS AND COATINGS
A.2.1 Insulation
A2.1.1 General
In order to minimise loss of heat from a chimney and to maintain the
temperature of the shell or liner(s) above ue gas acid dewpoint
level, insulation may be tted. But it should be appreciated that,
however effective the insulation, acid will condense if the ue gas
temperature entering the chimney is at or below its acid dewpoint
temperature.
Even if metal in contact with ue gas is generally at temperatures
above its acid dewpoint, rapid local corrosion can occur at cold spots.
In order to eliminate cold spots careful attention should be given to
the following details:
Potential air leaks should be eliminated by properly sealing
anged joints, inspection/cleaning doors, expansion joints and
instrumentation apertures. The long-term effectiveness of sealing
materials at the relevant service temperatures should be
demonstrated.
Direct metal/metal contact between steel liners and the structural
shell should be avoided. Liner support should incorporate a
thermal isolation device.
Attachments such as guy ropes, aerodynamic stabilizers, ladders,
platforms and pipes can act as cooling ns. Their attachment to
metal in contact with ue gas should incorporate a thermal
isolation device.
A2.1.2. Insulation design
Insulation should be designed to maintain the surface in contact with
the ue gas above acid dew point temperature everywhere, when the
ue gas is at normal operating condition and at abnorrnal conditions
if they can last for more than 25 hours per year (see table 7.1 of the
Model Code). For design purposes, the following parameters should
be used:
Theoretical acid dewpoint, calculated taking account of sulphur
content and excess combustion air should be increased by a
safety margin of 10C. If data is not available to permit
calculation of the ue gas acid dew point temperature, the
following values should be used for minimum metal temperature
in contact with ue gas:
When fuel is oil and/or gas, containing more than 0.5% by
weight of sulphur, 175C
When fuel is coal containing more than 0.5% by weight of
sulphur, 135C
When fuel contains less than 0.5% by weight of sulphur, 100C
Ambient air temperature should be the minimum winter air
temperature at the chimney location, obtained by averaging the
mean temperature each night over a period of one month.
Wind velocity should be assumed to be 5m/s.
The temperature of the metal in contact with ue gas should be
checked for the condition of highest anticipated ue gas temperature.
For this check the following design parameters should be assumed:
Ambient air temperature should be maximum anticipated air
temperature at the chimney location.
Zero wind velocity.
The design of insulation thickness to satisfy the requirements of this
clause should be based upon the conductivity value of the insulation
material, provided by the insulation manufacturer. If such data is not
available, typical values listed in table A3.1 may be used.
overall average U
type of insulation thickness values W/ (m
2
K)
aluminium 6mm air gap 4.5
aluminium 18mm air gap 4.0
mineral wool 25mm 2.3*
expanded mineral 50mm 1.15*
* These values apply for a mean insulation temperature of 40C. They should be
increased by 5% for each 50C increase in mean insulation temperature.
Table A2.1 Typical insulation conductivities
Mineral wool or foam insulation exposed to weather should be
protected by weather proofed cladding. Design of this cladding and
its xings should ensure its integrity under the action of wind at a
velocity of 1.5 basic wind-speed at the relevant height (per
paragraph 7.2.2.of the Model Code). The design should take account
of the variation of wind pressure around the surface of the chimney
at a given elevation.
A2.1.3 Aluminium cladding
Aluminium cladding enclosing a narrow airspace is an effective form
of insulation, due to its high thermal reectivity. (Note Sheet steel
or other forms of cladding may be suitable in certain cases.)
The exterior of the steel shell beneath the cladding should be coated
with heat resisting paint.
The cladding should consist of aluminium sheet not less than 1.0mm
thick with symmetrical ange covers made in halves frorn aluminium
sheet which also shall not be less than 1.0mm thick.
The cladding should be made in strakes, using a number of equal
plates per strake. All seams should be connected by aluminium alloy
rivets at not more than 100mrn centres. Vertical seams of each strake
should be set at the midpoint of the strake beneath.
The cladding should be tted with its internal face the required distance
away from the external face of the chimney shell, this distance being
maintained by continuous circumferential spacers of the required
thickness low conductivity tape coincident with the horizontal joints of
the aluminium. The tape should be cemented into position by means of
sodium silicate or other suitable adhesive. The ends of the horizontal
rivets in the aluminium sheets serve to retain the tape in position after
erection. The circumferential spacers divide the airspace between the
steel shell and the aluminium cladding into sections not more than
1.5m high, thus reducing convection heat losses.
When the length of the prefabricated sections of shell between
anges is not a whole multiple of the strake width, only one make-up
strake per section of chimney should be used.
All projections should be clad. Cleaning doors and other points
where access is required should be boxed in with removable
aluminium panels.
The airspace at the top of the chimney should be completely sealed to
prevent ingress of moisture between the steel shell and the cladding.
Each upper strake of aluminium should lap over the lower strake by
a minimum of 25mm, The vertical seams similarly should have a
minimum lap of 25mm.
To permit examination of the steel shell of the chimney without
removing the cladding, 150 mm square openings, located at carefully
seiected points and covered by removable panels approximately
230mm square, may be provided. Suitable positions are:
diametrically opposite any inlet
approximately 1,25m from the top of the chimney
Great care should be taken to ensure that dissimilar metals do not
come into contact with each other. If it is essential in the design that
two dissimilar metals have to be connected, a suitable non-conductive
and impervious lm or agent should be placed between them.
A2.1.4. Mineral wool or foam Insulation
Wrapping the steel shell with a suitable grade insulation material of
sufficient thickness provides more effective insulation than
aluminium cladding with the usual 6mm air gap.
Thicknesses of over 50mm are applied in two separate layers, the
outer layer being tted so that the vertical and horizontal joints are
staggered from the joints of the inner layer. If a stiffener or ange of
the chimney section projects past the outer face of the insulation, it
should be wrapped with an additional layer of the same thickness for
at least 75mm on each side of the ange or stiffener. Insulation has to
be protected from the weather, a convenient way of doing this is to
cover it with metal cladding, designed as descibed above.
The insulation should be xed to the steel shell by wrapping it around
so that the ends butt. It can be secured in place by steel strapping. At
least two bands of strapping should be used for each strake of
insulation. Insulation tends to compact and slip down the surface of
the steel during transportation and erection thus leaving bare patches
of steel which are potential cold spots. The slipping of the
insulation may be prevented by welding steel pins to the shell. On
low chemical load chimneys the pins can project through the
insulation and have spring retaining washers tted.
On medium chemical load chimneys it is advisable to use short pins
which only project half the thickness of the insulation so as to prevent
cold spots forming.
Usually an interval of 600mm is used between the pins.
A2.1.5. Lined and multiue chimneys
The sapce between the outer shell and the liner of a double skin
chimney can be lled with mineral wool, expanded mineral, or other
suitable insulator.
When expanded mineral is used as insulation, the design and
fabrication of the chimney must ensure that there are no voids or
openings out of which the expanded mineral can leak. A suitable
drain off position must be provided at the lowest point of the
expanded mineral area to ensure that the expanded mineral can be
drawn off if access to the interior of the chimney shell is required.
Notices should be tted to the exterior of the chimney warning that
the chimney has been lled with expanded mineral.
After 6 to 12 months, expanded mineral insulation compacts by about
10% thus leaving areas of the liner exposed. It is essential that this
void is topped up with more expanded mineral and that adequate
provision is left in the cap plate for topping up to take place.
Sometimes a second topping-up is necessary after a further 12
month period.
A2.2 Protective linings
A2.2.1 General
Linings may be required in steel chimneys for one or more of the
following purposes:
To maximise the strength of the structural shell by keeping it cool
As re protection
To protect an externally insulated structural shell from
excessively hot ue gases. These could be generated by an
operational upset or occur when an energy conservation system
is by-passed.
Corrosion protection
To act as insulation to maintain the ue gas temperature above its
acid dew point.
Reduce potential for aerodynamic instability.
Chimney linings may be:
a) Separate liners, with a space between the liners and the outer
structural shell. More than one liner may be accomodated within
the structural shell, to form a multi-ue chimney.
b) Attached continuously to the inner face of the structural shell.
Such linings may be either cast against the structural shell, or be
applied by spray, trowel or brush. Such linings may be:
castable refractory
solid grade diatomaceous concrete
chemical resistant coatings
breglass reinforced plastic (FRP)
A2.2.2 Design of separate liners
A2.2.2.1. General considerations
For information on the design of separate liners see the CICIND
Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, Part C - Steel Liners.
Lateral support should be provided between the liner and the
structural shell as near as possible to the top of the chimney.
Additional lateral supports may be required at intermediate elecations
between the top of the liner and its base, depending upon considerations
of stability and dynamic response, but their number should be
minimised as far as possible. The lateral restraints should be designed
to permit the linings to expand freely both vertically and radially.
A gap between the liner and its lateral restraint(s) of between 3mm
and 6mm (the larger gap being appropriate for larger diameter liners)
will ensure that impact damping enhances the structural damping
sufficiently to avoid problems of cross-wind oscillation in most cases.
The liner should be designed to resist stresses due to loads imposed
by the lateral restraints, as the structural shell moves under the effect
of wind or earthquake.
The presence of horizontal restraints between the liner and structural
shell may prevent the liner from adopting a distorted shape in response
to differential expansion. As a result, bending stresses may be
introduced in both the liner and the structural shell, These stresses can
be very high when a single liner carries ue gases from two or more
sources with different temperatures. In addition, the resulting
differential liner temperature will introduce secondary thermal stresses.
A cover should be provided at the top of the structural shell to give
weather protection to the airspace between liner and shell. The design
of this cover should permit free expansion of the liner. Sufficient
radial clearance should be incorporated to permit any relative
movement, between liner and shell, that may be allowed by the
lateral restraint system. In the design of this cover, special attention
should be paid to the integrity of its fastenings, bearing in mind the
risk of acid corrosion, stress corrosion and fatigue cracking which
may be caused by aerodynamic utter.
A2.2.2.2 Steel liners
Unprotected steel liners should not be used in conditions of high
chemical load (see table 7.1 of Model Code). In conditions of low or
medium chemical load, internal corrosion allowances listed in table 8.2
of the model code may be used. In conditions of high chemical load
(such as downstream of FGD), unprotected steel can be replaced by (or
protected by Wallpapered coatings of) high nickel alloys, titanium or
other metals. Guidance on choice of these materials is contained in
CICINDs Metallic Materials Manual, to be published in 2001.
Liner supports and lateral restraints should incorporate thermal
insulation so as to avoid formation of localised cold spots on the
lining surfaces due to conduction of heat to the structural shell.
Consideration should be given to the risk of re and/or high
temperature excursions described in paragraphs 7.6.1 and 7.6.2 of the
model code. If the risk is signicant, consideration should be given
to the provision of re protection.
A2.2.2.3. Plastic liners
Plastic and FRP liners are suitable for conditions of high chemical
load (see table 7.1 of the Model Code), combined with low
temperatures. In order to prevent material degrading, the temperature
of these linings should not be allowed to exceed 100C. Short term
excursions to 150C can be tolerated if the right type of plastic is
chosen, but the life is reduced.
In order to ensure liner temperature is maintained below 100C, an
automatically controlled quenching system may be installed
upstream of the chimney, which is activated when the ue gas
temperature exceeds 100C.
A2.2.3 Design of linings attached continuously to the shell
A2.2.3.1 General
Lining or coating selection criteria and quality standards to be used
during surface preparation and lining installation are detailed in the
CICIND Chimney Protective Coatings Manual.
A2.2.3.2 Castable refractory linings (including
diatomaceous concrete linings)
Castable refractory should be insulating type with a minimum bulk
density, after drying, of 1000kg/m
3
. Diatomaceous concrete should
be of the solid grade. They should be single layer construction,
installed without vapour stops. They may be cast against the inner
face of the steel shell or they may be applied by a gunning process.
Mixing procedures and water quantities shall follow the
manufacturers recommendations.
The minimum thickness of lining shall be 50mm. Linings 50mm to
65mm thick shall be reinforced by electric welded wire mesh. The
mesh should be 50 50mm with wire of minimum diameter 2mm, or
it may be 100 100mm with minimum wire diameter 3mm.
The mesh should be positioned 20mm from the surface of the steel shell
and should be anchored to it by steel studs, welded at 450mm spacing.
Linings thicker than 65mm shall be reinforced by arc welded V
studs, randomly orientated and at a minimum spacing of 16 per
square metre.
A corrosion resistant metal cap should be provided at the top of the
refractory to protect its horizontal surface from the weather.
Providing its surface in contact with ue gas is above acid dew point,
this type of lining provides corrosion protection to the steel chimney
or liner to which it is applied. Application of such a lining would
convert a steel chimney, classed as being under High chemical load
when unprotected, to a Low chemical load classication.
A2.2.3.3 Fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP) linings
The use of plastic and FRP for linings applied to steel chimneys is
severly restricted by their tendency to separate from the steel, due to
differential expansion. To minimize this problem, lining temperatures
should not exceed the following values:
epoxy resins, 80C polyesters, 60C
It is essential that the FRP linings adhere rmly to the inside face of
the chimney shell so that the surface does not crack or spall. If the
acid ue gas penetrates the FRP it will attack the steel shell.
A2.2.3.4 Chemical resistant coatings
Guidance on the selecion and application of chemical reisistant
coatings is given in the CICIND Chimney Protective Coatings Manual.
In the selection of a coating for internal use, consideration should be
given to the maximum temperature to which it will be subjected, both
when wet and when dry. Only coatings should be used that have been
proved capable of retaining their protective properties in these
conditions throughout the life of the chimney. Also, the chosen
coating material should have expansion characteristics compatible
with those of the shell throughout the relevant temperature range.
A2.3 Recommended start-up procedures for new
castable refractory in steel chimneys or liners.
The start-up procedures should follow the refractory manufacturers
instructions. If none are available, the following procedures may be
used:
Hold gas temperature in the range of 70C90C for at least
3 hours.
Control subsequent increases in temperature and gas ow so that
no part of the liner is exposed to a gas temperature increase
exceeding 50C/hr. All parts of the lining should be exposed to gas
temperature at least 75% of design temperature for at least 6 hours.
These requirements also apply to old refractory linings which have
been left exposed to weather and have become soaked with water.
A2.4 Protective and decorative treatments
Treatment selection criteria and quality standards to be used during
surface preparation and coating application are detailed in the
CICIND Chimney Protective Coatings Manual.
Stainless steel is normally supplied in its mill nish condition, which is
a matt, light grey. Polishing to achieve a shiny nish involves extra cost.
Weathering steel, unless grit blasted, may not oxidise evenly.
APPENDIX No. 3 GUYED CHIMNEYS
A3.1. Thermal expansion effects
Steel chimneys are subject to thermal expansion when the shell is
heated by the ue gases and, to a small extent by strong sunlight and
by large variations in ambient temperature. The vertical expansion
can be considerable on tall chimneys with reasonably high ue gas
temperatures, especially if they are externally insulated.
For example, the vertical expansion of a steel chimney with a guy
band 80m above ground level and with a shell temperature of 250C,
would be 280mm.
This vertical expension expansion can greatly affect the tension in the
guy wires and the consequent compressive load on the chimney shell.
The stresses in guy ropes and shell should be checked under both
hot and cold conditions. For instance, if the guy wires are
correctly tensioned when the chimney is cold, the vertical
expansion when the chimney goes on load will increase the tension
in the guy ropes, it will also increase the vertical component in the
shell plate, when it could in extreme cases produce buckling.
However, if the guy wires are tensioned when the chimney is hot,
when it goes off load the chimney will reduce in height and the guy
wires will lose part of their tension. This could cause more movement
under wind load than is desirable. In order to avoid these problems,
a compromise initial guy rope tension under cold conditions may be
necessary i.e. a tension that allows some lateral deection of the
chimney under design wind and cold conditions, while increasing
the vertical load in the chimney by a signicant but safe margin under
hot conditions.
Alternatively, if a chimney is used on a constant load 24 hours a day
for long periods and maintenance resources permit, the guys can
initially be correctly tensioned when the chimney is cold. When the
chimney starts up and is heated to its operating temperature, the guys
can be readjusted to the correct tension after the chimney has
expanded. As soon as the heat load is reduced and the chimney
resumes its cold height, however, the guys must be retensioned.
A3.2. Calculations
A3.2.1 Normal conditions
The guyed chimneys shall be calculated taking into the consideration
second order effects. The decisive winddirections which should be
taken into account are given in gure A3.1
Fig. A3.1 Wind directions for guyed chimneys
The stability of the structure and foundation as a whole or any part of
it should be investigated.
Weight of anchorage should be provided such that:
M1.4 Mw1.35 Mm0.9 Me 0.9 Ma
in which:
M combined moment
M
w
overturning moment produced by the design wind and
imposed loads
M
m
overturning moment produced by dead-weight or other
permanent loads which may act to increase combined
moment
M
e
overturning moment produced by permanent loads which
act at all times to reduce combined moment
M
a
restoring moment produced by the foundation (including
guy rope anchorages) without exceeding allowable material
stresses or the foundation allowable bearing pressure.
In determining the support provided by the windward guy ropes, the
relative stiffnesses of the chimney (acting as a cantilever) and the guy
ropes, including their non-linear behaviour, should be taken into
account. Many modern structural computer programs have routines
for analysing guyed structures, which do this automatically. If
calculations are made by hand, however, guy rope tensions should
rst be calculated, assuming the chimney is pinned at its base.
Horizontal deections at the rope attachment points should then be
determined. The stack shell should then be analysed as a cantilever,
propped by springs at the rope attachment points. The stiffness of
these springs is determined by the deflections and horizontal
components of tension in the ropes, previously calculated. Second
order effects should be considered.
A3.2.2 Abnormal conditions
The stability of the chimney should be checked at 0.1 Design
Windspeed, assuming one of the guy ropes to be broken.
A3.3 Guy ropes
Guy ropes should be provided in at least 3 vertical planes. T he angle
between any two planes should not exceed 130. Guy ropes should
not slope more than 60 to the horizontal.
Guy ropes shall be of galvanized steel wire, with steel cores,
complying with ISO/R346. The wires should have a minimum tensile
strength of 1450 N/mm
2
, Acompleted rope should be evenly laid and
free from loose wires, disturbed strands or other irregularities and
should remain in this condition when properly unwound from the reel
or coil. Fittings should be of galvanized steel. Prior to erection,
completed guy ropes should be greased and subjected to a tensile
force amounting to 20% of their minimum breaking load for a period
of 30 minutes.
Guy ropes and ttings should be designed so that their minimum
breaking strength exceeds 3 maximum calcuiated load, due to the
sum of pretension, design wind and chimney expansion.
After erection and while the chimney is cold, the guy ropes should be
pretensioned so as to minimise top deection of the chimney. The
pretension may be measured by the use of a suitable instrument and
should be not less than 15% nor more than 30% of the calculated
maximum tension due to design wind under the hot condition.
Attachments of the guy ropes should be positioned sufficiently far
below the chimney top to avoid corrosive effects of the ue gases.
A minimum distance of 3m is recommended.
APPENDIX No. 4 ACCESS LADDERS
A4.1. General
This section species the requirements for steel ladders, permanently
xed to steel chimneys, to provide means of access. They are to be
xed to the chimney in a continuous vertical length interspersed with
landings and/or rest platforms as required.
There may be relevant local requirements or standards which are
more stringent than those detailed below and, in these cases, they
must be followed.
An alternative to the caged ladder system is an open ladder with a
proprietary safety system, either running beside the ladder or
centrally between the stringers.
Rest platforms as described in A5.8 should still be incorporated at the
relevant levels.
A4.2. Denitions
For the purpose of this appendix the following denitions shall apply:
1) Stringers. The side members of the ladder to which the rungs
are tted.
2) Safety hoop. A bar xed to the stringers to enclose the path of
persons climbing the ladder, to prevent them falling outwards.
3) Rest platform. A platform provided to enable the person
climbing the ladder to rest.
4) Landing. A platform provided to enable access to part of or the
whole of the circumference of the chimney.
A4.3. Materials
The materials used for the construction of ladders, hoops, platforms
and rest platforms shall be of carbon steel and conform to Euronorm
2832, except those components within 3 diameters of the chimney
top which, in the case of chimneys carrying ue gas with high SO
2
/SO
3
content, should be of high molybdenum stainless steel (ASTM 316Lor
similar) or should be protected by an acid-resistant coating.
A4.4. Finish
All burrs, weld-ash, sharp edges and other imperfections likely to
cause injury to the hands of a person using the ladder, shall be
removed and made smooth before the nishing treatment.
Depending on the situation and atmospheric conditions in which the
ladders are to be used, they shall be given a suitable protective nish.
Hot dip galvanizing is not recommended for ladder components or
connections manufactured by a cold forming process. Galvanizing
may only take place after drilling, bending, sawing, etc.
A4.5. Stringers
Stringers shall be of at bar of minimum dimensions 65 10mm.
The stringers shall be parallel and straight throughout the rung
portion and the distance between the stringers measured from the
inside faces shall not be less than 300mm and not more than 450mm.
The stringers shall extend upwards, to a height of not less than
1075mm above the upper platform and shall be securely fastened at
their extremities. Such extension of the stringers shall not encroach
on the clear width of the platform passageway.
Where, in order to step from the ladder into a landing platform, it is
necessary to pass between the extended portion of the stringers, these
shall be opened out from platform level to provide a clear width of
600675mm between them at handrail level.
Where access to an upper platform is from the side or front of a
ladder, the ladder itself shail be extended above the platform level for
a distance of not less than 1075mm or equivalent handholds shall
be provided.
Stringers should, if possible, be in a continuous length, but where they
are in more than one length they shall be joined by shplates on the
insides of the stringers, either welded or bolted. If bolts are used they
shall be countersunk on the stringer and not less than 12mm in diameter.
There shall be not less than two bolts on each side of the joint.
A4.6. Rungs
Rungs shall be of round bar not less than 20mm diameter. If the bar
is reduced in diameter at the ends for welding, the reduced diameter
shall be 6 mm less than the diameter of the bar and there shall be a
1.5mm radius at the root of the shoulder.
The rungs in a ladder or ight of ladders, shall be uniformly spaced
throughout at centres of 225mm minimum to 300mm maximum. The
top rung shall be on the same level as the platform which shall be
extended, if necessary, to limit, to not more than 75mm, the gap
between the rung and platform. Alternatively the platform may be
extended to replace the top rung.
Rungs shall be tted into holes drilled in the stringers and secured by
welding. Rungs shall be welded to the stringers with or without
shouldering. Holes in the stringers shall be drilled to give a 1mm
clearance and where shouldered rungs are used, holes shall be
countersunk 1.5mm to clear the root radius (see gure A4.1).
Fig. A4.1 Attachment of ladder rungs to stringers
A4.7. Safety hoops
If safety hoops are tted to the ladder, the following provisions
shall apply.
All ladders rising 2300mm or more from a lower platform or ground
level to the top rung shall be tted with safety hoops, the spacing of
which shall be uniform and at intervals not exceeding 1000mm
measured along the stringer. The lowermost hoop shall be tted to the
stringers at a height of 2300 0 75mm from a lower platform or
ground in order to give sufficient overhead clearance when getting on
to the ladder. The uppermost hoop shall be xed in line with any
guard rail to the upper platform but in any case shall be at a height of
not less than 1075mm above the level of this platform.
A4.7.1. Size of hoops
Circular pattern. The width across the hoop shall be 690 to 760mm.
The distance from the centre line of stringers to the inside of the back
of the hoop, measured at right angles to the stringers, shall be 760 to
850mm (see gure A4.2).
Rectangular pattern. The width across the hoop shall be 690 to
760mm. The distance from the centre line of stringers to the inside of
the back of the hoop, measured at right angles to the stringers, shall
be 690 to 760mm. The radius of the corners shall be not less than
150mm (see gure A4.2).
The minimum dimensions of the hoop and strap material shall be
50 8mm. At least three vertical straps shall be tted internally to
brace the hoops; one of these straps shall be at the centre back of the
hoop, and the others spaced evenly between the centre back of the
hoop and the ladder stringers.
Fig. A4.2 Ladder hoops
Hoops and straps shall be xed by bolting or welding. If bolts are
used they shall be countersunk, inserted from the inside of the strap
or hoop and shall he not less than 12mm diameter. The assembly of
hoops and straps shall be suitably braced unless secured to the
stringers by double bolting, or welding.
A4.8. Rest platforms and landings
When required, rest platforms shall be provided at intervals of not
greater than 20m. Landing places, other than working platforms,
which are provided specically at rest platforms shall be at least
825mm square and shall have a guardrail at a height of 1075mm
above the platform level with an intermediate rail and toeboards.
When required, landings shall be provided at suitable levels to provide
access to sampling points etc. These landings are to be adequately
supported from the chimney shell and shall have a minimum width of
825mm. They are to be tted with a guardrail at 1075mm above the
platform level, with an intermediate rail and toeboards.
A4.9. Attachment to chimney
The ladder shall be vertical except where it follows the slope of a
cone section.
Stringers shall be attached to the chimney by suitable connections
which shall be rmly attached to the stringers and the chimney and
be sufficiently close together to make the ladder rigid throughout its
length. The connections shall be of sufficient length to give a
clearance of not less than 200mm behind the rungs. Suitable
provision shall be made at xing points for any differential expansion
(except at platforms and landings) .
A4.10. Access hooks
A4.10.1. General
This section species requirements for hooks which are intended to
provide means of access for inspection and maintenance only by
steeplejacks and members of similar trades who normally t their
own ladders.
The hooks may be of two types:
a) Those welded permanently to the steel shell
b) Those which are screwed into sockets welded to the. shell of the
steel chimney
A4.10.2. Use of access hooks
The hooks shall be in a vertical line on the exterior of the structure.
The use of access hooks inside chimneys exposed to corrosive gases
is not recommended. The rst hook should be 1.2m50 0mm
above access level.
The hooks should be spaced at multiples of 1.5m vertical centres with
a local tolerance of 50mm which will accommodate the majority of
the various lengths of ladders used by steeplejacks.
The hooks are to be used for the temporary attachment of ladders
only except as noted below.
A pulley is sometimes rigged from the top of a steeplejacks ladder
for the purpose of lifting small loads for maintenance of the chimney.
It is important that such loads shall be kept as light as possible and in
no circumstance should any single load exceed 50kg. If a hook is
used directly for lifting purposes, the weights of the lifting device
suspended from it and of the load to be lifted should together not
exceed 50kg.
A4.10.3. Materials
Hooks shall be made from steel complying with the requirements of
Euronorm 2572. In a normalised condition the steel shall have a
minimum tensile strength of 430N/mm
2
and a maximum tensile
strength of 500N/mm
2
. The sockets shall be made from round steel
bar complying with the requirements of Euronorm 2572.
A4.10.4. Design
The design shall be as shown in gure A4.3 for the welded hooks.
The design shall be as shown in gure A4.4 for the screwed hooks
and sockets.
It is recommended that the screwed type of hook be used on insulated
chimneys i.e., those with mineral wool or aluminium cladding as the
hook does not project through the insulation. This projection could
cause cold spots on the chimney shell.
An insulating spacer should be attached to the face of the socket to
minimise heat conduction between the face of the socket and the
surface of the aluminium cladding.
Fig. A4.3 Welded ladder hooks
Fig. A4.4 Screwed ladder hooks and bosses
A4.10.5. Construction
The hooks shall be hot forged by hand out of solid bar. The hooks shall
pass visual examination to ensure freedom from surface defects and
shall be cleanly forged in such a manner that the microscopic ow
lines follow the body outline of the hook. The whole of the shank shall
be forged in one piece, integral with the hook. The hooks shall be
normalised after the completion of all forging operations by heating
them uniformly in a furnace until the whole of the metal has attained
a temperature between 880C and 910C and then cooled in still air.
A4.10.6. Method of xing
The welded type hook shall be xed to the chimney by means of a
llet weld of 6mm leg size on each side of the shank and returned
across the top and bottom. After welding to the structure, a test shall
be carried out by suspending from the hook a mass of 200kg when no
fracture, crack or visible deformation shall occur. The socket of the
screwed-type hook shall be xed to the chimney by means of a llet
weld of 6mm leg size for the whole of the perephery of the socket.
For new chimneys the welding should be carried out in the
fabrication shop.
It is normal practice for the steeplejack rm to supply the screwed
type hooks for their own use when they ladder the chimney.

Cicind: Model Code For Steel Chimneys

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cicind: Model Code For Steel Chimneys

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CICIND

Model Code for

The CDF for the wind pressure in period T years is P

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices page 9

(I) ... (C3.3.8)

may approximately be determined by:-

(I) 1-31 for 0 I 0.25 and

(I) 0.25 for I 0.25.

You might also like