Robert O. Becker and Andrew A. Marino 1982 Electromagnetism and Life 156pp

ELECTROMAGNETISM & LIFE
By
Robert O. Becker and Andrew A. Marino
This 1982 book is put into document format and extracted from:
http://www.ortho.lsuhsc.edu/Faculty/arino/!"/!"T#$.html
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CONTENTS
Pb!ication In"or#ation
Pre"ace 'pp. ix(x)
Introdction 'pp. xi(xiii)
Part One: Historical Developments
Part Two: The Role of Electromagnetic Energy in the Regulation of Life
Processes
1. The #ri&ins of !lectrobiolo&y 'pp. *(22)
+ntroduction 'pp. 2,(2-)
2. The .hysiolo&ical Function of +ntrinsic !lectroma&netic !ner&y 'pp. 2-(,9)
The /er%ous 0ystem 'pp. 2-(12)
3one 'pp. ,1(,,)1
0ummary 'pp. ,,(,-)
4rowth $ontrol 'pp. 12(,1)
5eferences 'pp. ,-(,9)
ELECTROMAGNETISM & LIFE - 1
*. $ontrol of "i%in& #r&anisms by /atural and 0imulated !n%ironmental
!lectroma&netic !ner&y 'pp. -2(6-)
+ntroduction 'pp. -2(-1)
!%olution of "ife 'pp. -2(--)
.ositional and /a%i&ational 7ids 'pp. 62(61)
3iolo&ical $ycles 'pp. --(62)
5eferences 'pp. 6,(6-)
Part Three: Laboratory Stuies of the !aptability of Organisms to
Electromagnetic Energy
1. !lectrical .roperties of 3iolo&ical Tissue 'pp. 69(9,)
+ntroduction 'p. 69)
!ner&y 3ands 'pp. 69(81)
.ie8oelectricity 'pp. 81(81)
0uperconducti%ity 'pp. 81(8-)
Techni9ues of 7pplication of !lectroma&netic Fields 'pp. 8-(91)
0ummary 'pp. 91(92)
5eferences 'pp. 92(9,)
,. !ffects of !lectroma&netic !ner&y on the /er%ous 0ystem 'pp. 9-(111)
+ntroduction 'p. 9-)
:irect !ffects 'pp. 96(122)
3eha%ioral !ffects 'pp. 122(12,)
0ummary 'pp. 12,(126)
5eferences 'pp. 126(111)
-. !ffects of !lectroma&netic !ner&y on the !ndocrine 0ystem 'pp. 112(121)
+ntroduction 'pp. 112(11,)
The 7drenal $ortex 'pp. 11,(116)
The Thyroid 'p. 116)
The 7drenal edulla and the .ancreatic +slets 'pp. 116(119)
0ummary 'pp. 119(122)
5eferences 'pp. 122(121)
6. !ffects of !lectroma&netic !ner&y on the $ardio%ascular and ;ematolo&ical 0ystems
'pp. 122(1**)
+ntroduction 'p. 122)
The $ardio%ascular 0ystem 'p. 12*(121)
3lood 'pp. 121(126)
+mmune 5esponse 'pp. 126(1*2)
0ummary 'pp. 1*2(1*1)
5eferences 'pp. 1*1(1**)
8. !ffects of !lectroma&netic !ner&y on 3iolo&ical Functions 'pp. 1*1(1,8)
+ntroduction 'p. 1*1)
+ntermediary etabolism 'pp. 1*1(111)
5eproduction< 4rowth and ;ealin&'pp. 111(118)
uta&enesis 'pp. 118(1,2)
=ncontrolled >ariables 'pp. 1,2(1,*)
0ummary 'pp. 1,*(1,,)
5eferences 'pp. 1,,(1,8)
9. echanisms of 3iolo&ical !ffects of !lectroma&netic !ner&y 'pp. 1,9(161)
+ntroduction 'pp. 1,9(1-2)
$ybernetic 7pproach 'pp. 1-2(1-2)
7nalytic 7pproach 'pp. 1-2(1-6)
0ummary 'pp. 1-6(162)
5eferences 'p. 161)
Part "our: !pplie Electromagnetic Energy: Ris#s an $enefits
12. ;ealth 5isks :ue to 7rtificial !lectroma&netic !ner&y in the !n%ironment 'pp. 16,(
19,)
+ntroduction 'pp. 16,(166)
"e%els in the !n%ironment 'pp. 166(18*)
!pidemiolo&ical 0tudies and 0ur%eys 'pp. 18*(188)
7nalysis 'pp. 188(192)
0ummary 'p. 191)
5eferences 'pp. 191(19,)
11. 0pecial Topics $oncernin& !lectroma&netic !ner&y
Therapeutic 7pplications 'pp. 19-(196)
7cupuncture 'pp. 196(222)
+mpacts on /atural !colo&ical 0ystems 'pp. 222(221)
5eferences 'pp. 221(22*)
S##ary 'pp. 22,(22-)
Inde$ 'pp. 226(211)
7 &rant from the !.7. 3ar%oets Fund assisted in payin& the costs of publishin& this book.
7/:5!? 7. 75+/#< .;:
5#3!5T #. 3!$@!5< :
Department of Orthopedic Surgery
State University of New York
Upstate Medical Center
Department of Orthopedic Surgery
Louisiana State University Medical Center
State %ni&er'ity o" New (ork Pre''
c1982 0tate =ni%ersity of /ew Aork
7ll ri&hts reser%ed
.rinted in the =nited 0tates of 7merica
PREFACE
The relationship between electroma&netism and life has been a source of fascination and
contro%ersy for more than 122 years. Today< interest in all facets of this relationship is at an
unprecedented pitch. The bodyBs intrinsic electroma&netic phenomena ha%e been redisco%ered< and the
e%idence su&&ests that< far from bein& unimportant by(products of biochemical acti%ity as pre%iously
belie%ed< they play a %ital role in di%erse physiolo&ical processes. The earth has a natural
electroma&netic back&round< produced by the earth itself and by cosmic sources< and the a&e(old
9uestion as to whether this back&round can be detected by li%in& or&anisms has now been answered in
the affirmati%e the earthBs electroma&netic back&round is an important en%ironmental factor for all
li%in& thin&s. $linical uses of electroma&netic ener&y are increasin& and promise to expand into
important areas in the near future.
3ut the coin has another side. The en%ironment is now thorou&hly polluted by man(made
sources of electroma&netic radiation with fre9uencies and ma&nitudes ne%er before present. anBs
acti%ities ha%e probably chan&ed the earthBs electroma&netic back&round to a &reater de&ree than they
ha%e chan&ed any other natural physical attribute of the earth whether the land< water< or atmosphere.
The e%idence now indicates that the present abnormal electroma&netic en%ironment can constitute a
health risk.
This book is our attempt to synthesi8e the %arious aspects of the role of electricity in biolo&y<
and to emphasi8e their underlyin& unity. To facilitate this< we di%ided primary responsibility for the
maCor subCect areas. .arts 1 and 2< which treat historical factors and the biore&ulatory role of
electroma&netic ener&y< were written by 5#3D parts * and 1< which deal with bioeffects of artificial
electroma&netic ener&y< were written by 77.
The most apparent effects of electricity heat and shock are not treated here. 7lthou&h there is
some interest in the use of electroma&netic hyperthermia in cancer treatment< in &eneral< both
phenomena in%ol%e well(understood but relati%ely unimportant physical processes. +n stark contrast<
subthermal phenomena seem destined to re%olutioni8e the study of biolo&y.
?e ha%e tried to present our ideas to what we hope will be a broad ran&e of readers: scientists<
en&ineers< physicians< students< and the &eneral public to stimulate and facilitate further research. ?e
fully expect that we ha%e made errors in e%aluatin& some studies or theories< because such mistakes can
always be expected in a first attempt to synthesi8e knowled&e from di%erse disciplines. ?e therefore
ask the reader not to Cud&e us too harshly. The book is not a definiti%e treatise< but only a &uide to be
used at the be&innin& of an excitin& Courney.
?e owe the reader an explanation of our back&round in the area relatin& to the practical
implications of this book. +n the early +962Bs we reco&ni8ed the existence of nonthermal biolo&ical
effects of electroma&netic ener&y we saw that the e%idence pro%ed that such phenomena existed and we
spoke and testified to this awareness. These acti%ities earned us the opposition of an impressi%e array
of indi%iduals and or&ani8ations each of whom stood like the ancient kin&< $anute< and tried to
command the tide of experimental studies to recede. ?e ha%e dili&ently tried to pre%ent this
contro%ersy from colorin& our analysis and conclusions< and we lea%e it to the reader to Cud&e whether
we ha%e succeeded.
?e acknowled&e a &reat debt to the scientists who explored the realm of electrobiolo&y and
whose le&acy has enriched us all. ?e are particularly indebted to 08ent(4yor&yi< 3rown< Frey< Earet<
and $ope in the =nited 0tates and .resman< @holodo%< 0adchiko%a< and =dinste% in the 0o%iet =nion
for their work. The preparation of this book was &reatly aided by the help and ad%ice of our collea&ue
aria 5eichmanis to whom we express our &ratitude. Finally< we acknowled&e our debt to our family
and particularly our wi%es "illian and "inda whose patience always< somehow< seemed e9ual to the
unreasonable demands of this book.
INTRO)%CTION
#%er the past decade there has been a &rowin& awareness that electrical and ma&netic forces
ha%e specific effects on li%in& or&anisms. These effects are produced by forces of %ery low ma&nitude
and are not explainable in such simplistic terms as Foule heatin&. They appear to indicate sensiti%ities
on the part of li%in& or&anisms se%eral orders of ma&nitude &reater than predictable by present concepts
of cellular or or&anismal physiolo&y.
The effects are apparently separable into two broad cate&ories: those that in%ol%e &eneral or
speciali8ed functions of the central ner%ous system '$/0)< and those that in%ol%e postembryonic
&rowth and healin& process. $/0 effects include the production of &eneral anesthesia by electrical
currents that tra%erse the brain< the direction of mi&ratory beha%ior of the 7tlantic eel by the earthBs
electrostatic field< the na%i&ational aid furnished homin& pi&eon by the earthBs ma&netic field< the
apparent cue for the timin& of biolo&ical cycles by the earthBs ma&netic field< and the direct relationship
between re%ersals of the earthBs ma&netic field and the extinction of whole species in the &eolo&ical
past. 4rowth effects include the alteration of bone &rowth by electroma&netic ener&y< the restoration of
partial limb re&eneration in mammals by small direct currents< the inhibition of &rowth of implanted
tumors by currents and fields< the effect upon cephalocaudal axis de%elopment in the re&eneratin&
flatworm in a polarity(dependent fashion by applied direct currents< and the production of
morpholo&ical alterations in embryonic de%elopment by manipulation of the electrochemical species
present in the en%ironment. This partial list illustrates the &reat %ariety of known bioelectroma&netic
phenomena.
The reported biolo&ical effects in%ol%e basic functions of li%in& material that are under
remarkably precise control by mechanisms which ha%e< to date< escaped description in terms of
solution biochemistry. This su&&ests that bioelectroma&netic phenomena are fundamental attributes of
li%in& thin&s ones that must ha%e been present in the first li%in& thin&s. The traditional approach to
bio&enesis postulates that life be&an in an a9ueous en%ironment< with the de%elopment of complex
molecules and their subse9uent se9uestration from the en%ironment by membranous structures. The
solid(state approach proposes an ori&in in complex crystalline structures that possess such properties as
semiconducti%ity< photoconducti%ity< and pie8oelectricity. 7ll of the reported effects of
electroma&netic forces seem to lend support to the latter hypothesis.
+t is not difficult to concei%e of a crystal with self(or&ani8in& and self(repairin& properties based
upon semiconducti%ity. 0i&nals that indicated trauma would be transmitted by electron flow within the
lattice< accompanied by perturbations in the electric field of the crystal. $yclic patterns of %arious
physical properties would be manifested because of the interaction between lattice electrons and cyclic
%ariations in the external electroma&netic field. 0tructures of this nature could ha%e been the basis for
subse9uent or&ani8ation of complex or&anic molecules and the &radual ac9uisition of a9ueous(based
ener&enic reactions. :espite the e%ol%ed complexity of the solution(based chemical reactions< there
would ha%e been no re9uirement that the solid(state system be discarded< and it could ha%e continued
to function into the meta8oan state.
7cceptin& this premise< what characteristics would such a system ha%e todayG +t would be
manifested by an or&ani8ed pattern of electrical potentials that would alter in a predictable fashion with
trauma and subse9uent repair processes. +t would also be re%ealed by %arious types of solid(state
properties associated with cells< cellular subunits< and cellular products. +t would demonstrate
characteristics of a control system< with identifiable input(output and transducer mechanisms. Finally<
exposure of the or&anism to electroma&netic ener&y would produce alterations in the functions
controlled by the system.
+n succeedin& chapters we present the e%idence for this solid(state control system. ?e be&in
with the history of our subCect because< more than in most areas< it has shaped present attitudes. 7&ainst
the historical back(drop< one can see the reasons for the delay until the +962Bs in the reco&nition of the
true role of electroma&netism in biolo&y.
+n chapter 2 we de%elop the e%idence for the existence of a primiti%e 'from an e%olutionary
standpoint) electrical analo&(type data transmission and control system in li%in& or&anisms. ?e show
that this system resides in the perineural tissue< and that its operation complements the neural control
achie%ed %ia the action potential.
The %alue of a new idea lies not only in its ability to explain and coordinate obser%ations< but in
the %alidity of predictions of phenomena based upon it. The concept of li%in& thin&s ha%in& intrinsic
electroma&netic properties led to the prediction that li%in& thin&s would also respond to external
electroma&netic ener&y(both natural and artificial. This prediction is so at %ariance with lon&(accepted
concepts that positi%e confirmation from carefully executed experiments would constitute stron&
support or the parent concept. The work described in chapter * demonstrates that or&anisms can recei%e
information about their en%ironment in the form of natural electroma&netic si&nals< and that this can
lead to physiolo&ical and beha%ioral chan&es.
+n the followin& chapters we re%iew e%idence of the biolo&ical effects of artificial
electroma&netic ener&y. 7 lar&e amount of data has been collected re&ardin& the effects of artificial
fields upon the ner%ous< endocrine< cardio%ascular< and hematolo&ical systems and each of these areas
are treated separately. #ther reports< not so easily classifiable< are re%iewed in $hapter 8. $hapter 9
deals with the mechanisms of biolo&ical effects of electroma&netic ener&y.
The conclusion that electroma&netic ener&y can produce %aried and nontri%ial biolo&ical effects
is inescapable. Furthermore< the e%idence that such interactions can occur well below the thermal le%el
is similarly inescapable. ?hile this corpus of experimental data constitutes stron& support for the
theory of the intrinsic bioelectric control system that we resent< it also raises new and important
en%ironmental 9uestions. anBs power and communications systems utili8e extensi%e portions of the
electroma&netic spectrum not pre%iously present in the en%ironment. The effect of this on the public
health is discussed in chapter 12.
@nowled&e of how li%in& thin&s work from the bioelectric %iewpoint is destined to lead to
clinical ad%ances. 0ome present applications of this knowled&e are discussed in chapter 11.
.75T #/!: ;istorical :e%elopments
$hapter 1: The #ri&ins of !lectrobiolo&y
The study of the interaction between electroma&netic ener&y and li%in& thin&s in%ol%es aspects
of both physical and biolo&ical science that are less than perfectly understood. !lectroma&netic ener&y<
one of the four basic forces of the uni%erse< is neither 9uite particulate nor 9uite wa%e(like in nature but
displays properties of both simultaneously. +t is capable of propa&atin& throu&h space at 18-<222 miles
per second and effectuatin& an action at %ast distances. Today we &enerate< transmit< recei%e< con%ert
and use this ener&y in thousands of ways< yet we still lack full understandin& of its basic properties. +n
the life sciences we ha%e classified< determined the structure< and catalo&ued the functions of
practically all li%in& or&anisms< yet we ha%e not the sli&htest idea of how these classifications<
structures< and functions come to&ether to produce that uni9ue entity we call a li%in& or&anism.
.ractically from the time of its disco%ery< electroma&netic ener&y was identified by the %italists
as bein& the Hlife force<H and conse9uently it has occupied a central position in the conflict between
these two opposin& doctrines for the past three centuries. ?hile the modern %iew of the role of
electroma&netic ener&y in life processes is not that of the mysterious force of the %italists< it has
ne%ertheless inherited the emotional and do&matic aspects of the earlier conflict. To best understand
modern electrobiolo&y it is necessary to understand its antecedents in both physics and biolo&y and B
the constant interplay between these two branches of science o%er the past *22 years.
!%ery science is more than a collection of factsD it is also a philosophy within which the facts
are or&ani8ed into a unified conceptual framework which attempts to relate them all into a coherent
concept of reality. 0ince biolo&y is the study of li%in& thin&s< it is simultaneously the study of
oursel%es< makin& it the most intensely personal of the sciences and the one whose philosophy is the
most subCect to emotionalism and do&ma. 3iophilosophy has been the battle(&round for the two most
anta&onistic and lon&(li%ed scientific philosophies(mechanism and %italism. echanism holds that life
is basically no different from non(life< both bein& subCect to the same physical and chemical laws< with
the li%in& material bein& simply more complex than the non(li%in&. The mechanists firmly belie%e that
ultimately life will be totally explicable in physical and chemical terms. The %italists on the other hand
Cust as fer%ently belie%e that life is somethin& more than a complex assembla&e of complex parts< that
there are some life processes that are not subCect to the normal physical and chemical laws< and that
conse9uently life will ne%er be completely explained on a physiochemical basis alone. $entral to the
%italists doctrine is the concept of a Hlife force<H a non(corporeal entity< not subCect to the usual laws of
nature< which animates the complex assembly and makes it Hali%e.H This concept is not only ancient<
with its roots in prehistory< but it is also practically uni%ersal< ha%in& appeared in some form or other in
all societies and furnishin& the basis for the reli&ious beliefs of most of them.
+t is to the early 4reek philosopher(physicians such as ;ippocrates that we owe the first
or&ani8ed concepts of the nature of life. These concepts de%eloped within the framework of the
medicine of that time and were based upon some clinical obser%ation and much conCecture. 7ll
functions of li%in& thin&s were the result of HhumorsH li9uids of mystical properties flowin& within the
body. ;ippocrates identified four: blood< black bile< yellow bile and phle&m(all fluids that could be
obser%ed under %arious clinical conditions. 7t the same time the body also contained the HanimaH (the
soul< or spirit of life< which made it ali%e. The early 4reeksB knowled&e of anatomy was scanty< and
while a number of ;ippocratesB philosophical concepts of medicine ha%e sur%i%ed until today< none of
his functional concepts were based upon reality.
0e%eral centuries later< as 4reek influence waned< many physicians mo%ed to the new seat of
power< 5ome. 7mon& them was 4alen< trained in the ;ippocratic school and althou&h an adherent of
the humoral concept< he ne%ertheless felt it necessary to relate function and form in a more realistic
fashion< and so %irtually sin&le(handedly he founded the sciences of anatomy and physiolo&y.
:issection of the human body was prohibited at that time< so 4alen was forced to base his anatomical
concepts of the human body upon dissection of animals and chance obser%ations upon wounded
&ladiators in the $olosseum. ;e was able< howe%er< to produce a complete< complex biophilosophical
system based upon these anatomical obser%ations and an expanded concept of ;ippocratesB humors.
4alenBs ideas were %i&orously propounded and they represented such a maCor ad%ance in knowled&e
that they became accepted and rapidly assumed the status of do&ma< remainin& unchallen&ed for more
than a thousand years.
+n the middle of the sixteenth century< 7ndreas >esalius< professor of anatomy at .adua< while
trained in the tradition of 4alen< be&an to 9uestion the %alidity of 4alenBs anatomical concepts and
performed his own dissections upon the human body< disco%erin& that many of 4alenBs ideas were
wron&. >esalius published his findin&s in a book< :e humanis corporus fabricus in 1,1*< the first
anatomical text based upon actual dissection and honest obser%ation. ;is &reatest contribution was not
anatomical< or course< but philosophicalD for the first time in more than 1,22 years blind faith in do&ma
had been effecti%ely challen&ed by %alid obser%ation.
Twenty years after >esalius published his re%olutionary text< a youn& !n&lish physician<
?illiam 4ilbert< started his medical practice in "ondon. For the next twenty(fi%e years 4ilbert<
profitin& from the spirit of in9uiry set free by >esalius< combined the practice of medicine with a series
of carefully planned and executed experiments that laid the &round(work for modern physics. +n 1-22
4ilbert published his monumental work :e ma&nete< in which he established for the first time the
difference between electricity and ma&netism. ;e was the first to use the word electricity and to
introduce the concept of the ma&netic field. ;e correctly described the earth as similar to a bar ma&net
and in%ented the first instrument for the measurement of electric fields(the electroscope.
4ilbertBs maCor contribution< howe%er< was his introduction into physics of the concept of free
in9uiry and experiment< most probably deri%ed from >esaliusB work. 4ilbert proposed Htrustworthy
experimentsH in place of adherence to do&ma as the only way to determine the truth.
The century ushered in by 4ilbertBs :e ma&nete was to be one of the most excitin& in the
history of science. +n the early years 4alileo in%ented the compound telescope and destroyed the earth(
centered cosmolo&y. The instrument was shortly re%ersed< producin& the compound microscope which
be&an to re%eal a new cosmolo&y(the intricacies within li%in& thin&s. +n 1-22 Francis 3acon proposed
what was to be later considered the foundation of all science(the scientific method of experimentation<
obser%ation and %erification. :espite this reputation< 3acon< in truth< not only failed to acknowled&e his
debt to 4ilbert but actually may ha%e presented some of 4ilbertBs obser%ations as his own while at the
same time caustically condemnin& 4ilbertBs workI
;owe%er< the &enie was out of the bottle and science was off on the 9uest for truth throu&h
experimentation. +n 1-28 ?illiam ;ar%ey published the first real series of 'physiolo&ical) experiments<
describin& for the first time the circulation of blood as a closed circuit< with the heart as the pumpin&
a&ent. >italism< howe%er< was still the only acceptable concept and ;ar%ey naturally located the H%ital
spiritH in the blood. 7t mid(century< 5ene :escartes< the &reat French mathematician< attempted to
unify biolo&ical concepts of structure< function and mind within a framework of mathematical physics.
+n :escartesB %iew all life was mechanical with all functions bein& directed by the brain and the ner%es.
To him we owe the be&innin& of the mechanistic concept of li%in& machines(complex< but fully
understandable in terms of physics and chemistry. !%en :escartes did not break completely with
tradition in that he belie%ed that an Hanimatin& forceH was still necessary to &i%e the machine life.
;owe%er< he moderni8ed 4alenBs ori&inal humors in the li&ht of the rapidly accumulatin& new
knowled&e postulatin& only one animatin& spirit< no lon&er li9uid< but more Hlike a wind or a subtle
flameH which he naturally located within the ner%ous system.
7t about the same time alphi&hi< an +talian physician and naturalist< be&an usin& the new
compound microscope to study li%in& or&anisms. ?hile he did not 9uite disco%er the cellular basis of
life 'that remained for 5obert ;ooke twenty years later)< his studies re%ealed an unsuspected wealth of
detail and incredible complexity in li%in& thin&s. 3y 1--2 %on 4uericke had pursued 4ilbertBs studies
much further and in%ented the first electrical &eneratin& machine< a spinnin& &lobe of solid sulfur<
which &enerated lar&e static electrical char&es. The century closed with the &reat +saac /ewton who<
after proposin& an Hall per%adin& aetherH fillin& the uni%erse and all material bodies therein< su&&ested
that it may be :escartesB %ital principle< flowin& throu&h the ner%es and producin& the complex
functions called life.
7ccompanyin& the intellectual ferment and excitement of the se%enteenth century was a
remarkable &rowth in scientific communication without which pro&ress would ha%e been much slower.
The first academy of science(the +talian 7cademy of the "ynx(was founded in 5ome in 1-2* and
included amon& its members 4alileo and the &reat entomolo&ist< Faber. 0imilar societies were started
in other countries< until in 1--2. the 5oyal 0ociety of "ondon was incorporated. 3esides pro%idin& a
forum for discussion< the societies be&an the publication of scientific Cournals< the first issue of the
Fournal des 0a%ants appearin& in +--, followed in three months by the first issue of the .hilosophical
Transactions of the 5oyal 0ociety. 0e%eral a%enues were thus pro%ided for the dissemination of new
ideas and the reports of the results of Htrustworthy experiments.H
7s the next century dawned< knowled&e of electricity had ad%anced beyond 4ilbert but was still
limited to %on 4uerickeBs static char&es. 3iolo&y< howe%er< was by then firmly &rounded in anatomy<
both &ross and microscopic< based upon actual dissection and obser%ation. 7lthou&h there had been
some mo%ement away from 4alenBs Hhumors<H the postulated H%ital forcesH were still the necessary
distinction between li%in& and non(li%in& thin&s. The scientific impetus of the precedin& century
continued unabated howe%er< and the results of new experiments and new ideas were 9uick to appear.
+n the early decades of the ei&hteenth century a youn& !n&lishman< 0tephen 4ray< be&an a
series of experiments in which he demonstrated that the static char&es of electricity could be conducted
by %arious materials for distances as &reat as 6-, feet< disco%erin& in the process that some materials
were HconductorsH while others were not. 4ray is best remembered for his experiment in which he
HelectrifiedH a human subCect with a static char&e. 4ray published his obser%ations in the 16*1
.hilosophical Transactions in a paper entitled H!xperiments concernin& electricity.H This was only fi%e
years before his death at a&e forty(one.
?orkin& durin& the same period< also in !n&land< was another 0tephen (0tephen ;ales< a youn&
rural cler&yman who had already made important contributions to the knowled&e of blood circulation.
;ales made the startlin& su&&estion that perhaps ner%es functioned by conductin& Helectrical powersH
as did the conductors of his countryman 4ray. 0ince the time of :escartes the %ital role of the ner%ous
system as the principal re&ulator of all biolo&ical acti%ity had been reco&ni8ed. 7s a result< the
postulated H%ital spiritH had come to be located in the ner%es< and the importance of ;aleBs su&&estion
lay in the fact that he was proposin& that this mysterious< all(important entity was electricityI 0upport
for this concept was forthcomin&< but from a different aspect of the problem entirely. +t had occurred to
both 0wammerdam in ;olland and 4lisson at $ambrid&e that the humoral concept of ner%e(muscle
acti%ity re9uired that the muscle increase in %olume as the acti%e HhumorH flowed into it from the
stimulated ner%e. +n separate experiments they both showed that the muscles did not increase in %olume
when they contracted. Therefore the HhumorH must be HetherialH in nature and ;alesB electricity seemed
to be a &ood candidate.
+nterest in electricity and its relationship to biolo&y increased and experiments in%ol%in&
electricity and li%in& thin&s became commonplace. The 7bbe /ollet expanded 4rayBs obser%ations on
the electrification of the human body usin& %on 4uerickeBs machines to produce lar&er static char&es.
;e also attempted to remedy paralysis in patients by administerin& such char&es< but without success.
7nother rural !n&lish cler&yman< 7braham 3ennet< in%ented the &old(leaf electroscope< far superior to
4ilbertBs for detectin& and measurin& electric char&es. >an usschenbroeck in ;olland in%ented the
"eyden Car for the stora&e of electrical char&es 'priority probably should ha%e &one to %on @leist< a
4erman)< and by the mid(1622Bs electricity was bein& &enerated< stored and transmitted throu&h wires
for distances exceedin& two milesI ?atson< $a%endish and others e%en attempted to measure its speed
of transmission throu&h wires and decided that it was Hinstantaneous.H any physicians< unfortunately
includin& a number of outri&ht charlatans< were by now empirically usin& this new modality to treat a
number of afflictions and reportin& success. #ne< Fohann 0chaeffer< went so far in his enthusiasm as to
publish a book called !lectrical edicine in 5e&ensbur& in 16,2 .
?hile speculation concernin& the role of electricity in li%in& thin&s was increasin&< particularly
re&ardin& the ner%ous system< physical knowled&e of its properties did little to support this idea. The
most prominent physiolo&ists of the era< ;aller at 4ottin&en and onro at !dinbur&h< reCected it as
impossible< basin& their opinions on the then a%ailable knowled&e of metallic conduction and the need
for insulation. :espite ob%ious difficulties< the HhumorsH and H%ital spiritsH were still in%oked as the
best explanation of how li%in& thin&s differed from non(li%in&. This< of course< did not daunt the
maCority of practicin& physicians who continued to use this new modality with enthusiasm for an
increasin& number of clinical conditions.
+t was as thou&h the sta&e was set for a maCor e%entD for 222 years a spirit of free in9uiry and
communication had produced a re%olution in the way man looked at the world and himself. Aet the
central 9uestion remained unanswered(what was the essential difference between the li%in& and the
non(li%in&G The %italist doctrine of a mysterious< non(corporeal entity was still the best a%ailable<
despite increasin& e%idence a&ainst it. /ot only were there theoretical obCections to electricity bein& the
H%ital force<H but also no(one had produced any e%idence of a scientific nature to indicate that it played
any role in li%in& thin&s whatsoe%er.
ig!"!"! Luigi #alvani$ physician$ surgeon$ anatomist and teacher! %s professor of anatomy$ #alvani&s
lectures were more e'perimental demonstrations than didactic discussions! % (uotation fre(uently
attri)uted to him states$ *or it is easy in e'perimentation to )e deceived and to think one has seen and
discovered what we desire to see and discover!* +n addition to )eing a scientist$ #alvani was foremost
a physician$ treating rich and poor alike!
The maCor e%ent was to be pro%ided by a shy< retirin& physician and professor of anatomy at
3olo&na< "ui&i 4al%ani. 0ince 166, he had been interested in the relationship between electricity and
biolo&y and had ac9uired the apparatus necessary to conduct his experiments. +n 168- 9uite by
accident< while dissectin& the muscles of a fro& le&< one of 4al%aniBs assistants happened to touch the
ner%e to the muscles with his scalpel while a static electrical machine was operatin& on a table nearby.
!%ery time the machine produced a spark the muscle contracted(ob%iously the electrical force
somehow had &one throu&h the air to the metal in contact with the ner%e. 3ut most importantly< the
electricity went down the ner%e and produced the muscle contraction. !lectricity did ha%e somethin& to
do with how ner%es workedI 4al%ani spent the next fi%e years experimentin& on the relationship
between metals in contact with ner%es and muscle contraction. ?e can now speculate that he wished to
a%oid the use of the electrical &eneratin& machine so that he could produce a muscle contraction by
contact between the ner%e and metal only< in order to pro%e that the ner%ous principle was electrical.
;e must ha%e found that sin&le metals in %arious circuits did not produce the desired muscular
contraction< and so he then tried usin& more than one metal in the circuit. ;e found that if a continuous
circuit was made between the ner%e< two dissimilar metals in series< and another portion of the animals
body< muscular contraction would occur. 4al%ani reported his findin&s in the .roceedin&s of the
3olo&na 7cademy of 0cience in 1691 concludin& that the electricity was &enerated within the animalBs
body< the wires only pro%idin& the circuit completion. ;e called this electricity Hanimal electricity<H
and identified it as the lon& sou&ht for H%ital forceH. $onsiderin& his 9uiet< unassumin& nature< it must
ha%e been with some trepidation that he published such a far(reachin& conclusion concernin& the most
contro%ersial subCect of the time. /e%ertheless< he had twel%e extra copies printed at his own expense
for pri%ate distribution to other scientists< one copy bein& sent to 7lessandro >olta< professor of
physics at .a%ia.
ig! "!,! -he discovery of *animal electricity!* .hen a spark was drawn from the electrical machine
/left0 the frog&s leg would twitch if a metal scalpel was touching the nerve to that leg! .e now know
that the e'panding and collapsing electric field induced a charge in the scalpel$ which then stimulated
the nerve! #alvani however$ apparently )elieved that the metal scalpel permitted the electricity in the
nerve to function! 1e em)arked on a long series of e'periments that today seem to have )een going in
the wrong direction /see figure "!20$ )ut we must take into consideration the state of knowledge of
electricity at that time!
*olta repeated and confirmed 4al%aniBs obser%ations< at first a&reein& with his conclusions of
Hanimal electricity<H but later he became con%inced that the electricity was &enerated not by the ner%e<
but by the two dissimilar metals in the circuit. >olta must ha%e immediately reali8ed that this was a
new kind of electricity bein& continually produced(a steady current< as opposed to the instantaneous
dischar&es from the friction machines of %on 4uericke. >olta immediately impro%ed the apparatus<
constructin& se%eral types of bimetallic HpilesH for the &eneration of continuous current. ;is
obser%ations were published in the .hilosophical Transactions of 169* settin& in motion both a maCor
ad%ance in the knowled&e of electricity< as well as a particularly strident contro%ersy that was to
occupy the life sciences for the next century and a half. ?hile >olta acknowled&ed his debt to 4al%ani<
he left no doubt that in his mind there simply was no electricity in li%in& thin&s(4al%ani had simply
misinterpreted his findin&s.
ig! "!2! #alvani&s demonstration of )imetallic generation of electricity! -he verte)ral column of the
frog$ with nerves attached to the muscles of the legs$ rests on a plate of silver /0 with the legs on a
plate of copper /#0! .hen the e'perimenter connects the two plates with an iron rod$ the circuit is
completed$ and current flows through the preparation$ stimulating the nerves and producing muscle
contraction in the legs! #alvani$ of course$ )elieved the source of the current to )e in the animal
tissues!
ig! " 3! %lessandro 4olta$ physicist and e'perimenter! %t age 23 4olta )ecame professor of physics at
the university in 5avia$ remaining in that post until his retirement 36 years later! 4olta had )een
elected to the 7oyal Society in "89" in recognition of his work on electricity! %fter #alvani pu)lished
his classic paper in that same year$ 4olta )ecame interested in these o)servations of his countryman$
duplicated them$ made the proper deduction and discovered )imetallic continuous electricity! 1e
reported these o)servations in the -ransactions of "892 and in ":66 reported the invention of the
4oltaic 5ile$ a sample of which stands on the ta)le )efore him!
ig! "!;! -he first demonstration of true animal electricity! .hen the leg of the frog$ held in the left
hand$ is )rought into contact with the e'posed spinal cord$ the other leg will twitch! -his was first
reported in the anonymous paper pu)lished in <ologna in "893! .e now know that the muscular
contraction is the result of electrical currents of in=ury coming from the skinned leg of the frog!
4al%ani was not well suited to scientific contro%ersy. ;is only reply to >oltaBs attack was to
publish< unfortunately anonymously< a tract reportin& se%eral additional experiments in which muscular
contraction was produced without any metal in the circuit. The experiments actually demonstrated the
&eneration of electricity by inCured tissue< althou&h 4al%ani did not make this connection< thinkin& still
in terms of his animal electricity. >olta responded immediately< depreciatin& these experiments with
ob%iously specious< non(experimental< theoretical ar&uments. ?hile 4al%ani himself ne%er responded
to these ar&uments of >oltaBs< his nephew< 4io%anni 7ldini< a physicist< was con%inced that 4al%ani
was ri&ht and was not at all loath to en&a&e in scientific contro%ersy. >olta was of similar temperament
and in a short time 4al%ani was all but for&otten in the heat of a particularly acrimonious debate
between >olta and 7ldini. +n Fune 169-< Cust fi%e years after the publication of 4al%aniBs first paper<
3olo&na came under French control< 4al%ani was dismissed from his uni%ersity position< losin& his
home and his fortune at the same time. ;e was forced to seek refu&e in the home of his brother< where<
cut off from science and with no facilities to communicate with other scientists< he died in +698. Two
years later >olta presented his disco%eries to /apoleon himself< recei%in& a special award and unusual
honors. /ot too surprisin&ly< >olta ne%er made another substanti%e contribution to science.
+n the welter of acrimony and debate o%er Hanimal electricityH one %oice of reason and
moderation was heard. ;umboldt was then a youn& man in his *2Bs and had Cust completed his studies
as a minin& en&ineer. ?hile employed as an inspector of mines for the .russian &o%ernment< ;umboldt
carried with him the e9uipment to conduct experiments on the contro%ersy. ;is publication in +696< Cust
before 4al%aniBs death< clearly established that both >olta and 4al%ani were simultaneously ri&ht and
wron&. 3imetallic electricity existed but so did animal electricity. ;umboldt went on to become a
spectacular scientist< tra%elin& widely around the world and makin& many of the ori&inal obser%ations
that established &eolo&y as a science.
7ldini continued to %i&orously promote the cause of animal electricity in the early years of the
next century. 3ein& a physicist with no medical back&round< his experiments< such as the animation of
corpses with electrical currents '&enerated incidentally by the bimetallic piles disco%ered by his arch
enemy >olta)< often %er&ed on the &rotes9ue. ;owe%er< in one instance 7ldini treated a patient who
would today be dia&nosed as a schi8ophrenic. 7dministerin& the currents throu&h the head< 7ldini
reported a steady impro%ement in the patientBs personality and ultimately< his complete rehabilitation.
/e%ertheless< all the ad%anta&es lay with >olta. ;is world of bimetallic electricity was both a 9uantum
Cump in technolo&y and a simple< easily %erifiable phenomenon. 4al%aniBs world of li%in& thin&s on the
other hand was incredibly complex and imperfectly understood as it remains e%en today.
>oltaBs obser%ations were extended and his apparatus refined by many other workers. >oltaic batteries
of se%eral tons in wei&ht were constructed< enablin& ;umphry :a%y to do his experiments layin& the
foundation for electrochemistry< and leadin& to a better understandin& of the material world at the
atomic le%el. +n 1829 %on 0oemmerin&< a 4erman physician< demonstrated the first battery(operated
tele&raph< and the followin& year :a%y displayed the first electric arc li&ht usin& the 2222 plate %oltaic
battery of the 5oyal 0ociety. !lectricity was be&innin& to mo%e from the status of a laboratory curiosity
to that of a tool for probin& the material world< simultaneously showin& promise of future technical
applications in commerce and industry.
7&ain< another surprisin& disco%ery was made 9uite by accident. ;ans $hristian #ersted< then
professor of natural philosophy at $openha&en< was &i%in& a lecture(demonstration of %oltaic
electricity to his students early in 1822. 7 compass happened to be on the same demonstration table
and #ersted noticed that e%ery time the electrical circuit was made the compass needle mo%ed. +n a few
months he completed his experiments on this chance obser%ation and in Fuly 1822 he published the
obser%ation that an electrical current flowin& in a conductor &enerated a circular ma&netic field around
the conductor. #ersted had disco%ered electroma&netism. ore than 222 years after 4ilbert had shown
the difference between the two forces< he had pro%en the interrelationship between them. ;is disco%ery
pro%ided the basis for much of our present day technolo&y.1
1 There is an interestin& aside to #erstedBs career. +n 1821 after finishin& his trainin& as a
physicist< he tra%eled throu&hout !urope %isitin& other scientists. For se%eral weeks he
stayed with $arl 5itter< a prominent physicist in Fena. 5itter had disco%ered the existence of
ultra%iolet li&ht< in%isible to the eye< and was %ery much interested in the 4al%ani(>olta
contro%ersy. he was the eccentric &enius type< &i%en to both sound experiment and wild
speculation. 7fter #ersted left< the two continued to correspond< and in ay 182* 5itter
wrote to #ersted that in the years in the which earthBs plane of the ecliptic was maximally
inclined< maCor disco%eries were made in the science of electricity. ;e predicted that
another maCor disco%ery would be made in 1819(1822(((it was< by #ersted himself.
The contro%ersy o%er Hanimal electricityH continued unabated e%en thou&h most of the ori&inal
prota&onists had retired from the scene. 7 maCor technolo&ical disco%ery did much to both clarify and
to cloud the issue. ?orkin& from #erstedBs disco%ery< /obeli< professor of physics at Florence in%ented
the static &al%anometer< which was capable of sensin& extremely small currents. +n the 18*2Bs $arlo
atteucci< professor of physics at .isa< be&an a series of experiments that were to continue until his
death in 18-,. ;is primary interest was in the Hanimal electricityH demonstrated by 4al%ani in his
second series of experiments not in%ol%in& contact with metals. =sin& /obeliBs &al%anometer atteucci
was able to pro%e beyond a doubt that an electrical current was &enerated by inCured tissues and that in
fact< serial stackin& of such tissue could multiply the current in the same fashion as addin& more
bimetallic elements to a >oltaic pile. The current was continuously flowin&((a direct current(( and the
existence of at least this type of Hanimal electricityH was finally and une9ui%ocally pro%en. ;owe%er< it
was not located within the central ner%ous system per se and seemed to ha%e little relationship to the
lon& sou&ht H%ital force.H
atteucci published many of his obser%ations in a book in 1816 which came to the attention of
Fohannes Jller< then the foremost physiolo&ist in the world and professor at the medical school in
3erlin. Jller had been of the opinion that while electricity could stimulate a ner%e< it was not
in%ol%ed in its normal function in any manner< and he continued to embrace the %italistic doctrine of a
mysterious H%ital force.H ?hen he obtained a copy of atteucciBs book he &a%e it to one of his best
students< :u 3ois(5eymond< with the su&&estion that he attempt to duplicate atteucciBs experiments.
:u 3ois(5eymond was a skilled technical experimenter and within a year he had not only duplicated
atteucciBs experiments. but had extended them in a most important fashion. he disco%ered that when a
ner%e was stimulated an electrically(measurable impulse was produced at the site of stimulation and
then tra%eled at hi&h speed down the ner%e producin& the muscular contraction. :u 3ois(5eymond had
disco%ered the ner%e impulse< the basic mechanism of information transfer in the ner%ous system. he
was not unaware of the importance of his disco%ery< writin&< H + ha%e succeeded in reali8in& in full
actuality 'albeit under a sli&htly different aspect) the hundred years dream of physicists an
physiolo&ists.H
This &reat contribution was tarnished somewhat by :u 3ois(5eymondBs intemperate and
uncalled for attacks upon atteucci. +n fact he seemed to be of a particularly ar&umentati%e nature for
he shortly became embroiled in a bitter dispute with one of his own students((;ermann((o%er the
restin& potential. The restin& potential was a steady %olta&e that could be obser%ed on unstimulated
ner%e or muscle. ;ermann belie%ed that all restin& potentials were due to the inCury currents of
atteucci and that without inCury there would be no measurable potential. :u 3ois(5eymond was
e9ually adamant that inCury potentials were a minor matter and that they would add only a small part to
the restin& potentials. 7s usual both parties were partially ri&ht and partially wron&. +n fact :u 3ois(
5eymond was not e%en fully correct in his interpretation of his primary obser%ation of the ner%e
impulse. ;e %isuali8ed it as bein& due to locali8ed masses of Helectromoti%e particlesH on the surface of
the ner%e< a concept seemin&ly related to the then known mechanism of metallic conduction alon& a
wire. The old obCections still applied((the resistance of the ner%e was too hi&h and it lacked appropriate
insulation. /onetheless< the impulse was there< a fact easily %erified with the e9uipment then a%ailable.
+n a technical triumph for that time< %on ;elmholt8< a collea&ue of :u 3ois(5eymond in 3erlin<
succeeded in measurin& the %elocity of the ner%e impulse< obtainin& a %alue of *2 meters per second< in
full a&reement with HinstantaneousH measurements on currents in a wire((this was a different
phenomenon entirely. The problem was &i%en to another of :u 3ois(5eymondBs students< Fulius
3ernstein. ;e repeated and confirmed %on ;elmolt8Bs %elocity measurement< at the same time makin&
precision measurements on the ner%e impulse itself. ;is studied led to the proposal in 18-8 of his
theory of ner%e action and bioelectricity in &eneral< which has come to be the cornerstone of all modern
concepts. The H3ernstein hypothesisH postulated that the membrane of the ner%e cell was able to
selecti%ely pass certain kinds of ions 'atoms with electric char&es resultin& from dissol%in& salts in
water). 0ituated within the membrane was a mechanism that separated ne&ati%e from positi%e ions<
permittin& the positi%e ones to enter the cell and lea%in& the ne&ati%e ions in the fluid outside the cell.
#b%iously when e9uilibrium had been reached an electrical potential would then exist across the
membrane(the Htransmembrane potential.H The ner%e impulse was simply a locali8ed re&ion of
Hdepolari8ation<H or loss of this transmembrane potential< that tra%eled down the ner%e fiber with the
membrane potential bein& immediately restored behind it. This was a most powerful concept< in that it
not only a%oided the problems associated with electrical currents per se< but it relied upon established
concepts of chemistry and satisfactorily explained how the impulse could be obser%ed electrically and
yet not be electrical in nature. 3ernstein< reali8in& the power of the concept< postulated that all cells
possessed such a transmembrane potential< similarly deri%ed from separation of ions< and he explained
atteucciBs current of inCury as bein& due to dama&ed cell membranes Hleakin&H their transmembrane
potentialsintellectually< a most satisfyin& explanation at that time.
Fi&. 1.-. !lectricity and ner%es. Top: the sample anatomy of a sin&le ner%e cell or neurone. The cell
body is either in the brain or the spinal cord< and the ner%e fiber is in the peripheral ner%es such as in
the arms and le&s. iddle: the concept of :u 3ois(5eymond(electrical HparticlesH mo%in& alon& the
ner%e fiber. 3ottom: a simplified %ersion of the 3ernstein hypothesis. The only mo%in& char&es are
ions mo%in& into or out of the ner%e fiber at a site of membrane Hdepolari8ation.H This site of
membrane chan&e mo%es alon& the ner%e fiber.
+n fact< Cust as 4al%aniBs animal electricity came at Cust the ri&ht time< 3ernsteinBs hypothesis
came at the time when the scientific establishment was most anxious to rid biolo&y of electricity< the
last %esti&e of %italism.
:arwin had published the #ri&in of 0pecies only nine years before and the cellular basis of all
life had recently been %erified by >irchowBs linkin& of all disease to basic cellular patholo&y. .asteur
had already shown that infectious diseases were the result of infestation with bacteria< not HmiasmasH of
unspecified type< and $laude 3ernard had established the biochemical basis of di&estion and ener&y
utili8ation in the body. 0cience had clearly profited from the spirit of in9uiry that had characteri8ed
se%enteenth and ei&hteenth centuries and stood on the threshold of bein& the sole interpreter of nature<
both li%in& and non(li%in&. There was no place for H%ital forcesH or for electricity in li%in& thin&s< and
3ernsteinBs hypothesis was ea&erly accepted. /ow all of life from its creation< throu&h its e%olution< to
its present state was explicable in terms of chemistry and physics. 7s %on ;elmholt8 put it(Hno other
forces than the common physical(chemical ones are acti%e within the or&anism.H "ife be&an as a
chance a&&re&ation of molecules in some lon& a&o< warm sea and e%ol%ed into complex physical(
chemical machines< nothin& more.
7 profound turnin& point had been reached in science. 0ince li%in& thin&s were machines< they
could be broken down into their component parts Cust like machines< and these component parts could
be studied in isolation with the confidence that their functions would reflect those when in the intact
or&anism. This has pro%en to be a powerful tool indeed< and much has been learned by this approach<
but somethin& has not been learned(we still do not know how these functions and systems inte&rate
to&ether to produce the or&anism. /e%ertheless< at that time it appeared that this approach was to be the
one destined to re%eal all of lifeBs secrets and the power and presti&e of the 3erlin school increased until
it became< alon& with ;eidelber&< the world center for the new scientific medicine '?issenschaftliches
edicine). +ts disciples spread the word widely. Freud for example< in his formati%e years was
profoundly influenced by his work in the laboratory of !rnst 3rucke< a friend and staunch supporter of
%on ;elmholt8.
?hile the biolo&ical and medical scientists were busily establishin& science as the basis for
biolo&y and medicine and expellin& %italism< includin& electricity< from any function in li%in& thin&s<
the situation was 9uite different in the real world of the practicin& physicians. !lectrotherapeutics<
which had its start with the experiments of the 7bbe /ollet in the mid(ei&hteenth century< had become
popular for the treatment of numerous and %aried clinical conditionsD from the ob%iously functional
psycho&enic disturbances< to such concrete patholo&y as fractures that had failed to heal. 3y 1881
3i&elow estimated that H12<222 physicians within the borders of the =nited states use electricity as a
therapeutic a&ent daily in their practice.H 7ll of this persisted without the blessin& of the scientific
establishment until after the turn of the century when the most ob%ious of the charlatans entered the
scene. They< in concert with the almost total lack of standards in medical education and practice at that
time< produced a really deplorable situation.
This situation was reco&ni8ed by the $arne&ie Foundation< which established a commission to
in%esti&ate it. The commission was headed by 7braham Flexner and the now famous HFlexner 5eportH
published in 1912 produced an almost instantaneous re%ision of medical education with the closin& of
most of the mar&inal schools and the establishment of science as the sole basis for medicine and
medical education. This was firmly reinforced a few years later when Flexner compared the 7merican
and 3ritish schools unfa%orably with the 4erman. 3y 19*2 7merican medicine was practically totally
patterned after the 4ermanic H?issenschaftliches edicine.H !lectrotherapy became a scientifically
unsupportable techni9ue and disappeared from medical practice< with most of its proponents embracin&
the technolo&y of 5oent&enBs K(rays< and the biomedical scientists set about sol%in& the remainin& few
riddles of life with chemistry as their prime tool.
:urin& the 22Bs and *2Bs these reformers recei%ed considerable support from two 9uite di%er&ent
sources. @nowled&e of the physics of electricity and ma&netism had pro&ressed from #erstedBs
demonstration of the relationship between the two< to FaradayBs &eneration of electrical current by
ma&netic induction< and to axwellBs profound insi&ht on the nature of electroma&netic radiation< the
latter predictin& the existence of a whole spectrum of electroma&netic radiation. 7fter ;ert8 had pro%en
axwellBs predictions in 1888 the a&e of electrical technolo&y be&an. 3y 1896 arconi was usin& this
radiation to send si&nals o%er distances of twel%e miles and within four years a messa&e was
instantaneously sent across the 7tlantic ocean. !dison perfected his first electric li&ht in 1869< and by
1882 the first central electrical &eneratin& station< the .earl 0treet 0tation in /ew Aork $ity< be&an
operatin&.
3y 1922 the electric a&e was well on its way and within a few short years was to result in the
total electrification of the entire world. an be&an to li%e in an electroma&netic en%ironment that
de%iated si&nificantly from the natural< but since the social and economic ad%anta&es were ob%ious< the
technolo&y was enthusiastically embraced. ?hen 9uestions were raised as to the possible effects of all
this pro&ress upon human health< scientists reassured the populace that since electricity played
absolutely no role in li%in& thin&s there was nothin& to fear. '+t would seem ob%ious also that the
in%estors who stood to &ain considerably from further expansion of the technolo&y would be similarly
pleased.) 7 few experiments were performed in a rather perfunctory but spectacular fashion<
particularly in !disonBs own laboratory. +n one instance a do& was placed in a stron& ma&netic field for
fi%e hours without ob%ious discomfortH 'no other determinations were apparently made)D in another<
fi%e human %olunteers reported no subCecti%e sensations whate%er when they placed their head within a
stron& ma&netic field< whether the field was on steadily or switched on and off repeatedly. This
reported lack of sensation is particularly intri&uin& since dB7rson%al reported at the same time that such
chan&in& fields 'from the field on(off) when applied to the human head produced the subCecti%e
sensation of li&htI 7 few years later 3eer substantiated this obser%ation and named it the Hma&netic
phosphene.H +t has been studied extensi%ely since then and its existence is un9uestioned. +t is difficult
to understand why it was not reported from the experiments in !disonBs laboratory< since they were
performed under circumstances known to produce it. 7t any rate the rapidly expandin& electric utility
and communications industry Coined with the scientists in totally denyin& the existence of any effects of
electroma&netic fields on li%in& thin&s.
:urin& the period another area of industry was also rapidly expandin&< the manufacture of
chemical dru&s. +t would seem likely that the biochemical %iew of life then bein& promoted by
scientific medicine would be most attracti%e to these companies and indeed< they acti%ely contributed
to the campai&n to discredit the electrotherapeutic techni9ues. #nly within the past few years has it
become possible to raise 9uestions about the Flexner 5eport. ?hile Flexner himself un9uestionably
was moti%ated by the best of intentions< the initial fundin& for most of his reports was deri%ed from
somewhat suspect sources.
3y 19*2 the con%er&ence of powerful forces had brou&ht to a final conclusion the debate that
had be&un with 4al%ani in 1691. 7nyone who aspired to a career in the medical or biolo&ical sciences
was well ad%ised to hesitate before publicly proposin& that electroma&netic forces had any effect on
li%in& thin&s< other than to produce shock or heatin& of the tissues< or that such forces played any sort
of functional role in li%in& thin&s. Aet precisely such reports did appear in the scientific literature.
"educ< in 1922< claimed to produce a state of narcosis in animals by passin& an alternatin&
current '112 h8 at *, %) throu&h the animalBs head. This report was confirmed and expanded by a
number of workers in many countries< and %ariations of the techni9ue ha%e been used clinically<
particularly in France and the 0o%iet =nion. +n 19*8 $erletti be&an experimentin& with electroshock
therapy for schi8ophrenia 'shades of 7ldiniI) and this techni9ue subse9uently found wide application in
psychiatry. +n 1929< ;ans 3er&er disco%ered the electroencephalo&ram 'brain wa%es) which has< with
refinements< become one of the standard testin& and dia&nostic procedures in neurolo&y. +n the
followin& decade 3urr be&an a lon& series of experiments on the steady(state or :$ potentials
measurable on the surface of a wide %ariety of or&anisms. ;e related chan&es in these potentials to a
number of physiolo&ical functions includin& &rowth< de%elopment and sleep. ;e formulated the
concept of a Hbioelectric fieldH &enerated by the sum total of electrical acti%ity of all the cells of the
or&anism< and postulated that the field itself directed and controlled these acti%ities. "und in Texas and
3arth at $olumbia =ni%ersity in /ew Aork also postulated a physiolo&ical role for these :$ potentials<
particularly in re&ard to &rowth and de%elopment. +n the same decade "eao demonstrated that
depression of acti%ity in the brain 'as Cud&ed by chan&es in the rate of ner%e impulse production) was
always accompanied by the appearance of specific type :$ potentials< re&ardless of the primary
causati%e factor. 4erard and "ibet expanded this concept in a series of experiments in which they
concluded that the basic functions of the brain(excitation< depression and inte&ration(were directed and
controlled by these :$ potentials.
The &eneratin& source for the :$ potentials obser%ed by all of these workers was obscure. +t
could not be the transmembrane potentials of 3ernstein< nor could it be the sin&le< short duration
impulses produced by the transient breakdowns in the transmembrane potential in ner%e or muscle. 7s
a result< established science either i&nored or reCected outri&ht these obser%ations as artifactual or as by(
products of underlyin& chemical acti%ities and therefore of no importance. ?hile the action potential
was well established as the mechanism of information transmission alon& the ner%e fiber< and was
satisfactorily explained by the 3ernstein hypothesis< a problem still existed. 7t the Cunction between the
ner%e and its end or&an 'i.e. muscle) the microscope had re%ealed a &ap< the synapse. $ould not the
action potential become chan&ed into an electrical current to cross this &apG
+n a series of experiments in the 1922Bs< #tto "oewi at /ew Aork =ni%ersity pro%ed
conclusi%ely that the transmission across the synaptic &ap was chemical(acetylcholine was released into
the &ap where it then stimulated the receptor site on the end or&an. Finally< the broad outlines of the
3ernstein hypothesis were pro%en by ;od&kin< ;uxley and !ccles in the 1912Bs. =sin& microelectrodes
that could penetrate the ner%e cell membrane< they demonstrated that the normal transmembrane
potential is produced by sodium ions bein& excluded from the ner%e cell interior< and when stimulated
to produce an action potential the membrane permits these ions to enter.
The tidy world of the mechanists was complete. There was no %ital principle< and electricity<
which had been identified with it< had no place in the biolo&ical world. Three hundred years of
intellectual ferment and experiment had come to a close with the establishment of a new
biophilosophy(the uni%ersal machine now included all li%in& thin&s. 7s %italism &radually lost the
battle< bioelectricity< which had been its central theme for more than a century< was also &radually
excluded from biolo&y until all that remained was the &ross effects of lar&e forces< shock and heat.
The concepts of the new philosophy fitted the obser%ed facts so well that in its enthusiasm<
science i&nored all e%idence of electrical phenomena in li%in& thin&s as well as the fact that there were
biolo&ical functions that were poorly explained< if at all< by the chemical concept. ;owe%er< there was
a much lar&er flaw. 7ll of the concepts that excluded electroma&netic effects and processes in biolo&y
were based upon the knowled&e of this force extant at the time. +n the early years of the present century
the only mechanisms of electrical conduction were metallic and ionic. !%en then a stran&e class of
minor substances was known to exist< located between the conductors and the insulators< called
semiconductors. These were of no practical si&nificance at the time and since they existed only as solid<
crystalline materials< they were ipso facto excluded from the biolo&ical world< which as e%eryone knew
was water(based to permit the all(important chemical reactions. 7s knowled&e at the atomic le%el
increased< better understandin& of the semiconductor substances was ac9uired. +t became known that
instead of lar&e numbers of electrons mo%in& in clouds alon& the surface of metals< small numbers of
electrons existed within the or&ani8ed crystalline lattice of the semiconductor where they were not
associated with any sin&le atom but were free to mo%e throu&hout the entire crystal with ease.
+n 1911< 08ent(4yor&yi< a physician and biochemist who had already been awarded the /obel
.ri8e for his work on biolo&ical oxidation mechanisms and %itamin $< made the startlin& su&&estion
that such phenomena as semiconduction could exist within li%in& systems. ;e postulated that the
atomic structure of such biolo&ical molecules as proteins was sufficiently or&ani8ed to function as a
crystalline lattice. +n the case of the fibrous proteins he proposed that they could Coin to&ether in
Hextended systemsH with common ener&y le%els permittin& semiconduction current flow o%er lon&
distances. 08ent(4yor&yi< while certainly not subscribin& to the mystical %italistic philosophy<
ne%ertheless felt compelled to state that he belie%ed biolo&ical knowled&e was considerably less
complete than ad%ertised by the mechanistic establishment. +n the @oranyi "ecture deli%ered in
3udapest that year he stated< H+t looks as if some basic fact about life is still missin&< without which any
real understandin& is impossible.H
The modern concept of electrobiolo&y can be considered to ha%e ori&inated with these thou&hts
of 08ent(4yor&yi. 7s the remainder of this %olume will show< it is not a return to the %italism of
imponderable forces and actions< but rather the introduction into biolo&y of ad%ances in knowled&e that
ha%e occurred in the field of solid(state electronics. The resultin& wei&ht of the e%idence seems to
indicate that steady(state or :$ currents exist within li%in& or&anisms where they ser%e to transmit
information at a basic le%el. This concept has pro%en to be of considerable %alue in understandin&
many of the life functions that are poorly explained when %iewed solely within the framework of
biochemistry.
.75T T?#:
The Role of Ele!"o#$%&e!' E&e"%( '& !he Re%)l$!'o& of L'fe *"oe++e+
$hapter 2: The .hysiolo&ical Function of +ntrinsic !lectroma&netic !ner&y
+ntroduction
The /er%ous 0ystem
4rowth $ontrol
3one
0ummary
5eferences
Introdction
08ent(4yor&yiBs lecture proposin& the solid(state electronic processes could play a functional
role in li%in& or&anisms was &i%en on arch 21 1911 as ?orld ?ar ++ literally ra&ed o%er !urope.
?hile it was the lecture that pro%ided a seminal idea< it was the war itself that pro%ided the instruments
to explore the idea and the concepts to stren&then it.
5eco&nition of the fact that national stren&th rested primarily upon science and technolo&y
produced an unparalleled outpourin& of funds and facilities for scientific in%esti&ation. +nterdisciplinary
teams worked at both basic and applied le%els with a speed and intensity moti%ated by a &enuine
concern for national sur%i%al. +n a few short years maCor ad%ances were made not only in de%ices and
technolo&ies< but also in ideas and concepts that were to ha%e far(reachin& conse9uences. ?hen 08ent(
4yor&yi made his su&&estion< all such solid(state electronic mechanisms were little more than
laboratory curiosities. ?ar(related in%esti&ations on the basic electronic structure of matter enabled
0hockley< 3ardeen and 3rattain to de%elop the transistor< an electronic solid(state de%ice workin& with
a few %olts and a trickle of current that duplicated the functions of %acuum tubes many times lar&er in
si8e and re9uirin& hundreds of times the amount of electrical power. The applications of electrical
technolo&y shifted away from concepts of power en&ineerin& with lar&e scale currents and %olta&es to
electronic en&ineerin& usin& de%ices of microscopic si8e powered by minuscule currents. Today the
number and %ariety of uses of such solid(state electronic de%ices is e%er increasin&.
3efore the war there had been< as always< an interest in how the brain and ner%ous system
functioned. 0ince the nature of the ner%e impulse had been determined< the emphasis was on how this
si&nal< coupled with the anatomical complexity of the ner%ous system< could produce the inte&rated
Hhi&herH ner%ous functions such as memory< and thou&ht. 7n informal &roup of mathematicians<
physiolo&ists< and others from ;anard and +T that had been interested in this problem became the
nucleus for the =nited 0tateBs computer de%elopment pro&ram. 7s a result many of the early concepts
built into the machines were deri%ed from neurophysiolo&ical concepts< the functions and or&ani8ations
of the li%in& systems becomin& the models for the machine systems. ?ith pro&ressi%e ad%ances in
technolo&y< the need for this relationship diminished and by the late 12Bs computer technolo&y and
information theory were sufficiently ad%anced to be&in the de%elopment of specific concepts leadin& to
the new science of HcybemeticsH(a word coined by /orbert ?einer< a prominent mathematician at +T<
referrin& to the process of communication and control< whether in the machine or li%in& or&anism '+).
+n the ,2Bs a number of the scientists associated with the de%elopments in this field 'notably %on
/eumann and c$ulloch) be&an to try to apply these ad%anced concepts of cybernetics to the problem
of inte&rated brain function '2).
!%en in the more mundane area of instrumentation< war(related needs for sensiti%ity and
stability in electrical measurement led to the de%elopment of entirely new circuits and measurin&
de%ices.
The result of all of this was a %ery real scientific re%olution: in a relati%ely short time science
mo%ed from the >ictorian a&e to the electronic a&e. Two aspects of the new knowled&e were of
fundamental importance to biolo&yD cybernetics and solid(state electronics. #ne would think that the
intellectual ferment surroundin& those de%elopments would ha%e been applied to a re(e%aluation of the
old concepts denyin& any relationship between electrical forces and li%in& thin&s. This< howe%er< did
not occur. 08ent(4yor&yiBs su&&estions 'which were immeasurably stren&thened by the new
knowled&e) were well recei%ed by the main body of biolo&ical science< and the solid(state physicists
were reluctant to enter the messy< complex< biolo&ical world. Their in%esti&ations were limited to the
study of electronic processes in ultra(pure crystals of or&anic chemicals such as anthracene. ost
ironically of all< 08ent(4yor&yiBs ideas seem to ha%e been i&nored by the few biolo&ical scientists who
persisted in studyin& bioelectrical phenomena '*<1).
T+e Ner&o' Sy'te#
/ot all neurophysiolo&ists were con%inced that the simple ner%e impulse or action potential was
the sole basis of all ner%ous system function. ?hile it could not be 9uestioned that this mechanism did
exist and did furnish an ade9uate basis for the transmission of information in a sin&le neurone< many
problems remained unanswered. ost important was the 9uestion of how all of the neurones inte&rated
and worked to&ether to produce a coherent functionin& brain 'perhaps the whole was &reater than the
sum of the parts). ?hile most basic scientists a%oided such 9uestions< the clinical neurolo&ists were
con%inced that somethin& was lackin& in the action potential only concept.
+n the 1912Bs 4erard and "ibet reported a particularly si&nificant series of experiments on the
:$ electrical potentials measurable in the brain. ',).
ig! ,!"! Schematic representation of a typical single neurone layer of cells in the frog )rain used )y
Li)et and #erard to measure DC electrical gradients! -heir concept of the DC gradient along a single
neurone is shown in the lower figure! +t is likely that the polarity was the result of the neurone )eing
removed from the )rain as the polarity of the neurone intact and in the nervous system is opposite to
what they found!

+n fro&s< for example< some areas of the brain are only one neurone thick but are composed of
many such neurones oriented all in one direction. +n such areas steady or slowly %aryin& potentials
oriented alon& the axonodendritic axis were measured. These potentials chan&ed in ma&nitude as the
excitability le%el of the neurones was altered by chemical treatment. +n other experiments usin&
isolated but li%in& fro& brains< they found slowly oscillatin& potentials and Htra%elin& wa%esH of
potential chan&e mo%in& across the cortical layers of the brain at speeds of approximately - cm per
second. These wa%es 'which could be elicited by the application of a number of dru&s< such as caffeine<
that increased the excitability of the indi%idual neurones) had some %ery important properties. +f a cut
was made on the cortical surface and the ed&es separated< the tra%elin& wa%e could not cross the cut.
;owe%er< if the ed&es of the cut were simply brou&ht into physical contact the wa%es crossed
unimpeded. +f the ed&es were separated and the small &ap filled with a physiolo&ical saline solution<
the wa%es a&ain were pre%ented from crossin& the &ap. 4erard and "ibet interpreted these findin&s to
mean that actual electrical currents of some type were flowin& outside of the ner%e cells throu&h the
brain. The ability of the potential wa%es to cross the cut when the ed&es were placed in physical contact
ruled out the action potential as the source of the potential< and the inability of the wa%e to cross the
saline filled &ap ruled out a chemical basis for the potential wa%e. They concluded that dru&s that
increase or decrease the excitability of the neurones all act by similarly chan&in& these electrical
currents< and that it is these extracellular electrical currents that exert the primary controllin& action on
the neurones.
+n a further series of studies on the intact brain< "ibet and 4erard described the existence of a
steady :$ potential existin& lon&itudinal< from front to back in the brain< with the frontal 'olfactory)
lobes bein& normally ne&ati%e by se%eral milli%olts 'm>) to the occipital lobe '-< 6). 7t about the same
time another neurophysiolo&ist< "eao< conducted a series of experiments on the electrical chan&es
associated with locali8ed physical inCuries to the brain. ;e found that a positi%e(&oin& :$ polari8ation
spread out from the site of inCury and that the neurones encompassed by this 8one of Hspreadin&
depressionH stopped all acti%ity and lost their ability to recei%e< &enerate and transmit ner%e impulses as
lon& as the polari8ation remained. Thus the :$ electrical acti%ity &enerated by the inCury produced a
functional loss in a lar&er area of the brain than that which was directly inCured.
?hile these obser%ations were interestin& and seemed to ha%e a more direct bearin& on Hhi&her
ner%ous functionsH such as inte&ration< most interest in the neurophysiolo&ical community was directed
toward the well(established ner%e impulse and in relatin& it to the enormous anatomical complexity of
the brain that was becomin& e%ident. Techni9ues were de%eloped that enabled the neuroanatomist to
track the course of ner%e fibers throu&h complex areas of the brain< thus determinin& the connections
between %arious nuclei and brain areas. +t became apparent that the HcircuitryH of the brain was not a
simple Hone on oneH arran&ement. 0in&le neurones were found to ha%e tree(like arbori8ations of
dendrites with input synapses from scores of other neurones. :endritic electrical potentials were
obser%ed that did not propa&ate like action potentials< but appeared to be additi%eD when a sufficient
number were &enerated the membrane depolari8ation reached the critical le%el and an action potential
would be &enerated. #ther neurones were found whose action potentials were inhibitory to their
recei%in& neurones. 4raded responses were disco%ered in which ion fluxes occurred across the
neuronal membranes and while insufficient in ma&nitude to produce an action potential< still produced
functional chan&es in the neurone. The complexity of function in the brain was found to be enormous.
7t the same time the neurohistolo&ists were findin& that only about +2L of the brain was
composed of cells that could properly be called neurones. The remainder was made up of a %ariety of
HperineuralH cells of which most were &lia cells. 0ince they did not demonstrate any ability to &enerate
action potentials they were somewhat arbitrarily assi&ned the function of protectin& and nourishin& the
ner%e cells proper. ore interest was &enerated in the :$ potentials from the point of %iew that they
may be &enerated by the neurones themsel%es. 0e%eral new in%esti&ators became in%ol%ed in the area<
chiefly 3ishop '8)< $aspers '9)< #B"eary and 4oldrin&. uch new information was &enerated< all
indicatin& that :$ potentials did play important functional roles in the acti%ity of the brain. $aspers for
example< in 19-1 measured :$ potentials in unanestheti8ed< unrestrained animals en&a&ed in normal
acti%ity. ;e reported that increased acti%ity< such as incomin& sensory stimuli and motor acti%ity< were
associated with ne&ati%e potentials< while decreased acti%ity such as sleep was associated with positi%e
:$ shifts. $aspers proposed that these :$ chan&es could be of dia&nostic %alue similar to the !!4< if
they could be measured with precision.
That these direct currents could influence the beha%ior of neurones themsel%es was shown by
Ter8uolo and 3ullock< who used isolated neurones that spontaneously &enerated action potentials at a
steady rhythmic rate '12). They demonstrated that %ery small currents and %olta&es could modulate the
rate of firin& without producin& depolari8ation of the ner%e cell membrane. They concluded that< Hthe
&reat sensiti%ity of neurones to small %olta&e differences supports the %iew that electric field actions
can play a role in the determination of probability of firin& of units.H
$linically< direct currents were also bein& used to produce electronarcosis or electrical
anesthesia for sur&ery. ?hile these studies were empirical< they fre9uently in%ol%ed the passa&e of
current alon& the frontooccipital axis of the head< the same %ector pre%iously described by "ibet and
4erard as demonstratin& a :$ potential that seemed related to the state of consciousness. 0omewhat
lower electrical parameters were used as Hcalmin&H or sleep(producin& a&ents in psychiatric treatment
of %arious hyperacti%e states. These techni9ues are still in use in a number of countries. +n 196-< /ias
reported positi%e results in a %ery carefully controlled study of the electrosleep techni9ue< in%ol%in&
double blind experiments usin& alternatin& currents as controls '11).
Finally< the role played by the &lia< the Hsupportin&H cells that constituted 92L of the total mass
of the brain< be&an to be 9uestioned. !lectron microscopy re%ealed close and in%ol%ed associations
between the &lia and the neurones as well as between the &lia cells themsel%es 'ti&ht Cunctions< etc.).
The analo& of the &lia cell< the 0chwann cell< was found to in%est all peripheral ner%e fibers outside of
the brain and spinal cord. They appeared to many in%esti&ators to be syncytial in natureD that is< to be in
continuous cytoplasmic contact alon& the entire len&th of each ner%e. 3iochemical chan&es were found
to occur in the &lia concurrent with acti%ity of their neurones 'such as durin& repeated &eneration of
action potentials or cessation of acti%ity as in sleep) '12). !%idence was e%en presented that these &lia
cells were in%ol%ed in the process of memory. +n 19-1 @uffler and .otter reported electrophysiolo&ical
measurements on the &lia cells of the leech which were %ery lar&e and easily worked with '1*). ;e
described :$ potentials in these cells which spread throu&h some low resistance couplin&s to many
other &lia cells. The action potential of the neurone did not influence the &lia cells but the re%erse
appeared possible. "ater ?alker demonstrated that similar e%ents occurred in mammalian &lia cells
with transmission of inCected direct currents between &lia cells and some e%idence that chan&es in the
electrical state of the &lia did influence their associated neurones '11). +t be&an to appear to be possible
that the extraneuronal currents ori&inally described by "ibet and 4erard could be associated with some
electrical acti%ity in these non(neuronal cells themsel%es '1,).
7nother type of non(neuronal cell associated with the ner%ous system(the sensory receptor cell(
was found to ha%e unusual electrical properties. +n most instances the initial receipt of a stimulus is %ia
a speciali8ed cellular Hor&anH called a sensory receptor that is located at the end of the ner%e fiber< or
fibers< connectin& it to the central ner%ous system. +n some instances these are hi&hly speciali8ed< lar&e
anatomical structures such as the eyes< which are sensiti%e to that portion of the electroma&netic
spectrum which we call li&ht. #thers are microscopic and speciali8ed to recei%e mechanical stimuli<
such as the pressure(sensiti%e .acinian corpuscles and the stretch(sensiti%e muscle spindles. +n the
latter instance the receptor itself is clearly a modified muscle fiber that has a particularly intimate
connection to its ner%e. These mechanical receptors produce an electrically measurable response when
stimulated by pressure or stretch. This so(called H&enerator potentialH is 9uite different from the action
potential< bein& &raded 'i.e.< %aryin& in ma&nitude in direct relationship to the ma&nitude of the
mechanical stimulus) and re&ardless of its ma&nitude< nonpropa&atin& 'i.e.< decreasin& rapidly o%er
microscopic distances). 7pparently< the action of the &enerator potential is to produce sufficient
depolari8ation of the associated ner%e fiber membrane to start a propa&ated action potential which then
proceeds centrally alon& the associated ner%e fiber carryin& the sensory messa&e. The mechanism of
the sensory receptor itself seems to be an excellent example of an analo& transducer< with the &enerator
potential bein& the :$ output si&nal.
?hile the &enerator potential is often postulated to be produced by ionic mo%ement throu&h a
semipermeable membrane as in the action potential< this %iew is not supported by the same kind of data
as for the action potential. There are< for example< se%eral conditions that abolish the action potential
and lea%e the &enerator potential undiminished 'e.&.< low concentrations of tetrodotoxin and reduced
sodium concentration in the tissue fluids around the receptor). +n addition< the electrical response of the
.acinian corpuscle is 9uite unusual. /ot only is it &raded and nonpropa&atin&< but it is also biphasic<
with a potential of one polarity and ma&nitude upon application of the pressure and a potential of e9ual
ma&nitude but opposite polarity upon release of the pressure. This is an action usually associated with a
pie8oelectric material that will be discussed later in this chapter. +n addition< +shiko and "owenstein
ha%e been able to demonstrate that the rate of rise and the amplitude of the &enerator potential of a
.acinian corpuscle increased markedly with temperature while such a temperature increase had no
effect upon the action potential of the associated ner%e fiber '1-). 0uch temperature sensiti%ity is one of
the characteristics of a solid(state electronic process.
The situation in re&ard to the eye is particularly complex< in%ol%in& a chan&e in state of the
%isual pi&ment as an intermediary step in the li&ht(sensin& process. +n addition< the eye demonstrates a
steady ':$) corneo(retinal potential 'electroculo&ram) and a :$ potential associated with the
impin&ement of li&ht on the retina 'electroretino&ram). These phenomena are also not well understood
and similarly difficult to explain on the basis of the ionic hypothesis.
Thus by the mid(decades of this century< much new e%idence had been obtained indicatin& that
both the anatomical complexity and the electrical acti%ity of the brain were much more complicated
than first thou&ht when the ner%e impulse had been disco%ered. +t seemed 9uite possible that "ibet and
4erard had been ri&ht when< in the 12Bs< they described electrical currents of nonionic nature flowin&
outside of the neurones of the brain. To some in%esti&ators this appeared to be a mechanism of codin&
and data transmission that related to the problem of inte&ratin& the entire acti%ity of the brain. 0upport
for this %iew came from theoretical analysis of the ner%ous system by the cyberneticists. +t was e%ident
to %on /eumann that the action potential system was in essence a di&ital type information system<
similar to the binary coded computers '2). 7naly8in& the functions of the brain< he concluded that this
system alone was inade9uate to explain brain functions and theori8ed that there had to be an underlyin&
simpler system that re&ulated lar&e blocks of neurones &radin& and re&ulatin& their acti%ity. ;e a&ain
seemed to propose an analo& system similar to that of "ibet and 4erard.
?hile these studies were &oin& on in relation to the :$ electrical acti%ity of the brain and its
inte&rati%e function< other in%esti&ators were workin& on the inte&ration of the total or&anism and were
con%inced that a similar :$ electrical system was in operation 'surprisin&ly< they seemed to be
unaware of the work of the neurophysiolo&ists and the support that it would ha%e &i%en them). "und at
the =ni%ersity of Texas '*) and 3urr at Aale '1) published many articles in the 12Bs and ,2Bs reportin&
electrical measurements on the surface of a %ariety of intact li%in& or&anisms which could be correlated
with a number of physiolo&ical %ariables. 3oth in%esti&ators arri%ed at the concept of a HbioelectricH or
HelectrodynamicH fieldD a :$ potential field that per%aded the entire or&anism< pro%idin& inte&ration
and direction for morpho&enetic and &rowth processes< amon& other functions. The fields they
obser%ed were simple dipoles< oriented on the head(tail axis of the animal and they considered the
source of the field to be the summation of the indi%idual fields of all of the cells of the or&anism. ?hile
they concei%ed of currents flowin& within the cells< they excluded total currents of any or&ani8ed
nature existin& outside of the cells. The source of the internal cellular current 'which was a necessary
postulate for the total field) was not well described by either worker< althou&h "und in one sentence
comes close to a solid(state electronic idea when he mentions Helectron transfer across the cytoplasm
'in chain molecules).H
The work of 3urr and "und 'as well as that of other workers) was mainly i&nored by the
scientific community. Their measurements were suspect due to insensiti%e and artifact(producin&
instrumentation< the potentials they measured were far below the HshockH le%el< and their theoretical
concepts were Hfu88y<H hintin& at the now discredited %italism. The fact still remained howe%er< that
they measured steady(state potentials on the surface of animals correlated with functional chan&es< %ery
similar to the measurements made in the brain by the neurophysiolo&ists. The usual explanation(that
these were second(order phenomena< byproducts of underlyin& cellular metabolism(was unsatisfactory
from a number of aspects. First< it was not clear how such metabolic acti%ity was translated into
electrical potentials< and second< a number of in%esti&ators had demonstrated that applied currents 'well
below the le%el of heatin&) did influence &eneral &rowth patterns in a nonrandom fashion.
Thus by the mid(19,2Bs serious doubts be&an to be expressed concernin& the ability of the
3emstein semipermeable membrane hypothesis to explain all obser%ed bioelectric phenomena both
within the central ner%ous system and in the body as a whole.
+n 19-2 we repeated 3urrBs measurements of the :$ field on the surface of the intact
salamander usin&< howe%er< the much more stable and sensiti%e instrumentation then a%ailable. 5ather
than a simple dipole field< we found a complex field pattern with an ob%ious relationship to the
underlyin& anatomy of the central ner%ous system '16). .ositi%e areas on the skin surface o%erlay areas
of cellular a&&re&ation with the $/0< such as the brain and the brachial and lumbar enlar&ements of the
spinal cord< while the ner%e trunks were increasin&ly ne&ati%e as they proceeded distally away from the
spinal cord. This su&&ested that the potentials were related to the :$ potentials of the $/0 rather than
bein& &enerated by the total acti%ity of all the cells of the or&anism. 7n immediate 9uestion was
whether current flowin& within such a structure embedded within the %olume conductor of the body
could produce such a field pattern on the surface of the animal. ?e found that when a $/0 analo&
'built of copper wire with solder Cunctions as &eneratin& sources at the brain and spinal cord
enlar&ements) was placed within a %olume conductor of the same si8e and relati%e shape as a
salamander< the same pattern of potentials was measurable on the surface as was measured on the
li%in& salamander. This indicated that the total $/0 could be the source of the field potentials< but it
did not confirm that it had such an acti%ity.
7ll of the pre%ious neurophysiolo&ical studies on :$ potentials had been made on the brain.
The existence of similar electrical phenomena in the peripheral ner%es could only be conCectured< but it
was a necessity to relate the measured surface potentials to the total $/0. To in%esti&ate this further we
measured the :$ potentials alon& 1 cm se&ments of %arious peripheral ner%es '18). 7&ain<
reproducible :$ %olta&es were foundD howe%er< their polarity appeared to be dependent upon the
direction of the normal ner%e impulse tra%el. 0ensory ner%es were polari8ed distally positi%e< while
motor ner%es were polari8ed distally ne&ati%e. $ombined ner%e trunks< with both sensory and motor
components< demonstrated polarities and ma&nitudes of potentials that were related to the arithmetic
addition of the potentials associated with each component. '+t should be remembered that while all
peripheral ner%es are called axons< only those that are motor are truly soD the sensory fibers are in
reality dendrites carryin& information centrally.) These measured polarities seemed to indicate that
each complete neurone was polari8ed in the same direction alon& its axono(dendritic axis. These
obser%ations almost exactly paralleled those made by "ibet and 4erard on the cerebral neurones *2
years before. Thus the body surface fields measured by 3urr and "und< rather than bein& the result of
the electrical acti%ity of all the cells< appeared to be associated with some :$ acti%ity of the entire
ner%ous system. The electrical potentials measured lon&itudinally alon& the peripheral ner%es paralleled
in ma&nitude the &eneral state of the $/0 Hin toto<H 'i.e.< they diminished with anesthesia and with
section of the spinal cord). 0ince they could be measured constantly durin& periods of relati%ely normal
$/0 state< it was postulated that they had to be &enerated by a constant current flow.
ig! ,!,! 5lots of the surface DC electrical potential on the surface of the salamander as reported )y
<urr /left0 and found )y us /right0! -he central nervous system is diagrammed in the center! -he
relationship )etween the comple' field and the nervous system is evident!

ig! ,!2! Measured DC electrical potentials along segments of peripheral nerves of the frog! -he
sensory nerves were found to )e distally positive while motor nerves were distally negative! -he
arrangement of motor and sensory nerves in the typical refle' arc is shown in the center diagram! -he
conclusion reached is that neurones have an overall longitudinal electrical polari>ation as shown on
the left!
7s a means of further substantiatin& this idea and possibly determinin& the type of char&e
carriers in%ol%ed< we obser%ed the effect of free8in& a se&ment of the ner%e located between the two
measurement electrodes. $har&e carriers of the type proposed by 08ent(4yor&yi 'electrons in a
semiconductin& lattice) would be enhanced in their mo%ement by free8in&< resultin& in an increase in
the current< while mo%ement of ions would be inhibited by the free8in&< causin& the current to decrease
and the potentials to decline. The experiment was carried out on the sciatic ner%e of the bullfro& and
enhancement of the %olta&e was found each time the se&ment of the ner%e was fro8en. +f the %olta&e
&radient was dropped to 8ero by section of the spinal cord or %ery deep anesthesia< free8in& of the
se&ment between the electrodes did not produce any measurable %olta&e. The free8in& effect therefore
seemed to be &enuine and not the result of any artifact of the free8in& process. ;owe%er< the
experiment< while su&&esti%e< was not conclusi%e proof of the existence of a lon&itudinal current
associated with the peripheral ner%e fibers. 7 sensiti%e techni9ue was re9uired that could pro%ide
une9ui%ocal e%idence of the existence of the current while minimi8in& exposure and manipulation of
the ner%e. +t seemed that the ;all effect could be such a techni9ue.
The ;all effect consists of exposin& a current(carryin& conductor to a ma&netic field oriented at
92M to the axis of the conductor. The field will produce some de%iation of the char&e carriers which can
then be sensed as a steady %olta&e at the second 92M axis to the conductor. This is called the ;all
%olta&e and its ma&nitude is %ery dependent upon the de&ree of mobility of the char&e carriers 'bein&
almost undetectable with ionic currents< only sli&htly more detectable with electron flow in metallic
conductors< but easily detected with semiconductin& currents due to the hi&h mobility of their char&e
carriers). 0ince the ner%e currents were ob%iously not metallic conduction and since the detection of
ionic ;all %olta&es was far beyond the capability of our e9uipment< we reasoned that if any ;all
%olta&es were obser%ed< they would indicate not only the existence of the current but also that it was
probably analo&ous to semiconductin& current.
The experiment was performed usin& the forele& of the salamander as the current(carryin&
conductor 'the ner%e was not exposed< the intact limb bein& contacted only by the two soft measurin&
electrodes to ob%iate any inCury effects). +n 19-1 we reported obser%in& ;all %olta&es under these
circumstances '19) . The ma&nitude %aried in%ersely with the state of anesthesia of the test animal<
indicatin& that the %olta&es were real< not artifactual< and directly related to the operational state of the
$/0. There was now stron& e%idence that some component of the $/0 &enerated and transmitted
direct currents that produced the measurable %olta&es on the surface of animals< includin& humans.
+t remained to determine if these %olta&es were related to the functions< as described by "ibet
and 4erard for the ner%ous system and 3urr and "und for the total or&anism. +n our measurements of
the surface potentials we had noted that they %aried in a definite pattern with the le%el of consciousness
of the subCect< particularly a midline< occipito(frontal %olta&e %ector across the head< which seemed to
accurately reflect the le%el of anesthesia. +n the conscious subCect this %ector was frontally ne&ati%e<
diminishin& in ma&nitude and &oin& positi%e as anesthesia was induced and deepened. This %olta&e on
the skin surface exactly paralleled that obser%ed by "ibet and 4erard and by $aspers in the brain and
we postulated that this current %ector represented current flow in median unpaired structures of the
brainstem area. +f "ibet and 4erard and $aspers were correct< this current should be the determiner of
the le%el of excitability 'hence consciousness) of the subCect< and electrically re%ersin& the normal
frontally(ne&ati%e potential should induce the same loss of consciousness as chemical anesthesia.
7&ain usin& the salamander< we obser%ed that currents as small as *2 Namp administered in this
direction produced loss of consciousness and responsi%eness to painful stimuli. +n addition< they
produced in the subCect animal electroencephalo&raphic patterns typical of the anestheti8ed state 'hi&h
amplitude delta slow wa%es) '22). +n the con%erse experiment< attemptin& to restore consciousness to a
chemically anestheti8ed animal< the !!4 e%idence was su&&esti%e but much less con%incin&.
ig! ,!3! -he effect of direct current administered longitudinally /fronto?occipital0 through the )rain of
the salamander! Upper@ the electroencephalogram when the current is oriented frontally positive
/opposite to the normal awake pattern0! -he AA# demonstrates a typical delta wave pattern of deep
anesthesia$ with the magnitude of the delta waves proportional to the current magnitude! -he animal
demonstrated all the clinical signs of anesthesia! Lower@ the reverse e'periment! % deeply anestheti>ed
animal is e'posed to current oriented in the normal awake direction! Much more current is re(uired to
produce an o)=ective response and while the animal did not recover consciousness as a result of the
current passage$ the AA# pattern did show signs /alpha waves0 of an awake pattern!
ig! ,!;! -he effect of a magnetic field applied across the head of a salamander in a )itemporal
direction! -he interaction )etween the field and a longitudinal electrical current in the )rain /if one
was present0 would lead to a decrease in the total current delivered along the original fronto?occipital
vector! +t was predicted that this would produce a state of anesthesia$ and at the level of 2666 gauss
the AA# pattern )ecame one of deep anesthesia with delta wave forms -his was accompanied )y a loss
of response to painful stimuli!
+f< as these experiments seemed to indicate< there was a :$ current flow or&ani8ed in this
fashion in the brain it should be of the same nature as the peripheral currents< and it should be subCect
to the same type of interaction with an applied ma&netic field. The anatomical complexity of the head
and brain ruled out the possibility of obser%in& an une9ui%ocal ;all %olta&e< but if the ma&netic field
were %ery hi&h in stren&th and precisely oriented 92M to the fronto(occipital %ector< then a sufficient
number of char&e carriers mi&ht be de%iated from the ori&inal current %ector to produce a si&nificant
decrease in the normal current alon& the fronto(occipital %ectorD possibly e%en sufficient to produce
loss of consciousness. !%en thou&h fields of se%eral thousand &auss were found to be necessary to
produce the effect< the results were une9ui%ocal. 7t field stren&ths exceedin& *222 &auss< the animals
were not only nonresponsi%e to painful stimuli but they also demonstrated the lar&e< slow delta wa%e
patterns typical of deep anesthesia.
7s mentioned earlier< the surest si&n of actual electrical current flow in any biolo&ical structure
would be the detection of the resultin& ma&netic field in space around the structure. Technolo&y had
lon& been 9uite inade9uate to detect the extremely weak fields predicted. The first detection of a
Hbioma&neticH field was in 19-* by 3aule and cFee who used classical techni9ues 'a coil of million
turns of wire and a ferrite core) to detect the field associated with the action of the human heart '21).
The field intensity was fi%e orders of ma&nitude lower then the earthBs normaI field and it was
necessary to conduct the experiment in a rural area as free of extraneous fields as possible. Two years
later< $ohen< usin& the same techni9ue coupled with a si&nal a%era&in& computer< found e%idence of a
ma&netic field around the human head of e%en weaker stren&th 'about ei&ht orders of ma&nitude lower
than earthBs normal field).
The in%ention of the 0O=+: 'a superconductin& 9uantum interference de%ice based upon the
Fosephson Cunction) permitted detection of these and e%en lower intensity fields with relati%e ease. +t
was first applied by $ohen in 1962 for a more complete detection of the human ma&netocardio&ram<
and in 1962 he reported that the ma&netic field in space around the human head demonstrated a wa%e
form pattern< similar to< but not identical with< the !!4 as measured by skin electrodes '22). $ohen
called this the ma&netoencephalo&ram or !4. 0ince then impro%ements in the technolo&y ha%e
permitted detection of the ma&netic fields associated with e%oked responses< and correlations between
the !!4 and the ma&netoencephalo&ram ha%e shown that the low(fre9uency components of the !!4
are well represented in the !4< but that usually the hi&h fre9uency components 'i.e.< sleep spindles)
are missin& '2*< 2,) . ost recently it has been possible to record the ma&netic field associated with the
ner%e impulse itself< a&ain usin& the 0O=+: and certain speciali8ed techni9ues necessary because of
the extremely small field stren&th '2-).
#ri&inally< it was considered likely that the !4 arose from the simultaneous action potential
acti%ity in lar&e numbers of neurones arran&ed in parallel. ;owe%er< this same concept has been
ad%anced as the explanation of the !!4 and as yet it remains unsubstantiated. ?hile some aspects of
the !4 are compatible with this concept(the ma&netic e%oked response for example(others ha%e
pro%ided e%idence supportin& the existence of :$ currents in the brain. The orientation and structure of
the total ma&netic field around the head is most compatible< accordin& to 5eite and Eimmerman '21)<
with a Hlon&itudinally oriented current dipole within the headH(a concept identical to that proposed by
"ibet< 4erard and $aspers on the basis of their :$ measurements in the brain and by us< based on our
surface measurements and the results of low le%el direct currents inCected alon& the same %ector.
Furthermore< the retina of the eye is actually a direct extension of the brain and it demonstrates a
number of :$ electrical phenomena as pre%iously mentioned. The electroretino&ram seems to be
&enerated by a steady dipole field extendin& from the retina to the cornea. 7 :$ ma&netic field has
been detected associated with it< indicatin& that an actual current flow is occurrin& alon& the %ector.
ost recently< :$ ma&netic fields ha%e been detected from the brain itself. The e%idence pro%ided by
the !4 has not only supported the much older concepts of :$ acti%ity in the brain outside of the
neurones< but it has stimulated renewed interest in the entire area.
Taken all to&ether< the e%idence seems to be 9uite conclusi%e that there are steady :$ electrical
currents flowin& outside of the neurones proper in the entire ner%ous system. The currents appear to be
nonionic in nature and there is some e%idence that they may be similar to semiconductin& type currents.
7t present the perineural cells appear to be the most likely site in which the currents are &enerated and
transmitted. #ne apparent function of the currents is that of &o%ernin& the le%el of acti%ity of the
neurons properD that is< the currents< %ia their polarity and ma&nitude< exert a biasin& effect upon the
neuroneBs ability to recei%e< &enerate and transmit action potentials.
3ecause the $/0 per%ades the entire body< these currents produce an or&ani8ed total body field
detectable with surface electrodes. +t is not unlikely that this phenomenon constitutes a system for the
transmission of %ery basic type data< and that it may well pro%ide the inte&rati%e function postulated by
"ibet and 4erard on experimental &rounds and by %on /eumann on theoretical &rounds. Thus the $/0
can be %iewed as a two(component system< with the :$ system bein& the primiti%e< analo& portion<
possibly located in the perineural cell system '&lia< 0chwann cells)< and the action potential system of
the neurones proper bein& the more sophisticated but limited< di&ital system. This concept would seem
to pro%ide a fruitful frame of reference for further in%esti&ation of such hi&her ner%ous functions as
memory< consciousness< and perception.
4rowth $ontrol
+n 19,2 arsh and 3eams reported on an interestin& series of experiments on .lanaria< a species
of relati%ely simple flatworm with a primiti%e ner%ous system and simple head(to(tail axis of
or&ani8ation '29). 7s expected< electrical measurements had indicated a simple head(tail dipole field.
This animal had remarkable re&enerati%e powersD it could be cut trans%ersely into a number of
se&ments< all of which would re&enerate a new total or&anism. !%en more remarkable< the ori&inal
head(tail axis would be preser%ed in each re&enerate< with that portion nearest the ori&inal head end
becomin& the head of the new or&anism. arsh and 3eams postulated that the ori&inal head(tail
electrical %ector persisted in the cut se&ments and that it pro%ided the morpholo&ical information for
the re&enerate. +f this was so< then re%ersal of the electrical &radient by exposin& the cut surface to an
external current source of proper orientation should produce some re%ersal of the head(tail &radient in
the re&enerate. ?hile performin& the experiment they found that as the current le%els were increased
the first response was to form a head at each end of the re&eneratin& se&ment. ?ith still further
increases in the current the expected re%ersal of the head(tail &radient did occur< indicatin& that the
electrical &radient which naturally existed in these animals was capable of transmittin& morpholo&ical
information.
7 few years later ;umphrey and 0eal attempted a scientific e%aluation of the old clinical
techni9ues of electrical control of tumor &rowth '*2). +t had been obser%ed many times that rapidly
&rowin& tissues were electrically ne&ati%e in polarity< with tumors bein& the hi&hest in ma&nitude.
any of the old clinical techni9ues therefore applied positi%e potentials and currents on the theory that
the opposite polarity should slow or stop the &rowth. =sin& rats with implanted mali&nant tumors<
;umphrey and 0eal applied anodes of copper or 8inc o%er the tumor masses and passed currents
a%era&in& mamp for a period of * hours per day. +n their most impressi%e series of 18 control and 18
experimental animals< the mean %olume of the tumors in the controls was 6 times &reater than in the
experimentals after 21 days of treatment< and all of the controls died by day *1 while 6 of the treated
animals demonstrated complete tumor re&ression and sur%i%ed for more than a year thereafter. 7ll of
these experiments were based on the postulated &enerali8ed total body bioelectric field and the fact that
this concept was not &enerally accepted by the body of science precluded any serious clinical
consideration of these findin&s.
The only work that applied 08ent(4yor&yiBs concepts in part was that of ;u&&ins and Aan& who
showed 9uite conclusi%ely that carcino&enic 'cancer(producin&) a&ents produced their effect by a
combination of their steric or&ani8ation and their capacity for electron transfer '*1). +n their %iew these
a&ents were< because of their si8e and shape< able to attach to certain areas of the cell surface and then
effect the electron transfer. $ompounds of the same steric property but lackin& the electron transfer
capability were not carcino&enic. !xcept for this work of ;u&&ins and Aan& all other reports of &rowth
effects of actual electrical currents could not be placed in a frame of reference that was acceptable to
the scientific establishment.
The demonstration of the existence of intrinsic electrical currents and particularly their
locali8ation to the ner%ous system permitted the problem to be %iewed in a new li&ht. +t had been a
lon&(standin& clinical obser%ation that healin& was delayed and often defecti%e in areas that were
deficient in inner%ation. ?ith the idea that the ner%ous system in some ways possessed a &rowth(
controllin& function< ;asson reasoned that there should be a similar relationship between dener%ation
and tumor formation '*2). +n 19,8 he reported that tumor induction by carcino&enic a&ents was
facilitated by dener%ation< and these obser%ations were subse9uently confirmed in 19-6 by .awlowski
and ?eddell '**).
3y the mid(19,2Bs 0in&er published a series of papers in which he demonstrated the dependence
of limb re&eneration in the salamander on the presence of a threshold amount of ner%e tissue in the
amputation stump '*1). ;e was e%en able to produce a small amount of limb re&eneration in the adult
fro& 'normally a nonre&enerator) by transplantin& additional functionin& ner%e tissue into an
amputation stump. The e%idence su&&ested that the ner%es somehow controlled normal &rowthD in their
absence normal &rowth was inhibited and abnormal &rowth was facilitated. /one of these obser%ations
made much sense under the ner%e impulse concept of neural functionin&(in fact ner%es to a healin& area
are usually Hsilent<H with %ery little action potential traffic. ;owe%er< when the pre%ious reports of the
&rowth controllin& properties of direct currents were combined with the locali8ation of the intrinsic :$
system to the ner%es< the relationships between the ner%ous system and &rowth be&an to make some
sense.
This relationship is particularly clear in the area of re&enerati%e &rowth< where considerable
research has now been conducted o%er the past two decades. 5e&eneration is the most dramatic and
important of the &rowth/ healin& processes< bein& the actual re&rowth of missin& parts in full
anatomical detail. +t is most common in the lower animals(the salamander limb re&eneration
preparation bein& the one most fre9uently used in research( and it diminishes as one ascends the
e%olutionary scale. +n the human< true re&eneration is limited to the healin& of fractures of the lon&
bonesD other processes commonly called re&enerati%e 'i.e.< skin and peripheral ner%e fiber) are simply
increased rates of cellular multiplication or &rowth. The essence of the true re&enerati%e process is the
appearance at the site of inCury of a mass of primiti%e< presumably totipotent cells< called the blastema.
7fter reachin& a critical si8e this cellular mass be&ins to &row in len&th and to redifferentiate to
produce the multicellular< multitissue< complex missin& structure. The capability of the process is best
indicated by notin& that the salamander forele& is anatomically e9ui%alent to the complex human arm.
5e&eneration was first formally reported by 0pallan8ini in 16-8 and has been the subCect of
study e%er since< with many attempts bein& made to restore the process to animals normally lackin& it.
The first successful attempt was reported by 5ose in 1911 when he produced a small measure of
re&eneration of the amputated forele& of the fro& 'a species that< despite folk(lore< cannot re&enerate an
extremity) by dippin& the extremity daily in hypertonic saline '*,). Two years later< a similar result was
reported by .ole8haye% '*-) in the same animal< by repeatedly needlin& the stump daily. ?hile it was
the intent of both of these in%esti&ators to delay the o%er&rowth of skin o%er the end of the amputation
stump< the procedure used in each experiment was ob%iously repeatedly traumatic. Ten years later
0in&er< a&ain usin& the amputated forele& of the adult fro&< obtained the same amount of re&eneration
by sur&ically au&mentin& the ner%e supply to the extremity. There seemed to be little relationship
between these two stimulatin& factors(increased inCury and increased ner%e(until in 19,8 when
Ehirmunskii reported that the current of inCury was directly related to the extent of inner%ation '*6).
This obser%ation< coupled with the much earlier work of atteucci that indicated a direct relationship
between the ma&nitude of the current of inCury and the extent of the inCury itself< su&&ested that the
current of inCury was the factor common to both 5oseBs and 0in&erBs experiments.
#n this theoretical basis we measured the current of inCury followin& forele& amputations in
salamanders compared to the same amputation in fro&s '*8). ?hile the immediate postamputation
potentials were positi%e in polarity and about the same in ma&nitude in both species< the fro&Bs potential
slowly returned to the ori&inal sli&htly ne&ati%e potential as simple healin& by scarification and
epitheliali8ation took place. +n the salamander< the positi%e potential %ery 9uickly '* days) returned to
the ori&inal base line but then became increasin&ly ne&ati%e in polarity< coincidin& with blastema
formation and declinin& thereafter as re&eneration occurred. These obser%ations re&ardin& polarity and
duration of the potentials ha%e recently been confirmed by /eufeld usin& the same techni9ues '*9).
ig! ,!B! Measurements of the current of in=ury following forelim) amputation in the frog /not capa)le
of regeneration0 and in the salamander /capa)le of regeneration0! -he immediate effect is a shift to a
highly positive polarity in )oth animals! -he frog slowly decreases this polarity as healing )y
scarification occurs$ while the salamander reverses the polarity$ shifting negatively at a)out the third
day! ollowing this the )lastema appears and regeneration occurs over a 2?week period$ during which
the negative polarity slowly su)sides!

7s re%iewed in the first chapter< the clinical use of externally &enerated electrical currents to
enhance healin& or retard tumor &rowth was common in the latter half of the nineteenth century. ?hile
the techni9ue rapidly fell into disfa%or in the early decades of the present century with the mountin&
e%idence a&ainst electrical properties of li%in& thin&s< some laboratory studies were continued. Fra8ee<
for example< studied the effect of passin& electrical current throu&h the water in which salamanders
were kept. +n 1929 he reported that this appeared to increase the rate of limb re&eneration in these
animals '26). +n their lon& series of in%esti&ations extendin& from the 22Bs throu&h the 12Bs< both 3urr
and "und reported &rowth effects of applied electrical currents on a %ariety of plants and animals.
0ome of their obser%ations were confirmed and extended by 3arth at $olumbia =ni%ersity '28).
Two obser%ations were immediately pertinent to 3ernsteinBs ori&inal theori8ation that the
current of inCury was simply an expression of the transmembrane potential of dama&ed cells. The first
was the polarity re%ersal in the salamander at * days and the second was the persistence of the
potentials for se%eral weeks until the inCury was either healed closed or re&enerated. /either
obser%ation is compatible with 3ernsteinBs hypothesis 'the polarities of all dama&ed cells should be the
same and they should persist no lon&er than the time re9uired to repair or replace the dama&ed cells)<
but they are compatible with the concept of an or&ani8ed neural :$ control system with actual current
flow.
#n the basis of these obser%ations we theoretically di%ided re&eneration into two separate but
se9uential phasesD the first bein& the formation of a blastema in response to a si&nal that is stimulatin&
to the local cells and throu&h their dedifferentiation produces the blastema. The information content of
the si&nal responsible for the first phase is ob%iously sparse and the si&nal may be correspondin&ly
simple< whereas the si&nal responsible for the second phase must be capable of carryin& an enormous
amount of information 'what structure is to be formed< what its orientation with respect to the rest of
the body is to be< and finally all of the details of its complex structure).
+n our %iew< the :$ potentials and currents &enerated at the site of inCury by the :$ control
system were 9uite suitable as the si&nal for the first phase< whereas their information content was
totally inade9uate for the second phase. This concept meant that there could be two mechanisms at
fault in those animals normally incapable of re&enerati%e &rowth. First the initial phase may fail to
produce a blastema because of either an inade9uate si&nal or an inability of the cells to respond to an
ade9uate si&nal by dedifferentiation. +f an ade9uate blastema was formed< the second phase
informational si&nal mi&ht be missin& or inade9uate to produce the subse9uent redifferentiation and
&rowth. 0ince it is common knowled&e that nonre&eneratin& animals fail in the first phase and do not
produce blastemas< and in %iew of our findin& of the polarity differences between re&enerators and
nonre&enerators in the first phase< we postulated that the initial stimulatin& si&nal was missin& in the
nonre&eneratin& animals. 0imulation of this si&nal by external means was technically 9uite feasibleD
howe%er< one could not predict whether the cells would be capable of respondin& to it or if they did<
and a blastema was formed< whether the complex informational si&nal that controlled the second phase
would be present.
The first test of this hypothesis was pro%ided by 0mith< who implanted simple bimetallic
electrical &eneratin& de%ices 'a short len&th of platinum wire soldered to a short len&th of sil%er wire)
in amputated forele&s of adult fro&s '12). +n 19-6 he reported the successful stimulation of partial limb
re&eneration by this techni9ue. Theori8in& that the failure to re&enerate completely was due to the
de%ice bein& fixed in position at the ori&inal amputation le%el< he repeated the experiment usin& a
de%ice that had extensible electrode leads and in 1961 he reported securin& re&eneration of a complete
extremity in the same animal '11). eanwhile< we applied a modification of 0mithBs de%ice to the
forele& amputation in the rat< reportin& in 1962. the re&eneration of the forelimb from the amputation
le%el midway between the shoulder and elbow< down to and includin& the elbow Coint complete in all
anatomical detail '12). This was the first successful stimulation of the re&eneration of a complex
extremity by artificial means in a mammal. +t has subse9uently been substantiated by "ibben and
.erson in 1969 '1*) and by 0mith in 1981 '11)< all usin& similar techni9ues.
ig! ,!8! +mplanting a small device in the amputation stump of the rat foreleg results in a ma=or
amount of lim) regeneration if the device is oriented so that the end of the stump is made negative$
similar to the salamander current of in=ury! if the device is implanted with the distal end positive there
is no regeneration!
+t seemed now abundantly clear that artificially &enerated electrical currents of appropriate
polarity and ma&nitude could stimulate re&eneration in a %ariety of animals not normally possessed of
this facility. /e%ertheless< the identification of these currents as bein& the analo& of those currents
normally produced by the ner%ous system was lackin&. 4rowth could be produced by this techni9ue<
but this did not necessarily mean that the neurally related currents measured in animals that were
normally capable of re&eneration were the real cause of their re&enerati%e &rowth. This missin& factor
was supplied by one of the latest experiments of 5ose '1,).
+n this experiment he carefully dener%ated the forelimbs of a number of salamanders< some of
whom recei%ed daily applications of ne&ati%e polarity electrical current to the amputation stump.
/ormal complete re&eneration occurred in this &roup and subse9uent examination demonstrated no
in&rowth of ner%e fibers. The control &roup demonstrated no re&eneration whatsoe%er. 5ose was
therefore able to conclude that the factor supplied by the ner%e that is normally responsible for limb
re&eneration in the salamander is the flow of an electrical current of the proper polarity and ma&nitude.
;owe%er< the story is not 9uite o%er yet as the situation is actually somewhat more complex. ;owe%er<
it is better understood in the li&ht of our most recent findin&s.
7s early as 19-2 5ose had called attention to the importance of a peculiar relationship between
the epidermis and the ner%es in the salamander limb re&eneration process. The first e%ent in such
re&eneration is the o%er&rowth of the epidermis alone 'not the dermis) o%er the cut end of the
amputation stump. Followin& this the cut ends of the ner%es remainin& in the amputation stump be&in
to &row into this epidermal HcapH where they form peculiar Hsynapse(likeH Cunctions with the epidermal
cells. This Hneuroepidermal CunctionH '/!F) is apparently the primary structure in the re&enerati%e
process< since followin& its formation the blastema appears< and if the formation of the /!F is
pre%ented by interference with either the ner%e or the epidermis< or by simply interposin& a layer of the
dermis under the epidermis< blastema formation does not occur and re&eneration is absent. +n
experiments in which limb re&eneration was stimulated by electrical means no /!F formed and we
postulated that its function had been taken o%er by the applied electrical currents. Therefore< the /!F
could be postulated to be the sin&le structure that produced the Hre&eneration typeH potentials< not the
ner%e< nor the epidermis actin& alone.
ig! ,!:! -he electrical mechanism producing regeneration of the salamander lim)! %fter the
epithelium alone grows over the end of the amputation stump$ and the nerve fi)ers that were cut
regrow$ these two tissues grow together at the end of the stump! -he nerve fi)ers attach themselves to
the epithelial cells$ producing a neuro?epidermal =unction! -his strucrure is then responsi)le for
producing the specific electrical current that causes the cells left in the stump to dedifferentiate! +f the
neuro?epidermal =unction fails to form for any reason$ regeneration will not occur!
+n an attempt to e%aluate this concept we attempted to sur&ically produce such neuroepidermal
Cunctions in animals that normally lacked re&enerati%e ability '1-). ;ind limb amputations were done
in a series of adult rats. !xperimental animals had the sciatic ner%e sur&ically inserted into the
epidermis< while control animals had the ner%e similarly mobili8ed but not inserted into the epidermis.
The skin was sewn closed o%er the amputation stump and representati%e animals were sacrificed and
the area examined daily. ?e found that< by the third postoperati%e day< the sciatic ner%e in the
experimental animals had &rown laterally into the epidermis where it made Cunctions with the
epidermal cells similar to the /!F of the salamander. +n the same &roup< blastemas appeared by the
fifth day and re&eneration of the maCor part of the hind limb ensued. /o Cunctions were formed in the
control &roup and neither blastemas nor re&enerati%e &rowth occurred. #f most interest< howe%er< were
electrical measurements that were made daily on all animals. The control &roup demonstrated a series
of potential chan&es identical to those of the nonre&eneratin& fro& or normal rat< while in the
experimental &roup the chan&es paralleled those of the normal re&eneratin& salamander< with a
ne&ati%e potential appearin& concurrent with the formation of the Cunction between the ner%e and the
epidermis. +t would now appear fairly certain that the specific se9uence of chan&es in electrical
potential that produce re&enerati%e &rowth are themsel%es produced by the neuro(epidermal Cunction
and not by either the ner%es or the epidermis alone.
+ntrinsic electroma&netic ener&y inherent in the ner%ous system of the body is therefore the
factor that exerts the maCor controllin& influence o%er &rowth processes in &eneral. The ner%es< actin&
in concert with some electrical factor of the epidermis< produce the specific se9uence of electrical
potential chan&es that cause limb re&enerati%e &rowth. +n animals not normally capable of re&eneration
this specific se9uence of electrical chan&es is absent. ;owe%er< it can be simulated by artificial means<
resultin& in blastema formation and maCor re&enerati%e &rowth e%en in mammals.
The two effects of the intrinsic :$ system pre%iously described(biasin& the acti%ity le%el of the
neurones and the stimulation of &rowth processes(ob%iously re9uire ex9uisite sensiti%ity of certain cells
to extremely low le%els of current. +n the case of the neurone< the cellular response is an alteration
presumably in the properties of the membrane< renderin& it more or less acti%e in &eneratin& action
potentials. +n the case of &rowth stimulation< howe%er< the cellular response is much more complex. +n
re&enerati%e &rowth< for example< the blastema is formed by the dedifferentiation of mature speciali8ed
cells at the inCury site into primiti%e< possibly totipotent cellsD a profound alteration in both function and
morpholo&y. This may re9uire some explanation.
+n normal embryo&enesis< the ori&inal fertili8ed e&& cell contains all of the &enetic pro&rams
'&enomes) for the total adult or&anism< includin& all of the %arious cell types< each expressed as a
separate &enome. 7s the or&anism &rows< these %arious speciali8ed cells appear when the &enomes for
all of the other cell types are repressed. Thus the nucleus of a muscle cell for example has the &enome
for muscle unrepressed and operatin& and the &enomes for all of the other cell types present but
repressed. The &enome produces the speciali8ed cell type by &o%ernin& the production of specific
proteins which make up the cell itself. :edifferentiation consists of derepressin& these repressed
&enomes so the cell returns to a more primiti%e< less differentiated le%el and now has the option to
redifferentiate into a new cell type< dependin& upon its local circumstances.
+n the pre%ious sections of this chapter experiments were described in which low le%els of :$
were administered to &roups of cells within the or&anism with &rowth responses as predicted by theory.
This type of phenomenolo&ical experiment is useful to define the functions of the :$ l system and the
&eneral cellular responses< but it tells us nothin& about the cellular(le%el mechanisms in%ol%ed. 7t this
time there are unfortunately few studies reported in the literature at this le%el. This is due in part to the
enormous complexities of the li%in& cell and our lack of knowled&e in this area. 7lso< since the total
or&anism is a complex of interrelatin& systems of biochemical and biophysical factors< one cannot
assume with any de&ree of confidence that a cellular chan&e followin& the application of :$ ener&y to
the intact or&anism is due primarily to the electrical current or to some second(order effect.
The only %iable experiments< therefore< are those carried out on isolated cell populations where
the only factor chan&ed is the electrical current. +f the electrical factors are within the le%els obser%ed in
the li%in& or&anism< the cellular chan&es obser%ed may be inferred to be the same as those occurrin&
within the or&anism in response to the normal operation of the :$ system. !%en here< howe%er< an
una%oidable artifact is introduced by the presence of the metallic electrode. The passa&e of current<
e%en at low le%els< throu&h such an electrode produces electrochemical alterations that are not present
in the li%in& system. 7nother artifact is produced by the tendency of almost all normal cells in culture
to chan&e their morpholo&y and function 'the culture circumstance is presumably HsensedH by the cells
as bein& different from that of their normal position within the or&anism). Therefore such in %itro
experiments must utili8e normal cells in culture before such chan&es e%en be&in. These constraints
re9uire a normal cell type that can easily be har%ested from the normal animal< that can be paced
immediately within a culture system approximatin& the normal internal milieu< that demonstrates a
definite alteration in a short time after exposure to currents simulatin& those found in the li%in& animal.
Therefore all standard(type tissue and cell culture experimental situations are theoretically not capable
of producin& une9ui%ocal results.
+n the course of studyin& the electrical factors associated with fracture healin&< a re&enerati%e(
type &rowth process in the fro&< such an ideal cell system was inad%ertently disco%ered by our &roup in
19-6 '16). ?e found that the red blood cells in the blood clot that formed between the fracture ends
underwent a dedifferentiation process< transformin& into the fracture blastema and e%entually becomin&
bone. +t should be noted that the red blood cells of all %ertebrates< other than mammals< are complete
cells< retainin& their nuclei in the adult circulatin& state. This nucleus is< howe%er< 9uite inacti%eD the
cytoplasm contains relati%ely few subcellular or&anelles and in &eneral the total cell is in a 9uiescent
state. The cytoplasm of course contains a lar&e amount of hemo&lobin< and the cell is considered<
despite the presence of the nucleus< as analo&ous to the mammalian red cell< which is non(nucleate and
totally inacti%e. Therefore the dedifferentiation process< while bein& all the more remarkable in %iew of
the inacti%e state of the cells< can be followed with ease by the li&ht microscope.
#nce the obser%ation was made< the ob%ious 9uestion was whether this cellular process is
caused directly by the electrical factors at the fracture site. These were measured and found to be
similar to those found at the site of the re&eneratin& salamander limb. 0ince the red cells exist naturally
as discrete cells circulatin& freely in the blood stream< they are an ideal cell population for e%aluatin&
this hypothesisD they can be readily har%ested< immediately introduced into an appropriate in %itro
situation< and exposed to the electrical factors without delay< without complicatin& biochemical factors
such as hormones or en8ymes< or the other factors introduced by lon& term cell culture.
This experiment was carried out in a chamber that permitted both application of electrical
current and direct %isuali8ation by the li&ht microscope as the currents were bein& administered.
orpholo&ical chan&es typical of the dedifferentiation se9uence were obser%ed to take place within a
few hours at total current ran&es between *22 and 622 pamp. The lucite chamber in which the cells
were suspended was 1 cm in diameter< approximatin& the si8e of the fracture hematoma< and from the
measured %olta&es and resistances in the animal this amount of current was calculated to be identical to
that present in %i%o at the fracture site. $urrents below and abo%e this ran&e were pro&ressi%ely less
efficient in producin& the morpholo&ical chan&e until all effects ceased below 1 and abo%e 1222 pamp
for this si8e chamber. +n the ori&inal experiments the chan&ed cells were obser%ed to ha%e a markedly
increased uptake of tritiated mixed amino acids and to sur%i%e for se%eral days in cell culture media
'normal unchan&ed red cells die under such circumstances).
+n the simplest analysis< some component of the bone itself may be considered to ha%e the
property of transduction inherent in its structure. +t is now known that the structure of bone is that of a
complex< biphasic material with an or&ani8ational complexity extendin& down to the molecular le%el.
The basic phase is the colla&en fibril< a lon&(chain fibrous protein produced by the bone cells
'osteocytes) and deposited in a hi&hly or&ani8ed pattern that determines the &ross structure of each
bone. The second phase is a microcrystalline< inor&anic mineral< hydroxyapatite< that is deposited in a
%ery precise fashion directly on the pre(existin& colla&en fibers. 3oth materials< in their correct
relationship at the molecular le%el< are necessary to produce bone with its uni9ue mechanical
properties. 3y usin& appropriate chemical extraction treatment< either phase can be remo%ed lea%in&
the other intactD that is< a HboneH of colla&en alone or one of apatite alone. !ach lacks the normal
characteristics of whole boneD the colla&en alone bein& soft and flexible< and the apatite alone bein&
hard and %ery brittle< yet each looks %ery much like an intact whole bone. +n life< the intact bone is
composed mainly of this biphasic material< which is actually non(li%in&. The only li%in& portion of the
bone is the population of the bone cells< the osteocytes< which constitutes approximately 12L of the
total mass.
ig! ,!9! Se(uence of morphological changes in a single frog nucleated erythrocyte e'posed to very
low levels of electrical current! -he same cell was photographed at intervals of ; minutes$
demonstrating a change from the normal red cell type to a cell that has )ecome round$ lost all its
hemoglo)in$ and has ma=or phase changes in its nucleus! -hese cells are (uite alive$ surviving in cell
culture and chemically demonstrating a marked increase in 7N% content and a complete alteration in
protein composition!
+n later experiments< ;arrin&ton '18) confirmed the ori&inal obser%ation and determined that
while the 5/7 content of the chan&ed cells was markedly increased< the :/7 content remained
constant< and the protein composition chan&ed markedly compared to the ori&inal normal cells(
chan&es that were consistent with the dedifferentiation process. ;e was also able to show that the direct
action of the electrical current was in the nature of a Htri&&erH stimulus at the le%el of the cell membrane
which then effected the dedifferentiation by means of the messen&er 5/7 system. '$ells in which the
5/7 protein mechanism was inhibited from actin& by exposure to puromycin would not under&o
morpholo&ical alteration when exposed to ade9uate electrical current for an ade9uate amount of time.
;owe%er< if the current was then stopped and the puromycin washed out by se%eral chan&es of media
the cells would then under&o dedifferentiation at the expected rate.) .illa later confirmed these
obser%ations and determined that the same dedifferentiation could be caused by exposure of the cells to
an appropriate pulsed ma&netic field. +n his %iew the primary effect of the electrical factors is a
perturbation of the ;elmholt8 outer layer 'such as produced by a chan&e in the ionic concentration or
the absorption of specific ions) on the cell membrane< with transmission of this information across the
membrane by char&e transfer throu&h molecules that span the membrane.
Therefore< in at least this one cell system< the nucleated erythrocyte< specific effects of low(le%el
direct currents ha%e been obser%ed and part of the mechanism in%ol%ed in producin& the effects has
been determined. The effect is a most profound one< in%ol%in& the basic machinery of the cell and
resultin& in maCor alterations in cell function '19).
Bone
7n electroma&netic property may be intrinsic in the structure of biolo&ical materials< where it
plays a specific functional role. This was obser%ed as a result of the search for a simple< easily
isolatable &rowth system with well(defined input and output parameters. ;ealin& processes as
pre%iously described are complex< in%ol%in& maCor cellular reactions and a %ariety of biochemical
chan&es within the entire or&anism. orpho&enetic &rowth in the embryo is e%en more complex<
in%ol%in&< in addition< interactions between structures as they form and &enetically prepro&rammed
factors.
There is howe%er< a &rowth phenomenon< uni9ue to bone< that is ideal for such an analysis. +n
1892.< ?olff systemati8ed the &rowth response of li%in& bone to mechanical stress into a specific law
that subse9uently has become known as H?olffBs "aw.H 0imply stated< bone &rows in response to
mechanical stress so as to produce an anatomical structure best able to resist the applied stress. For
example< should a fracture of a wei&ht(bearin& lon& bone heal with an an&ulation< each step that the
patient subse9uently took would result in a bendin& stress with compression on the conca%e side at the
an&ulation and tension on the con%ex side. 5ather than pro&ressi%ely weaken the bone structure at this
site< such repeated mechanical stress results in a Hremodelin&<H with new bone &rowth on the conca%e
side and bone resorption on the con%ex side. +f the patient is youn& enou&h< the bone will ultimately
throu&h this process &row strai&ht. +n control system terms< the applied mechanical stress causes a
&rowth response that ne&ates the applied stressD a closed(loop ne&ati%e(feedback control system. 0uch
systems imply the presence of transducers producin& a si&nal proportional to the stress and indicatin&
its direction. The system may be schematici8ed as:
+n certain inor&anic crystalline materials ha%in& a nonsymmetrical lattice< the application of
mechanical stress results in the displacement of char&es within the lattice that can be sensed as a pulse
of electricity on the exterior surface of the crystal. ?ith release of the mechanical stress< a pulse e9ual
in ma&nitude but opposite in polarity is produced. This property is called pie8oelectricity< and in 19,1
it occurred to a Fapanese orthopedic sur&eon< +wao Aasuda< that bone mi&ht be pie8oelectric< with the
mechanically produced electrical si&nals bein& the stimulus that produced bone &rowth accordin& to
?olffBs law. ;e was able to actually demonstrate pie8oelectricity in whole bone that year ',2) and in
the followin& year he stimulated the &rowth of bone in experimental animals by the application of
electrical currents. "ater< in conCunction with another Fapanese scientist< !iichi Fukada< he was able to
show that the pie8oelectric property also existed in the colla&en fibers of tendon ',1). 0ubse9uently<
this same property has been found in the colla&en fibers of many different tissues.
+n 19-2< 3assett and 3ecker extended these obser%ations usin& fresh whole bone subCected to
bendin& stress ',2). They noted under these conditions that the si&nal produced by the application of
stress was &reater in ma&nitude than the opposite polarity si&nal produced by the release of the stress<
leadin& to the postulate that some rectification of the one si&nal was occurrin& in the bone matrix.
+n a search for the source of this possible rectification we studied the properties of each matrix
component separately and to&ether in their normal confi&uration. ?e found that both colla&en and
apatite had some properties similar to semiconducti%ity< with colla&en appearin& to be an H/H type
material and apatite a H.H type. The Cunction between the two in whole bone was then found to ha%e
some electrical and photoelectric properties similar to those of a rectifyin& ./ Cunction ',*< ,1). +n this
%iew< the pie8oelectric property of colla&en &enerated the electrical si&nals upon the application and
release of mechanical stress< with the si&nal of one polarity rectified to some extent by the ./ Cunction
of the colla&en(apatite relationship. +n bendin& stress therefore< the conca%e side of the bone
demonstrates an o%erall ne&ati%e polarity under stress< while the con%ex side is primarily positi%e in
polarity. 0ince bone &rowth occurs accordin& to ?olffBs law on the conca%e side and bone resorption
on the con%ex side< ne&ati%e potentials were postulated to produce stimulation of the osteoblasts and
osteocytes< while positi%e potentials were presumed to either facilitate bone resorption by stimulatin&
specific cells that destroy bone 'osteoclasts) or merely not to produce any stimulation of bone &rowth
on the con%ex side. +n a test of this hypothesis< 3assett< .awluk and 3ecker were able to demonstrate
that bone &rowth did occur in the %icinity of a ne&ati%e electrode with currents of less than * Namp<
while &rowth was absent around the correspondin& anode ',,). +t should be noted that the currents were
not strictly analo&ous to those produced by the pie8oelectric effect in whole bone< bein& continuous
rather than intermittent as would occur in normal usa&e.
The control system schematic for the &rowth of bone in response to bendin& stress may be
expanded as follows:
"ater we explored the apatite(colla&en Cunction in whole bone with 9uite different
techni9ues. ?ith trace element analysis techni9ues< 0padaro< 3ecker< and 3achman
demonstrated that the bone colla&en fibril possessed a surface site capable of absorbin&
specific metallic cations dependin& upon the radius of the hydrated ion ',-). !lements
with radii between 2.-,(2.6, 7 and between 1.2(1.1 7 were bound ti&htly to the fiber.
The copper ion in its cupric state '$u++) with a radius of 2.-, 7 was found to bind to
both colla&en and apatite. ?e later utili8ed this property to explore the electronic state
of the bindin& site usin& electron parama&netic resonance '!.5) techni9ues. This ion
normally has a simple !.5 si&nal< but when bound to either colla&en or apatite< it
demonstrated a complex resonance spectrum with the resonances in each case bein&
identical< indicatin& that the bindin& sites on both apatite and colla&en were identical in
electronic confi&uration ',6). This is of course a rather uni9ue situation considerin& the
&reat difference between these two materials< one bein& fibrous protein and the other an
inor&anic mineral crystal. ?e proposed that this structural similarity of the two materials
could be in%ol%ed in the initial minerali8ation process 'the deposition of the first apatite
crystals directly on the fibers) ',8).
The situation in response to a compressional stress may be somewhat less complicated< as we
later determined. +n this case< as stress is applied and released< the electrical pulses measured on the
surface of the bone were similar to those measured on a simple pie8oelectric crystal under the same
circumstance(oscillation between a positi%e or a ne&ati%e %alue and a 8ero baseline without a polarity
re%ersal. Aet applyin& the same concept of bone &rowth with a ne&ati%e polarity and resorption with a
positi%e polarity< the predicted &rowth pattern in response to the compressional stress was %ery similar
to that actually obser%ed ',9). +n this case there is no need to in%oke a rectification property< with the
orientation of the colla&en fibers inherent in the normal structure of the lon& bone presumably bein&
sufficient to produce the necessary polarities '-2).
+n either e%ent< bone may well be considered to be the first actual identified representati%e of
the theoretical Hself(or&ani8in& systems.H +f one be&ins with a pre(existin& bone structure whose pattern
is determined by &enetic factors< pro%ides a supply of colla&en as soluble fibrils and an a9ueous
en%ironment with inor&anic ion constituents capable of nucleatin& hydroxyapatite< then the application
of mechanical stress to the preexistin& matrix will produce the deposition of new bone matrix in the
areas of compression< with colla&en fibers oriented to best resist the applied stress. #f course in the
li%in& system< the osteocytes and osteoblasts are stimulated by the ne&ati%e electrical en%ironment to
produce the additional colla&en molecules< which then orient in the electrical field and subse9uently
nucleate hydroxyapatite crystals from the inor&anic components of the tissue fluids.
S##ary
+t is e%ident that o%er the past ,2 years a steadily increasin& body of scientific knowled&e has
been ac9uired indicatin& the existence for functional electroma&netic properties within li%in&
or&anisms. /ot in the mystical< %italistic sense proposed by 4al%ani but restin& upon modern
knowled&e of the electronic state of matter and electronic conductin& mechanisms< as ori&inally
proposed by 08ent(4yor&yi.
The perineural cells of the $/0 ha%e been shown to ha%e some properties analo&ous to
semiconducti%ity and ha%e been identified as responsible for the production and transmission of steady
or slowly %aryin& electrical currents within that tissue. This electrical acti%ity has many characteristics
of an or&ani8ed data transmission and control system< with input parameters consistin& of inCury to the
or&anism and controlled output functions of &rowth and healin&< as well as a Hbiasin&H action upon the
function of the neurones proper. 0pecific solid(state electronic properties of the bone matrix ha%e been
identified which constitutes a Hself(or&ani8in& systemH that produces bone &rowth in response to
applied mechanical stress. 4rowth functions< both in response to inCury< mediated throu&h the ner%ous
system :$ electrical acti%ity< and in response to mechanical stress to bone< mediated throu&h the
pie8oelectric properties of the bone matrix< operate by means of cellular responses to %ery low(le%el
electrical currents of appropriate polarity. This has been determined to be< at least in part< mediated
throu&h an initial action upon the cell membrane< with subse9uent acti%ation of the internal :/7(5/7
mechanism of the cell.
The implication of these findin&s would appear to be considerable. $linically< the physician
may be able to stimulate a desirable &rowth process by the application of appropriate electrical
parameters< a therapeutic capability ne%er before a%ailable. +ncluded in the &rowth stimulation
possibility it would appear feasible to postulate the ability to stimulate &rowth process< such as
re&eneration of missin& body parts< normally lackin& in the human. The Hbiasin&H effect of the direct
currents flowin& within the $/0 upon the action potential acti%ity of the neurones proper could lead to
more efficient clinical methods for the control of pain and the production of anesthesia. 7t the le%el of
basic biolo&ical knowled&e< further exploration of this electrical data transmission and control system
could lead to a better understandin& of a number of biolo&ical processes of a basic nature< which are
poorly understood in the li&ht of the chemical concept alone. Finally< the existence of such an
electronic system within li%in& or&anisms leads to the postulate that it could pro%ide a linka&e
mechanism between electroma&netic fields in the en%ironment and li%in& thin&s< with chan&es in the
field bein& reflected in alterations of functions in the li%in& or&anism.
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*ART T,O-
The Role of Ele!"o#$%&e!' E&e"%( '& !he Re%)l$!'o& of L'fe *"oe++e+
$hapter *: $ontrol of "i%in& #r&anisms by /atural and 0imulated !n%ironmental
!lectroma&netic !ner&y
+ntroduction
!%olution of "ife
3iolo&ical $ycles
.ositional and /a%i&ational 7ids
5eferences
Introdction
"ife on earth is sustained within a relati%ely narrow ran&e of well(defined en%ironmental
parameters such as oxy&en concentration< atmospheric pressure< temperature< water %apor< and li&ht.
The proper conditions are met only within a thin< film(like shell of atmosphere immediately adCacent to
the surface of the earth. :eleterious factors such as ioni8in& radiation from the sun and other sources in
space are screened out by char&ed particles trapped in the outermost reaches of the earthBs ma&netic
field and by the ioni8ed outer layers of the atmosphere itself. For life to be maintained these factors
must be kept within their HnormalH limitsD e%en minor de%iations produce immediate physiolo&ical and
sensory effects.
There are other factors< which we can only sense with specially desi&ned instruments< that
constitute our electroma&netic en%ironment. ?hile the existence of the earthBs ma&netic field has been
known for centuries< only within the past few decades has its true complexity been re%ealed. Far from
bein& static and un%aryin&< the ma&netic field exhibits %ariations ran&in& from catastrophic polarity
re%ersals< in which the north and south poles exchan&e position< to a small but definite< cyclic %ariation
in its ma&nitude at a HcircadianH 'about a day) rate. The interaction between the earthBs field and those
of the sun and the &alaxy impose other cycles with periods ran&in& from se%eral weeks to centuries.
a&netohydrodynamic factors< arisin& in part from the resonant ca%ity formed between the earthBs
surface and the ionosphere< produce HmicropulsationsH in the ma&netic field at fre9uencies ran&in&
from 2.21 to 22 h8. Transients 'ma&netic storms) occur in the total field in response to maCor solar
e%ents such as flares< inCectin& lar&e numbers of char&ed particles into the earthBs field. "i&htnin&
dischar&es in the atmosphere produce radio(fre9uency ener&y in the kilocycle ran&e which propa&ates
alon& the lines of force of the ma&netic field< literally Hbouncin&H back and forth between the northern
and southern hemispheres many times before dyin& out. 7 complex electrostatic field exists between
the surface of the earth and the ionosphere within which atmospheric atoms are ioni8ed. "ar&e
electrical currents flow within the earth itself 'telluric currents)< as well as within the ionosphere. 7ll of
these factors are naturally present< and ha%e been since the formation of the planet. The earthBs
electroma&netic en%ironment is rich and complex< with its interrelated factors continually %aryin& in a
dynamic fashion. #ur understandin& of it is far from complete.
"on& before the existence of the earthBs ma&netic field was known man had postulated HcosmicH
influences that affected all life. >isible astronomical e%ents such as comets< the aurora< and the position
of the planets were associated with catastrophes such as pla&ues. "ife was thou&ht to be dominated by
unseen forces(&enerated in the stars. 7s knowled&e of the ma&netic and electric fields was ac9uired<
these similarly in%isible forces be&an to be presented as the scientific basis for the older beliefs.
esmer< for example< in his use of ma&netic fields< was actually tryin& to place the astrolo&ical
theories of .aracelsus 'a truly &reat physician of the fifteenth century) on an acceptable scientific basis
by relatin& them to ma&netism. >ariations in the earthBs ma&netic field were belie%ed to explain the
Hob%iousH influence of the moon on human life and beha%ior 'lunatics< moon madness< etc.). The
infamous Hill windsH such as the Foehm and 0imoon< producin& physiolo&ical and psycholo&ical
chan&es in humans< were thou&ht to act throu&h their abnormal air ion composition.
+t appeared hi&hly unlikely< if not downri&ht impossible< for such weak forces 'the earthBs
normal ma&netic field a%era&es half a &auss) to ha%e any effect upon li%in& thin&s< particularly since
the &enerally accepted %iew of biolo&y in the early years of this century completely excluded such
effects. ;owe%er< as knowled&e of the complexities of the earthBs fields &rew< so did the e%idence for
some subtle< but extremely important relationships with li%in& or&anisms. ?hile chan&es in the natural
field do not produce the same kind of immediate< ob%ious biolo&ical effects as chan&es in the
atmospheric oxy&en concentration< they do ha%e profound effects upon the most basic functions of life.
E&o!tion o" Li"e
"ife be&an on earth some 1 billion years a&o under conditions %astly different from the present
en%ironment. The atmosphere most probably resembled that of Fupiter today< bein& much different in
composition and extent than at present. ost theories on the ori&in of life postulate the inCection of
ener&y into this atmosphere in such forms as li&htnin&< heat< and ultra%iolet li&ht< etc. leadin& to the
spontaneous formation of primiti%e or&anic compounds '1<2). These compounds would accumulate in
the warm seas< slowly coalescin& and polymeri8in& into e%er more complex molecules< finally formin&
HprotocellsH '*). $onsiderable support for this hypothesis came from an experiment performed by
iller in 19,* '1). $ontinuously circulatin& a mixture of simple &ases such as those theori8ed to be
ori&inally present< plus water %apor< throu&h an electric spark dischar&e< he obtained a mixture of
se%eral amino acids. 0ince these are the basic buildin& blocks of protein and nucleic acids< the theory
seemed to be well confirmed. 0ubse9uent experiments produced e%en more complex molecules. These
were then shown to coalesce in a9ueous solution into small< membrane(bound spheres which looked
much like the postulated HprotocellsH. These structures were called coacer%ates by #parin and
proteinoids by Fox< two of the foremost students of bio&enesis.
?hile no(one was able to produce anythin& that could e%en remotely be called li%in&< the
experimental results seemed remarkably close to the theory. ;owe%er< there was a %ery basic problem.
7ll such or&anic chemicals exist in two forms< identical in composition and in the arran&ement of
components< except sterically< where there always are two isomeric forms. These are re%ealed by their
ability to rotate li&ht transmitted throu&h their solutions. There are dextrorotary ':) forms and
lae%orotatory '") forms. 7ll artificial procedures for producin& these chemicals< includin& illerBs
techni9ue and its deri%ati%es< produce a mixture of both forms in rou&hly e9ual amounts. "i%in& thin&s<
on the other hand< are always composed of one type: dependent upon the species< all or&anic chemicals
within their bodies will be either : or " forms< but ne%er both. To arri%e at the same result artificially
one must deliberately start with chemicals of all one structural type or introduce the asymmetry in some
other fashion. #b%iously< in all such experiments the concept of a random process has been discarded
and the experimenter is in a sense Hplayin& 4od.H
+f one accepts the HFupiter(likeH atmosphere concept 'and it does seem to be realistic) one must
introduce a source of asymmetry into the bio&enic process. 7 theory has been proposed by $ole and
4raf which does precisely that ',). Their analysis of the &eoma&netic en%ironment of the pre($ambrian
earth indicates that it could ha%e not only pro%ided the ener&y necessary for the first reactions< but also
imprinted upon the initial molecules a sin&le isomeric structure and a peculiar resonant fre9uency.
They propose that the &reater extent of the atmosphere at that time resulted in a displacement of
the ionosphere to a much &reater distance from the surface of the earth than at the present time. This<
plus the position of the >an 7llen belts of trapped particles in the outer reaches of the ma&netic field
and the earthBs ma&netic field< produced a spherical< concentric ca%ity resonator located between the
ionosphere and the earthBs surface. Fluctuations in the lar&e currents flowin& in the >an 7llen belts
&enerated by the time(%aryin& ma&netic field of the earth and the solar wind produced extremely hi&h
ma&nitude currents in the e9uatorial ionosphere. These currents< couplin& with the conductin& core of
the earth< which has a circumference of approximately 1 wa%elen&th at 12 ;8 produced enormous
continuous electrical dischar&es at the 12 ;8 fre9uency within the resonatin& ca%ity of the atmosphere.
+n addition to the electrical ener&y a%ailable throu&h this process< the dischar&es would also create heat<
ultra%iolet radiation and shock wa%es< all of which would ha%e contributed to the chemical reactions.
?ithin this atmosphere such e%ents would ha%e undoubtedly &i%en rise to lar&e amounts of structures
such as amino acids< and peptides. 7s these structures came to&ether in the dense atmosphere<
polymeri8in& into proteins< and nucleic acids< the electroma&netic forces and their %ectors within the
ca%ity were such that these lon& chain molecules would be formed with a preferred direction of rotation
'essentially sin&le isomeric forms) and with a helical structure. +n addition< the ca%ity would be
resonatin& at a sinusoidal fre9uency of about 12 ;8 so that all structures formed would tend to be either
resonant at that fre9uency or demonstrate some other sensiti%ity to it.
+t is interestin& to note that this fre9uency appears in a number of biolo&ical systems. +n the !!4
for example< the dominant fre9uency from the point of total ener&y is 12 ;8 and the !!4 patterns of all
animals with sufficient encephali8ation to demonstrate an !!4 ha%e basically similar patterns.
5ecently< Thiermann and Far8ak ha%e obtained actual experimental e%idence in support of this theory.
They synthesi8ed or&anic compounds in the presence of a steady(state ma&netic field< producin&
relati%ely hi&h yields of either : or " forms by alterin& the ma&netic field '-). +n the theory proposed
by $ole and 4raf this combination of circumstances that produced Cust the ri&ht electrical and ma&netic
confi&urations necessary for the &eneration of lar&e amounts of sin&le isomeric forms would be time(
limited. 7s the atmospheric composition chan&ed and the extent of the atmosphere diminished< the
%arious components mo%ed out of position and the resonance ma&nitude diminished. The present
ionospheric ca%ity is still< howe%er< resonant in the low(fre9uency !"F re&ion< a fact that may be of
biolo&ical si&nificance< as we shall see later.
These pre($ambrian conditions< howe%er< are now present on the planet Fupiter< where it is
postulated that or&anic synthesis is now occurrin&< particularly in the area of the 4reat 5ed 0pot. There
is one criterion which must be fulfilled for $ole and 4rafBs thesis to work(the earthBs ma&netic field
must remain constant durin& the resonant period< as any re%ersal of polarity would lead to the
production of the opposite isomeric form with a resultant mixture of both bein& present. ?hile this
appears to ha%e been so in the pre($ambrian period< since then there is ample e%idence that the earthBs
ma&netic field has re%ersed itself many times. There is also now substantiated e%idence that these
re%ersals ha%e had biolo&ical conse9uences of considerable ma&nitude.
The record of ma&netic field re%ersals is written in certain rocks containin& ma&netic materials
and in the sediments of the ocean floor. +n the case of the rock formations< ma&netic particles that are
free to mo%e when the rock is molten orient themsel%es alon& the pre%ailin& field directionD when the
rock cools they are Hfro8en in place<H thus indicatin& the polarity of the field at that time. The oceanic
sediment record is formed by the slow drift of the particles to the ocean floor< orientin& in the field as
they are deposited. +t is difficult to find se9uentially deposited rocks that ha%e not been disturbed by
other &eolo&ic processesD howe%er< in many instances the oceanic sediments pro%ide a record of
millions of years in a relati%ely undisturbed state.
?hile we are completely in the dark as to the causati%e factors in%ol%ed in producin& the
ma&netic field re%ersals< some details are known about the re%ersal periods themsel%es. #n a &eolo&ical
time scale these are %ery rapid e%ents. For a few thousand years the stren&th of the field declines< but
not more than ,2L. Then durin& a period of not more than a thousand years the poles re%erse their
position. ;owe%er< the field stren&th does not decline any further durin& this time. 7fter the polarity
has been completely re%ersed< the field &radually re&ains its ori&inal stren&th o%er an additional few
thousand years. The entire se9uence is accomplished in about ten thousand years< which is<
&eolo&ically speakin&< a %ery short time.
#ri&inally< it had been hypothesi8ed that at some time durin& the re%ersal process the field
stren&th would actually decline to 8ero. +t was on that basis that =ffen postulated that there would be an
accompanyin& increase in ioni8in& radiation flux at the earthBs surface due to the collapse of the earthBs
ma&netic shield '6). ;e predicted that this would ha%e had a maCor biolo&ical impact. The year
followin& =ffenBs su&&estion< ;arrison and Funnell obtained e%idence for the extinction of a species of
radiolarian concurrent with a ma&netic field re%ersal '8). The radiolaria ha%e turned out to be
particularly useful as markers for such e%ents. They are minute animal forms that li%e in the upper
layers of the oceans in uncounted numbers. They are characteri8ed by their ability to construct an
intricate calcareous exoskeleton< each species ha%in& a distinct structure. Their skeletal remains are
easily identified in the cores of the sediments which thus contain a se9uential record of chan&es in the
species. 0ince ;arrison and FunnellBs ori&inal obser%ation< the extinction of ei&ht species of radiolaria
has been found to be associated with separate ma&netic field re%ersals< chiefly throu&h the work of
;ays at the "amont :ou&herty 4eolo&ical #bser%atory '9). The distribution of these species was
widespread< and the extinctions occurred within a relati%ely short time and were not preceded by a
period of declinin& population. +n fact in some instances the population seemed to be approachin& a
maximum before the abrupt extinction occurred
=ffenBs ori&inal hypothesis(that the biolo&ical effect would be produced by the second(order
phenomenon of increased ioni8in& radiation( is no lon&er considered tenable. /ot only is there an
insufficient decline in field stren&th< but the affected radiolarians li%ed beneath se%eral meters of water
and would be well protected from any such phenomenon. Furthermore< while one species would
completely disappear< others would persist in normal numbers apparently completely unaffected. +n
most cases the species under&oin& extinction had been present durin& pre%ious re%ersals and had been
unaffected by them. ;ays has therefore proposed that as animals under&o e%olutionary ad%ancement<
they ac9uire sensiti%ity to the lethal effect of field re%ersals. 7s a corollary he has su&&ested that the
occurrence of relati%ely lon& periods without ma&netic field disturbances would result in the
production of many species that would be especially sensiti%e to a field chan&e when it finally
occurred.
There ha%e in fact been two periods in which mass extinction of a number of species< composed
of a &reat number of indi%iduals< occurred. #ne of these< at the close of .ermian period< was
characteri8ed by the disappearance of nearly half of the species of animals then in existence< ran&in&
from proto8oans to land(dwellin& tetrapods. 7t the end of the $retaceous period a similar e%ent
occurred< in which a &reat %ariety of species a&ain disappeared< includin& the dinosaurs and the flyin&
and marine reptiles. +n both instances the e%ents coincided with the reestablishment of fre9uent
ma&netic field re%ersals followin& a lon& 9uiescent inter%al. The field re%ersal therefore seems to
represent an e%olutionary selecti%e process of &reat importance.
The elimination of the concept that increased ioni8in& radiation was the cause of the biolo&ical
effects associated with ma&netic field re%ersals lea%es few alternati%e theories. +t has been proposed
that throu&h some effects on the upper atmosphere< the re%ersal would result in maCor climatic chan&es.
This theory suffers from the same defect in that it does not answer the 9uestion as to why< for the
radiolaria for which the most complete e%idence is a%ailable< there are only one or two species affected
durin& only one re%ersal. 7ll thin&s considered< ;aysB concept of the e%olutionary de%elopment of
sensiti%ity to the ma&netic field e%ents themsel%es seems to be the most tenable hypothesis. ;owe%er<
the identity of the causati%e factor in the re%ersal can only be the subCect of speculation at this time.
The paleoma&netic records indicate only that re%ersals ha%e taken place< accompanied by modest
declines in the total ma&netic field stren&th. They do not indicate the status of any of the fine structure
now known to earthBs ma&netic field 'micropulsation fre9uencies and their ma&nitude< disturbances in
the circadian rate of fluctuation in field stren&th< etc.). There does not e%en exist an ade9uate theory of
the causes of the re%ersal process itself. $onse9uently we are unable to predict the time of the next
ma&netic field re%ersal. This may be a matter of some importance< since the last re%ersal occurred some
2,<222 years a&o< fairly lon& as inter%als between re%ersals &o. #f course we are e9ually unable to
predict which species e%ol%in& durin& that time will be most affected.
?hile the concept that the unusual electroma&netic en%ironment of the pre($ambrian period was
intimately in%ol%ed with the %ery be&innin& of life can only be speculati%e at this time< the maCor
influence that subse9uent ma&netic field re%ersals had on the e%olutionary process appears to be well
substantiated. 0ince all li%in& thin&s e%ol%ed under the influence of these electroma&netic forces< it
would not be too surprisin& to find that the present natural electroma&netic en%ironment continues to
play an important role in certain basic life processes. :espite the weakness of the electroma&netic
forces that constitute the earthBs normal field< the e%idence is compellin& that somehow they pro%ide a
coordinate system for orientin& and na%i&ational beha%ior as well as a timin& si&nal for biolo&ical
cyclic phenomena.
Bio!o,ica! Cyc!e'
The biolo&ist is confronted with a bewilderin& %ariety of form< function and complexity in
li%in& thin&s< from sin&le(celled or&anisms such as amoebas to human bein&s. 3eyond bein& composed
of chemical compounds containin& carbon and e9uipped with the capacity of self(replication< li%in&
thin&s would appear to share few attributes. #%er the past few decades howe%er< it has become
increasin&ly e%ident that all li%in& thin&s from the simplest plant to man possess an innate rhythmicity
termed biolo&ical cycles. The sleep(wakefulness cycle is part of the human experience and superficially
appears to be associated with the solar day< Cust as the human menstrual cycles seems to be correlated
with the lunar month. ;owe%er< the full complexity and richness of the li%in& tides ha%e only recently
been reco&ni8ed. =pon scientific examination< there is a surprisin& uniformity of rhythmicity which
finds its counterpart in the tidal fluctuations in the earthBs electroma&netic field. The study of these
phenomena has become a scientific discipline in its own ri&ht. +t is not the purpose of this section to
study in detail all the complexities of modern chronobiolo&y. 5ather< we will hope to re%iew the basic
uniformity that underlies this &eneral characteristic of li%in& thin&s and its relationship to the earthBs
normal electroma&netic field.
uch of our present understandin& in this area is due to the patient and persistent work of one
man< :r. Frank 3rown< orrison .rofessor of 3iolo&y at /orthwestern =ni%ersity. 7fter a
distin&uished career in in%esti&ati%e endocrinolo&y< he became interested in the relati%ely ne&lected
field of biocycles in the mid(19,2Bs. 7t that time the innate nature of these phenomena had been shown.
+t was common knowled&e that or&anisms kept in the laboratory under constant conditions such as li&ht
and temperature maintained a basic rhythmicity< with a period close to 21 hoursD hence the &eneric
term< Hcircadian 'about a day) rhythm.H
This basic rhythm in the case of plants was stron&ly influenced by li&ht and in the case of
or&anisms li%in& in the intertidal 8one of the seashore< by the lunar tides. For example< oysters open
their shells to feed as the tide comes in< co%erin& them with water< and close them as the tide recedes. 7
seemin&ly simple obser%ation with an ob%ious explanation(the depth of water determined the openin&
and closin&. 3ut this was not so. #ysters placed in the laboratory with a constant depth of water and
constant li&ht and temperature still continued to open and close their shells in synchrony with their
fellows on the tidal flats. 0omehow they recei%ed the timin& si&nal or they had an internal clock
mechanism.
+n 19,1 3rown performed an important experiment '12): he flew oysters in a li&ht(ti&ht box
from the seashore at /ew ;a%en< $onnecticut to !%anston< +llinois and installed them in the same
controlled circumstances there. 7t first the oysters continued to open and close in synchrony with the
tides at /ew ;a%en. ;owe%er< &radually o%er a period of a few weeks the phase of the open(close
cycle shifted to coincide with the tidal pattern at !%anston< were it on a seacoastI :e%oid of all known
positional cues< possessed of only the most rudimentary senses< the oysters somehow HknewH they had
been displaced almost a thousand miles westward in space. This was probably the first scientific
description of HCet la&IH ?hat factor in the en%ironment could possibly penetrate the laboratory and
pro%ide such precise positional informationG
any years before< at the close of the nineteenth century< it had been noted that the earthBs
normal ma&netic field fluctuated with a lunar tidal pattern. This had led 7rrhenius to postulate that
somehow the cyclic pattern of li%in& thin&s was linked to this en%ironmental parameter '11). 0ince then
other studies ha%e shown how complex and per%asi%e these rhythms are in the earthBs &eophysical
en%ironment. +n particular< @oni& had shown in 19,9 that the ma&nitude of the 12 ;8 fre9uency band
in the !"F spectrum followed a precise diurnal %ariation '12 ) .
+n his search for an or&anism and a biocycle pattern that could be studied in conCunction with
ma&netic fields< 3rown turned to a seemin&ly unlikely animal< the mud snail /assarius< a common
&lobal resident of the intertidal 8one '1*). ;e found that when these animals were placed under uniform
illumination in an enclosure with an exit facin& ma&netic south< they would tum westward early in the
mornin&< eastward at noon< and then back to the west in the early e%enin& as they came out of the exit.
7lso< at new and full moons the snails would %eer more to the west< and at the moonBs 9uarters they
turned more to the east. ?hen fully analy8ed< the data indicated that the animals possessed both a lunar
day and a solar day HclockH. 3y measurement< the earthBs ma&netic field at the test site a%era&ed 2.16
&auss. .lacin& a bar ma&net of 1., &auss beneath the exit oriented in a north(south direction to au&ment
the natural field resulted in increasin& the a%era&e an&le of the turn but did not alter the basic
rhythmicity. Turnin& the entire apparatus so that the exit pointed in a different direction resulted in the
animals turnin& in different de&rees. The same result could be obtained by lea%in& the apparatus
stationary and rotatin& the bar ma&net beneath the exit. 7ccordin& to 3rown< H+t seemed as if the snails
possessed two directional antennae for detectin& the ma&netic field direction< and that these were
turnin&< one with a solar day rhythm and the other with a lunar day one.H
+n addition to demonstratin& that the biocyclic phenomenon was tied to %ariations in the earthBs
ma&netic field< the experiment also indicated the subtlety of the interaction. +t became e%ident that one
could not expect to detect the same kind of dramatic< o%ert response to chan&es in the ma&netic field as
were associated with chan&es in the other en%ironmental factors such as oxy&en concentration or
temperature. ?ithin the next few years 3rown and his associates established a similar sensiti%ity to
electrostatic fields with responses in the same species of snail to fields of fractional micro%olts per
centimeter '11). :urin& the same period of time the all(per%asi%e nature of the biolo&ical cycle
phenomena became known. "i%in& thin&s as di%erse as potatoes< mice< fruit flies and humans were
found to demonstrate the same cyclic fluctuations< linked to the same %ariations in the earthBs normal
electroma&netic field. The same rhythms were demonstrated in the oxy&en consumption of the potato
and in the count of circulatin& +ymphocytes in the human blood stream. $learly< we are dealin& with as
basic and all(encompassin& a phenomenon as li%in&s thin&s exhibit.
?orkin& at the ax .lanck +nstitute o%er the past 1, years< .rofessor 5ut&er ?e%er has
extended the research on biolo&ical cycles to the human< usin& a uni9ue experimental facility. To
produce an en%ironment as free of external cues as possible< ?e%er constructed an under&round
experimental station consistin& of two rooms. #ne room was completely isolated from normal
%ariations such as li&ht< noise< and temperature< but was not shielded from any electroma&netic fields.
The other room was identical except that it was< in addition< completely shielded from both :$ and 7$
electroma&netic fields. !xtensi%e experimentation has been carried out with se%eral hundred human
subCects under %arious conditions with monitorin& of such %ariables as: body temperature< sleep(
acti%ity cycles< and urinary excretion of sodium< potassium and calcium. ;uman subCects placed in
both rooms soon demonstrated a Hfree runnin&H rhythm. Those in the room not shielded from the
electroma&netic en%ironment had an essentially normal circadian rate< while those in the shielded room
demonstrated a si&nificantly lon&er cycle time '1,). +n the nonshielded room some subCects would<
after the passa&e of 6 to 12 days< show an apparent desynchroni8ation in some of the measured
%ariables. +n this situation one or more of the measured %ariables would maintain the normal circadian
rate while others would show a &radual shift in cycle time away from this norm. ;owe%er< these would
e%entually stabili8e at some fre9uency which was directly related to the circadian rate 'e.&. to two(to(
one relationship). 0ubCects in the totally shielded room on the other hand< would demonstrate real
desynchroni8ation with se%eral %ariables shiftin& away from the primary rate 'which was not a normal
circadian cycle to be&in with) and stabili8in& finally at a rate that had no harmonic relationship to the
primary rate '1-). 7ll of these phenomena were statistically si&nificant in a lar&e series of subCects.
+n an e%en more dramatic experiment ?e%er was able to introduce fully controlled electrical or
ma&netic fields into the completely shielded room '16). +n this fashion he was able to study the effects
of %arious parameters of these forces on the biolo&ical cycles. The fields introduced were imperceptible
to the subCects and in fact the exact nature of the experiment was fre9uently not di%ul&ed to the subCect.
0tatic electrical fields of *22 %/m and static ma&netic fields of 1., #e. produced no measurable effect
upon the cycle abnormalities exhibited by the experimental subCects. ;owe%er< ?e%er found that the
introduction of a 12(;8 electrical field 'a s9uare wa%e with a peak to peak field stren&th of 2., %/m)
induced a return to normal cycle parameters. The abnormal len&thenin& in the Hfree runnin&H period
was promptly reducedD intersubCect %ariability in the cycle patterns was also reduced as was the
incidence of internal desynchroni8ation. ?e%er interpreted these findin&s as indicatin& that the +o(;8
cyclic %ariations in the earthBs normal electroma&netic field are probably the primary determinants of
biolo&ical cycles. +t is most interestin& to consider this e%idence in li&ht of $ole and 4rafBs hypothesis
re&ardin& the 12(;8 component and the ori&in of life and the prominence of the 12(;8 component in
the !!4 common to all hi&her animals.
Po'itiona! and Na&i,ationa! Aide'
+t is clear that the existence of the biolo&ical cycle phenomenon is dependent upon the li%in&
subCect ha%in& precise knowled&e of its position on the earth. 0ince it also appears that the earthBs
electroma&netic field is the most important sin&le si&nal for this function< it seems likely that it is
similarly in%ol%ed in the mi&rational and direction(findin& abilities of many animals. This possibility
has been confirmed by recent studies. ?ithin the past few years a marked increase in interest in this
area has occurred followin& some truly remarkable findin&s.
That %arious species of animals mi&rate with precision alon& definite &eo&raphic routes or with
extreme temporal precision has no doubt been known to mankind since the dawn of ci%ili8ation. ?hile
the true extent of this phenomenon was not apparent until it be&an to be studied by biolo&ists< the
!&yptians made use of the na%i&ational ability of the homin& pi&eon as early as 2222 3.$. ?e now
ha%e a much better idea of the ability of certain animals in this re&ard. The common monarch butterfly<
for example< annually tra%els o%er 2222 miles from ;udson 3ay to 0outh 7merica< crossin& se%eral
hundred miles of the $aribbean 0ea< de%oid of landmarks< in the process. The 7rctic tern breeds in the
/orth 7merican sub(arctic re&ion and tra%els to the antarctic pack ice for the northern hemisphere
winter season< a distance of 11<222 miles. 0pecies of salamanders< after hatchin& out of e&&s laid in the
mountain streams of $alifornia< will mo%e out as far as *2 miles away across ru&&ed terrain to &row to
maturity< only to return to precisely the same stream and the same spot that they hatched out in years
before. The palolo worm of the 0outh .acific #cean mi&rates only the short %ertical distance from the
coral reef to the surface to breed< but it does so only on the first day of the last 9uarter of the #ctober(
/o%ember moon.
The ob%ious 9uestion is how can so simple an animal as a butterfly< for example< whose brain
can literally rest on the head of a pin< accomplish this na%i&ational featG !xperimentally< the earliest
interest was directed to the ability of the homin& pi&eon to na%i&ate with precision o%er lon& distances
and the fora&in& acti%ities of the honeybee< which demonstrated a similar ability o%er distances of
se%eral hundred feet. 3oth of these phenomena were more amenable to experiment than the annual
mi&rations of the other species.
+n 196* @arl %on Frisch won the /obel pri8e for a series of studies done in the 1912Bs on the
na%i&ational ability of the honeybee. ;e found that they utili8ed both a sun an&le compass and a
polari8ed li&ht system for na%i&ation. .erhaps more ama8in& was their ability to communicate the
%ector and distance of a food source to other workers in the hi%e by means of a HdanceH that used both
the sun an&le and the &ra%itational %ector. ?hile the sun an&le and polari8ed li&ht were 9uite efficient
they would be absent on cloudy days. ;owe%er< the bees were still able to na%i&ate with the same
precision under those conditions. There ob%iously had to be a back(up system of some kind a%ailable to
these animals that was totally independent of these two cues.
+n the initial studies on the homin& pi&eon< @ramer in 19,* obser%ed that shortly after release
these animals adopted a %ector direction of fli&ht that was appropriately homeward '18). Therefore<
these animals must possess not only a HmapH but a HcompassH as well. 0hortly thereafter pi&eons were
shown to ha%e a solar compass similar to %on FrischBs beesD howe%er they were also able to na%i&ate
unimpeded on cloudy days< indicatin& the presence of a similar back(up system. +n 1916 Aea&ley had
proposed that the pi&eon possessed a Hma&netic senseH that enabled it to utili8e the earthBs ma&netic
field in the same fashion that man utili8ed his ma&netic compasses '19). This was of course promptly
challen&ed. +n the followin& year< for example< $lark and .eck< in a totally inade9uate experiment
in%ol%in& one pi&eon exposed to a %ariety of electroma&netic fields< stated that the animal displayed no
discomfort and therefore seemed not to possess a ma&netic sense '22)I +n other experiments< ma&nets
were attached to the heads or win&s of pi&eons< but no effects were obser%ed.
The 9uestion remained open until @eeton in 1961 reasoned that the ma&netic sense< if it existed<
had to be the back(up system to the sun an&le and polari8ed li&ht systems. +n that case< any attempt to
confuse the ma&netic system with attached ma&nets would fail if the pi&eons flew in the dayli&ht on a
clear dayI ;e obser%ed that this was indeed true when small ma&netics were attached to the back of the
pi&eons head on a clear day. 3ut if the same pi&eons were released on a cloudy day< they failed to
display their usual na%i&ational ability and were lost '21). +n order to study this phenomenon at any
time< @eeton de%ised translucent contact lenses for the pi&eons that blocked both the sun an&le and
polari8ed li&ht. The same disorientation was obser%ed when the birds were fitted with these and also
with the small ma&nets. ;owe%er< pi&eons wearin& translucent contact lenses without ma&nets attached
to their heads na%i&ated o%er distances of hundreds of miles with perfect precision. The only
na%i&ational system a%ailable to them under these circumstances was their ma&netic sense. These
animals experienced difficulties only after appearin& o%er their home loft at $ornell =ni%ersity< since
the lenses pre%ented them from seein& the &round. They would fly in ti&ht circles o%er the loft< slowly
decreasin& their altitude until close to the surface< when they would flutter to a landin& similar to a
helicopter.
+n further studies< ?alcott and 4reen fitted homin& pi&eons with small pairs of ;elmholt8 coils
that permitted them to %ary both the field ma&nitude and %ector '22). 7s expected these animals
na%i&ated well on sunny days but became disoriented on cloudy days< flyin& directly away from the
home loft if the field %ector of the coils had the north pole directed up. +f howe%er the coils were set
with the south pole directed upwards the birds were still able to na%i&ate properly e%en on a cloudy
day. ?alcott interpreted these results to mean that the birds were usin& ma&netic north as a reference
point. :urin& the same period of time ;elmholt8 coils were also used to study the beeBs ma&netic sense.
?hen hi%es were enclosed within such coils the communicatin& HdanceH became disoriented< but
fora&in& outside of the coils was unaffected. That pi&eons and bees possessed a ma&netic sense was
e%ident. ;owe%er< how this was done was completely unknown.
+n 196, 3lakemore reported an astonishin& obser%ation '2*). !lectron microscopy of certain
bacteria< known to ha%e the ability to orient in the earthBs ma&netic field< disclosed the presence within
them of microcrystals of ma&netite that appeared to be sin&le domains 'the smallest unit ma&net). The
possibility that similar units existed in both bees and pi&eons occurred to 4ould et al. ;owe%er< since
electron microscopy of e%en the beeBs brain would be a lifetime task< they adopted an alternate
strata&em '21). ?hole bees were examined by 0O=+: ma&netometers and found to be ma&neticD the
simplest explanation then bein& that somewhere in the bee was a similar collection of ma&netite
crystals. 0ubse9uently< the bees were dissected into %arious anatomical parts and each part examined.
The ma&netic si&nal was found to be comin& from the abdominal re&ion< althou&h as yet no
%isuali8ation of the presumed ma&netite crystals has been reported. =sin& the same techni9ue< ?alcott
et al. be&an a study of the heads of homin& pi&eons '2,). 3y a similar process of dissection and
subdi%ision usin& nonma&netic tools< they finally located a deposit of ma&netite between the brain and
the inner table of the skull< unilaterally I This material was %isuali8ed microscopically and found to
consist of electron(dense structures of a si8e compatible with sin&le domain crystals of ma&netite<
imbedded in a connecti%e tissue that was richly supplied with ner%e fibers. ?hile these obser%ations do
not firmly establish that this structure is actually that used by the pi&eon for na%i&ation< it seems likely
that it is.
;owe%er< in common with all new scientific obser%ations< this one raises more 9uestions than it
answers. The presence of such a mechanism in such di%er&ent animal types as bees and homin&
pi&eons would seem to indicate that the mechanism is a &enerali8ed one present in all species< althou&h
perhaps more hi&hly de%eloped in those animals possessed of outstandin& na%i&ational ability. +s such a
structure< or its analo&< present in mammals< includin& man< and if so< what functions does it ser%eG
ore fundamental and perhaps more important is the 9uestion of how the information is Hread outH
from this structure. +t is apparent from @eetonBs experiments that the ma&netic compass of the pi&eon
far surpasses any manufactured by man in accuracy. ?hile it is known that the ma&netic field %aries
&eo&raphically in its characteristics and can be influenced by such local tactors as deposits of iron ore<
our instruments ha%e ne%er re%ealed anythin& resemblin& a H&rid(likeH formation in it. Aet it is this sort
of ma&netic HmapH that seems to be what the pi&eon is sensin&I +t is possible that the earthBs field has an
informational content that we are unaware ofG Finally< while a number of mechanisms can be proposed
for the &eneration of si&nals by the ma&netite< we ha%e no idea how these si&nals are transposed into
appropriate na%i&ational directions in the animalBs ner%ous system.
ost recently< 3aker found an HunexpectedH sense of direction in humans which seemed to be
associated with a similar ma&netic sense '2-). +n his experiment< blindfolded human %olunteers were
taken on a complex Courney o%er considerable distances and upon completion were asked to point out
the direction of the ori&in of the trip. 5esults were similar to those obser%ed in the initial %ector
directions of pi&eons and salamanders after spatial displacement< indicatin& a similar directional ability
in the human< e%en when de%oid of %isual or auditory cues. 0ubCects wearin& bar ma&nets ran&in& from
112 to *22 &auss in stren&th on their heads demonstrated essentially random %ectors in the same type of
experiment. +n a recent series of experiments< 4ould and 7ble were unable to confirm this obser%ation
'26). ;owe%er< their experiment was conducted in .rinceton< /ew Fersey< an area much more
electroma&netically HcontaminatedH with man(made si&nals than the rural experimental area of 3aker.
?hile the use of the earthBs ma&netic field as a na%i&ational aid for many li%in& thin&s seems
fairly well established< it is by no means the only component of the earthBs electroma&netic field that
ser%es such a function. The presence of an electrosensin& mechanism is common amon& oceanic fish
and the su&&estion has been made that this capability was related to the direction(sensin& associated
with their mi&ratory beha%ior< either by directly sensin& the earthBs electric field or by sensin& the
currents and %olta&es &enerated by the mo%ement of water currents 'e.&.< the 4ulf 0tream) throu&h the
earthBs ma&netic field.
The 7merican eel is one such mi&ratory species< hatchin& out of e&&s laid in the fresh water
streams of the eastern seaboard and mi&ratin& as small lar%al Hel%ersH about one inch lon& out to the
open ocean. =ltimately they tra%el to the 0ar&asso 0ea< na%i&atin& with precision o%er a thousand miles
of open ocean. +n the 0ar&asso 0ea the el%ers &row to adults and when sexually mature they re%erse the
pathway< tra%elin& back to the same streams they were hatched in to mate. +n 1962 5ommell and
c$lea%e studied the sensiti%ity of these animals to electrostatic fields usin& a conditioned reflex
experimental format '28). The animals displayed a sensiti%ity to :$ fields of 2.-6 N>/cm and 2.1-6 x
12(2 <Namp/cm2< %alues well within those &enerated by water currents flowin& throu&h the earthBs
ma&netic field. The eels were found to be sensiti%e to these electrical parameters only when the field
was oriented parallel to the lon& axis of the animalD fields perpendicular to the lon& axis were not
sensed. 7s 5ommell and c$lea%e point out< if one assumes the ability to distin&uish polarity< the
animals had only to orient themsel%es to optimi8e the si&nal of the appropriate polarity and they could
mi&rate in both directions 'to and from the 0ar&asso 0ea) with ease.
From all the fore&oin& reports it is ob%ious that the present normal earth ma&netic field is an
important parameter of the en%ironment for li%in& thin&s. $han&es in the fields in the past ha%e been
shown to exert e%olutionary pressure and possibly e%en to ha%e been associated with bio&enesis. 7ll
li%in& thin&s are at present intimately tied to %arious aspects of the earthBs field< and it seems 9uite
possible that e%en more dramatic findin&s will be reported in the future. +t must be kept in mind that the
relationship is a subtle one< in contrast to the more ob%ious parameters of the en%ironment. 0ince the
present relationship between li%in& thin&s and the electroma&netic en%ironment is the result of se%eral
billions of years of de%elopment< the 9uestion of the biolo&ical effects of abnormal electroma&netic
parameters introduced into the en%ironment by manBs acti%ities becomes of some importance.
Re"erence'
1. #parin< 7.+. 19*8. The ori&in of life. /ew Aork: acmillan.
2. 3ernal< F.:. 19-6. The ori&in of life. /ew Aork: ?orld.
*. Fox< 0.?. 1962. +n Ultrastructure in )iological systems< eds. F. 0nell< et al. /ew Aork: 7cademic.
1. iller< 0.". 19,*. The production of amino acids under possible primiti%e earth conditions. Science
116:,28.
,. $ole< F.!.< and 4raf< !.5. 1961. .re(cambrian !"F and bio&enesis. +n AL and 4+ electromagnetic
effects< ed. .7. .ersin&er. /ew Aork: .lenum.
-. Thiermann< ?.< and Far8ak< =. 1981. 7 new idea and experiment related to the possible interaction
between ma&netic field and stereoselecti%ity. Origin of Life 11:8,.
6. =ffen< 5.F. 19-*. +nfluences of the earthBs core on the ori&in and e%olution of life. Nature 198:11*.
8. ;arrison< $.4.7.< and Funnell< 3.. 19-1. 5elationship of paleoma&netic re%ersals and
micropalaeontolo&y in two late ceno8oic core from the .acific #cean. Nature 221:,--.
9. ;ays< F.:.< and #pdyke< /.:. 19-6. 7ntarctic radiolaria< ma&netic re%ersals and climatic chan&e.
Science 1,8:1221.
12. 3rown< F.7. 19,1. .ersistent acti%ity rhythms in the oyster. %m! C! 5hysiol! 168:,12.
11. 7rrhenius< 0. 1898. Skan! %rch! 5hysiol! 8:*-6.
12. @oni&< ;. 19,9. 7tmospherics 4erin&ster Fre9uen8en. E! angew 5hysik 11:2-1.
1*. 3rown< F.7. 19-2. a&netic response of an or&anism and its lunar relationship. <iol! <ull! 118:*82.
11. ?ebb. ;..< 3rown< F.7.< and 0chroeder< T.!. 19-1. #r&anismic responses to differences in weak
hori8ontal electrostatic fields. <iol! <ull! 121:11*.
1,. ?e%er< 5. +962. The effects of electric fields on circadian rhythmicity in men. Life Sci! Space 7es!
8:166.
1-. ?e%er< 5. 196*. ;uman circadian rhythms under the influence of weak electric fields and the
different aspects of these studies. +nt! C! <iometeor! 16:222.
16. ?e%er< 5. 1961. !"F effects on human circadian rhythms. +n AL and 4L electromagnetic field
18. @ramer< 4. 19,*. C! Ornithol! 91:221.
19. Aea&ley< ;.". 1916. C! %ppl! 5hysics 18:12*,.
22. $lark< $.".< and .ale< 5.7. 1918. ;omin& pi&eon in electroma&netic fields. C! %ppl! 5hysics
19:118*.
21. @eeton< ?.T. 1961 a&nets interfere with pi&eon homin&. 5roc! Nat! %cad! Sci! US% -8:122.
22. ?alcott< $.< and 4reen< 5... 1961. #rientation of homin& pi&eons altered by a chan&e in the
direction of an applied ma&netic field. Science 181:182.
2*. 3lakemore< 5... 196,. a&netotactic bacteria. Science 192:*66.
21. 4ould<F.". et al. 1968. 3ees ha%e ma&netic remanance. Science 221:122-.
2,. ?alcott< $.< 4ould< F.".< and @irschuink< F.". 1969. .i&eons ha%e ma&nets. Science 22,:1226.
2-. 3aker< 5.5. 1982. 4oal orientation in blindfolded humans after lon& distance displacement:
possible in%ol%ement of a ma&netic sense. Science 212:,,,.
26. 4ould< F.".< and 7ble< @... 1981. ;uman homin&: an elusi%e phenomenon. Science 212:12-1.
28. 5ommell< 0.7.< and c$lea%e< F.:. 1962. #ceanic electric fields: perception by 7merican eels.
Science 16-:12**.
*ART T.REE- L$/o"$!o"( S!)0'e+ of !he A0$1!$/'l'!( of O"%$&'+#+ !o
Ele!"o#$%&e!' E&e"%(
$hapter 1: !lectrical .roperties of 3iolo&ical Tissue
+ntroduction
!ner&y 3ands
.ie8oelectricity
0uperconducti%ity
Techni9ues of 7pplication of !lectroma&netic Fields
0ummary
5eferences
Introdction
The electrical properties and processes exhibited by biolo&ical tissue are of interest because of
the insi&hts that knowled&e of them may pro%ide concernin& the way the body re&ulates its myriad
processes< and because they may help explain the effects produced by applied electroma&netic ener&y.
+t is perhaps teleolo&ical to su&&est that some electrical properties of tissue must ha%e physiolo&ical
si&nificance simply because they are there. #n the other hand< nature does not fre9uently endow li%in&
thin&s with useless characteristics and it is especially important to explore those electrical properties
that do not readily fit into present orthodox concepts.
The followin& brief discussion of the electrical characteristics of tissue pro%ides a framework
for understandin& the studies that are described in later chapters. For a more comprehensi%e treatment<
the reader should consult the ori&inal literature.
Ener,y Band'
The electronic conducti%ity of a material is determined by the properties of its constituent atoms
or molecules< and by the manner in which they are arran&ed in the lattice '1). $onducti%ity can be
described in terms of a solid(state model that relates electronic processes to %alance and conduction
ener&y bands. The %alance band consists of electrons that< because they ha%e relati%ely low ener&y< are
associated with indi%idual atoms or molecules: the conduction band contains more ener&etic electrons
that are free to mo%e throu&hout the material in response to applied electroma&netic ener&y.
The number and mobility of conduction electrons determines the electronic conducti%ity of a
material. +f the %alance and conduction bands are separated by a small &ap< then< at typical
temperatures< thermal acti%ity will deplete the %alance band and populate the conduction bandD such a
material is a conductor. +f the bands are widely separated in ener&y< the conduction band will be %acant
and the material will be an insulator. 7 semiconductor is a material whose band structure falls between
that of a conductor and an insulator(it can be an insulator at one temperature and a conductor at a
hi&her temperature. 0emiconductors can contain impurity atoms whose ener&y states lie within the &ap
between the %alance and conduction bandsD such impurities stron&ly affect conducti%ity by donatin& or
acceptin& electrons.
7n important conse9uence of the existence of ener&y bands is that they permit electronic
processes in one re&ion of a material to affect not only the immediate area< but also the entire structure.
08ent(4yor&yi proposed that common ener&y le%els existed o%er relati%ely lar&e dimensions in
biolo&ical structures< possibly with the cell wall itself as the boundary '2). !%ans and 4er&ely '08ent(
4yor&yiBs student) calculated the band &ap in hydro&en(bonded models of biopolymers and showed
that it would be so lar&e that the biopolymers would beha%e electrically as insulators '*).
;owe%er< if impurity atoms were present< they could donate an electron to the conduction band<
or remo%e one from the %alance band< leadin& to mobile conduction electrons or mobile HholesH in the
%alance band '1< ,). 08ent(4yor&yi postulated that these electronic processes within the ener&y bands(
electron mobility in the conduction band and char&e transfer in the %alance band(could &i%e rise to
biolo&ical phenomena and< indeed< to life itself '-< 6). Fi&ures 1.1 and 1.2. depict his theory as applied
to the bioelectrical role of ascorbate.
ig! 3!"! %! % large protein molecule contains many electron pairs! +n this state$ a pair of electrons is
very sta)le and unreactiveF thus the molecule as a whole is very sta)le and unreactive! <! % pair of
electrons with a negative charge! C! % methylglyo'al molecule with an uncoupled electron pairF i!e! an
electron is missing from one of the or)ital rings! +n this state$ the methylglyo'al molecule is a free
radical and is highly reactive! +t can now accept electrons from another molecule to fill its empty
or)ital ring! /7eproduced$ )y permission from Nutrition -oday$ 5! O! <o' ":,9$ %nnapolis$ Maryland
,"363$ Septem)erGOcto)er$ "989!0
For ordinary materials the 9uestion of their band structure could be resol%ed by a coordinated
series of K(ray< chemical< and electrondynamics studies. 3ut biolo&ical tissue is inhomo&eneous and
impure< and suitable techni9ues for carryin& out many of the necessary studies on such materials ha%e
not yet been de%eloped. .erhaps the most si&nificant problem for the experimentalist is that posed by
the uni%ersal presence of water in tissue. +t is well established that the electrical conducti%ity of tissue
increases sharply with water content '8<9). ;owe%er< the nature of electrical conduction in tissue under
physiolo&ical conditions of temperature and moisture(the relati%e contribution of electronic< protonic<
and ionic processes(has not been established despite more than *2 years of study '12). Thus< no clear
picture of the band structure in tissue has emer&ed. #ther important solid(state techni9ues that ha%e
been used to study the electronic property of biolo&ical tissue include electron parama&netic resonance
'11(1*)< and photoconducti%ity '11(1-). 7&ain< althou&h the results are consistent with a common(
ener&y(band model proposed by 08ent(4yor&yi< they do not establish it as correct.
Pie-oe!ectricity
The pie8oelectric effect is the production of electrical polari8ation in a material by the
application of mechanical stress. .ie8oelectric materials also display the con%erse pie8oelectric effect(
mechanical deformation upon application of electrical char&e. .olari8ation and stress are %ector and
tensor properties respecti%ely< and in &eneral< arbitrary components of each can be related %ia the
pie8oelectric effect. For this reason< pie8oelectricity is a complicated property and up to 18 constants
may be re9uired to specify it '16).
ig! 3!,! %! On the right side$ an ascor)ate molecule meets an o'ygen molecule and passes on to it one
of its electrons! .ith this e'change$ the o'ygen molecule gains an electron and the ascor)ate molecule
)ecomes a highly reactive free radical! On the left side$ methylglyo'al lies in contact with the protein
molecule! %t this stage methylglyo'al is a very weak acceptor una)le to pull electrons from the protein
molecule! <! On the right side$ the o'ygen molecule moves on with its gained electron! On the left side$
the highly reactive ascor)ate moves to lie against the methylglyo'al molecule! +n this position it shares
and pulls electrons from methylglyo'al$ which in turn pulls electrons from the protein molecule! -his
sets off a chain reaction$ electronically desaturating the protein molecule$ making it very active and
conductive! C! Methylglyo'al and ascor)ate are incorporated into the protein moleculeF thus$ the
protein is activated )y incorporating into it the acceptor! /7eproduced$ )y permission$ from Nutrition
-oday$ 5! O! <o' +:,9$ %nnapolis$ Maryland ,!"363$ Septem)erGOcto)er$ "989!0
ig! 3!2! Charge distri)ution /in pcoulGcm,0 in a human femur! -he indicated pie>oelectric charges
were measured when a load was applied to the femur /,"0! .e displaced the medial surface at each
charge location /left for growth$ right for resorption0 )y an amount proportional to the measured
charge /,:0! -he lateral surface was similarly displaced /e'cept left for resorption$ and right for
growth0! Our result /the dotted femoral outline0 revealed a self?consistent change in architecture$
there)y lending support to the theory of a link )etween pie>oelectricity and )one function!
any biolo&ical materials ha%e been found to be pie8oelectric< includin& tendon< dentin< i%ory<
aorta< trachea< intestine< silk< elastin< wood< and the nucleic acids. 3one< howe%er< has been the most
fre9uently studied tissue. .ie8oelectricity in bone was disco%ered 'at least in the modern era) by Fukada
and Aasuda< and their work was subse9uently %erified by many others '18(2*). The most important
pie8oelectric constant in bone is d11(it relates a shear stress applied alon& the lon& axis of a bone to a
polari8ation %olta&e that appears on a surface at ri&ht(an&les to the axis. The disco%ery of
pie8oelectricity in bone aroused &reat interest because it seemed to pro%ide an important key in
understandin& bone physiolo&y. 3one was known to adapt its architecture to best carry out its
functions< includin& that of pro%idin& skeletal support '21(26) 'see chapter 2)< and pie8oelectricity
became a candidate for the underlyin& physical mechanism. For example< we hypothesi8ed a
mechanism by which boneBs pie8oelectric si&nal could re&ulate bone &rowth '28) 'Fi&. 1.*). +n support
of it we showed that the pie8oelectric property of bone arose from the protein moiety '2*)< chan&ed
with a&e '29)< and existed in fully hydrated fro8en bone '*2). 3ut despite the continuin& effort of many
in%esti&ators '*1(12)< the possible physiolo&ical role of pie8oelectricity has not been fully e%aluated<
because practical techni9ues for studyin& it under physiolo&ical conditions of temperature and moisture
ha%e not yet been de%eloped.
The con%erse pie8oelectric effect is a possible molecular mechanism by which an or&anism
could detect an external field. 0uccessful experiments based on this hypothesis ha%e been reported by
c!lhaney< 0talnaker and 3ullard '11)< and artin and 4utman '12) 'see chapter 8).
.yroelectricity is the de%elopment of electric char&es on the surface of a material when it is
heatedD all pyroelectric materials are pie8oelectric 'but the con%erse is not true). "an& showed that both
bone and tendon exhibited the pyroelectric effect '1*). Ferroelectricity is the existence of a spontaneous
electric dipole moment in material of macroscopic si8e(it is the electrical analo& of the more familiar
phenomenon of ferroma&netism. 7thenstaedt presented e%idence for the existence of ferroelectricity in
bone '11< 1,). 0ome electrical characteristics of ferroelectric materials are similar to those of an
electret(a material that has an external electric field because of its specific electrical and thermal
history. ascarenhas showed that bone can be made into an electret '1-< 16)< and Fukada< Takamaster
and Aasuda '18)< and Fukada '19) reported that plastic electrets applied to bone produced alterations in
&rowth.
S.ercondcti&ity
+n a normal material< electrons mo%in& throu&h the lattice encounter resistance from defects<
impurities< and lattice %ibrations. 7 superconductor is a material in which electrons flow without
experiencin& any resistance. 7 mathematical theory has been de%eloped '3$0 theory) that explains
superconducti%ity on the basis of pairin& of some of the free electrons to form $ooper pairs ',2).
0uperconducti%ity was &enerally thou&ht to be a phenomenon associated only with metals at
temperatures below about 22M@. 3e&innin& in the mid(19-2Bs< howe%er< theoreticians predicted the
existence of room temperature superconducti%ity in or&anic materials< includin& lon&(chain polymers
',1< ,2)< and sandwiches consistin& of conductin& films and an insulatin& layer ',*< ,1). +n the early
1962Bs experimental e%idence for superconducti%ity in or&anic solids was reported. ;alpern and ?olf
found that two of the cholates< a family of bile salts< exhibited superconducti%e beha%ior in
microdomains inside the salts 'whose macroscopic properties were those of ordinary insulators) ',,).
The obser%ed transition temperatures were *2(-2M @< but< in subse9uent studies of cholates< transition
temperatures as hi&h as 266M@ 'sodium cholanate) were found ',-< ,6). 7hmed et al. reported
superconduction in a 2.1L lyso8yme solution at *2*M@ ',8).
The temperature dependence of the sin&le(electron tunnelin& current between adCacent
superconducti%e microdomains in a material can be shown to be:
where a is a constant< T is absolute temperature< k is 3olt8mannBs constant< !o is one(half the bindin&
ener&y of a $ooper pair at 2M @< and Tc is the temperature below which the material is a
superconductor. +f one assumes that a biolo&ical process is rate(limited by sin&le(electron
superconducti%e tunnelin&< then i can be identified with the rate of the process< and ! with its acti%ation
ener&y. =nder this assumption< !(determined from the 7rrhenius plot of the data(should satisfy
e9uation '2). $ope found six sets of biolo&ical data that showed the beha%ior expected for rate
limitation by sin&le(electron superconducti%e tunnelin& ',9) 'see table 1.1).
Table 1.+. 0=.!5$#/:=$T+#/ .757!T!50 F#5 3+#"#4+$7" .5#$!00!0
Thus< his analysis su&&ests both the existence of superconducti%e microdomains in biolo&ical
tissue< and a physiolo&ical role for superconducti%ity. $ope has obtained further e%idence that
superconducti%ity occurs in biolo&ical tissue from an analysis of the ma&neti8ation characteristics of
5/7< melanin< and lyso8yme '-2).
3ecause the internal fields cannot be 9uantified< the actual HdoseH of electric field recei%ed by
test subCects in electric(field studies is not well defined. This poses no problem with re&ard to the
characteri8ation of the dependent parameter in any particular experiment< because it is always possible
to specify the stren&th of the applied electric field(the field that exists before the presence of the
subCect. oreo%er< the applied field is an appropriate measure by which to compare different
experiments on the same species. There is a problem< howe%er< in relatin& electric(field studies that
in%ol%e different species. 3ecause of shape and structural differences< the amount that %arious animals
perturb the applied electric field< and the dose they recei%e from it< %ary &reatly(a factor of ,(12 would
not be surprisin&. Thus< for example< a particular biolo&ical effect obser%ed in rats followin& exposure
to + k%/m would not necessarily be expected to occur in monkeys at that field stren&th.
Tec+ni/e' o" A..!ication o" E!ectro#a,netic Fie!d'
!lectric field. 7 typical laboratory arran&ement for the application of an electric field to a test
subCect is depicted in fi&ure 1.1. +f the linear dimensions of the plates exceed the distance between them
by &reater than a factor of 2(*< then the electric field< measured in %olts '%) or kilo%olts 'k%) per meter
'm)< is relati%ely homo&eneous and< at least in the absence of the test subCect< it is &i%en by >/d.
5eliable methods for measurin& the electric field ha%e recently been de%eloped '-1). 7n exposure
assembly that is suitable for use with small animals at low fre9uencies is shown in fi&ure 1.,.
ig! 3!3! %rrangement for application of electric fields!
ig! 3!;! Our small?animal e'posure assem)ly! -he stalls consist of metal plates sandwiched )etween
layers of wood! <y appropriately energi>ing or grounding the plates$ ad=acent electric?field and
control regions can )e produced!
+n theory< the dielectric constant and the conducti%ity of the subCect determine the stren&th and
distribution of the electric field that penetrates into its tissue. ;owe%er< because of the structural
complexity of biolo&ical tissue< both constants are point functions that %ary with location o%er cellular
'and smaller) dimensions< and reliable methods for their functional determination under physiolo&ically
realistic conditions do not exist.
+f the structural or&ani8ation of tissue is not considered< it is possible to measure a sort of
a%era&e tissue constant(the dielectric constant of a 1(cm. thick plate of brain tissue< for example. 0uch
data can be used to analy8e what mi&ht be called the physical reactions of biolo&ical tissue( reactions
such as heat production and induced current that do not depend on whether the tissue is ali%e or dead.
3ut e%en the a%era&e(%alue tissue constants are difficult to measure< and< as a result< the reported %alues
for specific tissues %ary o%er se%eral orders of ma&nitude '-2(-1).
The absence of reliable tissue(constant data pre%ents the calculation of uni9ue< meanin&ful
internal electric fields. ?e considered< for example< se%eral of the common physical models for
biolo&ical systems< includin& the sphere< sphere(in(a(sphere< ellipsoid< and rectan&ular solid '-,(-8).
=sin& typical a%era&e(%alue tissue constants< we found that the calculated %alue of the internal fields
%aried by a factor of 2(122 dependin& upon the assumed %alues of the tissue constants and the
particular model. ?hen the analysis was broadened to include the transient response< or when more
complicated &eometric models were considered< the ran&e of arbitrariness bracketed by the calculations
was e%en lar&er. !fforts to take into consideration the point(to(point %ariations of the constants would
result in e%en further uncertainty.
a&netic field. Fi&ure 1.- depicts a typical laboratory arran&ement for the application of a
ma&netic field to a test subCect. The current throu&h the coils &i%es rise to a ma&netic field that is
reasonably uniform near the common axis of the coilsD the stren&th of the field< measured in &auss< can
be calculated from the knowled&e of the coil current and &eometry< and it can be measured by means of
a small calibrated induction coil. 7 coil(exposure system suitable for use with human subCects is shown
in fi&ure 1.6 '-9).
ig! 3!B! %rrangement for application of magnetic field!
0ince tissue is ma&netically transparent< an applied ma&netic field completely penetrates the
subCectBs tissues< where it induces an electric field that is proportional to its rate of chan&e. The induced
electric field does not depend on the tissuesB electrical constants< but it does depend on the shape of the
test subCect and on its position within the subCect '-8). For these reasons we a&ain find that the concept
of dose is not well defined< and that the applied field< therefore< is the appropriate dependent parameter
in ma&netic field studies.
!lectroma&netic radiation. The electric and ma&netic fields depicted in fi&ures 1.1 and 1.- are<
in a sense< bound to their respecti%e sources: the electric field is associated with the %olta&e on the
metal plates< and the ma&netic field arises from the current in the coil. !lectroma&netic radiation is a
propa&atin& physical entity consistin& of inseparable electric and ma&netic fields. +t has its ori&ins in
electronic transitions in a source(typically an antenna(with which it has no physical link once it is
liberated. The plane wa%e< in which the electric and ma&netic fields are ortho&onal to one another and
to the direction of propa&ation of the wa%e< is the simplest and most important type of electroma&netic
radiation. The power density< .< of a plane wa%e is measured in terms of power per unit of area
tra%ersed. ?e shall express it in microwatts per s9uare centimeter 'N?/cm2). The relation between .
and the stren&th of the electric field< !< 'in %/m) is:
ig! 3!8! -he large?coil e'posure system at the Naval %erospace Medical 7esearch La)oratory!
/7eproduced$ )y permission$ from D! A! <eischer$ et al!$ A'posure of man to magnetic fields
alternating at e'tremely low fre(uency$ N%M7L "":6$ Naval %erospace Medical 7esearch La)oratory$
5ensacola$ lorida$ "982!0
Fi&. 1.8. 7rran&ement for application of electroma&netic radiation.
7 typical laboratory arran&ement for the application of electroma&netic radiation to test subCects
is shown in fi&ure 1.8. The power density can be measured in the wa%e(&uide or in the space near the
subCect. 7n exposure system used for the exposure of chick embryos is shown in fi&ure 1.9 '62).
ig! 3!9! System for the e'posure of eggs to electromagnetic plane waves! /7eproduced$ )y permission$
from D! L Mc7ee et al!$ %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! ,38$ p! 288!0
7lthou&h there are many studies dealin& with the penetration of electroma&netic radiation into a
plethora of mathematical< metallic< and saline models of li%in& systems< little more is known about
penetration into actual tissue than was known in 1888 when radiation was disco%ered by ;ert8.
S##ary
The present e%idence su&&ests that< in addition to its uni9ue properties< tissue exhibits
essentially all the solid(state properties of ordinary materials. 0ince the techni9ues needed to study
impure< inhomo&eneous< and wet materials are lar&ely de%eloped< it is not surprisin& that metals or
plastics are much more studied than brain or lun& tissue. :espite this< the door has been opened enou&h
to re%eal the existence of solid(state properties of tissue that may explain the reaction of li%in&
or&anisms to electroma&netic fields '!Fs1)< and may e%en pro%ide the physical basis of the
phenomena that are uni9ue to li%in& or&anisms.
7lthou&h present knowled&e of the properties of the tissue is not sufficient to permit the
predictions of specific biolo&ical effects of exposure to !Fs< neither does the present knowled&e
preclude any specific effects. Thus< to learn what would happen when an or&anism is exposed to a
&i%en !F under specific conditions< it is necessary to do the experiment. +n the succeedin& chapters
we describe a lar&e number of such studies.
Throu&hout the book we use this to denote electric fields< ma&netic fields< and electroma&netic
radiation when there is no intention to distin&uish amon& them.
Re"erence'
1. @ittel< $. 1961. +ntroduction to solid state physics< /ew Aork: ?iley.
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proteins. <iochem! <iophys! %cta *:188.
1. 08ent(4yor&yi< 7. 19,1 <ioenergetics. /ew Aork: 7cademic.
,. 08ent(4yor&yi< 7. 19-2. +ntroduction to su)molecular )iology! /ew Aork: 7cademic.
-. 08ent(4yor&yi< 7. 19-8. <ioelectronics. /ew Aork: 7cademic.
6. 08ent(4yor&yi< 7. 196-. Alectronic )iology and cancer! /ew Aork: arcel :ekker.
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import. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! 1,8:1-1.
9. arino< 7.7.< 5.#.< 3ecker< 5.#.< and 3achman< $.;. 19-6. :ielectric determination of bound
water of bone. 5hys! Med! <iol! 12:*-6.
12. .ethi&< 5. 1969. Dielectric and electronic properties of )iological materials! /ew Aork: ?iley.
11. arino< 7.7.< and 3ecker< 5.#. 19-9. Temperature dependence of !.5 si&nal in tendon colla&en.
Nature 222:1-1.
12. 0wart8< ;..< 3olton< F.5.< and 3or&< :.$. 1962. <iological applications of electron spin
resonance! /ew Aork: ?iley.
1*. ;orn< 5.7.< 1969. !lectron spin resonance studies on properties of ceruloplasmin and transferrin in
blood from normal subCects and cancer patients. Cancer 1*:2*92.
11. Fuller< 5.4.< arino< 7.7.< and 3ecker< 5.#. 196-. .hotoconducti%ity in bone and tendon.
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1,. 08ent(4yor&yi< 7. 191-. +nternal photo(electric effect and band spectra in proteins. Nature
1,6:86,.
1-. !ley< :.:.< and etcalfe< !. 1962. .hotoconduction in proteins. Nature 2*9:*11.
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18. Fukada< !.< and Aasuda< l. 19,6. #n the pie8oelectric effect of bone. C! 5hys! Soc! Capan 12:11,8.
19. 3assett< $.7.".< and 3ecker< 5.#. 19-2. 4eneration of electric potentials by bone in response to
mechanical stress. Science 1*6:12-*.
22. 0hamos< .;.< "a%ine< ".0.< and 0hamos< .+. 19-*. .ie8oelectric effect in bone. Nature 1968:81.
21. c!lhaney< F.;. 19-6. The char&e distribution on the human femur due to load. C! <one Coint
Surg! 197:1,-1.
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226:191.
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21. Treharne< 5.?. 1981 5e%iew of ?olfBs "aw and its proposed means of operation. Ortho! 7ev!
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2,. $urrey< F.:. 19-8. The adaptation of bones to stress. C! -heoret! <iol! 22:91.
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beha%ior of loaded bone. C! Dent! 7es! 11:**.
26. 3ecker< 5.#.< 3assett< $.7.".< and 3achman< $.;. 19-1. 3ioelectric factors controllin& bone
structure. +n <one )iodynamics< ed. ;.. Frost< p. 229. /ew Aork: "ittle< 3rown.
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228:16*.
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systems at physiolo&ical temperatures. 5hysiol! Chem! 5hys! *:12*.
-2. $ope< F.?. 1968. :iscontinuous ma&netic field effects '3arkhausen noise) in nucleic acids as
e%idence for room temperature or&anic superconduction. 5hysiol! Chem! 5hys! 12:2**.
-1. isakian< .< @otter< F.5.< and @ahler< 5.". 1968. iniature !"F electric field probe. 7ev! Sci!
+nstrum! 16:9**.
-2. 4eddes< ".7.< and 3aker< ".!. 19-6. The specific resistance of biolo&ical material(a compendium
of data for the biomedical en&ineer and physiolo&ist. Med! )iol! Angng! ,:661.
-*. .resman< 7.F. 1962. Alectromagnetic fields and life! /ew Aork: .lenum.
-1. 0chwan< ;... 19,6. !lectrical properties of tissue and cell suspensions. +n %dvances in )iological
and medical physics< %ol. ,< eds. F.;. "awrence< and $.7. Tobias< p. 116. /ew Aork:
7cademic.
-,. arino< 7.7.< 3erber< T.F.< 3ecker< 5.2.< and ;art< F.K. 1961. !lectrostatic field induced chan&es
in mouse serum proteins. A'perientia *2:1261.
--. ;art< F.K.< arino< 7.7. 196-. 3iophysics of animal response to an electrostatic field. C! <iol!
5hys! 1:121.
-6. arino< 7.7.< $ullen< F..< 5eichmanis< .< 3ecker< 5.2.< and ;art< F.K. 1982. 0ensiti%ity to
chan&e in electrical en%ironment: a new bioelectric effect. %m! C! 5hysiol! 2*9:5121.
-8. ;art< F.K.< and arino< 7.7. !"F dosa&e in ellipsoidal models of man due to hi&h %olta&e
transmission lines. +n .ress.
-9. 3eischer< :.!.< 4rissett< F.:.< and itchell< 5.!. 196*. A'posure of man to magnetic fields
alternating at e'tremely low fre(uency< 7: 662+12< /75" 1182. .ensacola< Florida: /a%al
7erospace edical 5esearch "aboratory.
62. c5ee< :.+.< ;amrick< ..!.< and Einkl< F. 196, . 0ome effects of exposure of the Fapanese 9uail
embryo to 2.1, 4;8 microwa%e radiation. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! 216:*66.
.75T T;5!!:
"aboratory 0tudies of the 7daptability of #r&anisms to !lectroma&netic !ner&y
$hapter ,:
!ffects of !lectroma&netic !ner&y on the /er%ous 0ystem
+ntroduction
:irect !ffects
3eha%ioral !ffects
0ummary
5eferences
Introdction

The ner%ous system consists of the peripheral ner%es< the spinal cord< and the brain. +t is
the means by which the or&anism recei%es information from the en%ironment< and by
which it controls its internal processes. ?ith the exception of %isual systems which are
&enerally sensiti%e to only a small portion of the electroma&netic spectrum< most
animals seem to lack specific receptors for !Fs. Thus< in most cases< !Fs cannot be
consciously percei%ed unless thay are so intense that they stimulate sensory ner%es %ia
the familiar phenomena of shock or heat. ;owe%er< not all information &athered by the
senses is processed at the conscious le%el< and there is no physiolo&ical principle that
would preclude the subliminal detection of !Fs by the ner%ous system. +ndeed<
considerin& both the rich fre9uency spectrum of naturally(present !Fs that has existed
throu&hout the e%olutionary period< and its known relationship to &eolo&ical<
atmospheric< and cosmolo&ical phenomena< it would be surprisin& if the ner%ous system
were not sensiti%e to low(le%el !Fs.
The ner%ous system is the bodyBs master controller. 7n !F effect on it could be
expressed in two ways: an alteration in the properties or function of the ner%ous system
itself< such as in its electrical< biochemical< or histolo&ical characteristics 'primary
effect)D or an alteration in the bodyBs systems or or&ans that are controlled by the ner%ous
system< such as the endocrine or cardio%ascular systems 'indirect effect). +n this chapter
we describe the reports of primary effects on the ner%ous system( effects in%ol%in& other
or&ans and tissues are described in the succeedin& three chapters.
)irect E""ect'
?e used the salamander electroencephalo&ram '!!4) pattern as a means to monitor for
possible direct effects of hi&h(stren&th ma&netic fields applied alon& a specific axis throu&h the head
'1). The field induced the onset of a slow or delta(wa%e pattern< and a lar&e fluctuation in acti%ity was
seen as the field was slowly decreased from 1222 &auss to 8ero 'see fi&. 2.,). These obser%ations were
confirmed and extended by @holodo% '2) in 19-- in the rabbit !!4. ;e found that the presence of
delta wa%es and the number of spindles 'brief bursts of 8(12 ;8 wa%es) were both increased by 1(*
minutesB exposure at 222(1222 &auss. +n about half the animals tested these reactions lasted at least *2
seconds. +n addition to these chan&es< which occurred after a latent period of the order of 12 seconds<
@holodo% sometimes obser%ed a desynchroni8ation reaction 'an abrupt chan&e in the main rhythm) 2(
12 seconds after the field was turned on 'in +1L of the cases)< or off '21L). ;e attributed the increase
in spindles and slow wa%es to a direct action of the ma&netic field on the ner%ous system and the more
rapid< and relati%ely less fre9uent< desynchroni8ation reaction to the electric field which was induced in
the tissue as a result of the chan&e in ma&netic field durin& the turn(on turn(off. $hi8henko%a '*)
confirmed this hypothesis by exposin& rabbits to *22 &auss for either 1 minute or 1., seconds. 7t the
lon&er exposure period< the chan&es reported by @holodo% were obser%ed< but followin& 1.,(second
exposures only the desynchroni8ation reaction occurred. +n addition< $hi8henko%a showed that a ten(
factor reduction in the induced electric field 'achie%ed by chan&in& the ma&netic field more slowly)
had no effect on the number of spindles. 0imilar chan&es in the !!4 due to !Fs of fre9uencies
ran&in& from ,2 ;8 to * 4;8 ha%e been reported '1< 62).
ig! ;!"! Change in num)er of spindles in the ra))it induced )y e'posure to 266 gauss! N is the
average num)er of spindles per "6 second periods that occurred during B63 e'posures!
Three additional aspects of the @holodo%($hi8henko%a studies deser%e mention: '1) the number
of spindles obser%ed after a chan&e in the ma&netic field increased re&ardless of whether the chan&e
was on(to(off or off(to(on 'Fi&. ,.1)D '2) there was an after(effect in which the number of spindles
remained ele%ated e%en when the field was tumed off 'Fi&. ,.1)D '*) the most reacti%e re&ions were the
hypothalamus and the cortex< and the least reacti%e re&ion was the reticular formation of the midbrain.
@holodo% found a desynchroni8ation reaction< but no chan&es in spindles or delta wa%es< when
rabbits were exposed for 1 minute to ,22 k%/m :$ electric fields '2). "ott and c$ain ',) measured
the total inte&rated !!4 in rats before< durin&< and after exposure to a :$ field of 12 k%/m 'Fi&. ,.2).
They found a transient increase associated with either the application or remo%al of the field< a steady
response that persisted durin& application of the field< and an after(effect. 7 -12 ;8 pulsed field< 12
%/m maximum< also increased the total inte&rated !!4< particularly for readin&s from the hypothalmic
re&ion.
ig! ;!,! -otal )rain activity of anestheti>ed rats e'posed to a DC electric field of "6kvGm! Aach point
represents a mean of 9 e'perimentsF readings were not taken for B minutes following application of the
AM!
7t hi&h fre9uencies< a different effect on the total inte&rated electrical acti%ity was obser%ed.
4oldstein '-8) exposed rabbits for , minutes to 622(2.822 N?/cm2< 9.* 4;8< and found no !!4
chan&es durin& the exposure period. $ommencin& about +2 minutes after exposure< howe%er< there
occurred an inter%al of decreased total inte&rated !!4 that persisted for up to 1, minutes. The authors
reported that the obser%ed chan&es in the !!4 resembled those induced by hallucino&enic dru&s.
The nature of the !F(induced !!4 after(effect is determined by the exposure conditions and
the physiolo&ical characteristics of the subCect '-(11). For example< followin& a *2 minute exposure at
122 N?/cm2< * 4;8< most of the rabbits tested exhibit either depressed or ele%ated slow(wa%e acti%ity<
and the relati%e number in each &roup %aried with the location from which the !!4 was recorded '-)
'Fi&. ,.*). The acti%ity in the hypothalamus and the cortex was hi&hly correlated in indi%idual animals(
it was either ele%ated or depressed simultaneously in both re&ions. 7fter a 1 week exposure '1 hr./day)
depressed !!4 acti%ity was the characteristic response '-)< and after *(1 weeks the after(effect
phenomenon was no lon&er present '6). :umanskiy obser%ed a similar pattern in rabbits from exposure
to 1.9(12 N?/cm2< ,2 ;8 '8)D after 2 weeks< !!4 acti%ity was ele%ated< but after 2. monthsB
exposure si&nificant slowwa%e inhibition occurred. 0uch inhibition was also found after 1 monthsB
exposure at 1(12., N?/cm2< 2., 4;8 '9).
ig! ;!2! 7elation of AA# response from the corte'$ hypothalamus$ and )rainstem due to e'posure at 2
#1>! -he num)ers indicate ra))its with a given response!
0er%antie showed that the !!4 could be entrained by a pulsed !F '12). For 1(2 minutes after
a 12(day irradiation period at ,222 <N?/cm2 the !!4 of rats exhibited the pulse(modulation fre9uency
of the applied *(4;8 field. 3awin '11) also obser%ed the production of specific !!4 rhythms< and the
reinforcement of spontaneous rhythms< by pulsed !Fs. !ffects of !Fs ha%e been reported on other
aspects of neuroelectric beha%ior< such as e%oked potentials '12< 1*< 6*)< neuronal firin& rate '11< 1,)<
latency and %olta&e threshold '1-)<and response to dru&s '6*).
#ne of the 7merican scientists who pioneered the study of !F effects on the ner%ous system
is 7llen FreyD his work has induded studies of the effects on e%oked potentials '12.)< beha%ior '16)< and
hearin& phenomena '18). +n 196, Frey reported an increase in the permeability of the bloodbrain
barrier 'the selecti%e process by which capillaries in the brain re&ulate transport of substances between
the blood and the surroundin& neuropil) of rats exposed to 2122 N?/cm2 'continuous) or 222 N?/cm2
'pulsed) at 1.2 4;8 '19). Frey found that dye inCected into the bloodstream appeared in the brain of
exposed animals< but not the control animals< and that the pulsed !F was more effecti%e than the
continuous si&nal in openin& the barrier< e%en thou&h the a%era&e power le%el of the pulsed si&nal was
only one(tenth that of the continuous si&nal. FreyBs findin&s were confirmed and extended by #scar and
;awkins in 1966 '22). They reported that continuous and pulsed !Fs both increased brain(tissue
permeability< but that< dependin& on the particular pulse characteristics< pulsed ener&y could be either
more or less effecti%e than continuous(wa%e ener&y. !ffects were obser%ed at a%era&e powers as low as
*2 <N?/cm2. .reston et al.< on the other hand< failed to find an effect on the permeability of the blood(
brain barrier e%en at thermal(le%el !Fs '21). Frey concluded that .restonBs failure resulted from an
inappropriate choice of statistical procedures '11).
3iochemical studies of !F(induced chan&es in brain tissue ha%e yielded remarkably similar
results at widely different fre9uencies. Fischer et al. '22) found that ,2;8< ,*22 %/m< resulted in an
initial rise of norepinephrine in rat brain< and a subse9uent decline below the control le%el 'Fi&. ,.1 7).
4rin '2* ) obser%ed the same se9uence of chan&es at 2.1 4;8< ,22 N?/cm2 Fi&. ,.1 3)D at ,2
N?/cm2< howe%er< the norepinephrine le%el in 4rinBs study rose continuously throu&hout the exposure
period.
/o%al et al. '21) found that the acti%ity of choline acetyltransferase '$h7$)(a neuronal en8yme
which catalyses the synthesis of acetylcholine(was si&nificantly reduced in the brainstem portion of
brains from rats exposed to 12(122 %/m< 1, ;8< for *2(12 daysD $h7$ acti%ity in the cerebral
hemispheres was not affected by the field. $ytochrome oxidase acti%ity in rat(brain mitochondria was
si&nificantly reduced after 1 monthBs exposure at 1222 and 1222 <N?/cm2< 2.1 4;8D no effect was
found at 12 N?/cm2 '2,).
$holinesterase is the neuronal en8yme that destroys acetylcholine< thereby permittin& re(
establishment of the membrane potentialD alteration in blood cholinesterase le%els reflects chan&es in
the functional state of the ner%ous system. $hronic exposure to both low(fre9uency '22 ) and
hi&hfre9uency '*2) !Fs ha%e produced lowered blood cholinesterase le%els.
ig!;!3! Norepinephrine levels in rat )rain following e'posure to AMs@%$ ;266 vGm$ ;6 1>F <$;66
H.Gcm,$ ,!3 #1>!
icroscopic studies of brain tissue of !F(exposed animals ha%e disclosed se%eral kinds of
functional histopatholo&ical effects. @holodo% '2 ) reported chan&es in brain tissue of rabbits and cats
exposed to 222(*22 &auss for up to 62 hours. +n the sensorimotor cortex he found hyperplasia<
hypertrophy< atrophy. and dystrophic ner%e lesions. +n an attempt to confirm11(212 &auss :$ and ,(11
&auss at 2.1(2.2 ;8 for up to -2 hours. Four of the 12. exposed rabbits and 2 of the 1* controls
exhibited some histopatholo&ical chan&e consistin& principally of scattered &ranulomata in the
menin&es and the cortex< often associated with %ascular proliferation< leukocyte infiltration< and small
4ram(positi%e or&anisms. They concluded that their results could not be reconciled with those of
@holodo%< but rather were consistent with a sub(clinical encephalito8oonosis which was exacerbated
by a stressor effect of the ma&netic field. +n a subse9uent electronmicroscopic study< @holodo% and his
collea&ues demonstrated !F(induced chan&es(&ranular material in the 4ol&i complex in the rat
pituitary(which seem clearly to be related to increased synthesis< and not a 8oonosis '26). Tol&skaya
and collea&ues ha%e conducted many studies of the histopatholo&ical effects of !Fs '28). +n 196*
they described results of a time study of the effects of * 4;8< -2(*22 N?/cm2 '1hr/day for 22 weeks)
on the morpholo&y of the hypothalamus of the rat '29). 7fter 2(* weeks of exposure there was an
increase in neurosecretory material in cells in the anterior re&ion and alon& fibers of the
hypothalamohypophysial tract. 7t 1(, weeks similar results were seen< but at 22 weeks the picture was
9uite different(neurons were smaller with some atrophy< and little secretory material was seen. 0ix
weeks followin& termination of exposure the rats exhibited a normal histolo&ical appearance.
Be+a&iora! E""ect'
ost of the maCor paradi&ms used in beha%ioral research ha%e been employed successfully to
establish the existence of !F(induced beha%ioral effects. These include studies of spontaneous
acti%ity< reaction time< and conditioned responses.
?hen motor acti%ity was e%aluated by tilt ca&es< tra%ersal of open(field ma8es< or other
ambulatory beha%iors< it was found that the responses depended on the characteristics of both the
measurin& system and the applied !Fs. !akin and Thompson '*2) used *22(922 ;8< 6-2 N?/cm2<
for 16 days and found that the exposed rats were more acti%e than the controls durin& the first 22 days
of exposure< and less acti%e thereafter. These results were confirmed and extended by !akin in 1962
when hypoacti%ity was reported followin& prolon&ed exposure to 1,2(1*2 N?/cm2 '*1). 5oberti et al.
'*2) failed to find an effect due to * (12 4;8 for 6 days at 1222 N?/cm2<but itchelletal. '**)<who
exposed rats to 2.1, 4;8 at about -22 N?/cm2 for 22 days ', hr/day)< found an !F(induced
hyperacti%ity in the exposed animals compared to both their pre(exposure baseline and the acti%ity of
sham(exposed controls. The field(induced acti%ity chan&es in each of these studies were measured
durin& periods when the animals were remo%ed from the field. ?hen acti%ity was measured durin&
exposure to a modulated 12(;8 electric field '*1)< it first increased< then decreased< durin& the 2(hour
exposure period. This result supported an earlier findin& by the same &roup that the field caused a
similar pattern of chan&e in the emotional response of rats as measured by the #lds self(stimulation
response '*,).
The pattem of a dual effect upon performance(stimulation or inhibition< dependin& on the
circumstances(has not emer&ed at the low fre9uencies< most such studies ha%in& found only increased
acti%ity. 7t 1222 %/m< -2 ;8 ', days) '*-)< and -2<222 %/m< ,2 ;8 '* hr) '*6)< the nocturnal acti%ity of
rodents was increased. 7n increase in acti%ity in two strains of mice was also seen followin& exposure
to 16 &auss at -2 ;8 '*8). #ther spontaneous beha%iors ha%e been found to be susceptible to !Fs<
includin& pain(induced a&&ression '+6)< escape '6,)< a%oidance '6-(68) and sleep pattern '69).
7 standard beha%ioral measure of a subCectBs ability to respond to chan&es in its en%ironment is
its reaction(time to a %isual or auditory stimulus. +n se%eral studies this has been altered by low(
fre9uency !Fs. 7ccordin& to @oni& and 7nkermuller '12)< at 1 %/m< 12 ;8 and * ;8 are associated
with a decrease and increase< respecti%ely< in human reaction time as compared to the field(free
situation. +n an experimental desi&n in which each subCect was exposed to two fre9uencies in the 2(12
;8 ran&e< at 1 %/m< ;amer found a lon&er reaction time at the hi&her fre9uency '11). Friedman et al.
applied ma&netic fields of 2.1 and 2.2 ;8 to separate &roups of male and female subCects< and for both
&roups he found a lon&er reaction time at the hi&her fre9uency compared to the lower fre9uency '12).
.ersin&er et al. found no difference in the mean reaction time in either males or females due to 2.*(*2
%/m< *(12 ;8< but he did find a si&nificant difference between the sexes in the %ariability of the
response to a &i%en field '1*).
7s measured by a task consistin& of the addition of sets of fi%e two(di&it numbers< a -2 ;8< 1(
&auss field altered the ability to concentrate in human subCects 'Fi&. ,.,) '*9). 7ll - experimental
subCects demonstrated a decline in performance in the second test session of the exposure period< and
all - impro%ed in the first test session of the postexposure period. +n contrast< the control subCects
showed no consistent chan&es.

ig! ;!; %verage performance of the e'perimental and control groups on the .ilkinson %dding -ask!
-he su)=ects were confined to the test facility throughout the study$ and were unaware of the e'act
timing of the ,3?hour e'posure period!
For more than a decade< 5oss 7dey and his collea&ues ha%e sou&ht to understand the molecular
mechanisms that underlie field(induced beha%ioral chan&es. +n the late 19-2Bs they reported that low(
fre9uency !Fs altered the timin& beha%ior in humans '11) and monkeys ',2). The effects were
fre9uency(dependent in the 2(12. ;8 ran&e< and later results su&&ested that they increased with dose
',1). +n 196*< they reported that cats exposed to 116(;8 !Fs< modulated at 2.,(*2 ;8< exhibited
altered !!4s '11). The idea that e%ol%ed from these studies and others ',*)< was that extremely weak
!Fs(+2(, %/m< as calculated on the basis of the simple spherical model described in chapter 2(could
alter neuronal excitability< and presumably timin& beha%ior and the !!4< if they were in the
physiolo&ical fre9uency ran&e 'the !!4). 7n in %itro system in%ol%in& calcium bindin& to brain tissue
was then chosen to study the effect of weak !Fs on ionic mo%ement under a hypothesis that altered
ion(bindin& and the associated conformational chan&es constituted the mechanism of the !F(induced
effects. 7 complex series of results were then obtained concernin& the le%els of pre(incubated calcium
that were released into solution: at 116 ;8< there was an increase when the !F was modulated at -(
12 ;8< but no increase at 2.,(* or 2,(*, ;8 '-, )D with !Fs of - and 1- ;8< there was a decrease at
12 and ,- %/m< but not at , or 122 %/m '--)D there was no chan&e in calcium at 1 ;8 or *2 ;8< at either
12 or ,- %/m '--)D at 1,2 ;8< modulated at 1- ;8< there was an increase '-6). 0ome of these results
ha%e been confirmed '61). The salient features of the in %itro studies were: '1) the emphasis on
calciumD '2) the opposite results obtained followin& low(fre9uency and hi&h(fre9uency !F exposureD
and '*) the existence of fre9uency and field(stren&th ran&es where the effects were at a maximum.
/one of these features were seen in the in %i%o studies. 4rodsky proposed a cell(membrane model
in%ol%in& cooperati%e char&e interactions as a partial explanation of 7deyBs results '82)< but their
molecular basis still remains speculati%e ',2).
There ha%e been reports of the effects of !Fs on conditioned responses in both operant '11(
,1< 61) and respondent paradi&ms '8< ,1(,8). +n the operant studies< the effect of the !Fs was usually
established on the basis of chan&es in discrete mo%ement by the test subCects. For example< Thomas
'61) found that a pulsed !F of 1222 N?/cm2< 2.1, 4;8< altered the effect of chlordia8epoxide on
beha%ior. The dru& produced a chan&e in the bar(pressin& rate which was potentiated in the presence of
the !F. +n the respondent studies< typically< the field(induced effects were more &enerali8ed and
consisted of responses such as impaired endurance ',6). The use of !Fs as conditioned stimuli durin&
periods precedin& a%ersi%e stimuli has fre9uently ',9(-1)< but not always '-2(-1)< failed.
S##ary
!Fs produced a broad array of impacts on the ner%ous system< ran&in& from chan&es in the
electrical acti%ity of specific areas of the brain< to systematic chan&es such as clinical 8oonosis< en8yme
increases< and alterations in specific and diffuse beha%ior. The most important characteristic of the
reported effects was that the ener&y imparted to the or&anism under study was far too low to ha%e
ener&etically dri%en the obser%ed chan&es %ia passi%e or classical processes such as ioni8ation< heatin&<
or &ross alteration in the restin& potential of membranes in excitable tissue. +t was the metabolism of
the or&anism< therefore< which furnished the ener&y< and the applied !Fs functioned primarily as
elicitin&< tri&&erin&< or controllin& factors for the obser%ed biolo&ical chan&es. There ha%e been no
systematic studies with one type of !F< one or&anism< and one experimental paradi&m.
$onse9uently< it is difficult to &enerali8e re&ardin& the direction or trend that will likely be exhibited
by specific ner%ous system parameters when they are measured under conditions which differ from
those already studied. +n this sense the present studies are unsatisfactory. 3ut this problem can be
remedied by future studies and it does not detract from the fundamental conclusion that nonthermal
!Fs can cause electrical< biochemical< functional< and histopatholo&ical chan&es in the ner%ous
system.
The manner and location at which the !Fs were detected and the means by which their
existence was first communicated to the central ner%ous system(a dear prere9uisite for any of the
reported effects( cannot be determined from the present studies. The site of reception may be the
central ner%ous system itself. 0upport for this can be found in studies in which brain electrical acti%ity
chan&es occurred instantaneously with the presentation of the field. 3y analo&y with the modes of
detection of other stimuli such as li&ht< sound< or touch< it mi&ht also be su&&ested that the peripheral
ner%ous system is the locus of !F detection. This point can only be resol%ed by future studies (
carefully desi&ned to eliminate the reco&ni8ed difficulties in recordin& electrical acti%ity durin& !F
exposure '11) ( in which ner%ous system electrical acti%ity and the :$ potentials are recorded durin&
!F exposure of the central and peripheral ner%ous systems separately.
3ecause the nature of the reception process of !Fs is unknown< it is not possible to determine
whether it is mediated differently for !Fs with different fre9uency or amplitude characteristics. +n
contrast to this< the subse9uent physiolo&ical e%ents seem to proceed %ia common pathways re&ardless
of the fre9uency of the applied !F. Thus< altered brain electrical acti%ity was found at -12 ;8 '0)< *
4;8 '-)< and 9.* 4;8 '-8). 0imilarly< ,2 ;8< '22)< and 2.1 4;8 '2*) fields each produced comparable
c han&es in en8yme le%els in the brain. ?ith re&ard to beha%ioral endpoints 'reaction time< motor
acti%ity< conditioned responses)< identical effects were found usin& !Fs that span the spectrum.
oreo%er< the !Finduced effects were relati%ely independent of the type of applied field( whether
electric or ma&netic. For example< :$ electric and ma&netic fields each produced desychroni8ation in
the !!4 '2)< and low(fre9uency electric and ma&netic fields each altered human reaction time '11< 12).
:espite the obser%ed nonspecificity of the biolo&ical effects with re&ard to the fre9uency or type of
applied field< other characteristics of the applied !Fs did ha%e a si&nificant effect on the biolo&ical
response. .ulse width and modulation fre9uency< for example< were important parameters in
bloodbrain barrier penetration< interresponse times< and the self(stimulation response. 0ometimes<
pulsed !Fs produced biolo&ical effects at much lower a%era&e incident ener&y le%els than was
obtained with continuouswa%e !Fs< and in some cases only the pulsed !F elicited an effect.
!xposure duration also was an important factor in the elaboration of some effects. Thus< in &eneral< the
bioeffects were relati%ely independent of fre9uency and field type< but other si&nal characteristics were
important in the de%elopment of the obser%ed responses.
:ose:effect relationships were not manifested within or between studies. For example< in one
instance a ten(factor increase in the stren&th of the applied field did not produce a correspondin&
increase in the brain en8yme le%el '21)< and in a second case it produced a chan&e opposite to that
found at the lower field stren&th '2*). The &eneral absence of dose:effect relationships su&&ests that the
!Fs had a tri&&er effect which was relati%ely independent of their ma&nitude. The field(induced
effects< moreo%er< were time(dependent phenomena and for this reason< from a dose:effect %iewpoint< it
is not possible to compare the results of studies which used different exposure periods '*-< *6).
The physical characteristics of the applied !Fs partially determined the biolo&ical effects.
7nother important ( perhaps< in some cases< principal ( factor in the production of such effects was the
physiolo&ical state of the subCect. 7bout half the rabbits in @holodo%Bs study< for example< exhibited
the sustained delta pattern: in the remainin& animals it did not appear or it appeared only briefly.
3ychko% found ele%ated and depressed !!4 acti%ity< or no effect at all< dependin& on the particular
animal. The beha%ioral studies in%ol%in& reaction time and motor acti%ity clearly su&&est that the
subCectBs state of arousal was an important element in determinin& the direction< and perhaps the
existence< of a field(induced effect. +n all such cases< some factor< or combination of factors< peculiar to
each animal was crucial in the elaboration of the effect. 0ometimes ( the 8oonosis in the Friedman
study< for example ( such an operati%e factor was apparent. ore fre9uently< howe%er< they were
simply uncontrolled %ariables 'see chapter 8).
The o%erall pattern of the ner%ous system studies was one of detection and adaptation to the
applied !FsD an electrically di%erse ran&e of fields produced similar kinds of electrical< metabolic<
and beha%ioral chan&es in the ner%ous system. 7t first &lance it seems difficult to understand how
different stimuli could produce similar responses< but this was exactly the situation which led ;ans
0elye< in 19*- '-9)< to propose his now established theory of biolo&ical stress '62): di%erse stimuli (
heat< cold< trauma< crowdin&< and many others ( elicit a common physiolo&ical adapti%e response in the
or&anism. The response syndrome consists of measurable chan&es in the biochemistry< physiolo&y< and
histopatholo&y of the neuroendocrine system< and in the or&ans and functions that are responsi%e to it.
7ny stimulus which elicits the syndrome is< by definition< a stressor.The idea that the electroma&netic
field is a stressor is de%eloped further in the succeedin& chapters.
Re"erence'
1. 3ecker< 5.#. 19-*. 5elationship of &eoma&netic en%ironment to human biolo&y. N! Y! State C! Med!
-*:221,.
2. @holodo%< Au.7. 19--. -he effect of electromagnetic and magnetic fields on the central nervous
system! /-6*16**."
*. $hi8henko%a< 5.7. 19-6. $han&es in rabbit electroencephalo&ram under the influence of a steady
ma&netic field. C57S "/69,6< p. *6.
1. 3lanchi< :.< $edrini< ".< $eria F.< eda< !.< and 4.4. 5e 196*. !xposure of mammalians to stron&
,2 ;8 electric fields. %rch! isiol! 62:**.
,. "ott< F.5.< and c$ain< ;.3. 196*. 0ome effects of continuous and pulsatin& electric fields on brain
wa%e acti%ity in rats. +nt! C! <iometeor! 16:221.
-. 3ychko%< .0.< and :rono%< +.0. 196*. !lectroencephalo&raphic data on the effects of %ery weak
microwa%es. C57S -**21< p. 6,.
6. 3ychko%< .0.< arko%< >.>.< and 5ychko%< >.. 196*. !lectroencephalo&raphic chan&es under
the influence of low(intensity chronic microwa%e irradiaion. C57S -**21< p. 86.
8. :umanskiy< Au.:.< 0andala< .4. 1961. The biolo&ic action and hy&enic si&nificance of
electroma&netic fields of superhi&h and ultrahi&h fre9uencies in densely populated areas. +n
<iologic effects and health ha>ards of microwave radiation< p. 289. ?arsaw: .olish edical
.ublishers.
9. Aersho%a< ".@.< and :umanskiy< Au. :. 196,. .hysiolo&ical chan&es in the central ner%ous system
of animals under the chronic effect of continuous microwa%e fields. C57S "/,-1,< p. 1.
12. 0er%antie< 3.< 0er%antei< 7..< and !tienne F. 196,. 0ynchroni8ation of cortical neurons by a
pulsed microwa%e field as e%idenced by spectral analysis of electrocortico&rams from the white
rat. %nn! N! Y! %cad ! Sci! 216:82.
11. Frey< 7.;. 1982. #n microwa%e effects at the blood(brain barrier. <ioelectromagnetics Soc! Newsl!
/o%. 1982.
12. Frey< 7.;. 19-6. 3rain stem e%oked responses associated with low(intensity pulsed >;F ener&y. C!
%pp! 5hysiol! 2*:981.
1*. @limo%skaya< ".:.< and 0mirno%a< /.:. 196-. $han&es in e%oked potentials of the brain under the
influence of a steady ma&netic field.C57S "/-691< p. 28.
11. FaytelBber&(3lank< >.5.< and .ere%alo%< 4.. 1966. 0electi%e action of decimeter wa%es on the
brain. C57S "/6,-6< p. 1-.
1,. FaytelBber&(3lank< >.5.< and .ere%alo%< 4.. 1969. The dynamics of the impulse acti%ity of
neurons of the posterior seaion of the hypothalamus under the influence of microwa%es. C57S
6*666< p. 6-.
1-. .opo%ich< >..< and @o8iarin< +... 1966. !ffect of electroma&netic ener&y of industrial fre9uency
on the human and animal ner%ous system< C57S 62121< p. ,*.
16. Frey< 7.;. 1966 3eha%ioral effects of electroma&netic ener&y. +n Symposium on )ioogical effects
and measurement of radio fre(uencyGmicrowaves ? proceedings of a conference< ;!?
.ublication /o. 'F:7) 66(822-< p. 11. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. ;!?.
18. Frey< 7.;. and essen&er< 5. 196*. ;uman perception of illumination with pulsed ultra(hi&h
fre9uency electroma&netic ener&y. Science 181:*,-.
19. Frey< 7.;.< Feld< 0.5.< and Frey< 3. 196,. /eural functionin& and beha%ior: definin& the
relationship. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! 216:1**.
22. #scar< @.F.< and ;awkins< T.:. 1966. icrowa%e alteration of the blood brain barrier system of
rats. <rain 7es! 12-:281.
21. .reston< !.< >a%asour< !.F.< and 7ssenheim< ;.. 1969. .ermeability of the blood(brain barrier to
mannitol in the rat followin& 21,2 ;8 microwa%e irradiation. <rain 7es! 161:129.
22. Fischer< 4.< =dermann< ;.< and @napp< !. 1968. =bt das net8fre9uente ?echsefeld 8entrale
?irkun&en ausG Ebl. 3akt. ;y&.< 1. 7bt. #ri&. 3 1--:*81.
2*. 4rin< 7./. 1968. !ffects of microwa%es on catecholamine metabolism in the brain. C57S 62-2-< p.
11.
21. /o%al< FF.< 0ohler< 7.< 5eisber&< 5.3.< $oyne< ;.< 0traub< @.:.< and c@inney< ;. 196-. !xtremely
low fre9uency electric field induces chan&es in rate of &rowth and brain and li%er en8ymes of
rats. +n Compilation of Na>ry?sponsored AL )iomedical and ecological research reports< %ol.
*< 7: 72*,9,9.,
2,. :umanskiy< Au.:.< and Tomashe%skaya< ".7. 1968. +n%esti&ation of the acti%ity of some
en8ymatic systems in response to a superhi&h fre9uency electroma&netic field. C57S 62-2-< p.
1.
2-. Friedman< ;.< and $arey< 5.F. 19-9. The effect of ma&netic fields upon rat brains. .hysiol. 3eha%.
1:,*9. 26. /. 196-. orphofunctional state of the hypophysis(&onad system with exposure of
the or&anism to different ran&es of electroma&netic fields. C57S "/-691< p. 1,.
28. Tol&skaya< .0.< and 4ordon< E.>. 196*. 5athological effects of radio waves. /ew Aork:
$onsultant 3ureau.
29. Tol&skaya< .0.< 4ordon< 7.>.< arko%< >.>.< and >orontso%< 5.0. 196*. The effects of
intermittent and continuous radiation on chan&es in the secretory function of the hypothalamus
and certain endocrine &lands. C57S -**2+< p. 122.
*2. @orbel !akin< 0.< and Thompson< ?.:. 19-,. 3eha%ioral effects of stimulation by >;F radio
fields. 5sychol! 7ept! 16:,9,.
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implications of microwave radiation< 35;/:3!(+< .319*898. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept.
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in%esti&ations of the effects of low(le%el microwa%e radiation on spontaneous motor acti%ity in
rats. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! 216:116.
**. itchell< :.0.< 0wirt8er< ?.4.< and 3ronau&h< !.". 1966. ;yperacti%ity and disruption of operant
beha%ior in rats after multiple exposures to microwa%e radiation. 7adio Science 12 0upp.:2-*.
*1. 0udako%< @.>.< and 7ntimonii< 4.:. 1966. ;ypo&enic effects of a modulated electroma&netic field.
C57S "/61-6< p. 21
*,. 7ntimonii< 4.:.< 3adiko%< >.F.< @el< 7.4.< @rasno%<Ae.7. and 0udako%< 0.@. 196-. $han&es in the
self(stimulation of rats under the action of a modulated electroma&netic field. C57S "/-691 p.
1*.
*-. oos< ?.0. 19-1. 7 preliminary report on the effects of electric fields on mice. %erospace Med!
*,:*61.
*6. ;ilmer< ;. and Tembrock< 4. 1962. =ntersuchun&en 8ur lokomotorischen 7kti%itat ?eisser 5atten
unter dem !influss %on ,2(;8(;ochspannun&s(?echselfeldern. <iol! E)l! 89:1.
*8. 0mith< 5.F.< and Fustesen< :.5. 1966. !ffects of a -2(;8 ma&netic field on aciti%ity le%els of mice.
7adio Science 12 0upp:269.
*9. 4ibson< 5.0.< and oroney< ?.F. 1961. -he effects of e'tremely low fre(uency magnetic fields on
human performance< 7: 722,898< /75"(119,< .ensicola< Florida: /a%al 7erospace
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12. @oni&< ;.".< and 7nkermuller< F. 1962. =ber den !influss besonders niederfre9uenter electrischer
>or&an&e in der 7tmosphare auf den enchen< Naturwissenschpften 16:18-.
11. ;amer< F.5. 19-8. !ffects of low(le%el low(fre9uency electric fields on human reaction time.
Commun! <ehav! <iol! 2 part 7:216.
12. Friedman< ;.< 3ecker< 5.#.< 3achman< $.;. 19-6. !ffect of ma&netic fields on reaction time
performance. Nature 21*:919.
1*. .ersin&er< .7.< "afreniere< 4.F.< and ainpri8e< :./. 196,. ;uman reaction time %ariability
chan&es from low intensity *(;8 and +2(;8 electric fields: interactions with stimulus
pattern<sex<and field intensity. +nt! C! <iometeor! 19:,-.
11. 3awin< 0..< 4a%alas(edici< 5.F.< and 7dey< ?. 5. 196*. !ffects of modulated %ery(hi&h(
fre9uency fields on specific brain rhythms in cats. <rain 7es! ,8:*-,.
1,. Thomas< F.5.< Finch< !.:.< Fulk< :.?.< and 3urch< ".0. 196,. !ffects of low(le%el microwa%e
radiation on beha%ioral baselines. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! 216:12,.
1-. Fustesen< :.5.< and @in&. /.?. 1962. 3eha%ioral effects of low(le%el microwa%e irradiation in the
closed space situation. +n <iological effects and healt) implications of microwave radiation<
.319*898< 35;/:3! 62(2< p. 1,1. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. ;!?.
16. Fohnson< 5.3.< i8umori< 0.< and "o%ely< 5.;. 1968. 7dult beha%ioral deficit in rats exposed
prenatally to 918(;8 microwa%es. +n Developmental to'icology of energy?related pollutants<
$#/F(661216. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. !ner&y.
18. $ampbell< .!.< and Thompson< ?.:. 196,. .erformance effects of chronic microwa%e radiation.
5sychol! 7epts! *6:*18.
19. 0pittka< >.< and Tembrock< 4. 19-9. !xperimentelle =ntersuchun&en Eum operanten
Trink%erhalten %on 5atten in so(;8(;ochspannun&s(?echselfelden< <iol! Eentral)l! 88:26*.
,2. 4a%alas< 5.F.< ?alter< :.#.< ;amer< F.< and 7dey< ?.5. 1962. !ffect of low(le%el low(fre9uency
electric fields on !!4 and beha%ior in acaca nemestrina. <rain 7es! 18:191.
,1. 4a%alas(edici< 5.< and :ay(a&daleno< 0.5. 196-. !xtremely low(fre9uency< weak electric fields
affect schedule(controlled beha%ior of monkeys. Nature 2-1:2,-.
,2. 7dey< ?.5. 1966. odels of membranes of cerebral cells as substrates for information stora&e.
<io! Systems 8:1-*.
,*. @ac8marek< ".@.< and 7dey< ?.5. 1961. ?eak electric &radients chan&e ionic and transmitter
fluxes in cortex. <rain 7es! --:,*6.
,1. "obono%a< !.7. 1961. The use of conditioned reflexes to study microwa%e effects in the central
ner%ous system. +n <iological effects and health ha>ards of microwave radiation< p. 129.
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,,. 0ubbota< 7.4.19,8. The effect of pulsed superhi&h fre9uency electroma&netic fields on ner%ous
acti%ity in do&s. <yull! Aksp! <iol! Med! 1-:,,.
,-. Ealyubo%skaya< /... 1966. 3iolo&ical effect of millimeter(ran&e radiowa%es. 4rach! Delo! 18:11-.
,6. 4usaro%< :.>. 196-. !ffect of ultrahi&h fre9uency fields on the beha%ior of experimental animals.
4oen! Med! Eh! *:-1.
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11:128.
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fre(uency low?intensity magnetic and electric fields< !xperiments 1'1962)< 2'196*)< and
*'196*)D /75" 11,,< 1169< and 119- '7: 6,12,8< 7: 6-1,*2< 7: 66112-)< .ensacola<
Florida: /a%al 7erospace edical 5esearch "aboratory.
-2. de"or&e< F.< and arr< .F. 1961. #perant methods for assessin& the effects of !"F
electroma&netic fields. +n AL and 4L electromagnetic fields effects< ed. .7. .ersin&er< p.
11,. /ew Aork: .lenum.
-1. arr< .F.< 5i%ers< ?.@.< and 3urns< $... 196*. -he effects of low energy e'tremely low fre(uency
electromagnetic radiation on operant )ehavior in the pigeon and the rat. 7: 6,911,< =ni%. of
4eor&ia.
-2. @in&< /.?.< Fustesen< :.5.< and $larke< 5.". 196-. 3eha%ioral sensiti%ity to microwa%e irradiation.
Science 162:*98.
-*. c$lea%e< F.:.< 7lbert< !..< and 5ichardson< /.!. 1961. 5erception and effects on locomotor
activity in %merican eels and %tlantic salmon of e'tremely low fre(uency electric and magnetic
fields. 7:668221< =ni%. of aine.
-1. 4ra%es< ;.3.< "on&< ..:.< and .o8naniak< :. 1969. 3iolo&ical effects of -2(;8< alternatin&(current
fields: a cheshire cat phenomenonG in <iological effects of e'tremely low fre(uency
electromagnetic fields< $#/F 68121-< p. 181. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. !ner&y.
-,. 3awin< 0..< @ac8marek< ".@.< and 7dey< ?.5. 196,. !ffects of modulated >;F fields on the
central ner%ous system. %nn N!Y!%cad! Sci! 216:61.
--.3awin< 0..< and 7dey< ?.5. 196-. 0ensiti%ity of calcium bindin& in cerebral tissue to weak
en%ironmental electric fields oscillatin& at low fre9uency. 5roc! Natl! %cad! Sci! US% 6*:1999.
-6. 3awin< 0..< 7dey< ?.5.< and 0abbot< +.. 1968. +onic factors in release of 1,$a2P from chicken
cerebral tissue by electroma&netic fields. 5roc! Natl! %cad! Sci! US% 6,:-*11.
-8. 4oldstein< ".< and 0isko< E. 1961. 7 9uantitati%e electroencephalo&raphic study of the acute effects
of K(band microwa%es in rabbits. +n <iological efkcts and health ha>ards of microwave
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6*. 3aranski< 0.< and !delweCn< E. 1961. .harmacolo&ic analysis of microwa%e effects on the central
ner%ous system in experimental animals. +n <iological effects and health ha>ards of microwave
radiation< p. +28. ?arsaw: .olish edical .ublishers.
61. Thomas< F.5.< 3urch< ".0.< and Aeandle< 0.0. 1969. icrowa%e radiation and
chlordia8epoxide:syner&eticeffectsonfixed(inter%albeha%ior. Science 22*:1*,6.
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electroma&netic ener&y. C! Comp! 5hysiol! 5sychol! 89:18*.
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ener&y absorption by mice. 7adio Sci! 12 0upp.:2,6.
66. onahan< F.$.< and ;enton< ?.?. 1966. icrowa%e absorption and taste a%ersion as a function of
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68. ;o< ;.0.< .inka%itch< F.< and !dwards< ?... 1966. $han&e in a%era&e absorbed dose rate of a
&roup of mice under repeated exposure to 9+, ;8 microwa%e radiation. +n Symposium on
)iological effects and measurement of radio fre(uencyGmicrowaves ( proceedin&s of a
conference< ;!? .ubl. 'F:7) 66(82-2< p. 221. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. ;!?.
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biolo&ical membranes. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! 216:116.

" .hen a Soviet report is availa)le from the U!S! government in Anglish translation$ only the citation
to the translation is given! Such reports may )e o)tained from the National -echnical
+nformation Service$ U!S! Department of Commerce$ Springfield$4% ,,"B"!
, U!S! government reports may also )e o)tained from the National -echnical +nformation Service!
Ele!"o#$%&e!' E&e"%(
$hapter -: !ffects of !lectroma&netic !ner&y on the !ndocrine 0ystem
+ntroduction
The 7drenal $ortex
The Thyroid
The 7drenal edulla and the .ancreatic +slets
0ummary
5eferences
Introdction
The endocrine system consists of a number of &lands that secrete li9uid into the bloodstream
'rather than throu&h a duct into one of the body ca%ities). The chemical products elaborated by these
&lands are called hormones< and they ha%e profound effects upon their tar&et cells and or&ans. The
o%erall function of the endocrine system is that of homeostatic control< and the le%el of each hormone is
re&ulated %ia a complex monitorin& and feedback mechanism. 7s an example< the parathyroid &lands
re&ulate the le%el of blood calcium< thereby controllin& the o%erall le%el of excitability of the ner%ous
system. =nder the control of the parathyroids< calcium can be rapidly mo%ed in or out of the bones to
maintain an animalBs blood le%els within appropriate limits.
0ome &lands such as the thyroid< parathyroid< and the islet cells of the pancreas< secrete
primarily a sin&le hormone which has a relati%ely specific function. 7s examples< the thyroid hormone
re&ulates oxidati%e metabolism< and the islet(cell hormone assists in &lucose metabolism. The adrenal
&land is more complexD it is a Hdefensi%eH &land< and is acti%ated in stressful circumstances in which
the or&anism must decide whether to fi&ht or flee. +n both cases< the adrenal promotes the &eneral body
functions that facilitate such reactions. The adrenal has two distinct anatomical portions 'the cortex and
medulla) and rich connections to the ner%ous system. The cortex secretes the &lucocorticoids
'corticoids)< hormones that are in%ol%ed in copin& with stressful situations arisin& out of circumstances
that are not immediately life(threatenin&. +n contrast< the adrenal medulla secretes the catecholamine
class of hormones(the most acti%e are epinephrine and norepinephrine(which promote practically
instantaneous preparations for fi&ht and fli&ht.
The pituitary< a small tissue mass located at the base of the brain below the hypothalamus< is the
most important and complex endocrine &land. +t secretes at least ei&ht hormones that orchestrate the
response of the other &lands and that produce effects on &eneral body functions such as &rowth and
water balance. .ituitary acti%ity %aries dynamically depend stream hormone le%els.
The interaction between !Fs and this interrelated &roup of endocrine &lands(which
themsel%es are only partially understood(is %ery complex. +t could in%ol%e particular &lands such as the
calcium(parathyroid(bone axis. #n the other hand< the brain itself mi&ht be sensiti%e to alterations in
the electroma&netic en%ironment. 0uch a sensiti%ity could result in acti%ation of a number of hormonal
systems by %irtue of the direct connection between the brain and the pituitary. +f an !F constituted a
threat to the inte&rity of the or&anism< the pituitary(adrenal stress response system would be called into
action. +ndeed< the bulk of the endocrine system studies ha%e in%ol%ed the pituitary(adrenal system.
These studies illustrate the difficulty in establishin& the precise causal chain of e%ents in the
functionin& of a hormone system< as would be re9uired to determine the le%el at which the !F acts in
the first instance.
Friedman and $arey measured the corticoid production in monkeys exposed to a 222(&auss :$
ma&netic field for 1 hour/day '*). :aily urine collections were combined into 62(hour period
specimens to pro%ide sufficient %olume for biochemical determination of corticoids 'presumed to
reflect the le%els in the blood). The pre(experimental le%el and the le%els found durin& the four
subse9uent specimen periods are shown in fi&ure -.+. 7s Cud&ed by the increase in corticoids< there was
a stress response which lasted for about the first - days and then subsided despite the continued
exposure.
$orticoid synthesis by the adrenal cortex is controlled by the pituitary. ?hen it is appropriate< a
hypothalamic releasin& factor stimulates the pituitary to produce adrenocorticotropin '7$T;) which in
tum stimulates and controls adrenal corticoid production. Thus< FriedmanBs results were consistent with
an effect at any le%el in the hormonal system. +n a series of experiments< we exposed rats to 1,<222 %/m
at -2 ;8 to determine whether the field produced an effect on the serum corticoids concomitantly with
an effect on the pituitary '1). ?e found that followin& *2 daysB continuous exposure< the corticoid
le%els were &enerally lower and the final pituitary wei&ht was hi&her in the exposed animals 'Table
-.1). These results indicated that both pituitary and adrenal function were altered followin& exposure<
but< because of the feedback nature of the hormonal system< it was not possible to determine which
tissue was affected initially. 5ecently /o%itskiy '2*) measured the endocrine system response at each
le%el followin& brief exposure of rats to 12(1222 N?/ cm2 at 2.1 4;8. ;e found increased le%els of
serum corticoids< pituitary 7$T;< and 7$T; releasin&(factor in the hypothalamus.
ig! B!"! Urine corticoid levels in monkeys during e'posure to a DC magnetic field!
-a)le B!"! <+OLO#+C%L AAC-S O AD5OSU7A -6 % B6?1> ALAC-7+C +ALD
3ecause the pituitaryBs acti%ities are synchroni8ed with the ner%ous system %ia intimate
chemical and neuronal pathways in the hypothalamus< any !F impact in%ol%in& pituitary function
would be expected to reach beyond 7$T; and the classic stress(response system. There is some direct
e%idence that other pituitary secretions are affected by !FBs. For example< antldiuretic hormone
'7:;) +s a pitultary secretlon that partlclpates in the re&ulation of the bodyBs water balance. 7n
increase in 7:; fosters the reabsorption of water by the kidneyBs distal renal tubules thereby leadin& to
a reduction in diuresis 'flow of urine). 0e%eral studies ha%e reported that !Fs increase serum 7:;
le%els ',< -) and reduce diuresis '-< 6). +n many cases< howe%er< the e%idence of !F impacts
in%ol%in& the pituitary is indirect and consists of effects on &rowth< metabolism< the cardio%ascular and
hematopoietic systems< and other body functions and systems that are under the influence and control
of the endocrine system. +n the remainder of this chapter we describe the !F studies that in%ol%e the
endocrine &lands(principally the adrenal and thyroid. +n succeedin& chapters we present e%idence of the
effects of !Fs on other body functions and systems.
T+e Adrena! Corte$
The adrenal corticoid response to !F stimulation is hi&hly time(dependent '6). ?hen &roups
of rats were exposed to ,22< +222< 2222 and ,222 %/m at ,2 ;8< the a%era&e urine(corticoid le%el of the
latter two &roups chan&ed similarly durin& the 1(month exposure period '6): approximately the same
maximum %alue was achie%ed in both &roups and they exhibited increased corticoid le%els as compared
to the controls. The +ooo(%/m &roup< howe%er< exhibited lower corticoid le%els for the first 2 months of
the exposure period followed by a rise abo%e the control le%el durin& the last half of the exposure
periodD at ,22 %/m the pattern of corticoid excretion was identical to that of the controls. The biolo&ical
response was re%ersible in the sense that when the hela was remo%ed< the corticoid le%el returned to
normal within 2 months.
#ne of the important factors &o%ernin& the time course of the corticoid le%el(and hence the
dynamics of the pituitary(adrenal response(is the ratio of the exposure period to the nonexposure
period. This was established by =dinste% who exposed &roups of rats to 222 &auss< ,2 ;8<
intermittently for -., hours/day< for 1< *< ,< and 6 days< and< continuously for + and 6 days '9) 'Table
-.2). The corticoid le%el in the continuously exposed rats was si&nificantly &reater than in the controls:
followin& intermittent exposure< howe%er< the corticoid response was considerably different. 7fter 1
days(the total cumulati%e exposure was 2- hours(it was si&nificantly lower in the exposed rats< and this
trend continued after , and 6 days of intermittent exposure.
-a)le B!,! SA7UM CO7-+CO+D LA4ALS +N 7%-S OLLO.+N# AD5OSU7A -O CON-+NUOUS
%ND +N-A7M+--AN- /B!; hrGday0 ;6?1E M%#NA-+C +ALDS
7t * 4;8< rats exposed to ,(12< N?/cm2< 8 hours/day< had ele%ated le%els of excreted corticoids
after +(* months of exposure '12). 7t -2 4;8< 1, minutes/day< rats exhibited depressed le%els of serum
corticoids after 2 months '11). +n such hi&h(fre9uency !F studies it is usually impractical to
continuously expose the animals< because the fields can interfere with norrnal feedin& and waterin&
practices< thereby introducin& artifacts. Thus< Cud&in& from the =dinste% studies< the intermittent
exposure aspect of hi&h(fre9uency studies is an additional factor(alon& with the characteristics of the
!Fs and the physiolo&ical state of the or&anism( that will affect the time course of the corticoid
response.
$han&es in the &ross wei&ht of the adrenal &land reflect chan&es in its acti%ity. :emokido%a
showed that + hour/day !F exposure of rats produced chan&es in adrenal wei&ht that were both time
and fre9uency dependent '12(11). 7fter 2 weeks< exposure at * 4;8< the adrenals of the exposed rats
were si&nificantly lar&er than those of the sham(irradiated &roup: after , months< howe%er< there were
no adrenal(wei&ht differences. 7t 62 ;8< adrenal wei&hts< in the exposed animals were ele%ated after
1 weekBs and 1 monthBs exposure< but followin& * monthsB exposure they were depressed. 7fter 8
monthsB exposure at +, ;8< adrenal wei&hts were similarly depressed below the correspondin&
control wei&ht. There are two reports of !F(induced histolo&ical chan&es in adrenal tissue '11< 1,).
The relati%e si8e of the innermost or reticular 8one of the adrenal cortex was decreased followin& *
monthsB exposure at 62 4;8 '11). !xposure to + *2 &auss< ,2 ;8< '1 hours/day) for + month resulted in
chan&es in the blood %essels in the reticular 8one alon& with some hemorrha&e and dystrophic cellular
chan&es '1,). Four monthsB exposure to ,222 %/m< ,2 ;8< produced no histolo&ical chan&es and no
chan&e in &ross adrenal wei&ht '6).
T+e T+yroid
Thyroid acti%ity is re&ulated by the thyroid(stimulatin& hormone 'T0;) secreted by pituitary.
!le%ated T0; le%els induce the thyroid to elaborate thyroxine< a hormone which functions in at least 22
en8yme systemsD one of its maCor influences in%ol%es the acceleration of protein synthesis. ;i&h(
fre9uency !Fs seem to ha%e a &eneral stimulatory effect on the thyroid. 7t 62 ;8< +,2 %/m< *
monthsB exposure resulted in an increase in the hei&ht of the follicular epithelium in rats(there was no
chan&e in thyroid wei&ht '11) . 7t * 4;8< + ,* <N?/cm2< an increase in thyroid wei&ht was found after
2 weeksB exposure< but after , monthsB exposure the thyroid wei&hts were normal '12). Followin& 1
monthsB exposure to ,222 ?/crnQ< cellular incorporation of radioacti%e iodine and serum proteinbound
iodine were increased by ,2 and ++6L< respecti%ely '1-). !lectron micro&raphs re%ealed enhanced
cellular acti%ity that was manifested by an increased number of cytosomes and an enlar&ed 4ol&i
apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum '1-).
7t ,2 ;8 thyroid acti%ity was depressed as Cud&ed by radioacti%e iodine uptake '6< 16).
$ontinuous exposure at 1(, k%/m depressed thyroid acti%ity after 1 months '6): when the field was
remo%ed thyroid acti%ity returned to normal within - weeks. Four months intermittent exposure '2
hr/day) at the same field le%el did not affect thyroid acti%ity< but depressed acti%ity was obser%ed at 6(
1, k%/m '16). #ssenkopp et al. found that both male and female rats exposed in utero to 2., ;8< 2.,(*2
&auss< had increased thyroid wei&hts at 12,(1*2 days of a&e '21). 3ased on this and se%eral other
physiolo&ical and beha%ioral studies< .ersin&er has implicated the thyroid as a si&nificant factor in the
ratBs response to a ma&netic field '22).
T+e Adrena! Med!!a and t+e Pancreatic I'!et'
The catecholamines< which are produced by the adrenal medulla< ha%e a si&nificant influence on
body metabolism. !pinephrine< for example< sets in motion a lar&e number of physiolo&ical
mechanisms re9uired to sustain %i&orous acti%ityD one of its conse9uences is the stimulation of 7$T;
secretion by the pituitary. The acti%ity of the adrenal medulla is primarily under the control of the
sympathetic ner%ous system.
=dinste% and his collea&ues '18) exposed rats to 222 &auss< ,2 ;8< for 21 hours< and then
sacrificed &roups of animals up to 11 days later and examined the catecholamine le%els in the
brainstem< hypothalamus< li%er< spleen< and heart. The results< presented in table -.* demonstrated a
phasic series of chan&es of concentration of the catecholamines in each of the tissuesD normalcy was
not re(established until 6(11 days after exposure.
-a)le B!2! C%-AC1OL%M+NA LA4ALS +N 7%- -+SSUAS OLLO.+N# -.AN-Y?OU7 1OU7S&
AD5OSU7A -O % ; O?1E M%#NA-+C +ALD
$hronic intermittent !F exposure also produced chan&es in adrenal(medulla physiolo&y.
Three(hour daily exposures of rats at 92 &auss< ,2 ;E< resulted in increased catecholamines in the
adrenals after - months '19). The adrenal(medulla cross(sectional area of rats exposed to 62 ;E< 1,2
%/m increased by -2L after * months exposure for 1 hour/day '11).
The pancreas contains a&&re&ations of cells called islets< which produce insulin< a hormone that
promotes the synthesis of carbohydrates< proteins< and nucleic acids. The pancreas is inner%ated by
sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers whose terminals are in contact with the cell membranes of the
islet cells. +n a study in%ol%in& the endocrine function of the pancreas< rats were exposed to 222 &auss<
,2 ;8< continuously '21 hr) or intermittently '-., hr/day for 6 days) '22). +n both instances< an insulin
insufficiency was produced. 3lood &lucose was not affected by the continuous exposure but it was
increased by *6L followin& the intermittent exposure.
S##ary
7drenal corticoid production can be influenced by !Fs< and the dynamics of the effect depend
on many factors: field stren&th< fre9uency< duration of exposure< whether the exposure is continuous or
intermittent< the ratio of the exposure to the nonexposure period in intermittent exposures< and the
or&anismBs predisposition. 0ince the adrenal(cortical response to !Fs is the same as that caused by
known stressor a&ents '2)< it follows that !Fs can also be biolo&ical stressors. #ther endocrine or&ans
that can be tri&&ered by !Fs include the thyroid< pancreatic islets< and the adrenal medulla.
There are many important but unanswered 9uestions. ?here within the or&anism does the !F(
tissue interaction occurG ?hat is the le%el of the interaction(or&an< cellular< or molecularG ?hat is the
temporal se9uence of e%ents and the factors which influence itG 7re the thyroid< adrenal< and pancreas
particularly sensiti%e to certain types of !Fs< or are the chan&es in these or&ans reflecti%e of an !F
interaction with more central structures(or bothG 0uppose< for example< that the thyroid is sensiti%e to a
particular !F: an !F(induced chan&e in thyroxine production would alter pituitary production of
T0;< but measurements of thyroxine and T0; would not< in themsel%es< tell us either the location<
le%el< or se9uence of the interaction. +ndeed< &i%en the per%asi%e chan&es that can be induced by !Fs
in the ner%ous system and the endocrine system(and in %iew of the intimate interconnection and
synchroni8ation of the two(there is a serious 9uestion concernin& whether it is methodolo&ically
possible to demonstrate a specific causal se9uence in many instances. The di%ersity of the reported
effects su&&ests that !F(induced chan&es in the endocrine system are mediated by the $/0.
;owe%er< until now< most in%esti&ations ha%e focused on the need to demonstrate an !F impact on
the endocrine system< and thereby to lay the foundation for more in(depth studies. #nly =dinste% has
e%en approached what mi&ht be called a systematic study of a particular !F '222 &auss< ,2 ;8).
?hen other !Fs are studied systematically< perhaps it will be possible to delineate the sites and the
le%el of the interaction 'see chapter 9).
ost of the endocrine system effects seemed to be compensatory rather than patholo&ical 'see
table -.2 for example). 3ut e%en thou&h the homeostatic mechanism &enerally brou&ht the corticoid
le%el back to normal< it does not follow that the animal became physiolo&ically e9ui%alent to what it
would ha%e been at that point in time if it had not been exposed to the !F. 7nimals that ha%e been
exposed to one stressor are known to ha%e a diminished capacity to deal with a second simultaneous or
contemporary stressor. Thus< animals that ha%e accommodated to an !F would< in &eneral< be more
susceptible to a second stress< compared to animals that experienced only the second stress.
There is< of course< a difference between the existence of an !F(induced biolo&ical effect< and
its detection in a &i%en experiment. +n our study< for example< the lack of a consistent statistically
si&nificant difference between the exposed and the sham(irradiated rats in each experiment su&&&ested
that uncontrolled %ariables were present in the study. .ossibilities include 8oonoses< and &enetic
predispositions. This can cause indi%idual animals< in an apparently homo&eneous population< to react
in completely opposite ways to the same !F. +n such cases there is no a%era&e response of the &roup
to the !F< despite the occurrence of indi%idual responses. The most sensiti%e experimental paradi&ms
for !F research< therefore< do not rely on the comparison of &roup a%era&es for the assessment of an
effect.
:espite the difficulties with experimental desi&n and interpretation< the e%idence clearly
indicates that exposure to !Fs can resuit in an acti%ation the neuro(endocrine axis that is expressed in
a &eneral way as the stress syndrome.
Re"erence'
1. Friedman< ;.< and $arey< 5.F. 19-9. The effects of ma&netic fields upon rabbit brains. 5hysiol!
<ehav! 1:,*9.
2. 0elye< ;. 19,2. Stress. ontreal: 7cta.
*. Friedman< ;.< and $arey< 5.F. 1962. 3ioma&netic stressor effects in primates. 5hysiol! <ehav! 9:161.
1. arino< 7.7.< 3er&er< T.F.< 7ustin< 3...< 3ecker< 5.#.< and ;art< F.K. 1966. +n %i%o
bioelectrochemical chan&es associated with exposure to extremely low fre9uency electric fields.
5hysiol! Chern! 5hys! 9:1**.
,. 4ro8a< ..< $armaciu< 5.< and :aneliuce< !. 196,. .roceedin&s of the /ational $on&ress of
.hysiolo&y< 3ucharest< 0ept.< 196,< p. ,1.
-. $armaciu< 5.< 4ro8a< ..< and :aneli%&< !. 1966. !ffects of a hi&h(tension electric field on the
secretion of antidiuretic hormone in rats. 5hysiologie 11:1.
6. .rochwatilo< F.?. 196-. !ffects of electroma&etic fields of mdustrial fre9uceny ',2 ;8) on the
endocrine system. 4rach! Delo! 11:1*,.
8. ;ackman< 4.< and 4ra%es< ;.3. $orticosterone le%els in !"F fields. +n press.
9. =dintse%< /.7.< and oro8< >.>. 196-. echanism of reacuon of the hypophyseo(adrenal system to
the stress of exposure to an alternatin& ma&enetic field C57S "/-98*< p.1.
12. :umanskiy< Au.:.< and 0handala< .4. 1961. The biolo&ical action and hy&enic si&nificance of
electroma&netic fields of superhi&h fre9uencies in densely populated areas. +n <iological effects
and health ha>ards of microwave radiation. ?arsaw: .olish edical .ublishers.
11. Ealyubouskaya< /... 1966. 3iolo&ical effects of millimeter(ran&e radio wa%es. 4rach! Delo! *:11-.
12. :emokido%a< /.@. 196*. #n the biolo&ical effects of continuous an intermittent microwa%e
radiation. C57S -**21< p. 11*.
1*. :emokido%a< /.@. 196*. The effects of radiowa%es on the &rowth of animals. C57S -**21< p. 2*6.
11. :emokido%a< /.@. 1966. The nature of chan&e in some metabolic indices in response to
nonthermal intensity radiowa%es. C57S 62121 p. -9.
1,. Tarakho%skiy< .".< 0amborska< Ae...< ed%ede%< 3..< Eadoro8hna< T.:.< #khronchuk< 3.>.<
and "ikhtenshteyn< !.. 196+. !ffect of constant and %ariable ma&netic fields on some indices
of physiolo&ical function and metabolic processes in white rats. C57S -28-,< p. *6.
1-. 3aranski< 0.< and $8erski< .. 196-. <iological effects of microwaves. 0troudbur&< .a.: :owden<
;utchinson and 5oss.
16. @o8yarin< +...< 4abo%ich< 5.:.< and .opo%ich< >.. 1966. !ffects on the or&anism of brief daily
exposure to low(fre9uency electroma&etic fields. C57S "/6298 p. 22.
18. 0akharo%a< 0.7.< 5y8ho%< 7.+.< and =dmtse%< /.7. 1966. 5eaction of central and peripheral
mediator elements of the sympathoadrenal system to a sin&le exposure to an alternatin&
ma&netic field. C57S 611*-< p. 21.
19. $hernyshe%a< # ./ .< and @holodub< F.7. 196,. !ffect of a %ariable ma&nenc field ',2 hert8) on
metabolic processes in the or&ans of rats. C57S "/,-1,< p. **.
22. @oleso%a< /.+.< >oloshina< !.+.< and =dinste%< /.7. 1968. .atho&enesis of insulin deficiency on
exposure to commercial(fre9uency alternatin& ma&enc field. C57S 6*666< p. 8.
21. #ssenkopp< @.:.< @oltek< ?.T.< and .ersin&er< .7. 1962. .renatal exposQ to an extremely low
fre9uency< low intensity rotatin& ma&etic field and increases in thyroid and testicle wei&ht in
rats. Develop! 5sycho)iol! ,:26,.
22 . .ersin&er< .7. 1961. 3eha%ioral< physiolo&ical and histolo&ical chan&es in rats exposed durin&
%arious de%elopmental sta&es to !"F ma&enc fields. +n AL and 4L electromagnetic field
2*. /o%itskiy< 7.7.< urasho%< 3.F.< @rasnobae%< ..!.< and arki8o%a< /.F. 1966. Functional state of
the hypothalamus(hypophysis(adrenal cortex system as a criterion in settin& standards for
superhi& fre9uency electroma&etic radiation. 4oen! Med! Eh! 12:,*.
Ele!"o#$%&e!' E&e"%(
$hapter 6: !ffects of !lectroma&netic !ner&y on the $ardio%ascular and ;ematolo&ical
0ystems
+ntroduction
The $ardio%ascular 0ystem
3lood
+mmune 5esponse
0ummary
5eferences
Introdction
The cardio%ascular system consists of the heart and the %ascular tree which distributes the blood
to the tissues of the body. 7lthou&h the heart is somewhat independent and free runnin&< it has neural
connections that can accelerate or depress its acti%ity. 7pplied !Fs could influence heart function by
chan&in& peripheral %ascular resistance< by a direct action on the electrical system of the heart muscle<
or by a secondary effect %ia the $/0. The blood is a fluid that contains a %ariety of cellular elements
includin& the red and white blood cells. 5ed cells carry dissol%ed oxy&en< picked up in the lun&s< to the
bodyBs other tissuesD the white cells< in addition to protectin& a&ainst in%adin& microor&anisms and
forei&n proteins< are intimately in%ol%ed in local inflammation and tissue(repair processes. 3oth cell
types are produced in the hematopoietic tissues 'located primarily in the bone marrow)< and they ha%e a
finite lifetime in the circulation before bein& replaced by new cells. The fluid portion of the blood is a
mixture of many chemicals with di%erse metabolic functions(chemical transport< blood clottin&< and
immune response are three examples.
Feedback systems that are only partially understood re&ulate both the cellular and non(cellular
composition of blood. For example< when an or&anism suffers a hemorrha&e or an infection< the
hematopoietic tissues are mobili8ed to produce the re9uired types of cells in the re9uired numbers. 7s
we ha%e seen in other areas< an !F impact on the blood could arise from a primary effect on the
tissue itself< or from a secondary effect< with the field affectin& the systems that re&ulate blood
composition.
T+e Cardio&a'c!ar Sy'te#
7n electrocardio&ram '!$4) is a recordin& of the electrical chan&es that accompany the cardiac cycleD
a typical !$4 is shown in Fi&ure 6.1.
ig! 8!"! -he structure and origin of the electrocardiogram! % lengthened 57 interval may indicate
impairment of conduction of impulses from the atrium to the ventricleF the I7S comple' is associated
with interventricular conduction!
?hen mice were exposed for 1222 hours to 122 k%/m< ,2 ;8< the .5 inter%al and the O50
duration were each len&thened by 19.,L '1). 4uinea pi&s exposed acutely '*2 min.) to the same field
exhibited sinusal arrhythmia that be&an 12(22 minutes after remo%al from the field< and lasted 12
minutes '1).
Fischer et al. exposed rats to ,2 and ,*22 %/m< ,2 ;8< and obser%ed bradycardia 'decreased
heart rate) at both field stren&ths as soon as 1, minutes after commencement of exposure '2). 7t the
lower field stren&th the effect was about 8L< and this decrease remained statistically si&nificant 'p R
2.21) after 2< 12< 21< and ,2 days of continuous exposure. 7t , *22 %/m the decrease in heart(rate after
1, minutesB exposure was about 1-L: it was not seen followin& 2< 12< or 21 days exposure< but it was
present 'about a ,L decrease) after ,2 days.
3radycardia was also reported in rabbits followin& exposure to ,2 ;8 electric fields '*)D at 1222
%/m< the heart(rate decreased by about 9L after *2(-2 days. The field also brou&ht about a reduction in
the amplitude of the !$4: the .< 5< and T wa%es were each reduced by 12(,2L. 7nother effect
induced by the 1222(%/m field was a reduction in the physiolo&ical reser%e capacity of the rabbits.
?hen the control animals were forced to remain in an erect position the heart(rate increased by 22(
*2L< but amon& the animals exposed to the field the ran&e was *1(1-L. /o effects on heart action
were seen at ,22 or 122 %/m.
icrowa%e !Fs ha%e produced alterations in heart function that are remarkably similar to the
chan&es obser%ed at ,2 ;8 '1). 3radycardia was obser%ed in rabbits after 2 weeksB< but not after 2
monthsB< exposure to 2., and * %/m. The amplitudes of the .< 5< and T wa%es in the exposed animals
were decreased by about ,2L followin& 2 weeksB and 2 monthsB exposure. ?hen pituitrin was inCected
intra%enously into control and exposed '1., mo.) rabbits< the resultin& coronary insufficiency was
stron&er< and disappeared more slowly< in the exposed animals.
+n preliminary studies< do&s were exposed to 1, k%/m< -2 ;8< for , hours to determine whether
such exposure altered the physiolo&ical response to a controlled hemorrha&e '12 ml/k&< o%er a *(
minute period) ',). The cardio%ascular chan&es 'p R 2.2,) at the end of the hemorrha&e were mean
arterial pressure fell an a%era&e of ,.9 mm;& in the control &roup and 1- mm;& in the exposed &roupD
arterial pulse pressure fell 2.9 mm;& in the control &roup and 12.9 mm;& in the exposed &roupD
a%era&e heart(rate decreased 9.* beats per minute in the control &roup< but increased ,6. , beats per
minute in the exposed &roup.
;eart action is one of se%eral factors that influence arterial blood pressure. +n studies in%ol%in&
the exposure of rats to 1,* N?/cm2< * 4;8 both a short(term hypertensi%e effect and a lon&(term
hypotensi%e effect were reported '-). :urin& the first month of the 1 hour/day exposure re&imen an
increased arterial pressure was seen: be&innin& with the second monthBs exposure< the arterial pressure
of the exposed animals was consistently lower than that of the controls for the next , months. ?hen the
exposure was terminated the arterial(pressure difference disappeared within about 1 month.
$han&es ha%e been reported in the cellular composition of the blood of rats< mice< do&s< &uinea
pi&s< and rabbits followin& exposure to both hi&h and low fre9uency !Fs '6(1,).
4ra%es '6) exposed mice continuously to 2, and ,2 k%/m for - weeks and found that the white
blood cell count '?3$) was increased by 22L and --L respecti%ely. The red blood cell count '53$)
decreased by -L and 12L at the respecti%e fields< but these chan&es were not reported statistically
si&nificant.
5ats exposed intermittently '*2 min/day) to 122 k%/m< ,2M ;8< for 8 weeks< exhibited ele%ated
neutrophil le%els and depressed +ymphocyte le%els '8). The same results were found followin& 2< ,< and
6 weeksB exposure at , hours/day. +n do&s< alteration of the blood profile was seen followin& exposure
at 12(2, k%/m '8).
eda '9) found a +ymphocyte decrease and a neutrophil and eosinophil increase in rats after a
sin&le -(hour exposure to 122 k%/m< ,2 ;8. 7 similar blood picture was found in mice after ,22( and
1222(hour exposures to 122 k%/m '9). 7 si&nificant increase in ?3$ was found in rabbits that had
been exposed to ,2 k%/m< ,2 ;8< for * months '11).
7s has been the case with almost all biolo&ical indicators< the time course of the chan&es in
blood parameters followin& !F exposure was not the same in each test animal '11). 4uinea pi&s were
exposed to *4;8< 12 min/day< for *2 days '11)< and both the irradiated and the sham(exposed animals
were sampled before and after each daily exposure bout. The sham(exposed &roup re%ealed no
si&nificant chan&es< but animals exposed to 2, or ,2 N?/cm2 exhibited !F(induced alterations with
time dependencies that differed with each animal. For a &i%en exposure duration< the ?3$ was abo%e
the normal le%el in some animals< and below it in othersD as a result< the a%era&e %alues %aried little
durin& the study. 7t ,22 N?/cm2< howe%er< e%en on the a%era&e there was a pronounced leukopenia
and +ymphocytosis.
4onshar exposed rats to 2.1 4;8< 6 hours/day for *2 days and studied the effect on the le%els of
alkaline phosphatase and &lyco&en 'two indicators of cellular acti%ity) in the neutrophils '12).
4lyco&en increased followin& * daysB exposure at both 12 and ,2 N?/cm2D after 6 daysB exposure it
decreased to the control le%el. +n contrast to this apparent adaptational response< there was a sustained
depressin& effect on &lyco&en content at ,22 N?/cm2 which was still obser%ed after *2 daysB exposure.
7t all three intensities< the alkaline phosphatase le%els first increased then decreased below the control
le%el within *2 days.
Ferrokinetic studies demonstrated that iron metabolism was affected and that erythrocyte
production 'measured by ,9Fe incorporation) was si&nificantly decreased in rabbits exposed to 2.9,
4;8< *222N?/cm2< for 2 hours daily '1,). The effects seen after *6 days of irradiation with a pulsed
!F were comparable in ma&nitude to those seen after 69 days exposure to a continuous(wa%e !F.
5ats exposed to 1*2 &auss< ,2 ;8< for 1 hours/day< exhibited a 1,L reduction in 53$ after 1
monthBs exposure: the 53$ le%el returned to normal within a month after remo%al of the field '12).
3ecause comparable results were obtained usin& widely different !Fs< the blood(composition
studies su&&ested to us that the !F(induced alterations were mostly transient compensatory reactions
of the body to a chan&e in the electroma&netic en%ironment. To determine the relation between
ma&nitude and direction of the response and the conditions of application of the external !F< we
looked for chan&es in hematolo&ical parameters of mice due to short(term exposure to a full(body
%ertical -2 ;8 electric field of , k%/m '1*). To ensure maximum statistical sensiti%ity e%ery mouse was
sampled twice< once after exposure to the field for 2 days and once followin& a 2(day nonexposure
period. There were four consecuti%e experiments< two with males and two with females. +n each there
were two &roups: one for which the control period preceded the exposure period 'nF(SF)< and one in
which the pattern was re%ersed 'F(SnF). #n Hday 1H of each experiment the mice were di%ided into the
two &roups and the electric field was applied to one(half the population. #n Hday *H the blood
parameters were measured in each mouse and immediately thereafter the exposed and nonexposed
&roups were interchan&ed. #n Hday ,H the blood parameters were measured a&ain and the mice were
killed.
3lood was collected from the ophthalmic %essels and it was therefore necessary< before
applyin& the field< to determine the influence of the first blood collection procedure on the %alues
measured after the second such procedure. ?e measured the blood parameters in two &roups of mice<
one male and one female< under conditions that were identical in all respects to those employed durin&
the field(exposure portion of the study< and we found that the method of blood collection had a
tendency to produce hi&her 53$< ;ct< and $> %alues and lower %alues of ;b< $;< and $;$
'Table 6.1).
B!ood
-a)le 8!"! 5A7CAN- C1%N#A +N 1AM%-OLO#+C%L 5%7%MA-A7S
The results obtained in connection with the application of the electric field are shown in table
6.1. +n each experiment< 53$ on Hday ,H was si&nificantly less than on Hday *<H re&ardless of whether
the inter%al between Hday *H and Hday ,H was an exposure period or a nonexposure period. 7 decline in
;ct paralleled the 53$ chan&es< but ;b showed no consistent chan&es. $> showed a tendency to
decrease< but the other computed indices both increased< since the cell loss o%ershadowed any decrease
in hemo&lobin concentration.
The trends in the computed indices< and especially the chan&es in 53$ and ;ct< were opposite
to those induced by our method of blood collection alone. +t follows< therefore< that the applied electric
field had a physiolo&ical impact. The uni9ue feature of the obser%ed responses is that< for each
parameter< a chan&e in the same direction occurred with both the F(SnF and nF(SF &roups. 7n analysis
of %ariance confirmed that in all four experiments there was an effect associated with time but not with
the order of field application. This indicated that the animals responded to the chan&e in their electrical
en%ironment< not to the electric field itself.
There are two reports of the effects of !F on the blood &lobulin '1-< 16). ?hen rats were
exposed to *222 %/m at 1 @;8 for 8 and 22 days '22 min./day)< a reduction in coa&ulation acti%ity
'expressed as a len&thenin& of the rethrombin time< a drop in plasma tolerance for heparin< and a
decrease in prothrombin consumption)< and a rise in the thromboplastic and fibrinolytic acti%ity of the
blood were found '1-). ?e found that rats exposed to :$ electric fields of 2.8(19.6 k%/m had altered
blood(protein distributions '16). The &eneral trend was towards ele%ated albumin and decreased
&amma &lobulin le%els 'expressed as a percent of the total blood proteins).
#ne of the fundamental roles of the immune system is to protect the host from bacterial
infection. 3oth hi&h( and low(fre9uency !Fs ha%e been shown capable of impairin& resistance to
infection '18< 19). 08mi&ielski et al. '18) studied the action of an !F on the &ranulopoietic reaction in
rabbits that had been subCected to an acute staphylococcal infection. 5abbits were exposed to *222
N?/cm2< * 4;8< - hours/day< for - or 12 weeks< and then were infected intra%enously with 0. aureus
?acherts. Four to six days after infection the -(weeks exposed animals displayed stron&er
&ranulocytosis than did the control animals< but this was re%ersed by the end of the obser%ation period
'Fi&. 6.27). These chan&es were accompanied by a consistent reduction in the bone(marrow reser%e
pool 'Fi&. 6.23)< and a depressed +yso8yme acti%ity 'Fi&. 6.2$). 7nimals exposed for * months
displayed consistently depressed &ranulocytosis after the staph infection 'Fi&. 6.27)< and both the bone(
marrow reser%e pool and the blood serum +yso8yme acti%ity were lowered durin& the entire
postinfection period 'Fi&. 6.23 and $). The results were interpreted to mean that the !F(exposed
animals lacked the reser%e capacity to adapt to the infection as efficiently as the control animals: fewer
&ranulocytes could be mobili8ed< and there was a resultin& decline in +yso8yme acti%ity. +n related in
vitro studies< rabbit &ranulocytes were exposed to 1222(,222 N?/cm2 for 1,(-2 minutes to assess the
effect on the cell membrane '22). 7n increase in the number of dead cells and a rise in the liberation of
+ysosomal en8ymes were found.
I##ne Re'.on'e
7n immune response is tri&&ered by the in%asion of a physical a&ent and it is characteri8ed by
the appearance of circulatin& antibodies 'humoral immunity)< and the emer&ence of immunolo&ically
committed cells 'cellular immunity). 5eco&nition of the intrudin& a&ent is accomplished by the
antibodies 'produced by lymphocytes)< and the subse9uent pha&ocytic acti%ity is carried out by
neutrophils< monocytes< and macropha&es. Thus< both humoral and cellular mechanisms are intimately
meshed in the functionin& of the immune(response system.
Fi&. 6.2. 4ranulopoietic reaction in infected rabbits exposed to an !F.
7 222 &auss< ,2 ;8 !F also altered the natural resistance to infection '19). Followin& !F
exposure< mice were inCected intraperitoneally with %arious concentrations of "isteria. The initial cell
concentration re9uired to kill half the animals was about one(fifth of that which produced the same
killin& effect in the controls. 7dditionally< the exposed animals exhibited more extensi%e bacterial
&rowth in the +ymph nodes< li%er< and spleen< and the pha&ocytic acti%ity of their blood cells was
decreased.
There are se%eral reports of altered pha&ocytic capability in animals exposed to hi&h(fre9uency
!Fs '21(21). ?hen rats were exposed intermittently o%er a -(month period to a pulsed !F it was
reported that neutrophil pha&ocytic acti%ity and blood(plasma bacteriocidal acti%ity 'determined usin&
a&ar cultures of !. coli) were both decreased '21). 0imilar results were seen followin& the exposure of
rats to 122 and 22,2 %/m< at 11.88 ;8 '22): at both field stren&ths< there was a marked increase in
pha&ocytic acti%ity of the neutrophils durin& the first monthBs exposure followed by a prolon&ed period
of inhibited acti%ity which lasted until the end of the 12(month exposure period.
0handala and >ino&rado% also studied the effect of an !F '1(,22 N?/cm2< 2.1 4;8< for *2
days) on the pha&ocytic action of neutrophils in peripheral blood '2*). =sin& &uinea pi&s< they found
that the percent of killed microbes increased followin& exposure to 1(12 N?/cm2D and decreased at ,2
and ,22 N?/cm2D the most pronounced effects occurred at 1 N?/cm2 . !F(induced alterations in the
complement titer in blood serum were also found. 3oth immunolo&ical indicators returned to normal
within two months of the cessation of irradiation. 7 similar inhibition of antibody production was
found in rabbits followin& exposure at ,2 N?/cm2 '2,).
+n later studies< 0handala et al. reported a si&nificant disturbance in the immunolo&ical system
of rats exposed intermittently to ,22 N?/cm2 for *2 days '2-): blast cells in peripheral blood< and the
rosette(formin& cells in the spleen and thymus were both altered followin& !F exposure.
!Fs ha%e been reported to alter the response of immunocompetent +ymphocytes '26< 28).
ice< exposed intermittently to ,22 N?/cm2 2.9, 4;8 for - and 12 weeks< were challen&ed with an
inCection of sheep red blood cells and the immune response was characteri8ed by the number of
+ymphocytes and plasmocytes in the +ymph nodes. +n the -(weeks exposed animals< the time course of
the antibody(formin& cells population was si&nificantly different from that of the controlsD the
maximum difference occurred -(8 days after inCection of the anti&en< and the effect was no lon&er
obser%ed after 22 days '26). !xposure for 12 weeks prior to inCection resulted in no difference in
immune response as compared to the controls< indicatin& that the mice had become adapted to the field.
The immunolo&ical reaction of &uinea pi&s exposed to an atmosphere of formaldehyde or
carbon monoxide was altered when the animals were pretreated for 1 month with an !F ',(,2
N?/cm2< 2.1 4;8< 6 hr./day< for 1 mo.) '28).
3(lymphocytes 'responsible for humoral antibody synthesis) and neutrophils are each deri%ed
from bone(marrow stem cells. $8erski et al. reported that &uinea pi&s subCected to a pulsed !F '2.9
4;8< 1222 N?/cm2< 1 hr./day for 11 days) exhibited an abnormal circadian rhythm of bone(marrow
stem(cell mitoses '*2). +n a comparable study in%ol%in& &uinea pi&s< it was found that the !F altered
me&akaryocytic acti%ity in the bone marrow '29)D it stimulated increased le%els of me&akaryocyte
destruction< and a compensatory proliferation of me&akaryoblasts.
+nflammation is a local response of %ascular tissue to irritation or inCuryD it in%ol%es the passa&e
of fluid containin& ?3$s and proteins from the blood into the tissues. This nonspecific protecti%e
response was found to be susceptible to an !F '*1). 7n aseptic inflammation in the peritoneal ca%ity
of mice was induced by the implantation of a &lass slipD in the resultin& forei&n(body reaction the &lass
became co%ered with a cell monolayer< but this response was delayed in mice that had been exposed to
:$ ma&netic field of -22(*822 &auss.
0ince 196-< in%esti&ators at 3attelle "aboratories ha%e consistently failed to obser%e -2(;8
biolo&ical effects in many areas includin& the cardio%ascular< hematolo&ical and immune(response
systems '*2).
S##ary
The effects of !Fs on the cardio%ascular system include bradycardia< decreased physiolo&ical
reser%e capacity< and alterations in blood pressure. ;eart action may be particularly sensiti%e to !F: a
decrease in heart(rate was seen after 1, minutes exposure to ,2 %/m< -2 ;8 '8). The chan&es in the low(
fre9uency studies were strikin&ly similar to those reported in humans who were occupationally exposed
to power(fre9uency fields 'see chapter 12).
0e%eral studies ha%e reported impacts of !Fs on cellular and noncellular components of
blood. 7s we ha%e seen pre%iously< similar kinds of chan&es occurred followin& exposure to widely
different !Fs '12< 1,)< and the direction of the chan&es differed with each animal. '11). The !F
effects on 53$ and ?3$ were time dependentD in the case of 53$< there is e%idence to indicate that
animals can respond to a chan&e in electroma&netic en%ironment '1*) as well as to the ma&nitude of the
!F. This is a &ood a&reement with results described earlier showin& that intermittent exposure
produced different< usually &reater< reactions than did continuous exposure to the same !F.
7n or&anism whose physiolo&ical reser%e capital is bein& expended in a process of adaptation to
an en%ironmental a&ent would be expected to exhibit a reduced capacity to deal with a second
simultaneous a&ent. This is exactly what has been seen in the immune(response studies: the fields
impaired resistance to infection< decreased pha&ocytic acti%ity< and altered both cellular and humoral
immunocompetence.
Re"erence'
1. 3lanchi< :.< $edrini< ".< $eria< F.< eda< !.< and 5e< 4.4. 196* . !xposure of
mammals to stron& ,2(;8 electric fields. %rch! isiol! 62:**.
2. Fishcer< 4.< ?aibel< 5.< and 5ichter< Th. 196-. +nfluence of line(fre9uency electric
fields on the heart rate of rats. E)l! <akt! 1yg!$ + %)t! Orig! < 1-2:*61.
*. .rokh%atilo< Ae.>. 1966. 5eduction of functional capacities of the heat followin&
exposure to an electroma&netic field of industrial fre9uency. C57S 62121< p. 6-.
1. 0erdiuk< 7.. 196,. 0tate of the cardio%ascular system under the chronic effect of
low(intensity electroma&netic fields. C57S "/,-1,< p. 8.
,. 4ann< :. 196-. inal 7eport< !lectric .ower 5esearch +nstitute .roCect 5. 98(22<
.alo 7lto< $a.
-. arko%< >.>. 196*. The effects of continuous and intermittent microwa%e radiation
on wei&ht and arterial pressure dynamics of animals in chronic experiments. C57S
-**21< p. 9,.
6. 4ra%es< ;.3.< "on&< ..:.< and .o8naniak< :. 1969. 3iolo&ical effects of -2(;8
alternatin&(current fields: a cheshire cat phenomenonG +n <iological effects of
e'tremely low fre(uency electromagnetic fields< :#!(,2< p. 181. ?ashin&ton
:.$.: =.0. :ept. !ner&y.
8. $erretilli< ..< >eicsteinas< 7.< ar&onato< >.< $antone< 7.< >iola< :.< ala&uti< $.<
and .re%i< 7. 1969. 1222k> proCect: research on the biolo&ical effects of ,2(;8
electric fields in +taly. +n <iological effects of e'tremely low fre(uency
electromagnetic fields< :#!(,2< p. 211. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. !ner&y.
9. eda< !.< $errescia< >.< and $appa< 0. 1961. A'perimental results from e'posure to
%C electric fields< 3ulletin /o. *< p. 19. $olo&ne: +nternational 0ection of the
+007 for the .re%ention of #ccupational 5isks due to !lectricity.
12. Tarakho%skiy< .".< 0amborska< Ae...< ede%de%< 3..< Eadors8hna< T.:.<
#khronchuk< 3.>.< and "ikhtenshteyn< !.. 1961. !ffect of constant and %ariable
ma&netic fields on some indices of physiolo&ical function and metabolism in
white rats. C57S -2 8-,< p. *6.
11. @artso%nykh< 0.7.< and Faytelberh(3lank< >.5. 1961. $han&es in the peripheral
blood of 4uinea pi&s induced by a three(centimeter electroma&netic field. C57S
-1,*6< p. *1.
12. 4onchar< /.. 1968. :ifferential effects of electroma&netic ener&y in the super(hi&h
fre9uency ran&e on cytochemical blood indices. C57S "/69,6< p. 12.
1*. arino< 7.7.< $ullen< F..< 5eichmanis< .< 3ecker< 5.#.< and ;art< F.K. 1982
0ensiti%ity to chan&e in electrical en%ironment: a new bioelectric effect. %m! C!
5hysiol! 2*9 '5e&ulatory +nte&rati%e $omp. .hysiol. 8)< 5121.
11. "e 3ars< ;.< 7ndre< 4.< and $abanes< F. 1966. .reliminary studies on the biolo&ical
effects of an electric field. +n Contri)ution to first aid and treatment of in=uries
due to electrical currents< p. 81. Friebur&: 5esearch +nstitute for !lectropatholo&y.
1,. $8erski< ..< .aprocka(0lonka< !.< 0iekier8ynski< .< and 0tolarska< 7. 1961.
+nfluence of microwa%e radiation on the nematopietic system. +n <iological
effects and health ha>ards of microwave radiation< p. -6. ?arsaw: .olish edical
.ublishers.
1-. @uksinskiy< >.Ae. 1968. $oa&ulati%e properties of blood and tissues of the
cardio%ascular system followin& exposure to an electroma&netic field. C57S
61,9,< p. 1.
16. arino< 7.7.< 3er&er< T.F.< itchell< F.T.< :uhacek< 3.7.< 3ecker< 5.:. 1961.
!lectric field effects in selected biolo&ic systems. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! 2*8:1*-.
18. 08mi&ielski< 0.< FelCas8ewic8< F.< and ?iranowska< . 196,. 7cute staphylococcal
infections in rabbits irradiated with *(4;8 microwa%es. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci!
216:*2,.
19. =dinste%< Au./. 19-,. The effect of a ma&netic field on the natural resistance of
white mice to "isteria infection. C57S -28-,< p. 26.
22. 08mi&ielski< 0. 196,. !ffect of +o(cm '* 4;8) electroma&netic radiation
'microwa%es) on &ranulocytes in %itro. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! 216:26,.
21. 0okolo%a< +... 196*. The effects of combined exposure to microwa%es and soft K(
rays on immunobiolo&ical reacti%ity of animals. C57S -** 21< p. 1*9.
22. >olko%a< 7...< and Fukalo%a< .... 196*. $han&es in certain protecti%e reactions of
an or&anism under the influence of short wa%es in experimental and industrial
conditions. C57S -**21< p. 1-8.
2* . 0handala< .4.< and >ino&rado%< 4.+. 1969. +mmunolo&ical effects of microwa%e
action. C57S 629,-< p. 1-.
21. 0erdiuk< 7.. 19-9. 3iolo&ical effect of low(intensity ultrahi&h fre9uency fields.
4rach! Delo! 228.
2,. :rono%< +.0.< and @iritse%a< 7.:. 1961. +mmunolo&ical chan&es in animals followin&
lon&(term exposure to super hi&h fre9uency electroma&netic fields. #ig! Sanit!
*-:-*.
2-. 0handala< .4.< :umanskiy< >.:.< 5udne%< .l.< !rsho%a< ".@.< and "os< 1969.
0tudy of nonioni8in& microwa%e radiation effects upon the central ner%ous system
and beha%ior reactions. Anviron! 1ealth 5erspect! *2:11,.
26. $8erski< .. 196,. icrowa%e effects on the blood(formin& system with particular
reference to the +ymphocyte. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! 616:2*2.
28. >ino&rado%< 4.+. 1966. :istincti%e reactions of the bodyBs immunolo&ical system to
the combined effects of physical and chemical en%ironmental factors. C57S
611*-< p. 1,.
29. #bukhan< !.+. 1966. 5eacti%ity of bone marrow me&akaryocytes in albino rats
exposed to low(intensity microwa%e electroma&netic fields. C57S "/6298< p. 6.
*2. $8erski< ..< .aprocka(0lonka< !.< and 0tolarska< 7. 1961. icrowa%e irradiation and
the circadian rhythm of bone marrow cell mitosis. C! Microwave 5ower 9:*1.
*1. $olako%< ;.< and 4enko%< :. 196,. $ytolo&ical in%esti&ation of the cells of the
peritoneal ca%ity after ma&netic field action. olia Medica 16:89.
*2 . .hillips< 5.:. 196-(69. <iological effects of high strength electric fields on small
la)oratory animals. 3attelle .acific /orthwest "aboratories. First 5eport
'0eptember 196-)< 0econd 5eport 'ay 1966)< Third 5eport '7pril 1968)< Fourth
5eport ':ecember 1969).
Ele!"o#$%&e!' E&e"%(
$hapter 8: !ffects of !lectroma&netic !ner&y on 3iolo&ical Functions
+ntroduction
+ntermediary etabolism
5eproduction< 4rowth and ;ealin&
uta&enesis
=ncontrolled >ariables
0ummary
5eferences
Introdction
+n the exploration of a new field of research< many experiments una%oidably are Hfishin&
expeditionsH in which a lar&e number of %ariables are assayed. #ften< %aluable information is obtained
in unexpected areas under such circumstances< and this leads to the problem of piecin& to&ether di%erse
results into a self(consistent %iewpoint. +n this chapter we re%iew reports of effects in the areas of
metabolism< reproduction< &rowth and healin&< and muta&enicity.
Inter#ediary Metabo!i'#
etabolic indices of carbohydrate metabolism are sensiti%e to !Fs '1(-). :umanskiy and
Tomashe%skaya '1) exposed rats to 2.1 4;8 '2 hr./day)< for up to 1 months. 7t 122 and 1222 N?/cm2
the animals exhibited a series of biochemical alterations in li%er tissue that included a decline in
cytochrome oxidase acti%ity< an increase in &lucose(-(phosphate dehydro&enase acti%ity< and an
acti%ation of mixed(function oxidases in the microsomal fraction of the tissue. The lar&est chan&es
were seen after 1 monthBs irradiation< followin& which there was a tendency for the %arious en8yme
le%els to return to baseline. !n8yme acti%ities were unaffected by exposure to 12 N?/cm2. +n another
study< :umansky et al. reported an increase in blood &lucose in humans followin& exposure to 1, k%/m
,2 ;8< +., hours/day for - days '2).
$hernyshe%a and @holodo% studied the effect of a 92(&auss< ,2 ;8 ma&netic field on se%eral
aspects of carbohydrate< protein< and nucleic acid metabolism in the rat '*). They found !F(induced
alterations in each area< includin& chan&es in li%er &lyco&en< elimination of ammonia< &lutamine
content in the heart< and nucleic(acid le%els in brain and li%er 'Table 8.1).
-a)le :!"! MA-%<OL+C 5%7%MA-A7S +N 7%-S /in mgJ0 AD5OSAD O7 B MON-1S -O 96
#%USS /2 hrGday0
+n a study of muscle metabolism '1)< lactate dehydro&enase acti%ity in skeletal and cardiac
muscle of rats was measured by disk electrophoresis. There was an increase in the en8ymeBs acti%ity in
both kinds of muscle 1(2 days after exposure to 222 &auss< ,2 ;8< for 21 hoursD histolo&ical chan&es
indicati%e of &lycolytic processes were also found. These obser%ations were consistent with an earlier
report of impaired functional acti%ity of muscle followin& !F exposure ',). 7fter 1 month< rabbits
exposed to *2(12 k%/m< 2, ;8< were unable to lift a wei&ht as lar&e as that lifted by the nonexposed
rabbits.
The sensiti%ity of metabolic parameters to !Fs is underscored by studies that in%ol%e !Fs
which ha%e intensities comparable to typical en%ironmental fieldsD the athewson et al. study '-) is a
blood example. 5ats were exposed for 28 days to 2< 12< 22< ,2 and 122 %/m in three replicate
experiments< followin& which complete blood chemistries were performedD the serum &lucose le%els
are listed in table 8.27. 7lthou&h some differences between the control and exposed &roups were seen<
no trend or dose(effect relationship was manifested and conse9uently< the authors re&arded the data as
ha%in& failed to show a biolo&ical effect of the !F '-). 3ut the -2(;8 electric field in the test ca&es
was 2.18(9.1, %/m< dependin& on the particular test ca&e location '8). 7s a conse9uence< the 1 , (;8<
2%/m &roup is more properly %iewed as a control &roup in relation to the ,2(122 %/m exposed &roups.
?hen we did this< the athewson data re%ealed si&nificant increases in serum &lucose in each replicate
'Table 8.23). 'This approach to the athewson data also su&&ests the existence of effects on other
parameters< includin& &lobulins< protolipids< and tri&lycerides.)
-a)le :!,! %4A7%#A #LUCOSA LA4ALS +N -17AA 7A5L+C%-A AD5A7+MAN-S
$ellular bioener&etics can be altered by !Fs '12(11): the chan&es seem to be adapti%e in
nature< and to depend on the exposure le%el and duration. 7 sin&le 12(minute exposure at 2, N?/cm2<
12 4;8< produced a decrease in the phosphorylation effecti%eness factor '7:./#) in li%er
mitochondria< and an increase in respiratory control '5$) in kidney mitochondria '12). 7fter ten such
exposures< the oxy&en consumption and 5$ were both increased in kidney mitochondria. 7 sin&le
exposure at 122 N?/cm2 caused a rise in oxy&en consumption and an increase in 7:./# in li%er
mitochondria and a decrease in 5$ in kidney mitochondria '12). 7fter ten such exposures< almost all
the indices of oxidati%e phosphorylation in both mitochondria returned to normal< thereby su&&estin&
that the en8yme systems had adapted to the !F. 7 decrease in 5$ was also seen in &uinea pi&
mitochondria exposed in %itro to 1,, %/m< -2 ;8 '11).
5ats were exposed to 12< 2,< ,2< 122< ,22 and 1222 N?/cm2< at 2.1 4;8< as follows: 12
minutes per day< * times per day< , days per week< for 1 months 'intended to simulate the exposure
recei%ed from household microwa%e o%ens) '12). +t was found that the !F altered respiration and
phosphorylation in li%er mitochondriaD there was an increase of nonphosphorylatin& oxidation of
metabolites of the @rebs cycle< and a decrease in the oxy&en consumption rates durin& phosphorylatin&
respiration. 7 decrease in oxy&en consumption rate was also found after 22 daysB exposure to 1222
N?/cm2< 1- 4;8 '1*).
+n a study of skeletal(muscle metabolism< rats were exposed to *22(922 &auss< 6 @;8 for up to
- months '1., hr./day) '11). $reatine phosphate and 7T. le%els decreased< and 7:. le%els increased
followin& exposure. The chan&es were consistent with both an increased ener&y re9uirement< and an
ad%erse effect on 7T. formation. #n the basis of in %itro studies of oxidati%e phosphorylation and
oxy&en consumption in%ol%in& tissues from the exposed animals< the authors fa%ored the latter
possibility. Two conse9uences of the obser%ed chan&es in cell bioener&etics in%ol%ed carbohydrate and
nitro&en metabolism. :ecreased &lyco&en le%els were found< indicatin& a compensatory &lyco&enolysis
and< hence< an enhanced production of hi&h(ener&y phosphate compounds. 0econdly< !F exposure
produced an increase in tissue ammonia le%els with no correspondin& increase in &lutamine synthesis.
This may ha%e been due to the 7T. deficiency< althou&h the influence of other factors in%ol%ed in
&lutamine production(&lutamic acid and man&anese for example(could not be excluded.
0handala and /o8racher '1,) reported that kidney function and water(salt metabolism in rabbits
'diuresis< chloride elimination< acid(base balance) were altered followin& the exposure to ,2 and ,22
N?/cm2< 2.1 4;8. +n a comparable study '1-)< it was found that similar kinds of chan&es 'urinary
le%els of potassium< sodium and nitro&en) were sex dependentD most of the metabolite le%els were
increased in females and decreased in males.
The altered nitro&en le%els '1-) su&&ested an !F effect on protein synthesis. This was
confirmed by iro et al. '16) who found that 1-2 hoursB exposure of mice to 2222 N?/cm2< * 4;8<
resulted in an increase in protein synthesis in the li%er< thymus< and spleen as determined by
cytohistolo&ical techni9ues.
The most important study to date on lipid metabolism was performed by :ietrich 3eischer and
his collea&ues '18). >olunteers< confined for up to 6 days< were exposed to a 1(&auss ma&netic field< 1,
;8< for 21 hours: they did not know which 21(hour period durin& their confinement would be chosen
for the application of the !F. +t was found that the serum tri&lycerides in 9 of 12 exposed subCects
reached a maximum %alue 1(2 days after !F exposure 'Fi&. 8.1)D similar trends were not seen in any
of the control subCects '18). easurement of respiratory 9uotients for basal conditions established that
the hyperlipemia could not ha%e been caused by a chan&e in the proportion of fats and carbohydrates
bein& oxidi8ed. 7lso< pre%ious work had shown that confinement alone had no effect on serum
tri&lycerides. This su&&ested that the obser%ed effect may ha%e been due to a chan&e in the acti%ity of
one or se%eral of the en8ymes in%ol%ed in lipid homeostatis< perhaps tri&lyceride lipase. The 1(2 day
latency su&&ested that the action of the !F in%ol%ed an en8yme precursor< not the en8yme itself 'the
!F influence would then be felt only after existin& en8yme stores had been depleted).

ig! :!"! %verage serum triglyceride levels of e'posed and control su)=ects!
There are se%eral other studies in%ol%in& low(fre9uency ma&netic field. There are se%eral other
studies in%ol%in& low(fre9uency ma&netic field effects on fat metabolism '19< 22). 5abbits that were
maintained on a hi&h(cholesterol diet were exposed to the field for , weeks and then examined for
serum lipid le%els and aortic pla9ue formation '19). 7 reduction of both cholesterinemia and pla9ue
formation was found in the exposed animals. 7 reduction in blood cholesterol ',2 m&/ml on the
a%era&e) was also reported in ten human subCects followin& local application of a ma&netic field '22).
>itamin 3- 'pyridoxine) is in%ol%ed in the nonoxidati%e de&radation of amino acids< synthesis
of unsaturated fats< and the hydrolysis of &lyco&en. !xposure of rats to ,62 N?/cm2< 2 4;8< for 1,
days '* hr./day) led to a decrease in %itamin 3- le%els in blood< brain< li%er< kidney< and heartD the
le%els of the %itamin in skeletal muscle increased '21) 'Table 8.*).
-a)le :!2! AAC- O AM ON 4+-%M+N <B LA4ALS +N 7%- -+SSUAS
Trace le%els of many metallic elements are found in body tissuesD they are known to take part in
en8yme acti%ation< formation of proteins< redox reactions< and possibly in other biochemical processes.
3oth hi&h( and low(fre9uency !Fs ha%e been found capable of alterin& body trace(element
distribution '22(21). 4roups of 12 rats each were exposed to 2.1 4;8 at 12< 122< and 1222 N?/cm2< 8
hours/day for * months. 7t the end of the exposure period< the animals were sacrificed and the le%els of
copper< man&anese< nickel and molybdenum in the maCor or&ans were determined by optical
spectroscopy. $han&es in the le%el and distribution of all four elements were found 'Table 8.1). The
copper le%el decreased in both li%er and kidney< possibly as a result of increased synthesis of
ceruloplasmin(this would be consistent with the obser%ed increase of copper in blood. There was<
&enerally< an increase in copper in those or&ans that use the element in hemopoiesis and redox
processes< possibly indicatin& a basic compensatory response to !F radiation. The copper content of
hard tissue was %irtually unchan&ed by the field.
-a)le :!3! -7%CA ALAMAN-S +N 7%- -+SSUAS OLLO.+N# AD5OSU7A %- ,!3 #1>
+n comparison to copper< man&anese metabolism was less influenced by the !FD it increased
in most or&ans< and decreased in hard tissue.
Teeth and bone were the principal reser%oirs for molybdenum< and they exhibited no chan&e in
molybdenum concentration except followin& exposure to the hi&hest stren&th !F. +n contrast< the
molybdenum le%els in the soft tissues< which accounted for less than 12L of the total body
molybdenum< were altered at e%en 12 N?/cm2.
The content of nickel in the %arious or&ans was influenced by each !F intensity. +t rose in
some tissues< and fell in othersD the heart< which exhibited a sixfold increase< was the most stron&ly
affected tissue.
Trace element analysis has also been performed on rats exposed to low(fre9uency !Fs.
Followin& exposure to 1< 2< 1< 6< and 1, k%/m< ,2 ;8< for 1 months '2 hr./day)< si&nificant chan&es
were found in the distributions of copper< molybdenum< and iron amon& the tissues< e%en at 1 k%/m< the
lowest field stren&th employed '2*) 'Table 8.,). +n subse9uent studies by the same authors< similar
chan&es were found after exposure to 6(1, k%/m for only *2 minutes/day '21).
Re.rodction0 Growt+ and 1ea!in,
0tudies of the cells and or&ans of the reproducti%e system ha%e re%ealed a &eneral debilitatin&
effect of !F exposure '2,(*2). 7ltered spermato&enesis was reported in rats followin& exposure to
,222 %/m< ,2 ;8< for up to 1., months '2,). 7fter 1., monthsB exposure< the number of atypical sperm
cells was si&nificantly &reater in the exposed animals '*2.6L %s. 1,.9L< pR2.2+)D the percenta&e of
patholo&ical forms increased with the duration of exposure and reached *-.8L after 1., months. The
exposed rats also produced fewer sperm cells and exhibited a hi&her ratio of li%in& to dead cellsD both
effects became si&nificant after *., months. $omparison of the parameters of respiration and
phosphorylation of testicular mitochondria followin& 1., monthsB exposure re%ealed decreased
phosphorylatic respiration< speed of phosphorylation of 7:.< and respiratory control.
-a)le :!;! -7%CA ALAMAN-S +N 7%- -+SSUAS OLLO.+N# AD5OSU7A %- ;6 1E
+n a study of carbohydrate metabolism in testicular tissue< =dinste% and @hlyin exposed rats
continuously 'for 21 hr.) or intermittently '-., hr./ day< for , days) to 222 &auss< ,2 ;8 '2-). +n the case
of the 21(hour exposure< he obser%ed a brief initial acti%ation of en8yme acti%ity followed by a
depression of acti%ity and then a return to normal le%els. +ntermittent exposure to the field< howe%er<
was characteri8ed by a prolon&ed depression of the acti%ity of se%eral en8ymes< includin& hexokinase<
&lucose(-(phosphate dehydro&enase< and cytochromoxidase. These chan&es pointed to a depression in
tissue respiration which would be consistent with the authorsB pre%ious work that showed a decrease in
testosterone production followin& exposure to the !F.
$hronic exposure of mice to a 6(@;8 pulsed ma&netic field produced morpholo&ical chan&es in
the testes of rats: the seminal epithelium< ducts and sperm cells were each altered at *2 &auss< but not at
, &auss '26).
Female rats exhibited estrous(cycle dysfunction and some patholo&ical chan&es in the uterus
and o%aries followin& exposure to , k%/m ,2 ;8 '28). +n males< the !F caused a decrease sperm
count and an increase in the number of dead and atypical spermato8oa. ?hen the exposed animals were
mated with unexposed rats< decreased birth rates and increased postnatal mortality were found in the
offsprin& '28). $onstant exposure to a 1*2(112 &auss ma&netic field< both :$ and so ;8< also produced
chan&es in the estrous(cycle of female rats '29). :isturbances in o%arian morpholo&y and fertility< and
alterations in postembryonic de%elopment were seen followin& exposure of female mice to 12(,2
N?/cm2< 2.1 4;8 '*2).
3ecause the de%elopin& or&anism is particularly sensiti%e to external influences< se%eral
in%esti&ators ha%e exposed immature animals to !Fs and studied their impact on &rowth rate. 5ats
exposed to an intermittent !F at * 4;8< 1,* N?/cm2< exhibited a smaller wei&ht &ain than the
control animals '*1). The difference became statistically si&nificant after 1 monthsB exposure< and it
persisted durin& the subse9uent * monthsB exposure.
/o%al et al. '*2)< studied the effect on &rowth rate of rats of exposure to 2.,(122 %/m< 1, ;8< as
compared to the &rowth rate of control rats maintained under Farady(ca&e conditions. ;e found a
consistent depression of the body wei&hts of the exposed animals< e%en for fields as low as 2., %/m
'Table 8.-). "ow(fre9uency fields(electric and ma&netic(also produced &rowth depression in 2,(day(
old chicks '**).
-a)le :!B! C1%N#AS +N %4A7%#A <ODY .A+#1-S O 7%-S AD5OSAD -O 3;?1E 4A7-+C%L
3y the mid(192Bs< no studies had been done to assess the possible impact on successi%e
&enerations of animals of the continuous presence of a low(fre9uency !FD we therefore undertook
such a study '*1). +nitially< mature male and female mice were split into hori8ontal< %ertical< and
control &roups. ice in the hori8ontal &roup were allowed to mate< &estate< deli%er< and rear their
offsprin& in a hori8ontal -2(;8 electric field of 12 k%/m. 7t maturity< randomly selected indi%iduals
from the first &eneration were similarly allowed to mate and rear their offsprin& while bein&
continuously exposed. 5andomly selected indi%iduals from the second &eneration were then mated to
produce the third and final &eneration. 7 parallel procedure was followed for the %ertical &roup
wherein three &enerations were produced in a -2 ;8 %ertical electric field of 1, k%/m< and for the
control &roup wherein three &enerations were produced in the ambient Ilaboratory electric field. +n the
first and second &enerations< males and females reared i both the hori8ontal and %ertical electric field
were si&nificantly smaller than the controls when wei&hed at *, days after birth +n the third &eneration<
the only &roup whose body wei&hts were si&nificantly affected were the males exposed to the %ertical
field. +n both the second and third &eneration< a lar&e mortality rate in the %ertical(field mice was seen
durin& the 8(*, day postpartum period. ?e repeated the multi(&eneration study at * ., k%/m usin& an
impro%ed exposure system ',,) 'Fi&. 8.2 and 8.*). +n the first &eneration< no consistent effect on body
wei&ht attributable to the !F was seen throu&hout a -*(day obser%ation period. +n both the %ertical
and hori8ontal &roups< howe%er< infant mortality was increasedD in the %ertical(control &roup 18
animals 'about 16L) died between birth and weanin&. +n the %ertical(exposed &roup< if the electric field
wasnBt a causati%e factor< a 16L mortality rate should also ha%e been seen. ;owe%er< that &roup
exhibited a *1L mortality(82 animals died and not the expected 11. Thus< *8 animals< about 1-L of
those born< failed to li%e to weanin& because of the electric field. 7 similar result was obtained in the
hori8ontal(exposed &roup(about 11L of the animals born failed to li%e to weanin& because of the
electric field.
ig! :!,! %ssem)ly for vertical?field study! -he metal plates were grounded in the control assem)ly!
ig! :!2! Cage and water?)ottle holder!
+n the second &eneration< no consistent effect on body wei&ht attributable to the field was seen
throu&hout a 128(day obser%ation period. The %ertical(exposed &roup< howe%er< a&ain exhibited a
hi&her mortalityD about -L of the animals ali%e at weanin& failed to li%e to the final day of obser%ation
due to the presence of the electric field. +n the third &eneration< the exposed animals had hi&her body
wei&hts< particularly in the hori8ontal exposed &roup. 7t 19 days after birth< the males and females in
each exposed &roup were si&nificantly hea%ier than their respecti%e controls. 7t 119 days after birth
only the females in the hori8ontal(exposed &roup were si&nificantly hea%ier< but this was part of a
consistent trend for that &roup. 7&ain we saw an increased mortality in the %ertical(exposed &roup(12L
of the weaned animals failed to sur%i%e to the end because of low(fre9uency !Fs were also reported
by 4rissett '*,).
!Fs can alter the &rowth and de%elopment of some tumors. 3atkin and Tabrah found that the
de%elopment of a transplanted neural tumor could be affected by a 12(&auss< -2 ;8 !F '*-)D they
reported a slowin& of early tumor &rowth in the exposed mice. ?e found that , k%/m< -2 ;8< had no
material effect on the de%elopment of !rhlich ascites tumor in miceD the a%era&e len&th of time between
tumor implant and death was not altered by the fields.
The process of wound(healin& has been found to be susceptible to !FsD not surprisin&ly< the
nature of the effect depends on both the exposure conditions and the particular !Fs employed '*6(
12). #ne of the first such reports was that of 3assett et al. '*6) in%ol%in& do&s. !lectrical circuits<
attached to le& bones that had been sur&ically fractured< produced a pulsed -,(;8 ma&netic field at the
fracture site. 7fter 28 days< the or&ani8ation and stren&th of the repair process as Cud&ed by the
mechanical stren&th of the healin& callus had increased si&nificantly. ?e obser%ed an opposite effect
on fracture healin& in rats exposed to a full(body %ertical electric field of , k%/m< ,2 ;8 '*8). idshaft
fractures were done on the rats followin& which half the &roup was exposed to the field and half was
maintained as a control. The rats were housed indi%idually in plastic enclosures maintained in wooden
exposure assemblies 'see Fi&ures 8.2 and 8.*). The extent of healin& was e%aluated at 11 days
postfracture on the basis of blind scorin& of serial microscopic sections. ?e used a numerical &radin&
system that characteri8ed both the healin& process as a whole< and its anatomical components. +n two
replicate studies< we found a hi&hly si&nificant retardation in fracture healin& 'Table 8.6)D the fractures
in the exposed rats exhibited the de%elopment normally seen in a 12(day fracture. ?e found no effect
on fracture(healin& followin& exposure at 1 k%/m. The ad%erse effect of a -2 ;8 electric field on
fracture healin& in the rat was confirmed by .hillips in three replicate studies '*9).
-a)le :!8! 1+S-OLO#+C%L #7%D+N#S O 7%-S AD5OSAD -O ; kvGm
There is also a report of a beneficial effect of microwa%e !Fs on healin& '12). =nder sterile
conditions< a linear ,(cm wound down to the dermis was made on the backs of &uinea pi&s. The
wounds were then closed and sutured and the animals were exposed to 1222 <N?/cm2 and sacrificed
up to +1 days after sur&ery. icroscopically< the wounds from the exposed animals exhibited a more
ad%anced sta&e of healin&< and this was confirmed by mechanical testin& dataD from *2L to 62L more
force was re9uired to re(open the wounds of the animals exposed to the !F 'Table 8.8).

-a)le :!:! AAC- O AM AD5OSU7A ON -1A O7CA 7AIUl7AD -O D+S7U5- % SK+N
.OUND
Mta,ene'i'
5ats were exposed for 6 hours/day to ,2 and ,22 N?/cm2< 2.1 4;8 'total exposure of 1 and 12
days at the hi&her and lower intensities respecti%ely) '11). 7t ,2 N?/cm2< the number of chromosomal
abnormalities increased by ,, L compared to the controls when assayed 18 hours after the end of the
exposure periodD 2 weeks after exposure the increase was 1,2L . !i&hteen hours followin& exposure at
,22 N?/cm2< the number of chromosomal abnormalities was more than , times that of the controls<
and it remained ele%ated '*12L) e%en after 8 weeks. +n a comparable study '12) '* 4;8< * ,22
N?/cm2< * hr./day for * mo.) mitotic disorders were seen in &uinea(pi& and rabbit +ymphocytes.
?e studied the muta&enetic effect of -2 ;8 electric fields on the cells of a free(floatin&
peritoneal(ca%ity tumor implanted in mature female mice '1*< 11). The tumor was propa&ated in
control mice by inCectin& the host intraperitoneally with tumor(containin& fluid that had been freshly
remo%ed from an unexposed animal. 7fter 11 days< a few drops of tumor were remo%ed and the tumor
cells were processed for chromosomal analysis. Tumor propa&ation in the 2(week exposed &roups was
identical except that the mice were exposed to :$ electric fields of 8(1- k%/m. The tumor cells were
ordinarily lethal to the host about * weeks after inCection. To propa&ate the tumor for lon&er periods it
was therefore necessary to transplant it to a new host e%ery 6(11 days. $onse9uently< tumor cells
exposed for 1(1, weeks re9uired serial inoculations into 2(9 continuously exposed mice. #n the day the
chromosomal analysis was to be performed< the host was inCected with colcemid to arrest cell di%ision
in metaphase and allow direct %isuali8ation of the chromosomes. $ells exposed to hori8ontal !Fs for
2 weeks exhibited almost a threefold increase in the percenta&e of abnormal chromosomes when
compared to control cells 'Table 8.9)D cells exposed to %ertical !Fs for the same period< howe%er<
had a percenta&e of abnormal chromosomes comparable to that of the control cells. !xtended exposure
to both !Fs appeared to produce opposite results. The percenta&e of cells with abnormal
chromosomes tended to decrease systematically in the hori8ontal !F but increase systematically in
the %ertical !F. The number of mice analy8ed prohibited a precise determination of the dependence
on exposure time< and in both cases< when the results were a%era&ed o%er the entire extended exposure
period '1(1, weeks for the hori8ontal !Fs< and -(1, weeks for the %ertical !Fs)< no statistically
si&nificant results were seen 'Table 8.9).
-a)le : !9! AAC- O DC ALAC-7+C +ALDS +N -1A 7%N#A :?" B kvGm ON -1A +NC+DANCA
O C17OMOSOM%L %<A77%-+ONS +N A17L+C1 %SC+-AS -UMO7 CALLS AD5OSAD +N 4+4O
!Fs ha%e also been reported to produce chromosomal aberrations in nonsomatic cells '1,).
7dult male mice were exposed 1 hour/day for 2 weeks to 9.1 4;8< 122(12<222 N?/cm2. 7fter
exposure< the animals were sacrificed and the sperm(cell chromosomes were analy8ed. 7t each
intensity< there was an increase in both translocations and uni%alent chromosome pairs.
uta&enetic effects of !Fs ha%e been reported in in %itro studies< and in studies in%ol%in&
insects and plants '1-(,1). 5at kan&aroo cells exposed in %itro to 2.1 4;8 for 12(*2 minutes exhibited
chromosomal aberrations similar to those induced by K(rays '1-). The results also that the !F
disrupted 5/7 synthesis and reduced protein production and cell proliferation. !Fs in the 1,(12
;8 ran&e and at @ band '2* 4;8) caused chromosomal abnormalities in $hinese hamster lun& cells
in culture '16). ?hen cells of the same type were exposed as a monolayer for 1, minutes to a :$
ma&netic field of 1,<222 &auss< it was found that of the 122 metaphase cells examined in the 21(hour
period after exposure< approximately *L exhibited a chromosomal aberrationD this rate was - times
hi&her than that seen in the controls '18). !xposure of monkey epithelial cells to 6222 N?/cm2< 2.9
4;8 also caused chromosomal abnormalities '19).
5adiowa%e pulses '22(*2 ;8) applied to male :rosophila for ,(- minutes resulted in the
production of numerous mutations in the off(sprin&< includin& sin&ed bristle< white eye< spotted eye<
yellow body< and blister win& ',2). The &enetic effect exerted on the male &erm cells was similar to
that seen from the application of ioni8in& radiation ',2). 7n !Fs has also been reported in plants
',1).
%ncontro!!ed *ariab!e'
?hen the lon& bones are immobili8ed< 'e.&.< by castin&) a fre9uent physiolo&ical response is a
loss of bone material ( a condition known as osteoporosis. 7s we ha%e seen in chapter 2< bone is a
pie8oelectric material and< conse9uently< it exhibits the con%erse pie8oelectric effect 'mechanical
deformation under the influence of an applied electric field). c!lhaney et al. ',2) hypothesi8ed that
an electric field could simulate the naturally present mechanical stresses in bone %ia the con%erse
pie8oelectric effect< and thereby eliminate the osteoporosis associated with disuse. The theory was
tested by immobili8in& the hind limbs of rats and then obser%in& the effect of an electric fieldD it was
found that the osteoporosis caused by immobili8ation was reduced by exposure to 6 k%/m< *(*2 ;8.
;owe%er< in addition< 11L of the !F(exposed animals de%eloped bone tumorsD none were seen in the
sham(irradiated rats. artin and 4utman ',*)< 'artin worked with c!lhaney et al. on the ori&inal
study) performed a replicate study and confirmed the obser%ation that the !F ameliorated the
immobili8ation(induced osteoporosis. /o tumors< howe%er< or other malformations were obser%ed
either by &ross or microscopic examination.
The two studies were done under essentially identical conditions< but tumors were seen only in
the first study. 0tatistically< it is unlikely that they were unrelated to the field and de%eloped only in the
exposed &roup by chance. This su&&ests that an uncontrollable %ariable '=>) capable of inducin&
tumors in conCunction with an !F was present in the c!lhaney study.
?e too obser%ed an !F(related biolo&ical effect that was not seen in a replicate studyD in our
case< howe%er< it was possible to preselect the animals in the second study and thereby &ain information
about the => associated with the biolo&ical effect. +n the initial study< we found secondary &laucoma in
12 of -2 rats that had been exposed for *2 days to 2.-(19.6 k%/m %ertical electric fieldsD the &laucoma
was not seen in 1* rats exposed to hori8ontal fields '2.* (9.6 k%/m) or in 62 controls '1*). /one of the
rats had been subCected to an ophthalmic examination prior to field exposure because the appearance of
eye diseases had not been anticipated. +t was< therefore< not possible to determine whether the
&laucoma resulted from a worsenin& of an already existin& defect< or was caused solely by the !F.
These alternati%es were examined in two %ertical(field studies '2.8 k%/m< 19.6 k%/m) in which all
animals were subCected to a pretest eye examination with the bimicroscope and the indirect
ophthalmoscope. 5ats that exhibited any identifiable disorder 'iris hemorrha&e< anterior synechia<
dacyroadenitis< keratitis) were destroyed< and only defect(free animals were placed on study. Followin&
*2(day exposures< no cases of secondary &laucoma were seen in either the exposed or sham(exposed
rats ,2 in each &roup). +t seems to us< therefore< that our initial obser%ations of secondary &laucoma
most likely stemmed from an exacerbation of preexistin& eye defects by the !F. The !F< in any
e%ent< could not ha%e been the sole cause of the &laucoma.
The clearest example of the operation of a => may be the multi&eneration study done at the
3attelle "aboratories ',1). Followin& the publication of our first multi&eneration study '*1)< 3attelle
was commissioned to replicate the work. The in%esti&ators first de%eloped an exposure system that was
unexcelled with re&ard to field homo&eneity and reproducibility of electrical en%ironment. !%ery
aspect of the animalsB physical en%ironment(li&ht< temperature< humidity< presence of patho&ens in the
air< air flow< for example(was ri&orously monitored and controlled by automatic e9uipment. The
in%esti&ators then constructed two complete exposure facilities: each consisted of a completely
characteri8ed exposure unit< an identical unit for sham(irradiation< and a completely controlled
en%ironment suitable for housin& both units.
The multi&eneration study was be&un in the first exposure facility< and * weeks later a replicate
study was be&un in the second facilityD both replicates were done double blind. The body(wei&ht data
for the males and females of each of the three &enerations in each replicate is shown in table 8.12.
:espite the fact that the maximum le%el of human inter%ention and control was exercised< and despite
the unprecedented resources de%oted to the study< it was ob%iously not possible to eliminate the role of
a ?: at the end the study< the males and females in the first replicate were statistically si&nificantly
smaller than the controls< but in the second replicate they were si&nificantly lar&er.
-a)le :!"6! %4A7%#A <ODY .A+#1-S +N -1A <%--ALLA MUL-+#ANA7%-+ON S-UDY
?hen an experiment is replicated and different results are obser%ed< there is no &eneral rule by
which it can be decided whether the first or the second replicate 'or both or neither) are the true
descriptions of nature. +n each case an analysis must be made of the details of the studies and their
relation to other studies. #nly in this manner can it be decided whether an => likely was present 'in
which case both experiments would correctly describe nature< but under different circumstances)< or
whether a Type + or Type ++ error was made in one of the replicates.
S##ary
The reports described in this chapter in%ol%e the effects of !F on metabolism< &rowth< and
reproduction. ?hen they are considered in conCunction with the pre%ious three chapters< it becomes
clear that there is no biolo&ical function which can be said to be imper%ious to nonthermal !Fs(they
are a fundamental and per%asi%e factor in the biolo&y of e%ery li%in& or&anism. The nature< extent< and
physiolo&ical si&nificance of the effects to be expected in different or&anisms< and their dependence on
the spectral characteristics of the field remain< for the most part< to be determined by future studies. ?e
ha%e no doubt that some of the reports described here are erroneous in the sense that some in%esti&ators
ha%e reported effects that ultimately will be found to be artifacts or statistical anomalies. 3ut this is true
with re&ard to e%ery area of biolo&ical experimentation(the mathematical precision of the physical
sciences is simply unattainable. +t means only that the details re&ardin& the biolo&ical effects of specific
!F0 ha%e not been established with certainty< and it does not detract form the fundamental point that
the nonthermal !F is a physiolo&ically acti%e a&ent. The scope of the obser%ed effects< and some of
the factors which influence them< are shown in Fi&ure 8.1.
ig! :!3! -he physiological effects of AMs!
7lthou&h the point has fre9uently been disputed in the stormy contro%ersy that has de%eloped
re&ardin& some of the practical implications of our conclusion ',-(-2)< it is nonetheless true that a
biolo&ical phenomenon need not be understood at the molecular le%el as a prior condition to the
acceptance of its existence by science. #n the other hand< e%ery biolo&ical phenomenon ob%iously has
some molecular basis< and the reports of the biolo&ical effects of !Fs will not be fully satisfactory
until their molecular basis is either established or shown to be unknowable. 0ome pro&ress has been
made in understandin& the ori&in of !F(induced biolo&ical effects< and this work is described in the
next chapter.
Re"erence'
1. :umanskiy< Au.:.< and Tomashe%skaya< ".7. 1968. +n%esti&ation of the acti%ity of some en8ymatic
systems in response to a superhi&h fre9uency electroma&netic field. C57S 62-2-< p. 1.
2. :umanskiy< Au.:.< .opo%ich< >..< and @o8yarin< +... 1966. !ffects of low fre9uency ',2(;8)
!lectroma&netic fields on the functional state of the human body. C57S 611*-< p. +.
* . $hernyshe%a< #./.< and @holodo%< F.7. 196,. !ffect of a %ariable ma&netic field of industrial
fre9uency ',2(;8) on metabolic processes in the or&ans of rats. C57S "/,-1,< p. **.
1. =dinste%< /.7.< @anskaya< /.>.< 0chepetilniko%a< 7.+.< #dina< #..< and .ichurina< 5.7. 196-.
:ynamics of lactate dehydro&enase acti%ity in skeletal muscle and myocardium followin&
sin&le exposure to alternatin& ma&netic fields. C57S "/-6912 p. 19.
, . 0a8ono%a< T.!. 19-1. Affect of a low?fre(uency electromagnetic field on the work capacity of the
motor apparatus. asterBs :issertation< "enin&rad =ni%ersity.
-. athewson< /.0.< #osta< 4..< #li%a< 0.7.< "e%in< 0.$.< and :iamond< 0.0. 1969. +nfluence of 1,(
;8 electric fields on &rowth< food and water consumption and blood constituents of rats.
7adiat! 7es! 69:1-8.
6. arino< 7.7.< and 3ecker< 5.#. 1966. 3iolo&ical effects of extremely low fre9uency electric and
ma&netic fields: a re%iew. 5hysiol! Chem! 5hys! 9:1*1.
8 .athewson< /.0.< #li%a< 0.7.< #osta< 4..< and 3lasco< 7... 1966. A'tremely low fre(uency /AL0
vertical electric field e'posure of rats@ +rradiation acility< 7: 721,282< Technical note
T/66(6. 3ethesda< d.: 7rmed Forces 5adiobiolo&y 5esearch +nstitute.
9. athewson< /.0.< #osta< 4..< "e%in< 0.4.< !kstrom< .!.< and :iamond< 0.0. 1966. A'tremely low
fre(uency /AL0 vertical electric field e'posure of rats@ a search for growth$ food consumption
and )lood meta)olite alterations! 3ethesda< d.: 7rmed Forces 5adiobiolo&y 5esearch
+nstitute.
12. 0i%orino%skiy< 4.7. 196*. The biolo&ical action of ultrasound and super hi&h fre9uency
electroma&netic fields in the three(centimeter ran&e. C57S -21-< p. *2.
11. 5iesen< ?.< 7ranyi< $.< @yle F.< >alentino< 7.< and iller< :. 1961. % pilot study of the interaction
of e'tremely low fre(uency electromagnetic fields with )rain organelles. 7: 618119. $hica&o<
+ll.: ++T 5esearch +nstitute.
12. :umanskiy< Au.:.< and 5udichenko< >.F. 196-. :ependence of the functional acti%ity of li%er
mitochondria on microwa%e radiation. C57S 62-2-< p. 26.
1*. Ealyubo%skaya< /...< @isele%< 5.+.< and Turchanino%a< "./. 1966. !ffects of electroma&netic wa%es
of the millimetric ran&e on the ener&y metabolism of li%er mitochondria. C57S 62121< p. ,1.
11. @holodo%< F.7.< and Ae%tushenko< ;.+. 196*. The effects of low fre9uency electroma&netic field
pulses on skeletal muscle metabolism. C57S -21-2< p. -.
1,. 0handala< .4.< and /o8drache%< 0.+. 196-. !ffect of different 0;F ener&y le%els on the functional
state of the body. C57S "/62 98< p. 16.
1-. :emokido%a< /.@. 196*. The biolo&ical effects of continuous and intermittent microwa%e
radiation. F.50 -* * 21< p. 111* .
16. iro< ".< "oubiere< 5.< and .fister< 7. 1961. !ffects of microwa%es on the cell metabolism of the
reticulo(histocytic system. +n <iological effects and health hands of microwave radiation< p. 89.
18. 3eischer< :.!.< 4rissett< F.:.< itchell< 5.!. 196*. A'posure of man to magnetic fields alternating
at e'tremely low fre(uency< 7: 662112< /75"(1182. .ensacola< Fla.: /a%al 7erospace
edical 5esearch "aboratory.
19. .autri8el< 5.< .riore< 7.< :allochio< .< and $rockett< 5. 1962. +nfluence of electroma&netic wa%es
and ma&netic fields on the lipid modifications induced in the rabbit by feedin& a
hypercholesteremic diet. C!7! %cad! Sci! /5aris0 ':) 261:188.
22. de la ?arr< 4.?.< and 3aker< :. 19-6. <iomagnetism@ preliminary studies of the effect of magnetic
fields on living tissue and organs in the human )ody. #xford: :e la ?arr "aboratories.
21. inaye%< >.>.< Ehdano%ich< /.=.< =dalo%< Au.F.< and 3a8ile%ich< #.+. 196,. !ffects of 0;F fields
on en8ymatic acti%ity and pyridoxine le%els in the or&ans of white rats. C57S -,,112< p. 66.
22. 4abo%ich< 5.:.< inkh< 7.7.< and ikhalyuk< +.7. 196,. !ffects of superhi&h fre9uency fields of
different intensities on the le%els of copper< man&anese< molybdenum and nickel in
experimental animals. C57S -,,12< p. **.
2*. @o8yarin< +...< Aukhalyuk< +.7.< and Fesenko< ".:. 1966. +nfluence of an electric field of
commercial fre9uency on the le%els of copper< molybdenum and iron in experimental animals.
C57S 62121< p. -.
21. 4abo%ich< 5.:.< @o8yarin< +..< ikhalyuk< +.7.< and Fesenko< ".:. 1968. $opper< molybdenum<
iron and man&anese metabolism in rat tissues in response to a ,2(;8 electric field. C57S 611*-<
p. *1.
2,. 7ndrienko< ".4.< :umanskiy< Au.:.< 5ouditchenko< >.F.< and eliechko< 4.+. 1966. The influence
of an electric field of industrial fre9uency on spermato&enesis. 4rach! Delo! 18:11-.
2-. =dinste%< /.7.< and @hlynin< 0.. 1966. !ffects of an intermittent ma&netic field on en8ymatic
acti%ity< carbohydrate metabolism< and oxy&en uptake in testicular tissue. C57S 62-2-< p. 8.
26. #stro%skaya< +.0.< Aashina< "./.< and Ae%tushenko< 4.l. 1961. $han&es in the testes of animals due
to a low(fre9uency pulsed electroma&netic field. C57S --,12< p. ,1.
28. 7ndrienko< ".4. !xperimental study of the effects of industrial fre9uency electroma&netic fields on
reproducti%e function. C57S 62121< p. 1.
29. Tarakho%skiy< .".< 0amborska< Ae...< ed%ede%< 3..< Eadoro8hna< T.:.< #khronchuk< 3.>.<
and "ikhtenshteyn< !.. 1961. !ffect of constant and %ariable ma&netic fields on metabolic
processes in white rats. C57S -28-,< p. *6.
*2. +lche%ich< /.>.< 4orodetskaya< 0.F. 196,. !ffect of chronic application of electroma&netic fields on
the function and morpholo&y of the reproducti%e or&ans of animals. C57S "/,-1, p. ,.
*1. arko%< >.>. 196*. The effects of continuous and intermittent microwa%e radiation on wei&ht and
arterial(pressure dynamics of animals. C57S --*21< p. 9,.
*2. /o%al< F.F.< 0ohler< 7.< 5eisber&< 5.3.< $oyne< ;.< 0traub< @.:.< and c@inney< ;. 1966.
!xtremely low fre9uency electric field induced chan&es in rate of &rowth and brain and li%er
en8ymes of rats. +n Compilation of Navy sponsored AL )iomedical and ecological research
reports< %ol. *< 7: 72*,9,,. 3ethesda< d.: /a%al edical 5esearch and :e%elopment
$ommand.
**. 4iarola< 7.F.< and @rue&er< ?.F. 1961. $ontinuous exposure of chicks and to electroma&netic
fields< +AAA -rans! Microwave -heory -ech! TT 22:1*2.
*1. arino< 7.7.< 3ecker< 5.#. and =llrich< 3. 196-. The effect of continuous exposure to low
fre9uency electric fields on three &eneration of mice: 1 pilot study. A'perientia *2: ,-,.
*,. 4rissett< F.:.< @upper< F.".< @essler< .F.< 3rown< 5.F. .rettyman< 4.:.< $ook ".".< and 4riner<
T.7. 1966. A'posure of primates for one year to electric and magnetic fields associated with
AL communications systems< /75"(1212. .ensacola< Fla.: /a%al 7erospace edical
5esearch "aboratory.
*-. 3atkin< 0.< and Tabrah< F.". 1966. !ffects of alternatin& ma&netic field '12 &auss) on transplanted
neuroblastoma. 7es! Comm! Chem! 5ath 5harm! 1-:*,1.
*6. 3assett< $.7.". .awluk 5.F. and .illa< 7.7. 1961. 7u&mentation of bone repair by inducti%ely
coupled electroma&netic fields. Science 181:,6,.
*8. arino< 7.7.< $ullen< F..< 5eichmanis< .< and 3ecker< 5.2. 1969. .ower fre9uency electric fields
and biolo&ical stress: a cause(and(effect relationship. +n <iological effects of e'tremely low
fre(uency electromagnetic fields< p. 2,8. ?ashin&ton< :.$.: =.0. :ept. of !ner&y.
*9. .hillips< 5.:. 1982. 3iolo&ical effects of electric fields on small laboratory animals. .resented at
the 5e%iew of 5esearch in <iological Affects from Alectric ields rom 1igh 4oltage
-ransmission Lines< 18(19 /o%ember 1982< =.0. :ept. of !ner&y< ?ashin&ton :.$.
12. 0haposhniko%< Au.4.< Aaresko< +.F.< and >erni&ora< Au.>. 196,. ;istolo&ical in%esti&ation of
re&eneration of wounds in animals exposed to the lon&(term action of low(intensity
microwa%es. C57S "/,-1 ,< p. 29.
11. @apustin< 7.7.< 5udne%< .+.< "eonskaya< 4.+.< and @onobeye%a< 4.+. 196-. $yto&enetic effect of a
%ariable electroma&netic field in the superhi&h fre9uency ran&e. C57S "/-691< p. 11.
12. 3aranski< 0. 1962 . !ffects of microwa%es on the reactions of the white blood system. %cta 5hysiol!
5ol! 2*:-8,.
1*. arino< 7.7.< 3er&er< T.F.< itchell< F.T.< :uhacek< 3.7.< and 3ecker< 5.2. 1961. !lectric field
effects in selected biolo&ic systems. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci! 2*8:1***-.
11. itchell< F.T.< arino< 7.7.< 3er&er< T.F.< and 3ecker< 5.2. 1968. !ffect of electrostatic fields on
the chromosomes of !hrlich ascites tumor cells exposed in %i%o. 5hysiol! Chem! 5hys! 12:69.
1,. anikowska< !.< "uciani< F..< 0er%antie< 3.< $8erski< ..< #breno%itch< F.< and 0tahl< 7. 1969.
!ffects of 9.1 4;8 microwa%e exposure on meiosis in mice. A'perientia *,:*88.
1-. Aao< @.T.0.< and Files< .. 1962. !ffects of 21,2 ;8 microwa%e radiation on culti%ated rat
kan&aroo cells. +n <iological effects and health implications of microwave radiation<
.319*898. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. of ;!?.
16. ickey< 4.;.< ;eller< F.;.< and 0nyder< !. 1961. Non?thermal ha>ards of e'posures to radio?
fre(uency fields< 7:7219*,9. 5id&efield< $onn.: The /ew !n&land +nstitute.
18. 5ossner< ..< and ateCka< . 1966. .otential &enetic risks from stationary ma&netic fields. C! 1yg!
Apidemiol! Micro)iol! +mmunol! /5raha0 21:1-,.
19. 3aranski< 0.< $8erski< ..< and 08rni&ielski< 0. 19-9. icrowa%e effects on mitosis in %i%o and in
%itro. #enetica 5olonica 12: /o. *(1.
,2. ;eller< F.;. 1962. $ellular effects of microwa%e radiation. +n <iological effects and health
implications of microwave radiation< .319*898. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. of ;!?.
,1. ;arte< $. 196,. uta&enesis by radiowa%es in 7ntirrhinum maCus ". Mutation 7es! 29:61.
,2. c!lhaney< F.;.< 0talnaker< 5.< and 3ullard< 5. 19-8. !lectric fields and bone loss of disuse. C!
<iomechanics 1:16.
,*. artin< 5.3.< and 4utman< ?. 1968. The effect of electric fields on osteoporosis of disuse. Calcif!
-iss! 7es! 2,:2*.
,1. .hillips< 5.:.< 7nderson< ".3.< and @aune< ?.T. 1969. <iological effects of high strength electric
fields on small la)oratory animals< :#!/T+$(12281. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. !ner&y.
,,. arino< 7.7.< 5eichmanis< .< 3ecker< 5.#.< =llrich< 3.< and $ullen< F.. 1982. .ower fre9uency
electric field induces biolo&ical chan&es in successi%e &enerations of mice. A'perientia *-:*29.
,-. 0chwan< ;. 1982. Testimony on behalf of ;ome 3ox #ffice< +nc.< in the matter of the application of
;ome 3ox #ffice to construct a satellite recei%in& station for microwa%es< 5ockaway Township
3oard of 7dCustment< 5ockaway< /.F.< Fuly 1982.
,6. Fustesen< :. 1982. Testimony on behalf of 7merican +nternational $ommunications of 0yracuse<
+nc.< in the matter of the construction of a tele%ision broadcast tower by 7merican +nternational
$ommunications< +nc.< Town 3oard of #nonda&a< /.A.< 7u&< 1982.
,8. iller< . 1982. Testimony on behalf of the .hiladelphia !lectric $o. 'in the matter of the
construction of a hi&h(%olta&e transmission line)< %l)ert -! #oad)y vs 5hiladelphia Alectric<
$i%il 7ction /o. 82(26,9< =.0. :istrict $ourt for the !astern :istrict of .ennsyl%ania< #ct.
1982.
,9. ichaelson< 0. 196,. Testimony on behalf of 5ockland =tilities $o.< in the matter of 5ockland
=tilities $o. to construct a microwa%e transmittin& antenna< 3oard of .ublic =tility
$ommissioners< /ewark< /.F.< ay 196,.
-2. $arstensen< !.". 1966. Testimony on behalf of the 7ppalachian .ower $o. 'in the matter of the
construction of a hi&h(%olta&e transmission line)< .ublic 0er%ice $ommission of ?est >ir&inia.
7u&. 1966.
Ele!"o#$%&e!' E&e"%(
$hapter 9: echanisms of 3iolo&ical !ffects of !lectroma&netic !ner&y
+ntroduction
$ybernetic 7pproach
7nalytic 7pproach
0ummary
5eferences
Introdction
?hen we in9uire about the mechanism of a biolo&ical effect< we ha%e implicit reference to a
picture of how nature is or&ani8ed and how it should be approached. +n one %iew< the biolo&ical system
is seen as more than a sum of its parts and it is held that one cannot understand an or&anismBs essential
characteristic(life(by studyin& subsystems below a certain structural le%el because life does not exist
below that le%el. This idea was precisely stated by .aul ?eiss '1):
+f a is indispensable for both b and cD b for both a and cD and c for both a and bD no pair of
them could exist without the third member of the &roup< hence any attempt to build up such
a system by consecuti%e additions would break down ri&ht at the first step. +n other words<
a system of this kind can exist only as an entity or not at all.
Thus< for example< e%en complete knowled&e of the properties of a protein solution would not
tell us how the protein functioned in %i%oD we would not e%en know whether its in %itro properties had
any rele%ance at all. =nder this approach< the proper startin& point to study nature is the whole
or&anism in its normal en%ironment. +t is reco&ni8ed that< considerin& the or&anismBs physiolo&ical
control processes< not all biolo&ical phenomena can be locali8ed to specific tissues in the or&anism. +n
contrast to this cybernetic approach is the idea that< ultimately< li%in& thin&s will be describable solely
in terms of the physical laws &o%ernin& inanimate thin&s. ethodolo&ically< this analytical approach
consists of the study of increasin&ly more complex models of the or&anismBs parts< with the &oal of
explainin& the or&anismBs characteristics and beha%ior in terms of the characteristics and beha%ior of
the models. The amount of whole(animal data presently a%ailable is much &reater than that in%ol%in&
model systems and< for this reason< the cybernetic approach &i%es a more &eneral and more useful
picture of bioelectrical phenomena. This approach is described belowD work that can be considered to
ha%e arisen from an analytical approach is described in the followin& section.
Cybernetic A..roac+
The cybernetic approach to !F(induced biolo&ical effects be&ins with a %iew of the li%in&
system as a black box. The animal is considered to ha%e an unknown internal or&ani8ation< and the
only factors re&arded as accessible to in%esti&ation are the applied !F 'input) and the biolo&ical
effect 'output). !mpirical data that describe relationships between %arious inputs and outputs is
&enerali8ed into empirical laws that furnish insi&hts into the rele%ant component processes. The
empirical laws cannot conflict with known physical law< but they need not conform to a process or
beha%ior obser%ed only in a model system. The reports described in the precedin& chapters pro%ide a
basis for this approach< and they may be summari8ed this way:

+. !Fs can alter the metabolism of all body systems< includin& the ner%ous< endocrine<
cardio%ascular< hematolo&ical< immune(response< and reproducti%e systems.
2. The effects on each tissue or system are lar&ely independent of the type of !F. The studies
su&&est that there are common physiolo&ical pathways for spectrally different !Fs< and that the
maCor conse9uence associated with specificity of the !F is that it determines the ma&nitude or
direction(as opposed to the existence(of the biolo&ical effect. #n the other hand< certain spectral
characteristics(pulse modulation fre9uency seems to be one of the most important(can fundamentally
modify the biolo&ical response.
*. 7n or&anismBs response to an !F is determined in part by its physiolo&ical history and
&enetic predispositionD indi%idual animals< e%en in an apparently homo&eneous population< may exhibit
chan&es in opposite directions in a dependent biolo&ical parameter.
1. 7lthou&h hi&h(field(stren&th and lon&(duration studies are exceptions< !F(induced
biolo&ical effects seem best characteri8ed as adapti%e or compensatoryD they present the or&anism with
an en%ironmental factor to which it must accommodate.
+f attention were restricted to !F(related chan&es in indi%idual body systems such as
intermediary metabolism< the immune(response system< or the adrenal &land< it mi&ht be hypothesi8ed
that the action of the field in%ol%ed certain en8ymes< specific antibody re&ions of certain cells or
particular or&ans. 3ut the studies clearly showed that !Fs produce a complex interrelated series of
physiolo&ical chan&es 'see Fi&ure 8.1). +t follows that the conse9uences of !F exposure must be
understood in terms of an inte&rati%e response of the entire or&anism. +n our %iew< after the !F is
detected< information concernin& it is communicated to the central ner%ous system which then acti%ates
the broad array of physiolo&ical mechanisms that are a%ailable to furnish a compensatory response
'Fi&. 9.1). 7s is &enerally true of an adapti%e response< the particular biolo&ical system that is in%oked<
and the nature of its response< will depend on numerous factors includin& the animalBs internal
conditionin& and its external en%ironment. ?ith one notable exception< the biolo&ical processes that
follow detection of an !F are the same as those associated with the response to any biolo&ical
stressor. Thus< for example< the cellular or molecular mechanisms that operate in the adrenal followin&
a cold stress to produce altered serum corticoid le%els will also operate followin& an electroma&netic
stress< because adrenal acti%ity is initiated by neuronal and hormonal si&nals< not by the actual presence
of the stressor a&ent in the tissue. Thus< ad%ances in the understandin& of !F(induced systemic
effects are tied to &eneral pro&ress in physiolo&y. !%en so< electroma&netic stress has a characteristic
which sets it apart from other stressors: electroma&netic stress is not consciously percei%ed. This
su&&ests that sub(cortical brain centers are the first mediators of the electroma&netic stress response.
The physical processes that occur in this as(yet(unidentified center must< therefore< be different than
those associated with the mediation of other stressors (heat< cold< trauma< for example( all of which are
detected peripherally and are then consciously percei%ed.
ig! 9!"! -he )asic control system that mediates AM?induced )iological effects! -he field is detected
and transduced into a )iological signal which is received in the CNS! -he resulting hormonal and
electrical signals to the various )ody systems initiate the appropriate adaptive physiological
responses!


3earin& in mind the studies described in part two of this book< it can be concluded that the
adapti%e response occurs primarily when the !F is outside the fre9uency ran&e to which the
or&anism is intrinsically sensiti%e. +nside the ran&e< the !F can supply information to the or&anism
concernin& its en%ironment.
Ana!ytica! A..roac+
The analytical approach is a mixture of empirical data and physical models which< hopefully<
leads to laws that predict undisco%ered phenomena. The physicist< unlike the biolo&ist< approaches
nature usin& constructs that do not exist(simple &eometric models with perfect conducti%ity< for
example(in an attempt to reduce the number of %ariables and establish functional relationships. This
methodolo&y has not yet been systematically applied to bioelectric phenomena< and hence there are no
physicist(type explanations for !F(induced biolo&ical effects. :espite this< e%idence of the existence
of many interestin& molecular processes that may explain the effects has been disco%ered. +n what
follows< we present an o%er%iew of the physical mechanisms applicable to bioelectrical phenomena.

?hen an !F is applied to a material< many types of molecular processes can occur 'Fi&. 9.2):
'1) electronic excitationD '2) polari8ationD '*) field(&enerated force effectsD '1) heatD and ',) other
electronic and ionic effects. +f the material is also ali%e< additional processes that are associated with
cells and hi&her le%els of structural or&ani8ation can also occur. ?e shall re&ard such conse9uences as
biolo&ical effects< in distinction to effects that occur re&ardless of whether the material is ali%e or dead
'physical effects).

ig! 9!,! Classes of physical processes in )iological tissue e'posed to AMs@ -ypes "?3 can occur in
living and nonliving tissue -hey are thermodynamically closed in the sense that they are directly
proportional to the applied AM! -he )iological conse(uences$ if any$ are thermodynamically open
)ecause they can occur only if meta)olic energy is also present? that is$ if the system is alive! or -ype
;$ in contrast$ )oth the physical process and the )iological conse(uence can )e thermodynamically
open! %s an e'ample$ we have depicted a meta)olically maintained superconducting region in a cell
organelle! State S" is associated with one )iological function and S, ?induced )y the presence of the
AM? with a different function!

!lectronic excitation in%ol%es the transition of electrons to a hi&her ener&y le%el followin& the
absorption of electroma&netic ener&y. +f the electrons are bound to en8yme molecules< for example<
then the excited molecules mi&ht beha%e differently in a metabolic reaction< thereby resultin&<
ultimately< in a biolo&ical effect. 0ince< howe%er< the thermal ener&y at *6M$ is about 2.22 electron
%olts 'e%)< it has traditionally been ar&ued that photons ha%in& a lower ener&y would not produce
electron excitation( hence< no biolo&ical effects(because molecules with ener&y states less than 2.22 e%
would already be excited as a result of thermal motion. This %iew< althou&h popular< is not correct
because the thermal ener&y is only the a%era&e ener&y of a collection of molecules: at any &i%en time<
some molecules are in a state of less than 2.22 e%. The salient (and presently unexplored( 9uestions
associated with Type(+ processes relate to the density of states that are h% e% 'h is .lanckBs constant< %
is the fre9uency of the !F) below a specific a%era&e ener&y< and to the minimum chan&e in the
density of such states that would be re9uired to produce a biolo&ical effect.
Type(2 processes in%ol%e electronic< atomic< and orientational polari8ations produced when a
material is exposed to an !F: the total dipole moment of a &roup of molecules depends on these
polari8ation properties and on the stren&th of the local electrical field. !F(induced alterations in
dipole moments could theoretically account for biolo&ical effects. For example< Fi&ure 9.2 depicts a
material containin& a linear array of permanent dipoles. +n the absence of an !F< the dipoles remain
randomly oriented because of thermal motion< but when the field is present a preferential ali&nment
becomes established. +f the dipoles were attached to a cell membrane< for example< then the preferential
ali&nment mi&ht correspond to a state of altered membrane permeability. !%ery !F produces some
preferential ali&nment< but one cannot determine< before the fact< how much ali&nment would be
biolo&ically si&nificant. ;istorically< the notion has been that somethin& approachin& saturation would
be re9uired< but this %iew is based on inappropriate models of li%in& or&anisms 'low(pressure &asses
and dilute solutions of polar solutes).
+n addition to permanent dipoles< which may or may not be present in a material< applied !Fs
can induce a dipole moment as a result of electronic and atomic polari8ation. Field(&enerated forces
'Type *) occur when the field interacts with the induced dipole moment< and they can produce
interestin& orientational and translational effects in in %itro systems. #ne of the best known such
effects< pearl(chain formation 'Fi&. 9.2)< has been obser%ed with many kinds of particles includin&
blood cells 'ali%e and dead) and plastic microspheres. .resent theory su&&ests that field stren&ths
needed to produce pearl(chains are of the order of 121(12- %/m< dependin& on particle si8e. +f this is
true of all Type(* processes(the latest e%idence su&&ests that it is not ( they would be of little biolo&ical
interest.
;eat is an ubi9uitous conse9uence of !Fs and it has lon& been associated with &ross<
irre%ersible chan&es in tissue ( the microwa%e o%en is perhaps the latest and most familiar example. +n
theory< any heat input to a biolo&ical system 'hence any !F) could alter one or more of its functions.
This idea< howe%er< directly conflicts with the prominent %iew 'at least in the ?est) that only heat
inputs that are an appreciable fraction of the or&anismBs basal metabolic rate can lead to biolo&ical
effects. ?e shall ha%e more to say concernin& the implications of this %iew in chapter 12.
0ince heat is always produced when an or&anism is exposed to an !F< one cannot
experimentally determine whether a resultin& biolo&ical effect could occur in the absence of heat
production. '$on%ersely< althou&h it is a hea%y burden for such a humble process< it is always possible
to assert that any !F(induced biolo&ical effect is due to heat.) Thus it seems pointless to relate heat (a
thermodynamic concept that is independent of the precise details of molecular acti%ity( to obser%ed
biolo&ical effects which can< ultimately< be explained in more fundamental terms.
The most fertile &round for understandin& the physical basis of !F(induced biolo&ical effects
in%ol%es those processes that we ha%e lumped to&ether in Type ,. They are 9uantum mechanical and
classical processes and include< for example< superconducti%ity< ;all effect< con%erse pie8oelectric
effect< cooperati%e dipole interactions< 3ose(!instein condensation< and plasma oscillations. Type(s
processes ha%e sensiti%ities as low as 12(9 N?/cm2 and 12(9 &auss< and< therefore< are theoretically
capable of ser%in& as the underlyin& physical mechanism for any known !F(induced biolo&ical
effect. 0ome direct e%idence for Type(, processes has already been described in pre%ious chaptersD
other de%elopments in this area that also deser%e mention are the initiati%e of .illa< Frolich< Eon< and
$ope.
.illaBs model ori&inated with his and 3assettBs work re&ardin& the effects of locali8ed pulsed
ma&netic fields on bone &rowth in do&s '2) and humans '*). .illa reasoned that there must exist
&enerali8ed mechanisms by which di%erse electrical stimuli could alter cell function. ;e proposed a
theory of electrochemical information transfer in which field(induced chan&es in the ionic
microen%ironment were responsible for alterations in cell permeability '1< -). The theory allows for
three non(faradaic electrochemical processes: the bindin& of specific ionsD the passa&e of ions throu&h
the membraneD and chan&es in the membrane double(layer. 3ecause the kinematics of each process
differed (measured in impedance studies of the cellBs cytoplasmic membrane( it would be possible< in
theory< to couple to either of the three processes by choosin& an appropriate ma&netic pulse. The theory
has been successfully applied to the study of the rate of limb re&eneration in the salamander '6): it was
found that the de&ree of dedifferentiation could be accelerated or decelerated 'dependin& on the
spectral characteristics of the ma&netic field) as predicted.
The ideas of resonant absorption and resonant interactions ha%e also been proposed as an
explanation for the marked sensiti%ity of li%in& systems to !Fs. Eon speculated that the electrons in
cell mitochondria constituted a plasma state '8). ;e calculated that the fre9uency of resonant
absorption would be in the &i&ahert8 ran&e for typical %alues of the dielectric constant and the density
of char&e carriers. This would make the mitochondria extremely sensiti%e to microwa%e !Fs. EonBs
idea could also apply to other biostructures and other fre9uency ran&es.
Frolich has proposed another form of resonance. 3iolo&ical structures fre9uently consist of
electric dipoles that are capable of %ibratory motion(hydro&en bonds in :/7 and proteins< for
example. "on&(ran&e coulomb interactions between the oscillatory units produce a narrow band of
fre9uencies correspondin& to the normal modes of electroma&netic oscillations. Frolich showed that
when ener&y is supplied to such a system(either from metabolism or from external sources(abo%e a
critical rate< it is automatically channeled into the lowest fre9uency mode< thereby resultin& in coherent
excitation of the %ibratory components 'a phenomenon known as 3ose(!instein condensation) '9).
Theoretically< such electroma&netic oscillations could affect cell dynamics< and the sharp fre9uency
resonances in biolo&ical effects predicted by Frolich ha%e been obser%ed in studies of the rate of yeast
&rowth '12) and the rate of cell di%ision '11). The latency of the biolo&ical effect is an important
parameter< because the biolo&ical effect is associated with the condensed phase which occurs a finite
time after irradiation has be&un. +t is not yet clear to what extent the obser%ed time thresholds are
consistent with theory. Future work may lead to an extension of FrolichBs concept to hi&her systems.
7 Fosephson Cunction consists of a thin 'approximately 12T) insulatin& barrier between two
superconductin& re&ions. The current throu&h a Fosephson Cunction is hi&hly sensiti%e to applied !Fs<
and this has been exploited in the desi&n of !F detectors '0O=+:0). Theoretical and experimental
e%idence for the existence of superconducti%ity in biolo&ical tissue has already been discussed 'chapter
1)D it su&&ests the existence of fractional superconducti%ity in which the superconductin& re&ions are
dispersed in tissue that has normal macroscopic electrical characteristics 'a concentration in the order
of parts per million). 7s $ope has pointed out '12)< the existence of Fosephson Cunctions in biolo&ical
tissue would pro%ide a physical mechanism of sufficient sensiti%ity to explain the obser%ed biolo&ical
effects of applied !Fs. 7ntonowic8 has obser%ed what seems to be a room temperature Fosephson
effect in carbon films '1*)< but there are no similar reports in%ol%in& biolo&ical tissue. This may only
mean< of course< that the ri&ht measurements ha%e not yet been performed.
S##ary
7s was seen in chapter *< li%in& or&anisms ha%e e%ol%ed a means for recei%in& information
about the en%ironment in the form of non%isual electroma&netic si&nals. To process it< or&anisms must
also ha%e de%eloped an ability to discriminate amon& the infinite number of possible si&nals and to
i&nore those that were not useful. 7lthou&h !Fs can be physiolo&ically informational or can ha%e
characteristics that simulate intrinsic electrical si&nals found in &rowth(control and neural processes
'see chapter 2)< the bulk of the studies done to date used !Fs whose characteristics had no special
physiolo&ical si&nificance. The studies in part three show that the or&anismBs prototypical response to
such !Fs is the detection of the fields by the $/0 and the subse9uent adapti%e acti%ation of the
or&anismBs %arious physiolo&ical systems. #nly when the or&anismBs compensatory mechanisms are
exhausted (when the !Fs are present too lon&< or at too hi&h a stren&th< or when other factors are
simultaneously present( do the effects become irre%ersible.

The cellular and molecular mechanism underlyin& the $/0Bs detection of applied !Fs are 'for
the most part) unstudied< and hence unknown. 7s we ha%e shown in chapter 1 the study of bioelectrical
phenomena has had a complex history in%ol%in& many scientific< political< and economic factors. This
combined with< ironically< the &reat intellectual triumphs of early twentieth century physics< produced a
scientific .rocrustean 3ed1 re&ardin& the biolo&ical effects of !Fs. The 3ed consisted of an almost
exclusi%e emphasis on the role of dipole orientation and heat(production as the molecular mechanisms
for bioelectrical phenomena. $ommonly< reports of biolo&ical effects were stretched to fit the 3ed: the
notion of Hstron&H and HweakH !Fs e%ol%ed in relation to how much heat was deposited in saline(
filled beakers which were considered to represent the a%era&e electrical properties of li%in& or&anisms.
!Fs of 12<222(122<222 N?/cm2 were considered to be stron& because they would noticeably heat
the saline animal. Fields of 1222(12<222 N?/cm2< howe%er< were held to be weak< because the saline
animalBs temperature chan&e was so small that it was said< that if it were a real animal< the heat
&enerated would probably be handled by the animalBs homeostatic mechanisms. +t was ar&ued that
fields below 1222 N?/cm2 were no more than electrical noise to the or&anism< and thus were entirely
without physiolo&ical si&nificance.
The thermal fiction took such firm root that it became impossible to establish that other
mechanisms besides heat could be in%ol%ed in the production of biolo&ical effects abo%e 12<222
N?/cm2. This occurred despite the fact that no !F(induced biolo&ical effects abo%e 12<222 N?/cm2
ha%e been replicated with heat applied %ia some other means. ?hen reports of effects in the 1222(
12<222 N?/cm2 ran&e be&an to surface in the 19,2Bs< the thermal hypothesis was extended to also
apply in this ran&e. The notion of differential heatin& was ad%anced< and its proponents ar&ued that
there were Hhot spotsH in the real animal< and that accounted for the obser%ed biolo&ical effects. ?hen
reports of !F(induced biolo&ical effects that extended beyond the 3ed(below 1222 N?/cm2< ,2
k%/m< 122 &auss(be&an to surface in the 19-2Bs they were simply cut off: there de%eloped
unprecedented attacks a&ainst in%esti&ators who reported such effects.
The !F .rocrustean 3ed has been destroyed by the wei&ht of the number of excellent !F
studies: they exist< and it now becomes the business of science to in%esti&ate them and to learn their
laws. :espite the interestin& and pro%ocati%e thou&hts of some theoreticians and the tentati%e results of
some experimentalists in%ol%in& in %itro systems< there is still much to learn. olecular processes that
could explain !F(induced biolo&ical effects are found in inanimate nature and< if they also occur in
li%in& systems< they would constitute one class of possible explanatory mechanisms. in addition< since
the structural complexity of e%en the simplest li%in& or&anism &reatly exceeds that found in inanimate
nature< it would be a mistake to expect that only molecular processes identified in purified materials
could be candidates for the mechanism by which the or&anism detects an !F. 7s we ha%e fre9uently
pointed out< solid(state biolo&y may ultimately pro%ide the answer ( it may re%eal mechanisms that
simply do not exist in purified crystals.
#ur best &uess 'and at the moment it is no more than that) is that the or&anism detects !Fs %ia
cooperati%e dipole< or hi&her order< interactions in neural tissue(possibly peripheral ner%es. 7n
en&a&in&ly simple mechanical model of this notion has been described by 3owman '11). ;e assembled
an array of dime(store ma&netic compasses 'Fi&. 9.*)< and described as follows the remarkably di%erse
ran&e of states of the system that resulted when he passed a bar ma&net nearby:

ig! 9!2! Linear array of magnetic compasses /"30.
The idea was first to set Uthe compassesV nearly touchin& in a row. The indi%idual needles ha%e a
time constant< in pointin& somewhere near to the ma&netic north pole< of the order of a second. ?hen
they are close to one another< howe%er< they interact to an extent that o%ershadows the field of the
earth< and the time constant is of the order of< say< a tenth of a second. Thus they will point north to
south< north to south< on down the line UFi&. 9.*aV. The experiment was set up so that north was normal
to the axis of the array< and that &i%es a %ery stable sort of array. 3rin&in& up a south pole &i%es a
repulsion that will tend to displace the end needle. Aou can see< + am sure< that a 9uasi(static system
will result< where we &et somethin& as shown in UFi&. 9.*bV. The an&les of displacement will decrease<
so that after the initial impulse a dynamic situation is established and the si&nal mo%es alon&< not too
fast.
Aou can brin& up the bar ma&net slowly and dose< and maintain a static situation where
e9uilibrium is propa&ated< so that the needles assume an&les e9ually. The beha%ior is an
exact analo& of a &ear trainD that is< one turns this way< one that way< and so on UFi&. 9.*cV.
+t is %ery much like the bar where you turn one end and obser%e that the other end turns too.
That is not too interestin&.
;owe%er< if you look upon this as a dynamic rather than a 9uasi(static system< you can &et
some extraordinary phenomena that + cannot draw. ?ith a little practice< brin&in& a south
pole up Cust ri&ht< you can make the first compass spin all around and nothin& is propa&ated
down the line. The skill in my hand automatically introduces some random numbers< so the
experiments were not reproducible. + can tell< ne%ertheless< of se%eral thin&s that can
happen. +f you brin& the south pole up in a certain fashion< a nice si&nal &oes alon&< with a
complete flip(flop of e%ery needle in the row< and a truly binary< bistable system exists.
#n the other hand< if you do not do it in 9uite the same way< the si&nal will &o down only
so far< sometimes apparently e%en amplified throu&h resonance< and somewhere alon& the
line one of the needles will turn all the way around< and the si&nal will be reflected and &o
back a&ain< ne%er &ettin& past a certain point. +n other instances(you can run se%eral
hundred experiments an hour ( you will ha%e a section of se%eral needles that Cust start
spinnin& in a synchronous fashion until it finally dies out. !%entually it will settle down in
one of the two stable states.
+f you set up an '/x/) array of this sort< and then poke the thin& with a bar ma&net< +
challen&e any +3 machine to compute what will happen. The interactions are now
exceedin&ly complicated.
?e expect that somethin& akin to this &oes on at the molecular le%el when an or&anism detects
an !F. 7s 08ent(4yor&yi said '1,): H0in&le molecules are not necessarily sharply isolated and closed
units. There is more promiscuity amon& them UthanV is &enerally belie%ed.H

1 .rocrustes li%ed in ancient 4reece< and it was his practice to make tra%elers conform in len&th to his
bed. +f they were too short he stretched them and if they were too lon& he chopped off their le&s. "ater<
.rocrustes wrote a learned paper entitled H#n the =niformity of 0tature of Tra%elers.H
Re"erence'
1. ?eiss< .. 19-*. The cell as a unit. C! -heoret! <iol! ,:*89.
2. 3assett< $.7.".< .awluk< 5.F.< and .illa< 7.7. 1961. 7u&mentation of bone repair by inducti%ely
coupled electroma&netic fields. Science 181(,6,.
*. 3assett< $.7.".< .illa< 7.7.< and .awluk< 5.F. 1966. 7 non(operati%e sal%a&e of sur&ically(resistant
pseudarthroses and non(unions by pulsin& electroma&netic fields. Clin! Orthop! 121:116.
1. .illa< 7.7. 1961. !lectrochemical information transfer at li%in& cell membranes. %nn! N!Y! %cad! Sci!
2*8:119.
,. 3ecker< 5.2.< and .illa< 7.7. 196,. +n Modern aspects of electrochemistry< %ol. 12< ed. F. #Bm.
3ockris. /ew Aork: .lenum.
-. .illa< 7.7.< and ar&ules< 4.0. 1966. :ynamic interfacial electrochemical phenomena at li%in& cell
membranes: application to the toad urinary bladder membrane system. C! Alectrochem! Soc!
121:1-96.
6. 0mith 0.:.< and .illa< 7.7. 1982. odulation of new limb re&eneration by electroma&netically
induced low le%el pulsatin& current. +n 5roceedings of the symposium on regeneration< $.
0yracuse< /ew Aork: Thomas.
8. Eon< F.5. 1969. .hysical plasma in biolo&ical solids: a possible mechanism for resonant interactions
between low(intensity microwa%es and biolo&ical systems. .hysiol. Chem! 5hys! 11:,21.
9. Frohlich< ;. 19-8. 3ose condensation of stron&ly excited lon&itudinal modes< 5hys! Lett! 22-1:12*.
12. 4rundler< ?.< @eilmann< F.< and Frohlich< ;. 1966. 5esonant &rowth(rate response of yeast cells
irradiated by weak microwa%es. 5hys! Lett! -27:1-*.
11. ?ebb< 0.F.< and 3ooth< 7.:. 19-9. 7bsorption of microwa%es by microor&anisms. Nature
222:1199.
12. $ope< F.?. 196-. 0uperconducti%ity ( a possible mechanism for non(thermal biolo&ical effects of
microwa%es. C! Microwave 5ower 11:2-6.
1*. 7ntonowic8< @. 1961. .ossible superconducti%ity at room temperature. Nature 216:*,8.
11. 3owman< F. 5.. 7 new transmission line leadin& to a self(stabili8in& system. +n .rinciples of self(
or&ani8ation< p. 116. /ew Aork: .er&amon.
1,. 08ent(4yor&yi< 0. 19-8. <ioelectronics< p. 69. /ew Aork: 7cademic.
*ART FO2R- A11l'e0 Ele!"o#$%&e!' E&e"%(- R'+3+ $&0 4e&ef'!+
$hapter12: ;ealth 5isks :ue to 7rtificial !lectroma&netic !ner&y in the !n%ironment
+ntroduction
"e%els in the !n%ironment
!pidemiolo&ical 0tudies and 0ur%eys
7nalysis
0ummary
5eferences
Introdction
+n 186*< on the basis of a mathematical analysis< !n&lish physicist Fames $lerk axwell
concluded that li&ht was a propa&atin& wa%e composed of electricity and ma&netism. 0ome of
axwellBs contemporaries reCected his theory because it seemed to predict too much(an infinite number
of non(li&ht wa%es< none of which had e%er been detected. 3ut other scientists be&an searchin& for the
in%isible wa%es and in 1888 ;einrich ;ert8< a 4erman physicist< succeeded. =sin& what today would
be called a transmitter and a recei%er< he pro%ed the existence of electroma&netic wa%es ha%in& a
fre9uency of *2 ;8.
;ert8 died in 1891 and 4uliermo arconi< then only twenty< read his obituary in an +talian
electrical Cournal. +t seemed to arconi that ;ert8ian wa%es had a %ast potential in the field of
communicationsD by 189- he had repeated ;ert8Bs experiments< but with the recei%er more than two
miles away< not Cust on the other side of the room. any successes followed< leadin& directly to the
de%elopment of radio in 1912.
+n 1922< while acceptin& the edal of ;onor of the 7merican +nstitute of 5adio !n&ineers< arconi
said:
+n some of my tests< + ha%e noticed the effects of reflection and deflection of
Uelectroma&neticV wa%es by metallic obCects miles away. +t seems to me that it should be
possible to desi&n apparatus by means of which a ship could radiate or proCect a di%er&ent
beam of these rays in any desired direction< which rays< if comin& across a metallic obCect<
such as a ship< would be reflected back to a recei%er and thereby immediately re%eal the
presence and bearin& of ships.
arconiBs %ision(radar(became a reality in the 19*2Bs< and followin& ?orld ?ar ++ many other
practical uses for electroma&netic wa%es were de%eloped.
.arallelin& these de%elopments was the birth and &rowth of the electrical power industry. From
a modest be&innin& in /ew Aork $ity in 1882. under the &uidance of Thomas !dison< the industry
be&an the systematic electrification that resulted in a steady increase in power(line construction and in
the proliferation of the de%ices and appliances which they ser%ed.
The passa&e of electricity from a scientific curiosity to a role of maCor importance in society
'Table 12.1) resulted in a profound alteration in the earthBs electroma&netic en%ironment. From the
ori&in of life on earth to the be&innin& of the twentieth century this en%ironment was determined by the
sun and other cosmic sources< and by the &eoma&netic properties of the earth itselfD the intensity was
extremely small e%en by the standards of todayBs ultrasensiti%e instrumentation. 3ut by the be&innin& of
the last half of the twentieth century< man(made !Fs were the o%erwhelmin&ly dominant constituent
of the earthBs electroma&netic en%ironment. ?ith the benefit of hindsi&ht< we can now see that it was
dan&erous to ha%e made such a drastic alteration in our en%ironment without first studyin& its potential
biolo&ical impact. 3ut the fact is that the only immediately ob%ious effects of electricity are shock and
heatin&< and no experimental study before about 19-2 and no theoretical study before about 1962
seriously su&&ested otherwise. +t is therefore not surprisin& that< from a public health standpoint< the
best that can be said of the present artificial !F le%els in the en%ironment in the =.0. is that they do
not cause shock or heatin&. =nfortunately< there may be public health conse9uences of en%ironmental
!Fs that are not ob%ious and which< therefore< are not protected a&ainst by the unofficial =.0. !F
exposure limit of 12<222 N?/cm2.
-a)le "6!" SOMA USAS O AMs
Typical le%els of artificial !Fs in the en%ironment< their conse9uences< and the basis for our
conclusion that they may constitute a public health risk are described below.
Le&e!' in t+e En&iron#ent
The artificial !F en%ironment of the =.0. is a superimposition of contributions from many
sources ha%in& di%erse operatin& characteristics. They include hi&h( and low(power emitters that can be
omnidirectional or directional< and that can operate continuously or intermittently. 7t hi&h fre9uencies<
the &eneral !F back&round consists predominantly of the 7 radio band '2.,*,(1.-21 ;8) and the
F and T> band ',1(82- ;8). 7bout half the =.0. population is exposed to these sources at le%els
abo%e 2.22, N?/cm2 at any &i%en moment< and about +L is exposed abo%e 1 N?/cm2 'Fi&. 12.1)'1).
The actual number of people exposed abo%e 1 N?/cm2 in any &i%en day< week< or month is
considerably &reater because of population mobility.
ig! "6!" 5opulation of some U!S! cities e'posed to radio and -4 signals a)ove /the level considered
safe in the U!S!S!7!0! Nationwide$ the total population e'posed a)ove " H.Gcm, at any given time is
a)out , million /"0!
!Fs emanatin& from the electrical power system '-2 ;8 in the =.0.< ,2 ;8 in !urope and the
=.0.0.5.) constitute most of the artificial low(fre9uency electroma&netic back&round. They are
extremely per%asi%eD except for remote areas such as forests< it is difficult to find places where the
electric and ma&netic fields are less than 2.1%/m and 122 N&auss respecti%ely. 3ut e%en these fields are
se%eral orders of ma&nitude &reater than the naturally present -2(;8 fields. The a%era&e man(made
back(&round electric field is probably in the order of 1 %/m '2)< and the a%era&e back&round ma&netic
field is about 822(922 N&auss '*).
!Fs much &reater than the back&round are found in the %icinity of specific sources. The
power density at %arious distances from a typical ,2<222(watt 7 radio station is shown in table 12.2
'1)D within a radius of about *<282 feet< the le%el does not decrease below 1 N?/cm2. F radio stations
%ary considerably in stren&th and antenna desi&n< but it has been estimated that 19* of 26,2 such
stations in the =.0. could ha%e le%els exceedin& 1222 N?/cm2 within 222 feet of the antenna ',). +n
lar&e urban areas< the ele%ation necessary for transmission of radio and T> si&nals is sometimes
attained by mountin& the antenna atop a tall buildin&. This produces hi&h !F le%els in nearby
buildin&s 'Table 12.*) '12). ?hen radio and T> antennas are &rouped< they produce relati%ely intense
!F le%els o%er broad areas. ount ?ilson< $alifornia< for example< has 26 radio and T> antennas
ser%in& the "os 7n&eles area 'Fi&. 12.2). This produces !Fs of 622(1222 N?/cm2 in the backyard of
the post office on ount ?ilson< and 122(812 N?/cm2 inside the post office '-). The 0entinel ;ei&hts
area south of 0yracuse< /ew Aork< contains about a do8en transmitters and they result in essentially
ambient le%els of about 1 N?/cm2 throu&hout an area of se%eral s9uare miles '6).
-a)le "6!,! 5O.A7 DANS+-Y %- 4%7+OUS D+S-%NCAS 7OM % ;6$666 .%-- %M 7%D+O
S-%-+ON

-a)le "6!2! AM +N -Y5lC%L -%LL <UlLDlN#S

ig! "6!,! -he antenna farm at Mt! .ilson$ California! -he comple' consists of ,8 antennas that
radiate appro'imately "6 M.$ there)y producing ground?level power densities of up to ,:$666
H.Gcm,! /7eproduced )y permission$ from ref! B!0
The a%era&e contribution of hi&h(power radars to the urban !F en%ironment is low because
their beams are directed away from population centers. 3ut< because of stray radiation< exposure le%els
near airports and military bases can be in the ran&e of 12(122 N?/cm2 at distances up to one(half mile
'8). 7irborne radar makes a further contribution to the airport !F en%ironment.
icrowa%e(relay antennas< located at inter%als of about 22 miles< are used for lon&(distance
telephone ser%ice and for pri%ate communications. 7 12(foot diameter antenna positioned 122 feet
abo%e the &round produces &round(le%el !Fs of approximately 2.2*(6., N?/cm2 within *6- feet of
the tower '9). There are se%eral thousand microwa%e(relay towers in the =.0.< each with two or more
antennas.
obile communications e9uipment and hand(held walkie(talkies are relati%ely low(power
sources< but they account for si&nificant exposure le%els because the radiatin& antenna is ordinarily
close to the user. Fi&ure 12.* depicts the power densities in the head area that arise from a typical
walkie(talkie '12). Fi&ure 12.1 &i%es the power densities inside and outside a truck with a roof(mounted
antenna '12).
ig! "6!2! 5ower density /H.Gcm,0 in the area of the head of a Motorola 1-?,,6 walkie?talkie
operating at "B;!3; M1> with an output of "!: . /"60! -he measurements were made in the near field
where the plane wave relation )etween the electric and magnetic fields does not strictly apply@ the
listed values are an upper limit for the actual power densities! -he same comment applies to igure
"6!3!

ig! "6!3! 5ower density /H.Gcm,0 inside and outside a truck arising from a roof?mounted "66w
transmitter operating at 3"!2" M1> /"60!
The -2(;8 electric and ma&netic fields associated with typical household appliances are listed in
tables 12.1 and 12., respecti%ely '1*). There are about ,22<222 miles of hi&h(%olta&e power lines in the
=.0.< and they produce fields that depend principally on the lineBs %olta&e< current< and &eometry. The
&round(le%el electric field at %arious distances from typical hi&h(%olta&e power lines is shown in Fi&ure
12.,. 4round(le%el ma&netic fields from hi&h(%olta&e power lines are &enerally in the ran&e 2.1(1
&auss within 1,2 feet of the line.
-a)le "6!3! 5O.A7?7AIUANCY ALAC-7+C +ALDS O 1OUSA1OLD %55L+%NCAS
MA%SU7AD %- % D+S-%NCA O ONA OO-
-a)le "6!;! 5O.A7?7AIUANCY M%#NA-+C +ALDS O 1OUSA1OLD %55L+%NCAS
"ow(fre9uency en%ironmental !Fs are also produced by many other man(made sources.
?eapons( and theft(detection systems< for example< produce ma&netic fields of 1(2 &auss< 122(12<222
;8. 3ut not all manmade !Fs are produced by desi&n: it has recently been found< for example< that
the startin& and stoppin& of trains in the 3ay 7rea 5apid Transit 0ystem in $alifornia produced low(
fre9uency !Fs throu&hout the entire 0an Francisco 3ay 7rea '11).

ig! "6!;! #round?level electric fields of typical high?voltage power lines! a$ ""; kvF )$ ,26 kvF c$ 23;
kvF d$ ;66 kvF e$ 8B; kv!
E.ide#io!o,ica! Stdie' and Sr&ey'
Anvironmental studies! 0uicide is a stress(related phenomenon that may be %iewed as a specific
manifestation of depressi%e mental illness. ?e studied the relationship between suicide and power(
fre9uency field stren&th '2< 11). ?e were concerned with how the field stren&th at the residences of
suicides compared with that at appropriately(chosen control addresses. The study &roup consisted of
the ,98 suicides that occurred within the study area 'in the idlands of !n&land) durin& a 6(year
period and an e9ual number of controls. ?e first examined the relationship between suicide and the
computed electric and ma&netic fields of nearby hi&h(%olta&e power lines. ?e found a statistically
si&nificant correlation between both fields and the occurrence of suicide< but we could not determine
whether more or less than the expected number of suicides occurred at locations of hi&h field stren&ths
'11). 0ince the total power(fre9uency field at any site is due to contributions from many sources( hi&h(
%olta&e lines< low(%olta&e lines< household wirin& and appliances( we then proceeded with a study of
measured field stren&ths. The mean measured ma&netic field stren&th for the suicide &roup '8-6
N&auss)< was found to be si&nificantly hi&her than that of the control &roup '629 N&auss) '2). The
proportion of suicide addresses in the hi&h(field(stren&th re&ion was 12L &reater than the proportion of
control addresses 'Table 12.-).
-a)le "6!B! 57O5O7-+ONS O SU+C+DA %ND CON-7OL %DD7ASSAS OUND +N 7A#+ONS O
4A7Y 1+#1 /" ;66 Hgauss0 %ND 1+#1 /"666 Hgauss0 MA%SU7AD 5O.A7?7AIUANCY
M%#NA-+C +ALD S-7AN#-1
?ertheimer and "eeper studied the association between childhood cancer 'in :en%er<
$olorado)< and li%in& in proximity to power lines. ;omes were classified on the basis of their distance
to hi&h(current 'hi&h ma&netic field) and low(current 'low ma&netic field) line confi&urations. +t was
found that the death rate from leukemia< +ymphomas and ner%ous system tumors was about twice the
expected rate in hi&h(current homes '1,). +n a related study '1-)< which was different in se%eral
important respects '16)< Fulton et al. failed to find an association between electrical wirin&
confi&uration and childhood leukemia in 5hode +sland.
+n a study in%ol%in& children exposed to en%ironmental hi&h(fre9uency !Fs< differences were
found in %arious cardio%ascular indices between 122 children 'a&ed ,(11) who li%ed in areas where the
!F ran&ed up to *2 %/m< and 62 control children who experienced fields of less than 2.l %/m '18). The
exposed &roup had faster pulse and respiratory rates< increased blood pressure< and exhibited a slower
reco%ery from a stress test.
These studies< and one other that failed to find an association between li%in& near power lines
and %isits to a physician '19)< are< so far as we ha%e been able to determine< the only epidemiolo&ical
studies that in%ol%e exposure to en%ironmental !Fs.
Occupational e'posure! There ha%e been many sur%eys and studies of the side(effects of !F
exposure in the workplace. 7t hi&h fre9uencies< the workers studied ha%e included radar< radio< and T>
technicians< and the operators of %arious speciali8ed industrial e9uipment. +n &eneral< the most
fre9uently found symptoms in%ol%ed the hematolo&ical< cardio%ascular< endocrine< and ner%ous
systems of the exposed workers.
+n 1962< 4loto%a and 0adchiko%a reported the de%elopment and clinical course of
cardio%ascular chan&es in 12, workers chronically exposed to *2 4;8< 2222(*222 Nw/cm2 '22). They
found that the !F exposure resulted in cardio%ascular and autonomic(system alterations< the nature of
which %aried with the indi%idual. +n some persons< there was sinus bradycardia and arterial hypotension
without any si&ns of &eneral or re&ional hemodynamic disturbances. +n others< autonomic(%ascular
dysfunctions< often with symptoms of hypothalamic insufficiency were found. 0ubse9uently<
0adchiko%a presented dinical obser%ations on the health status of microwa%e e9uipment operators '21).
There were three 'predominantly male) &roups that were matched with respect to a&e< sex< and Cob. The
first &roup '1222 persons) was exposed to 2222(*222 N?/cm2< the second &roup '182) to 22(*2
N?/cm2< and the third &roup '222) recei%ed no exposure. +t was found that the first and second &roups
differed si&nificantly from the controls in fre9uency of complaints of headache< tiredness< and
irritability. 3oth &roups exhibited %arious cardio%ascular chan&es includin& bradycardia and
abnormalities in blood pressure and !$4. "ater studies on 88, radio and electronics workers yielded
similar results '2-).
+n a study of -2 men exposed to *2(4;8 !Fs durin& their workin& day 'normally 12(162
N?/cm2< but up to ,22 N?/cm2) six or se%en times per month< bradycardia and a decrease in the
pumpin& efficiency of the heart were found '2*). 0imilar results were reported in *1 persons< a&ed *2(
19 who had been exposed for ,(1, years '21). >arious cardio%ascular disorders were also seen in a
study of 6* men and 26 women that had been occupationally exposed to microwa%e !Fs '2,).
0ymptoms &enerally subsided 1(2 weeks after cessation of work around the radiation sources but in
some cases they persisted for more than 2 years. @limko%a studied 1-2 workers who had been exposed
to *(*2 4;8< and reported headache< fati&ue< and !!4 chan&es as a conse9uence of the !F '2-).
0okolo% et al. compared %arious blood and bone(marrow cell indices of 1*1 persons '11, males<
1- females)who had been occupationally exposed to hi&h(fre9uency !Fs< with the correspondin&
%alues from 822 clinically healthy persons. :ecreased leukocyte counts and an increased red blood cell
formation were obser%ed in the exposed indi%iduals< and the results< which were pro&ressi%e with
increasin& exposure< were found to be re%ersible upon cessation of exposure '26). ;ematolo&ical
disorders ha%e also been reported in se%eral other similar studies '29(*2).
.rolon&ed occupational exposure leads to a stress reaction manifested by chan&es in corticoid
metabolism '**) and in the &eneral endocrine system '28< *1(*-).
+n a study of &onadal function in workers exposed to microwa%e !Fs '*.-(12 4;8< 12(122
N?/cm2< for an a%era&e of 8 years) si&nificant differences between the exposed and control workers
were found in the number< motility< and morpholo&y of the spermato8oa. Followin& cessation of
exposure< most subCects showed impro%ement in the %arious &onadal indices '*6).
+n an e%aluation of the relationship between mon&olism ':ownBs syndrome) and parental
exposure to radiation< it was found that 8.6L of fathers of mon&oloid children had contact with radar as
compared to *.* L of control fathers(the difference was statistically si&nificant '* 8). 7 later study
failed to confirm this hi&her incidence of paternal radar microwa%e exposure in fathers of :ownBs cases
'*9).
0adchiko%a has described three pro&ressi%ely more serious syndromes associated with exposure
to hi&h(fre9uency !Fs 'collecti%ely referred to as microwa%e disease) '21( 12).
1. 7sthenic: seen in the initial sta&es of the disease and characteri8ed by %a&otonia< arterial
hypotension and bradycardia.
2. 7stheno(%e&etati%e: more pronounced than asthenic phenomena and the most often obser%ed
form. $haracteri8ed by excitability of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic ner%ous system< with
%ascular instability and hypertension.
*. ;ypothalamic: arises with increasin& disease patholo&y. $haracteri8ed by the de%elopment of
paroxysmal states in the form of sympathoadrenal crises. Fre9uently leads to ischemic heart disease.
7lthou&h the conclusion is hotly contested by industry spokesmen '11< 12)< the e%idence clearly
indicates that exposure to hi&h(fre9uency !Fs produces %arious abnormalities in the eye< particularly
cataracts. +n 19-*< in one of the earliest studies of this relationship between !Fs and ocular
anomalies< Earet et al. '1*) examined 6* - workers in%ol%ed in the maintenance and testin& of radars<
and ,,9 control indi%iduals. The ophthalmic examinations included %isual acuity tests< slit(lamp
examinations< and stereophoto&raphy of the lens. They found si&nificant differences between exposed
and control &roups in the fre9uency of polar defects and opacities. 0ubse9uent re(e%aluations of Earet
et al.Bs data reinforced the ori&inal conclusions '11<1,).
eCewska '1-) studied 222 workers who were exposed to 2.-(12.6 4;8 and 222 control
indi%iduals: a statistically si&nificant increase in lens opacities in the exposed indi%iduals was found.
The se%erity of the disease increased with the duration of exposure. +n another study< which in%ol%ed
-22 workers and an a&e(matched control &roup of *22 indi%iduals '16)< it was found that exposure to
2.*(*22 4;8 correlated with an increased incidence of a specific kind of lens opacity. 7ppleton
sur%eyed military personnel who had been exposed to microwa%e !Fs and found a trend in older a&e
&roups toward a &reater incidence of opacities amon& exposed personnel '18). #dland '19) also studied
the relation between exposure to military radars and ocular anomalies. There were *66 exposed
indi%iduals and *22 controls: amon& the exposed workers who had a family history of eye diseases< it
was found that the incidence of eye defects was almost twice as &reat as that amon& the controls who
had such a family history. 7mon& -8 electronics workers and *2 control indi%iduals< it was found that
the incidence of lens opacities and retinal lesions were both &reater in the exposed &roup ',2< ,1).
Eydecki studied 1222 exposed workers 'mostly between 122(1222 N?/cm2) and 1222 controls and
found that the number of lenticular opacities was si&nificantly &reater in the exposed indi%iduals ',2).
Throu&h painstakin& analysis of many clinical cases< Earet has been able to describe a particular
lens opacification for which !Fs are the primary etiolo&ical factor 'the microwa%e cataract) ',* (,6).
+n contrast to other types of cataracts 'heredity< metabolic< and senile) which ori&inate in the lens< the
microwa%e cataract ori&inates in the elastic membrane that surrounds the lens 'the capsule). icrowa%e
cataracts occur followin& exposure to either thermal or nonthermal !Fs< and ha%e a latency period of
months to years.
The 0o%iet =nion has enacted a hi&h(fre9uency !F occupational exposure limit of 12
N?/cm2 ',8). 0ince the &eneral public is a much more hetero&eneous &roup than the work force(which
does not &enerally contain the %ery youn& or old< or the sick(an additional safety factor of ten was
incorporated in choosin& a standard for the &eneral en%ironment< which was set at 1 N?/cm2 ',9).
.ersonnel workin& in electrical sub(stations or near hi&h(%olta&e power lines are exposed to
relati%ely intense power(fre9uency electric and ma&netic fields. +n the early 19-2Bs< 0o%iet scientists
conducted se%eral studies of the effects of power(fre9uency !Fs on exposed workers '-2(-2) and
found a %ariety of ills includin& headaches< fati&ue< chest pains< and sexual impotence. These studies
led to the first 'and only) health standards desi&ned to re&ulate exposure to power(fre9uency !Fs in
the workplace '-*) 'Table 12.6). 0panish in%esti&ators found similar problems amon& 9 workers '-1)<
but amon& 11 7merican ser%ice personnel the only findin& was a reduced sperm count in 2 workers
'-,).
-a)le "6!8! SO4+A- OCCU5%-+ON%L?AD5OSU7A S%A-Y LA4ALS O7 5O.A7?7AIUANCY
ALAC-7+C +ALDS
The ori&inal 0o%iet studies ha%e led to an expanded effort to study the health risks of !F
exposure to ser%ice personnel '--). 0tudies in other countries ha%e be&un to confirm the early e%idence
that alterations in &onadal function are associated with workplace exposure. The results of a 0wedish
study seemed to indicate that fewer children were born to exposed hi&h(%olta&e workers than to
controls< and that the difference increased with the number of years of exposure '62). "ater studies
showed that 8L of the offsprin& of exposed workers suffered from birth defects as compared to * L of
the offsprin& of the control(&roup members. +n a $anadian study it was found that< prior to
commencement of employment< the ,- hi&h(%olta&e workers studied had fathered approximately e9ual
numbers of male and female offsprin&< but that in children concei%ed thereafter< the number of males
born was almost six times the number of females '-6).
Ana!y'i'
7s was seen in chapter 1< the ability of electricity to cause tissue heatin& and shock was well
known e%en before the tum of the century. +n the =nited 0tates these became the only reco&ni8ed
biolo&ical effects of electricity. 7s a conse9uence< from a side(effects %iewpoint< tissue heatin& and
shock were the only ha8ards &uarded a&ainst durin& the de%elopment of the electrical power and
communications industries. This approach translated into the 12<222(N? rule for permissible exposure
which was adopted by the military ser%ices and industry 'but not by the federal &o%ernment which pre(
empted the ri&ht to re&ulate !Fs and then elected not to establish any en%ironmental or occupational
safety le%els). +n the 0o%iet =nion< howe%er< !F re&ulation de%eloped %ery differently. 0o%iet
in%esti&ators reported that electroma&netic ener&y could affect the central ner%ous< cardio%ascular< and
endocrine systems without causin& tissue heatin& or shock. These results led to the adoption of a 12(
N? rule for the workplace and a 1(N? rule for the &eneral en%ironment. The 0o%iets also adopted
re&ulations &o%ernin& exposure to le%els of power(fre9uency fields considered to be completely safe in
the ?est. The e%idence 'part four) now shows< o%erwhelmin&ly< that the 0o%iet approach was the
correct one. +ndeed< no other outcome was possible &i%en both the demonstrated role of intrinsic !Fs
in physiolo&ical re&ulation 'chapter 2)< and the sensiti%ity of li%in& or&anisms to natural !Fs 'chapter
*).
0ince one or more mechanisms of interaction facilitated !F(induced bioeffects in a
laboratory< and since the le%els of !Fs studied in the laboratory are omnipresent in the en%ironment<
it must be expected that the same or similar mechanisms will facilitate an interaction between
en%ironmental !Fs and exposed subCects. +t is therefore clear from the laboratory studies that<
because nonthermal !Fs are capable of alterin& physiolo&ical functions< chronic exposure to them in
the en%ironment can result in some risk to health.
The extent of the risk is< at present< only dimly percei%able. For one thin&< most laboratory
studies ha%e been relati%ely short(term efforts that in%ol%ed exposure to the test system for days or
weeks< but rarely lon&er. ;uman exposure in the en%ironment is ob%iously lon&er(term< and the present
laboratory studies can only pro%ide an inklin& of the true conse9uences. 7nother point is that the
laboratory studies ha%e usually in%ol%ed only one fre9uency or field in contrast to en%ironmental !Fs
which consist of a superimposition of many fre9uencies and fields< and the possibility of a syner&istic
interaction in the en%ironment is %irtually unexplored.
7s we ha%e shown< the biolo&ical concept of stress affords the most useful approach to the
analysis of bioeffects caused by !Fs. 7pplied to en%ironmental exposure< the stress hypothesis leads
to the conclusion that the disease or effect produced in exposed subCects will depend on the &enetic
predisposition and pre%ious history of each subCect< as well as on the electrical characteristics of the
!F and the conditions of exposure. Thus< epidemiolo&ical studies would be expected to show a
correlation between en%ironmental !Fs and a broad class of ills< rather than a specific disease<
because that is the expected result in an animal population chronically subCected to any stressor. This is
precisely what has been found in the epidemiolo&ical studies and sur%eys. 7ssociations ha%e been
reported between en%ironmental !Fs and di%erse phenomena includin& cancer< suicide< and
cardio%ascular function. +n the occupational settin&< a disease syndrome has been identified in
indi%iduals exposed to !Fs that leads to a clinically dia&nosable state of biolo&ical stress< and to
specific effects such as cataracts and< apparently< chan&es in human reproduction.
?hat is the appropriate basis upon which to re&ulate en%ironmental !FsG 5ecently< the .ublic
0er%ice $ommission of ?est >ir&inia in appro%in& construction of a hi&h(%olta&e power line with no
pro%ision for protection of the public from the electric and ma&netic fields< reasoned that there were no
known biolo&ical effects of such fields in people who were re&ularly exposed to similar fields of other
lines '-8). This findin&< while technically correct< is hardly surprisin& because there ha%e been no
studies of the health conse9uences of such chronically exposed subCects. =nder this re&ulatory
approach(known as the dead(body theory(the re&ulator demands le&al e%idence of actual harm to
exposed subCects. The absence of such e%idence(for whate%er reason(is construed a&ainst the interests
of the exposed subCects< usually product users of local land(owners. ?e think that this approach is
wron& because it is both unfair and unethical. !F(producin& industries< which ha%e resources to
support epidemiolo&ical studies but ha%e failed to do so< should not be allowed to shift the onus to the
consumer or local landowner who is in no position at all to supply such proof. The dead(body
approach< moreo%er< wron&ly presupposes the acceptability of usin& human bein&s in an in%oluntary
pro&ram of dama&e assessment of !F le%els known to be biolo&ically acti%e from laboratory studies.
Federally(supported in%esti&ators in the =.0. cannot lawfully and ethically apply< for example< 12 N?
or ,22 %/m or 2., &auss to human subCects in a laboratory study without first followin& all the rules and
safe&uards attendant to human experimentation protocols. +t seems &rossly inconsistent< therefore< for
pri%ate industrial &roups< and others< to do so.
5isk(e%aluation is an alternati%e< and we su&&est much superior< approach to the re&ulation of
en%ironmental !Fs. ;ere the re&ulatory a&ency focuses on the laboratory studies and tries to
determine their rele%ance to the particular health(and(safety e%aluation at hand< and the de&ree of risk
that may permissibly be imputed to the human(exposure situation. +t asks: was the stren&th and
fre9uency used in the laboratory comparable to that which will be produced by the hardware under
considerationG ;ow does the duration of laboratory exposure compare to the normal patterns of human
exposure that will occurG ?hat was the test speciesG '$learly results from monkeys merit more wei&ht
than those obtained from bean plants.) ?as the optimum species used for the particular physiolo&ical
characteristic monitoredG 'The pi&< for example< in studies of skin(healin&< or the rabbit for studies of
!F(induced cataracts.) ?ere there any biophysical factors (the si8e or shape of the test species< for
example( that re9uire consideration in relatin& the animal tests to human bein&sG 3ased on these and
other similar factors< and with knowled&e of the particular !F le%els that will occur in the
en%ironment< the a&ency is in a reasonable position to fix the risk aspect of its risk/benefit analysis.
The risk(e%aluation approach to the re&ulation of nonthermal en%ironmental !F was followed
in the 1962s< connection with its re&ulation of emission le%els of microwa%e o%ens. 35; set the
allowable leaka&e le%els of new o%ens at 1222 N?/cm2 '-9). The approach was subse9uently followed
in 1966 by the $alifornia !ner&y $ommission '62)< and in 1968 by the /ew Aork .ublic 0er%ice
$ommission '61)D in both cases rules were drawn to protect the public from exposure to power(
fre9uency fields from hi&h(%olta&e power lines.
S##ary
an(made !Fs are present in the en%ironment at le%els shown by experiment to be capable of
affectin& biolo&ical function. +t follows< therefore< that uncontrolled exposure to such !Fs is a potential public(
health risk. The re&ulatory response to the en%ironmental !F problem has been slow< and the nature of the
proof demanded has fre9uently been inappropriate.
Re"erence'
1. Tell< 5.7.< and antiply< !.:. 1968. 5opulation e'posure to 41 and U1 )roadcast radiation in
the United States< #5./!7: 68(,. "as >e&as< /e%ada: =.0. !n%ironmental .rotection 7&ency.
2. arino< 7.7.< and 3ecker< 5.#.1968. ;i&h %olta&e lines: ha8ard at a distance. Anvironment 22:-.
*. .erry< F.0.< 5eichmanis< .< arino< 7.7.< and 3ecker< 5.#. !n%ironmental power(fre9uency
ma&netic fields and suicide. 1ealth 5hysics 11:2-6.
1. Tell< 5.< antiply< !.< :urney< $.< and assoudi< ;. 1969. !lectric and ma&netic field intensities and
associated body currents in man in dose proximity to a ,2 kw 7 standard broadcast station.
.resented at 3ioelectroma&netics 0ymposium< 0eattle< ?ashin&ton.
,. Tell< 5.< "ambdin< :.< 3rown< 5.< and antiply< !. 1969. !lectric field stren&ths in the near %icinity
of F radio broadcast antennas. .resented at +!!! 3roadcast 0ymposium< ?ashin&ton :.$.
:ept. 1969.
-. Tell< 5.< and #B3rien< ..F. 1966. 7n in%esti&ation of broadcast radiation intensities at ount ?ilson<
$alifornia< #5./!7:(66(2. "as >e&as< /e%ada: =.0. !n%ironmental .rotection 7&ency.
6. $ohen< F. 1968. 5eport to the Town 3oard of the Town of #nonda&a< #nonda&a< /ew Aork.
8. Fanes< :.!. 1982. 5opulation e'posure to radio wave environments in the United States<
.roceedin&s< +nstitute of !n%ironmental 0cience< ?ashin&ton< :.$.
9. ;ankin< /. 1982. Calculation of e'pected microwave radiation e'posure levels at various distances
from microwave system proposed )y MC+ Corporation in Skaneateles< /ew Aork. ay 1982.
?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. !n%ironmental .rotection 7&ency.
12. "ambdin< :.". 1969. %n investigation of energy densities in the vicinity of vehicles with mo)ile
communications e(uipment and near a hand?held walkie talkie< #5./!7: 69(2. "as >e&as<
/e%ada: =.0. !n%ironmental .rotection 7&ency.
11. ;o< 7..< Fraser(0mith< 7.$.< and >illard< #.4. 1969. "ar&e(amplitude ="F ma&netic fields
produced by a rapid transit system: close(ran&e measurements. 7adio Science 11:1211.
12. Tell< 5.7.< and ;ankin< /.;. 1968. Measurements of radio fre(uency field intensity in )uildings
with close pro'imity to )roadcast systems< #5./!7: 68(*. "as >e&as< /e%ada: =.0.
!n%ironmental .rotection 7&ency.
1*. !lectronic 0ystems $ommand< :epartment of the /a%y. 1962. act sheet for the sanguine system@
final environmental impact statement.
11. 5eichmanis< .< .erry< F.0.< arino< 7.7.< and 3ecker< 5.2. 1969. 5elation between suicide and
the electroma&netic fields of o%erhead power lines. 5hysiol! Chem! 5hys! 11:*9,.
1,. ?ertheimer< /.< and "eeper< !. 1969. !lectrical wirin& confi&urations and childhood cancer. %m! C!
Apidemiol! 129:26*.
1-. Fulton< F...< $obb< 0.< .reble< ".< "eone< ".< and Forman< !. 1982. !lectrical wirin& confi&urations
and childhood leukemia in 5hode +sland. %m! C! Apidemiol! 111:292.
16. ?ertheimer< /.< and "eeper< !. 1982. 5e: H!lectrical wirin& confi&urations and childhood leukemia
in 5hode lsland. %m! C! Apidemiol! 111:1-1.
18. Ehurako%skaya< /.7. 196-. !ffect of low(intensity hi&h(fre9uency electroma&netic ener&y on the
cardio%ascular system. C57S "/,-1,< p. 1*.
19. 0trum8a< .>. 1962. +nfluence on human health of the proximity of hi&h(%olta&e electrical
conductors: results of a sur%ey. %rch! Mal! -rof! *1:2-9. 'in French.)
22. 4loto%a< @...< and 0adchiko%a< ./. 1962. :e%elopment and clinical course of cardio%ascular
chan&es after chronic exposure to microwa%e irradiation. C57S ,12*8< p. 1.
21. 0adchiko%a< ./. 1961. $linical manifestations of reactions to microwa%e irradiation in %arious
occupational &roups. +n <iologic effects and health ha>ards of microwave radiation< p. 2-1.
22. 0adchiko%a< ./.< /ikono%a< @.>.< :eniso%a< Ae. 7.< 0ne&o%a< 4.>.< "B%o%skaya< !./.< and
0oldato%a< >.7. 196-. 7rterial pressure as related to exposure to low(intensity microwa%es and
hi&h temperature. C57S "/6298< p. 1.
2*. Fofano%< ../. 19-9. ;emodynamic chan&es in indi%iduals workin& under microwa%e irradiation.
C57S 18181.
21. onayenko%a< 7..< and 0adchiko%a< ./. 19--. 1emodynamic indices during the action of
super?high fre(uency electromagnetic fields< 7T: 5eport --(12*. ?ashin&ton :.$.: "ibrary of
$on&ress.
2,. :ro&ichina< !.7.< @onchalo%skaya< /..< 4loto%a< @.>.< 0adchiko%a< ./.< and 0ne&o%a< 4.>.
19--. %utonomic and cardiovascular disorders during chronic e'posure to super?high
fre(uency electromagnetic fields< 7T: 5eport --(121. ?ashin&ton :.$.: "ibrary of $on&ress.
2-. @limko%a(:eutscho%a< !. 1961. /eurolo&ic findin&s in persons exposed to microwa%es. +n
<iologic effects and health ha>ards of microwave irradiation< p. 2-8. ?arsaw: .olish edical
.ublishers.
26. 0okolo%< >.>.< 4ribo%a< +.7.< $hulina< /.7.< 4ori8onto%a< ./.< and 0adchiko%a< ./. 196*. 0tate
of the blood system under the influence of 0;F fields of %arious intensities< and microwa%e
sickness. C57S -**21< p.-*.
28. .etro%< +.5. 1962. +nfluence of microwa%e radiation on the or&anism of man and animals. /62(
2226*1.
29. 4embitskiy< A.< @olesmik< F.7.< and alyshe%< >.. 19-9. $han&es in the blood system durin&
chronic exposure to a super hi&h fre9uency field. 4oen! Med! Eh! ,:21. 'in 5ussian.)
*2. >olko%a< 7...< and Fukalo%a< .... 196*. $han&es in certain protecti%e reactions of an or&anism
under the influence of 0? in experimental and industrial conditions. C57S -**21< p. 1-8.
*1. 3aranski< 0.< $8erski< .. 19--. +n%esti&ation of the beha%ior of the corpuscular blood constituents in
persons exposed to microwa%es. Lek! .o=skowi! 1:92*. 'in .olish.)
*2. ed%ede%< >... 196*. $ardio%ascular diseases in persons with a history of exposure to an
electroma&netic field of extra(hi&h fre9uency. #ig! -r! 5rof! Ea)ol! 16:-. 'in 5ussian.)
**. :umkin< >./.< and @orene%skaya< 0... 196*. 4lucocorticoid function of the adrenals in radiowa%e
sickness. C57S -**21< p. 62.
*1. Ealyubo%skiya< /...< and @isele%< 5.+. 1968. !ffect of radiowa%es in the millimeter ran&e of the
body of man and animals. C57S 629,-< p. 9.
*,. @leyner< 7.+.< 7bromo%ich(.olyko%a< :.@.< akotchenki< >..< alinina(.utsenko< >...<
/edbaylo< Ae...< .ano%a< >./.< and archenko< /.+. 196,. $linical aspects of the effect of
metric ran&e electric fields. C57S --1*1< p. 1.
*-. :Byachenko< /.7. 1962. $han&es in thyroid function after chronic exposure to microwa%e
irradiation. C57S ,12*8< p. -.
*6. "ancran&an< +.< aicanescu< .< 5afaila< !.< @lepsch< +.< and .opsecu< ;.+. 196,. 4onadic function
in workmen with lon&(term exposure to microwa%es. 1ealth 5hys! 29:*81.
*8. 3.;. $ohen< and "ilienfeld< 7.. 1962. 7n epidemiolo&ical study of mon&olism in 3altimore. %nn!
N!Y! %cad! Sci! 161:*22.
*9. $ohen< 3.;.< "ilienfeld< 7..< @ramer< 0.< and ;yman< ".$. 1966. .arental factors in :ownBs
syndrome(results of the second 3altimore case(control study. +n 5opulation cytogenetics?
studies in humans< p. *21. /ew Aork: 7cademic.
12. 0adchiko%a< ./.< and 4loto%a< @.>. 196*. The clinical si&ns< patho&enesis< treatment< and
outcome of radiowa%e sickness. C57S -**21< p. ,1.
11. ichaelson< 0..< and #sepchuk< F. + 961. $omment on H$ataracts followin& use of microwa%e
o%en.H N!Y! State C! Med! 61:22*1.
12. Testimony of F.. #sepchuk and 0.. ichaelson on behalf of the 7ssociation of ;ome 7ppliance
anufacturers before the =nited 0tates 0enate $ommittee on $ommerce< arch 196*.
1*. Earet< ..< $leary< 0.F.< .asterneck< 3.< !isenbud< .< and 0chmidt< ;. 19-*. % study of
lenticular imperfections in the eyes of a sample of microwave workers and a control population.
Final report< 57:$(T:5(-*(12,. 5ome 7ir :e%elopment $enter: =nited 0tates 7ir Force.
11. !isenbud< . 19-1. A'posure of radar workers to microwaves. 7nnual .ro&ress 5eport<
?ashin&ton :.$.: =nited 0tates 7rmy.
1,. $leary< 0.F.< and .asterneck< 3.0. 19--. "enticular chan&es in microwa%e workers. %rch! Anviron!
1ealth 12:2*.
1-. aCewska< @. 19-8. +n%esti&ations on the effect of microwa%es on the eye. 5ol! Med! C! 6:989.
16. @heifets< /.0. 1962. 3iomicroscopic characteristics of crystalline lenses in persons exposed to the
effects of electroma&netic fields of ultrahi&h fre9uency. Destn! Oftalmol! -:62. 'in 5ussian.)
18. 7ppleton< 3. 196*. 5esults of clinical sur%eys for microwa%e ocular effects< :;!? 6*(82*1.
?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. ;!?.
19. #dland< ".T. 196*. 5adio(fre9uency ener&y(a ha8ard to workersG +nd! Med! Surg! 12:2*.
,2. Ten&orth< 3.< and 7urell< !. 1961. 5etinal chan&es in microwa%e workers. +n <iologic effects and
health ha>ards of microwave radiation< p. *22. ?arsaw: .olish edical .ublishers.
,1. 7urell< !.< and Ten&orth< 3. 196*. "enticular and retinal chan&es secondary to microwa%e exposure.
%cta Ophthalmol! ,1:6-1.
,2. Eydecki< 0. 1961. 7ssessment of lens translucency in Cu%eniles< microwa%e workers and a&e(
matched &roups. +n <iologic effects and health ha>ards of microwave irradiation< p. *2-.
,*. Earet< .. 1961. $ataracts followin& use of microwa%e o%en. N! Y! State C! Med! 61:22*2.
,1. Earet< ..< @aplan< +.T.< and @ay< 7.. 19-9. $linical microwa%e cataracts. +n <iological effects
and health implications of microwave radiation< 0ymposium proceedin&s< 35;/:3! 62(2.
5ichmond< >ir&inia: =.0. :ept. ;!?.
,,. Earet< .. 196*. 0elected cases of microwa%e cataract in man associated with concomitant
annotated patholo&ies. +n <iologic effects and health ha>ards of microwaves radiation< ?arsaw:
.olish edical .ublishers.
,-. Earet< .. 1982. $ataracts followin& use of cathode ray tube displays. +n 5roceedings of
international symposium of electromagnetic waves and )iology. France< 1982.
,6. Earet< .. 1968. /onioni8in& radiational inCury of humans. +n Congress 5roceedings C Ninth
+nternational Congress of the rench Society of 7adio protection. ay< 1968.
,8. arha< @.< usil< F.< and Tuha< ;. 1961. Alectromagnetic fields and life environment. 0an
Francisco: 0an Francisco .ress.
,9. 4ordon< E.>. 196*. /ew results of in%esti&ations on the problem of work hy&iene and the
biolo&ical effects of radio fre9uency electroma&netic wa%es. C57S -**21< p.2.
-2. 7sano%a< T.< and 5ako%< 7. 19--. The state of health of persons workin& in the electric field of
outdoor 122 k% and ,22 k% switch yards. #ig! -r! 5rof! Ea)ol! 12: ,2. '7%ailable from +!!!<
.iscataway< /ew Fersey< 0pecial .ublication /umber 12.)
-1. 0a8ono%a< T. 19-6. 7 physiolo&ical assessment of the work conditions in 122 k% and ,22 k% open
switch yards. +n Scientific pu)lications of the +nstitute of La)or 5rotection of the %ll?Union
Central Council of -rade Unions< +ssue 1-< .rofi8dat< '7%ailable from +!!!< .iscataway< /ew
Fersey< 0pecial +ssue /umber 12.)
-2. Filippo%< E. 1962 The effect of 7$ electric field on man and measures for protection. .resented at
the $ollo9uium on .re%ention of #ccupational 5isks :ue to !lectricity< /o%.(:ec. 1962<
$olo&ne< 4ermany.
-*. @orbko%a< >...< oro8o%< Au.7.< 0tolaro%< .:.< and Aakub< Au.7. 1962. +nfluence of the electric
fields in ,22 to 6,2 k% switch yards on maintenance staff and means for its protection.
.resented at +nternational $onference on "ar&e ;i&h Tension !lectric 0ystems. .aris: $i&re.
-1. Fole< F.F. 1962. .henomena in electric substations. .resented at the $ollo9uium on .re%ention of
#ccupational 5isks :ue to !lectricity< /o%.(:ec. 1962< $olo&ne< 4ermany.
-,. @ouwenho%en< ?.< "an&worthy< #.5.< 0in&eweld< .".< and @nickerbocker< 4.4. 19-6. edical
e%aluation of man workin& in 7$ electric fields. +AAA -rans! 5ower %ppr! Syst! 8-:,2-.
--. "ysko%< A.+.< !mma< 0.< and 0tolyaro%< .:. 196,. !lectrical field as a parameter considered in
desi&nin& electric power transmission of 6,2(11,2k%: the measurin& methods< the desi&n
practices and direction of research. +n 5roceedings of the Symposium of A14 %C 5ower
-ransmission -echnology. ?ashin&ton :.$.: =.0. :ept. +nterior.
-6. 5ober&e< ..F. 196-. 0tudy of the health of electricians assi&ned to the measurement of ;ydro(
OuebecBs 6*, k% stations: final report. ontreal< Ouebec: ;ydro(Ouebec. 'in French.)
-8. #rder< .ublic 0er%ice $ommission of ?est >ir&inia< in the atter of the 7pplication of the
7ppalachian .ower $ompany for the $ertificate to $onstruct a 6-, k% Transmission "ine in
ason< .utman< and $able $ounties< ay< 1969< $ase /umber 922*.
-9. :ecision by Fohn $. >llliforth< :irector< 3ureau of 5adiolo&ical ;ealth< +n the atter of the
7pplication of the 4eneral !lectric $ompany for an !xemption from the /otification and
5emedy .ro%isions of the 5adiation $ontrol for ;ealth and 0afety 7ct< 7u&ust 196-< :ocket
6-.(221*.
62. :ecision of the !ner&y 5esources $onser%ation and :e%elopment $ommission of the 0tate of
$alifornia '$!$)< in the atter of the 7pplication of the 0an :ie&o 4as and !lectric $ompany
to $onstruct a ,22 k% .ower "ine in $onnection with the 0undesert .roCect< :ocket 6-(/#1(2<
:ecember 1966. 0ee also< decision of the $!$ in connection with the application of the .acific
4as and !lectric $ompany to construct the 4eysers =nit 1- hi&h(%olta&e power "ine< :ocket
69(7F$(,< 1981.
61. #pinion /umber 68(1*< 0tate of /ew Aork .ublic 0er%ice $ommission $ommon 5ecord ;earin&s
on ;ealth and 0afety of !xtra(;i&h >olta&e Transmission "ines< $ases 2-,29 and 2-,,9< Fune
1968.
62. @na%e< 3.< 4amberale< F.< 3er&strom< 0.< 3irke< !.< +re&ren< 7.< @olmodin ;edman< 3.< and
?ennber&< 7. 1969. "on&(term exposure to electric fields. 7 cross(sectional epidemiolo&ic
in%esti&ation of occupationally exposed workers in hi&h(%olta&e substations. !lectra< -,< 11.
1 0ee footnote 1 in 5eferences< chapter ,.
*ART FO2R- A11l'e0 Ele!"o#$%&e!' E&e"%(- R'+3+ $&0 4e&ef'!+
$hapter 11: 0pecial Topics $oncernin& !lectroma&netic !ner&y
Therapeutic 7pplications
7cupuncture
+mpacts on /atural !colo&ical 0ystems
0ummary
5eferences
T+era.etic A..!ication'
7s we described in chapters 2 and 1< after bone was found to be pie8oelectric< much effort was
de%oted to the study of the possible physiolo&ical role of the pie8oelectric %olta&es. +n one approach< in
the early 19-2Bs< workin& with $. 7ndrew 3assett of $olumbia =ni%ersity< we studied boneBs
physiolo&ical response to an external %olta&e and found that it stimulated the &rowth of bone in the
canine tibia '1). any in%esti&ators subse9uently confirmed the phenomenon of electrical osteo&enesis
usin& %arious animal models '2 (6). The &eneral obser%ation has been that currents of ,(,2 Namp
promote bone &rowthD 2.1(, Namp produce little or no effect< and currents abo%e about ,2 Namp
'dependin& on the animal model and the electrical circuitry) result in necrosis and &ross tissue
destruction.
$ommencin& in the early 1962Bs< %arious in%esti&ators be&an applyin& electroma&netic ener&y
to patients sufferin& from orthopedic diseases characteri8ed by the failure of bone to &row normally.
The most fre9uently treated condition has been the nonunion of the lon& bone(a condition in which<
followin& a fracture< the bone fails to heal spontaneously '8). Three principal methods of application of
electroma&netic ener&y to bone subse9uently emer&ed. +n the coil method< a nonin%asi%e techni9ue<
;elmholt8 coils were fitted to the exterior of the site to be treated< and electrically dri%en so that the
time(%aryin& ma&netic field induced a bulk electric field with the tissue '9). +n the second method< four
stainless steel pins were inserted percutaneously to the treatment site< and a cathodic current was
appliedD this treatment was reported to stimulate the healin& of fractures '12)< and nonunions '11). The
third method< de%eloped in our laboratory< also used a :$ cathodic electrode to stimulate healin&< but it
employed a sil%er wire and si&nificantly less current. ?e used the sil%er(wire method to successfully
treat nonunions '12) and< with some modification< infected nonunions '1*). 0ome important aspects of
the three principal methods are summari8ed in table 11.1. Further details< and other techni9ues of
electrical osteo&enesis< are described elsewhere '8).

-a)le ""!" -he three principal method of clinical osteogenesis! L5eak current density in tissue!
:espite the seemin&ly established clinical success of electrical osteo&enesis< important 9uestions
remain unanswered. #ne of the most important is that of the mechanism of action of the applied
electroma&netic ener&y. The idea which initially led to the electrical bone(&rowth studies in animals
in%ol%ed the idea of simulatin& the natural pie8oelectric currents. ?e now know that these currents are
in the order of 12(1* amp< which is approximately -(8 orders of ma&nitude below typical clinical
osteo&enetic currents. +t seems clear< therefore< that the present clinical use of electrical treatments to
stimulate bone &rowth do not in%ol%e the pie8oelectric effect '11).
Ac.nctre
7cupuncture therapy de%eloped in $hina o%er se%eral thousand years '1,). +t is based on a
philosophy in which Hlife ener&yH called chBi is %iewed as composed of two fundamentally opposin&
aspects: yin< the passi%e< ne&ati%e principle and yan&< the acti%e< positi%e principle. 4ood health< which
in the holistic $hinese %iew includes both physical and mental health< depends on the maintenance of a
harmonious e9uilibrium between yin and yan&< to&ether with unimpeded circulation of chBi throu&hout
the body %ia 11 channels known as meridians: +mbalance or obstruction in the flow of the chBi is
manifested as illness. ;ealth can be restored by rectifyin& the imbalance %ia stimulation applied at one
or more specific locations on the meridians called acupuncture points. The particular points to be
treated are chosen after an examination of the patient and an e%aluation of his symptoms. #ri&inally<
treatment was by manual rotation of fine &old or sil%er needles inserted at the points. ore recently< a
%ariety of electrical si&nals 'electroacupuncture) ha%e been used instead of manual stimulation '1-< 16).
7t present acupuncture and electroacupuncture are used in $hina< primarily to treat pain and
neurolo&ical disorders '1-).
The earliest known $hinese treatise on acupuncture therapy dates back to about ,22 3.$.< and
the system it describes has remained essentially unchan&ed since then '1,). 7cupuncture was
introduced in the ?est in the se%enteenth century< and interest in it was rekindled by the new contacts
with mainland $hina in the early 1962Bs. This resur&ence of interest has led to numerous studies of the
clinical efficacy of acupuncture as well as basic laboratory studies of its physiolo&ical basis and mode
of action. 7cupuncture has been reported to be effecti%e in pro%idin& pain relief '18)< and many
hypotheses ha%e been proposed to explain the effects resultin& from acupuncture treatment '18< 19).
The most basic 9uestion concernin& acupuncture is whether there is a physical basis for the
system of points and meridians. 0uch a foundation would pro%ide a potential explanation for the
reported effects as well as a lo&ical framework for further studies. #therwise< one would be left only
with theories based on hypothesis or su&&estion. 7ttempts to correlate the acupuncture meridians and
points with the human ner%ous system ha%e been inconclusi%e: some in%esti&ators ha%e claimed that
many acupuncture points correspond to known concentrations of sensory receptors '22)< while others
see no relationship to the anatomy of the peripheral ner%ous system '21). There ha%e been su&&estions
that acupuncture points are distin&uishable by their lower :$ electrical resistance '22)< but others ha%e
said that this phenomenon is lar&ely due to experimental artifact caused by exertion of &reater pressure
on the measurin& instrument o%er the sites of supposed acupuncture points '2*).
#ur interest in acupuncture arose out of the concept of the electrical control system re&ulatin&
&rowth and healin& 'chapter 2). 0uch a system would recei%e and transmit si&nals that indicated the
occurrence of inCury. +nCury si&nals are usually e9uated with the perception of pain< but pain may be
merely the consciously percei%ed portion: the maCor portion may be addressed to the inte&ration areas
that &o%ern the :$ system where it would elicit an appropriate output electrical si&nal< directed
towards the area of trauma< that would produce the cellular stimulation necessary to initiate healin&.
0ince the relief of pain is a maCor effect produced by acupuncture< we theori8ed that the points and
meridians mi&ht play a role in the :$ control system '*,). +f so< they should ha%e electrical
characteristics that differ from control points. ?e undertook a series of controlled laboratory
measurements to study this possibility.
=sin& a system desi&ned to exclude pressure artifacts< we found that approximately one(half of
the points measured were local resistance minimal when compared to the surroundin& tissue '21< 2,)
'Fi&. 11.1). +n later studies< we found that 7$ impedance also differed: the e9ui%alent series resistance
between acupuncture points was lower than between control points '2-)< while the e9ui%alent
capacitance was hi&her '26). Furthermore< the resistance between two meridian 'but not acupuncture)
points was lower than that between two control points '28). Thus< both acupuncture points and
meridians exhibited electrical characteristics that differed from those of control points.

ig! ""!"! Alectrical characteristics of acupuncture points! % total of "8 acupuncture points on the
large intestine /Li0 and pericardium /50 meridians were measured /,30! -he mean and standard
deviations of the percent increase in conductance /the reciprocal of DC resistance0 for each
acupuncture point for the 8 su)=ects tested are shown! -he dotted line indicates the overall mean
percent increase at the control points! %cupuncture points Li?,$ Li?3$ Li?;$ 5?8 and 5?: were
significant local ma'ima /resistance minimal0 for all 8 su)=ects! 5oints Li?B$ Li?8$ Li?:$ Li?""$ Li?",$ 5?
2$ 5?3 and 5?B were significant local ma'ima for at least ; of 8 su)=ects!
7 &rowin& body of e%idence implicates endorphins 'endo&enous morphine(like substances) in
acupuncture anal&esia. 0Colund and !riksson found that intra%enous inCection of naloxone 'an opiate
anta&onist) in human subCects resulted in a return of pain sensation after anal&esia had pre%iously been
achie%ed by low(fre9uency electroacupuncture< thereby su&&estin& that the anal&esia was mediated by
the release of endorphins '29< *2). .omeran8 and collea&ues reported that low(fre9uency
electroacupuncture induced anal&esia in mice that could be blocked by naloxone< a&ain indicatin& that
low(fre9uency stimulation produced anal&esia %ia a release of endorphins '*1(*1).
7t present< two points ha%e been clearly established: first< the classical acupuncture system< at
least in part< has uni9ue electrical characteristics which establish its obCecti%e physiolo&ical realityD and
second< electroacupuncture induces anal&esia by stimulatin& release of endorphins< the bodyBs naturally
produced anal&esics. 7lthou&h many other points remain unresol%ed< acupuncture seems clearly to be a
fruitful field for further researchD it offers the possibility of considerable rewards in both basic(science
and clinical areas.
I#.act' on Natra! Eco!o,ica! Sy'te#'
!Fs ha%e been reported to alter the beha%ior and orientation of birds< the &rowth
characteristics of :u&esia 'flatworms) and .hysarum polycephalum 'slime mold)< and the metabolism
of bees. !xperiments ha%e also shown that the fields can be percei%ed by fish and amoebas.
0e%eral in%esti&ators ha%e studied the effects on bird orientation of low(fre9uency !Fs
emanatin& from a lar&e low(fre9uency antenna. +n pilot studies< 4raue obser%ed that the headin&s of
homin& pi&eons were sli&htly altered in the %icinity of the antenna '*-). +n more detailed studies<
0outhern constructed ca&es on the &round directly o%er the antenna and explored the effect of the !F
on the instincti%e directional preferences of rin&(billed &ull chicks< *(9 days old. ?hen the chicks were
released in the center of the ca&e with the antenna turned off< they showed a directional preference for
the southeastD when the antenna was ener&i8ed the birds dispersed randomly and exhibited no mean
bearin& '*6). "arkin and 0utherland carried out radar trackin& of indi%idual mi&ratin& birds flyin& o%er
the antenna at altitudes of 82(*22 meters. ?hen the antenna was acti%ated< or when its operatin&
condition was bein& chan&ed 'off to on< on to off)< departures from strai&ht and le%el fli&ht occurred
si&nificantly more often than when the antenna was not operatin& '*8). +n other radar(trackin& studies<
?illiams reported chan&es in the fli&ht direction of mi&ratin& birds of ,(2,M when the antenna was
acti%ated '*9).
arsh tra%ersely sectioned two species of :u&esia and subCected them to *12(122 %/m at -2 ;8<
applied alon& the antero(posterior re&eneration axis 'normally< the worms will re&row a head or tail<
whiche%er is appropriate to the site). +n a si&nificant number of animals the normal re&eneration pattern
was disrupted< resultin& in bipolarity(the production of two heads or two tails in the same animal '12).
+n the .hysarum experiments< 4oodman et al. simultaneously applied 2.6 %/m and 2 &auss< 1,(6, ;8
and delays in the rate of cell di%ision and alterations in cell acti%ity in the exposed cells were seen '11).
The effect of power(fre9uency fields on bees has recei%ed considerable attention. ?hen bee
hi%es were placed on &rounded metal plates sli&htly below a simulated power line< it was found that the
electric field '11 k%/m) caused &rossly abnormal beha%ior '12). The bees exhibited &reat restlessness as
recorded by temperature chan&e in the hi%e< and the de&ree of defense of social territory was
abnormally increased. 0ome bees< includin& the 9ueen bee< were herded to&ether and stun& to death.
;oney and pollen were no lon&er stored< and the cells which were already filled with honey were
emptied. ;i%es which had been established a short time prior to initiation of field exposure were
abandoned a few days after exposure was be&un. ?hen the experimenter pre%ented the 9ueen bee from
lea%in& the hi%e< the swarm departed without her. +n hi%es which had been well established prior to the
initiation of field exposure< all apertures were closed off by the bees< resultin& in death of the entire
swarm due to lack of oxy&en. +n laboratory studies it was found that *(,2 k%/m caused chan&es in the
metabolism and acti%ity of bees '1*). There are at least two other reports of !F effects on bees '11<
1,).
c$lea%e '1-) showed that eels and salmon were able to percei%e 2.226 %/m at -2(62 ;8D this
appears to be the most sensiti%e !F(induced biolo&ical effect yet reported in any animal. The studies
point to a susceptibility to !Fs in a di%erse array of creatures< the si&nificance of which< in relation to
natural ecolo&ical systems< cannot presently be satisfactorily determined. :espite this< the studies
su&&est that there are impacts on such systems.
S##ary
#ur initial hypothesis was that electroma&netic ener&y was used by the body to inte&rate<
interrelate< harmoni8e< and execute di%erse physiolo&ical processes. +n chapter 2< we presented direct
e%idence showin& that such intrinsic ener&y is in fact created and transmitted in the body< and that it
controls specific biolo&ical functions.
/atural electroma&netic ener&y is an omnipresent factor in the en%ironment of each or&anism
on earth. From an e%olutionary standpoint< nature would fa%or those or&anisms that de%eloped a
capacity to accept information about the earth< atmosphere< and the cosmos in the form of
electroma&netic si&nals and to adCust their internal processes and beha%ior accordin&ly. Thus it follows
from the initial hypothesis that natural en%ironmental electroma&netic ener&y could con%ey information
to an or&anism about its surroundin&s< thereby facilitatin& beha%ioral chan&es. +n chapter *< we showed
that studies of biolo&ical cycles and animal na%i&ation support the thesis that en%ironmental
electroma&netic ener&y mediates the transfer of information from the en%ironment to the or&anism.
+f nature &a%e certain or&anisms the ability to recei%e information about the en%ironment %ia
unseen electroma&netic si&nals< then there must also ha%e been the &ift of an ability to discriminate
between meanin&ful and meanin&less si&nals. 0i&nals ha%in& no information< or those outside certain
physiolo&ical bandwidths or intensity ran&es< would ha%e to be reco&ni8ed and responded to differently
than informationally si&nificant si&nals 'which lead to beha%ioral chan&es that are ultimately &eared to
help the or&anism sur%i%e or compete). 3ased on these considerations< our ori&inal hypothesis led to
the further conclusion that or&anisms would be particularly sensiti%e to artificial electroma&netic
ener&y ha%in& electrical characteristics(fre9uency and intensity(similar to those of natural
en%ironmental electroma&netic fields. 0i&nals outside this physiolo&ical ran&e would elicit a
nonspecific systemic reaction &eared toward the re(establishment of homeostasis. The e%idence for this
was presented in chapters 1 to 9. ?e showed that low(stren&th electroma&netic fields within the
physiolo&ical fre9uency ran&e can alter the electroencephalo&ram< the electrocardio&ram< biolo&ical
rhythms< calcium metabolism< and human and animal beha%ior. ?e also showed< beyond &ood(faith
dispute< that electroma&netic ener&y at nonphysiolo&ical fre9uencies and intensities induces adapti%e
homeostatic responses in animals and humans.
Three separate lines of research< therefore< ha%e established the &eneral %alidity of our initial
hypothesis(the physiolo&ical(control role of intrinsic electroma&netic ener&y. The task now is nothin&
less than to de%elop a new biolo&y in which electroma&netic ener&y recei%es the critical consideration
and e%aluation that it merits on the basis of present knowled&e. Thus far< the studies ha%e mostly
concentrated on the areas of the peripheral ner%ous system and &rowth control. +t can be anticipated
that future work will lead to si&nificant ad%ances in other areas< perhaps e%en to a more satisfyin&
understandin& of the physical basis of life itself.
Re"erence'
1. 3assett< $.7.".< .awluk< 5.F.< and 3ecker< 5.#. 19-1. !ffects of electric currents on bone in %i%o.
Nature 221:-,2.
2. Friedenber&< E.< 5oberts< ..4.< :idi8ian< /.7.< and 3ri&hton< $.T. 1961. 0timulation of fracture
healin& by direct current in the rabbit fibula. C! <one and Coint Surg! ,*(7:1122.
*. Friedenber&< E.< Eemsky< "..< .ollis< 5...< and 3ri&hton< $.T. 1961. The response of non(
traumati8ed bone to direct current. C! <one and Coint Surg! ,-(7:122*<
1. Facobs< F.:.< and /orton< ".7. 1966. !lectrical stimulation of osteo&enesis in periodontal defects.
Clin! Orthop! 121:11.
,. "a%ine< ".0.< "ustrin< +.< 0hamos< .;.< and oss< .". 1961. The influence of electric current on
bone re&eneration in %i%o. %cta Orthop! Scandinavica 12:*2,.
-. "e%y< :.:.< and 5ubin< 3. 1961. +nducin& bone &rowth in %i%o by pulse stimulation. Clin! Orthop!
88:218.
6. 5iche8< F.< $hamay< 7.< and 3ieler< ". 1962. 3one chan&es due to pulses of microcurrent. 4irchows!
%rch! 5athol! %nat! *,6:11.
8. 0padara< F.7. 1966. !lectrically stimulated bone &rowth in animals and man. Clin! Orthop! 12:*2,.
9. 3assett< $.7.".< .illa< 7.7.< and .awluk< 5.F. 1966. +noperati%e sal%a&e of sur&ically(resistant
pseudarthrosis and non(unions by pulsin& electroma&netic fields. Clin! Orthop! 121: 128.
12. Friedenber&< E.3.< 5oberts< ..4.< :idi8ian< /.;.< and 3ri&hton< $.T. 1961. 0timulation of fracture
healin& by direct current in rabbit fibula. C! <one and Coint Surg! ,*(7:1122.
11. 3ri&hton< $.T.< Friedenber&< E.3.< itchell< !.l.< and 3ooth< 5.!. 1966. Treatment of nonunion
with constant direct current. Clin! Orthop! 121:12-.
12. 3ecker< 5.2.< 0padara< F.7.< and arino< 7.7. 1966. $linical experiences with low intensity direct
current stimulation of bone &rowth. Clin! Orthop! 121:6,.
1*. 3ecker< 5.2.< and 0padara< F.7. 1968. Treatment of orthopedic infections with electrically
&enerated sil%er ions. C! <one and Coint Surg! -2(7: 861.
11. arino< 7.7.< and 3ecker< 5.2. 1966. !lectrical osteo&enesis: an analysis. Clin! Orthop! 12*:282.
1,. >eith< +. 19-2. 7cupuncture therapy(past and present. C%M% 182:168.
1-. 3onica< F.F. 1961. Therapeutic acupuncture in the .eopleBs 5epublic of $hina. C%M% 268:1,11.
16. ann< F. 196,. %cupuncture@ the ancient Chinese art of healing. /ew Aork: >inta&e 3ooks.
18. 5eichmanis< .< and 3ecker< 5.2. 1966. 5elief of experimentally(induced pain by stimulation of
acupuncture points: a re%iew. Comp! Med! Aast .est ,:281.
19. 5eichmanis< .< 3ecker< 5.2. 1968. .hysiolo&ical effects of stimulation at acupuncture points: a
re%iew. Comp! Med! Aast .est -:-6.
22. :ornette< ?.;.". 196,. The anatomy of acupuncture. <ull! N!Y! %cad! Med! ,1:89,.
21. 3ull< 4.. 196*. 7cupuncture anesthesia. Lancet 2:116.
22. Tiller< ?.7. 1962. 0ome physical network characteristics of acupuncture points. +n 5roc! %cad!
5arapsychol! Med! Symp! %cupuncture. $alifornia: 0tanford =ni%ersity.
2*. /oorder&raaf< 7.< and 0ila&e< :. 196*. !lectroacupuncture. +AAA -rans! <iomed! Ang! 3!(
22:*-1.
21. 5eichmanis< .< arino< 7.7.< and 3ecker< 5.2. 196,. !lectrical correlates of acupuncture points.
+AAA -rans! <iomed! Ang! 3!(22:,**.
2,. 3ecker< 5.2.< 5eichmanis< .< arino< 7.7.< 0padara< F.7. 196-. !lectrophysiolo&ical correlates of
acupuncture points and meridians. 5sychoenergetic Systems 1:12,.
2-. 5eichmanis< .< arino< 7.7.< and 3ecker< 5.2. 1966. "aplace plane analysis of transient
impedance between acupuncture points "i(1 and "i(12. +AAA -rans! <iomed! Ang! 3!(
21:122.
26. 5eichmanis< .< arino< 7.7.< and 3ecker< 5.#. 1966. "aplace plane analysis of impedance
between acupuncture points ;(* and ;(1. Comp! Med! Aast .est ,:289.
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Robert O. Becker and Andrew A. Marino 1982 Electromagnetism and Life 156pp

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Robert O. Becker and Andrew A. Marino 1982 Electromagnetism and Life 156pp

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ELECTROMAGNETISM & LIFE

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