4 CONTACT SYSTEM

4.1 Electrical contact

The word "contact" not only describes the
conductive connection of two mechanically
separate electrical conductors, but also the
conductive parts (contacts) even if they are
not touching. Contacts comprise:
non switching contacts as in connectors
being opened only for service or
installation (e.g. screw connections)
sliding contacts
plug contacts to carry but not to switch
current
switching contacts as in relays,
contactors and switchgear
Relay contacts are physically separate but
switchable electric conductors designed to
make an electrical connection, carry the load current, break the circuit and electrically
isolate the load from the supply. How well the contact system actually performs is dependant
on the suitability of the contact material, the contact arrangement and the mechanical
design.
An ideal relay contact would consist of highly conductive metal with chemically clean
surfaces (no oxidation) and a large, wear resistant, effective contact area.
Open contacts would ideally have infinite dielectric strength for electrical isolation.
Unfortunately, actual relay contacts do not have these characteristics. An optimal contact
material with high conductivity, resistance to oxidation or chemical reactions and resistance
against wear and thermal influences during switching can only be a compromise. Design
and cost clearly limits parameters such as the size of contact area, contact forces, relay
sensitivity, and the need for big contact gaps for high dielectric strength.
Typical and most basic influences on electrical contacts and their respective effects are
shown in the following table.
fig 4.1ContactSystem
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INFLUENCE ON ELECTRICAL CONTACTS
Influences Parameters Effect
electrical current
voltage
heating, melting, material migration, chemical
reactions, fritting, electrical discharge, contact
resistance
thermal arc melting of contact material, material migration
mechanical friction
pressure
deformation, wear, cold welding, contact resistance
ambient conditions dust
gases
increased wear, particles, formation of chemical
layers and corrosion
chemical oxidation contact resistance, inorganic and organic layers,
corrosion
INFLUENCE ON SWITCHING CONTACTS DEPENDING ON LOAD RANGE
Load range Main influences Contact material Considerations
dry circuit
<100mV, <10mA
low level switching
<1V, <10mA
mechanical
chemical
gold plated
materials
contact resistance, sealed
relays, wipe movement, twin
contacts, outgas free and wear
resistant plastic material
intermediate level
<15V,
<300mA
mechanical
chemical
electrical
AgNi 0.15
AgNi 10
(AgSnO2)
(AgCdO)
sealed relays, fritting, material
transfer, contact resistance,
outgassing
power contacts
10-400V,
300mA-30A
electrical
chemical
AgNi 0.15
AgNi 10
AgSnO2
AgCdO
electrical life, contact welding,
electrical wear, high
temperatures, isolation
properties, corrosion for
sealed relays
CONTACT SYSTEM
15
4.2 Contact resistance
The contact resistance is the electrical
resistance the current has to overcome when
passing through a pair of closed contacts.
Whereas ideal contacts would not show any
resistance, real contacts do. The resistance
is the sum of partial resistances due to
physically different effects:
R
contact
=R
constriction
+R
layer
R
contact
contact resistance
R
constriction
constriction resistance
R
layer
layer resistance
Constriction resistance
is the increase of resistance for metallically
clean contacts due to the constriction of the
electrical current when being forced through
a small, effective contact area.
The contacts do not touch over the entire
apparent contact area but in fact, due to the
roughness, touch only on a few relatively
small points.
Increasing contact pressure can enlarge the
effective contact area by elastic and plastic
deformation of the micro contact spikes on
the surface. The larger the effective contact
area and the contact pressure, the lower the
constriction resistance.
Layer resistance
is the contact resistance of metallically clean surfaces and is extremely small, typically
several m. Absolutely clean metallic surfaces do not exist in practice because the contact
surface is covered by thin layers with low conductivity, semiconductor properties or even
isolating characteristics.
contact resistance
RC
constrictionresistance
RE
filmresistance
RF
macromolecular
layer
R~ A~ *(H/f) E M M / 1/2 R~ *d A F F /
nmrange
oxygen
mrange
oxide, sulphide
organic vapour
R=R+R C E F
Contact Resistance
S051
fig 4.2ContactResistance
contamination
current
constriction
contact b
contact a
contact surface
Contact Points
S087
fig 4.3ContactPoints
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These layers of oxides, sulphides and other compounds will be formed on the surface of
metals by absorption of gas molecules from the ambient atmosphere within a very short
time. The growth of these layers will be slowed down and eventually stopped as the layer
itself prevents further chemical reaction. The thickness of the layers and the speed of growth
are dependent on the contact material, ambient atmosphere, temperature and time.
Very thin layers cause little increase in resistance due to the tunnel-effect. The resistance of
thicker layers depends on the depth of the layer, effective contact area and the specific
resistance of the contact material/layer. To get a reliable electric contact these layers have to
be destroyed. This can be done by mechanical or electro-thermal destruction.
Apart from different layers or films, other contaminants may be on the surface of the
contacts, increasing the resistance or even preventing electrical contact. These contaminants
may be atmospheric dust or particles created by wear of the moving parts within the relay
such as plastics and fibres. Other contaminants can be the result of outgassing of the plastic
materials within the relay or generated by catalytic effect, through decomposition of organic
vapours under the influence of arc, silicon sediments, oil or grease.
Mechanical cleaning
When the contacts are closing, the metal
surfaces will collide and hit against each
other several times (bouncing), causing
elastic deformation of the effective contact
area and mechanical destruction of the thin
layers.
The same effect can be obtained by
applying high contact pressure to cause
micro deformations on the contact surface
destroying the insulating film.
Furthermore, the design of most relays
allows the contact surfaces to wipe across
each other destroying the non conductive
films on the contact surfaces. This contact
wipe is often enough to clean the surface
and reduce resistance to an acceptable
level, as well as keeping the resistance
stable throughout the electrical life of the relay.
Electrical cleaning
The low and non conductive layers can also be destroyed by the effects of:
a) electrical voltage (fritting)
b) current (heating of contact points)
c) thermal effects (high temperatures due to the electrical arc)
Contact Wipe
initial position after relative
movement
S001
fig 4.4ContactWipe
CONTACT SYSTEM
17
a) Fritting
If the layers have not been mechanically destroyed by the closing of the contacts, or if the
contacts have been closed for a long period of time without conducting sufficient current, the
electrical effect of fritting will contribute towards establishing a metallic contact, despite
layers on the effective contact area.
The term fritting describes the electrical
breakdown of the oxide/foreign layer when
a sufficiently high voltage (fritting voltage) is
applied across a closed contact.
Due to the applied voltage and the very
short distance (the thickness of the layers)
between the two potentials an extremely
high electric field is generated. The low
conductive layer will break down and a
small current (a few nA) is forced through
very thin channels in the layer. The resulting
local high current density, heats the
conducting channels up quickly, destroying
the layers, until finally (within a few ms) a
metal to metal bridge is established,
electrically linking the two surfaces.
The value of fritting voltage depends on the
contact material, composition and thickness of the layers, conductivity and composition of
the contact surface. Voltages in the range of only a few volts up to some hundreds of volts
may be necessary for fritting to occur.
b) High currents
High continuous currents and increased contact resistance due to the layers causes heating
of the contact. The layers will eventually be destroyed thermally and a larger effective
contact area is created, reducing the constriction resistance. Therefore, higher contact
current may considerably reduce contact resistance.
c) Arc, sparks
Under certain circumstances an electric spark or arc will be generated during contact
making (bounce) or contact breaking under load. The extremely high temperatures of these
arcs may destroy the contact layers and burn or disintegrate other contaminants or particles
in the vicinity of the point of contact.
fig 4.5ContactFritting
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Measurement of contact resistance
Contact resistance is measured between the
terminals of the relay using the voltage drop
method as indicated in fig 4.6. The
conduction resistance of the contact spring
is included in the measured value of contact
resistance.
To achieve realistic test results, care has to
be taken that the values of test voltage and
test current in the measurement circuit
correspond to either the actual load
conditions, or be selected according to the
minimum contact rating of the relay
contacts.
As described above, the contact resistance
will vary with different test parameters, the
variation and mean values decreasing with
increasing contact current. This explains the
necessity to state the testing voltage and
current when indicating the contact
resistance and why evaluation tests of
contact resistance should always be
conducted at voltage and current values
reflecting the actual application.
The importance of low contact resistance for
applications is very often over emphasized
and too much value placed on
specifications and unrepresentative test
results.
For applications with high voltages/currents,
an initially high contact resistance will not pose problems as it will quickly be reduced by the
electrical cleaning effects of fritting and thermal destruction of layers, bringing the contact
resistance back to the mOhm range. As a result, practically the full voltage is available at
the load.
U
R
I
V
A B
Contact
current
Contact
voltagedrop
Load
Supplyvoltage
A,Brelayterminals
Contact Resistance
Measurement/Test
S003
fig 4.6ResistanceTest
Rated contact
current (A)
Minimum test
current (mA)
0.01 - 0.1
0.1 - <1
>1
10
100
1000
fig 4.7ContactResistance
CONTACT SYSTEM
19
For low level applications, the effect of contact resistance can usually be ignored if the load
resistance is much higher than the contact resistance. In this case the full signal voltage will
be available at the load (e.g. fig 4.8).
Dry circuits, low level switching
The term dry circuit describes applications
with extremely low loads (e.g. LED's) or
circuits which are switched with the electrical
load having been previously disconnected,
e.g. by electronic means. In these cases the
current is too low to establish an electro-
thermal cleaning effect and the voltage is
below the fritting voltage. The non
conductive oxide layers on the contact
surface will not therefore, be electrically
destroyed.
The only remaining cleaning effect is the
mechanical destruction of the layers which is
sometimes insufficient (e.g. low switching
frequency) to give a reliable contact or to
keep the contact resistance within
specification limits. The correct choice of contact materials is critical in such cases for
reliability.
Adverse ambient effects on contact
resistance
Some resistive layers are caused by gases
found in the atmosphere such as sulphides,
chlorides, nitrogen oxide, ammonia,
benzene, stylene, etc. emitted from cars and
paints. Particles and dust may cause an
increase of contact resistance and reliability
problems.
These effects can be reduced and a more
stable contact resistance obtained if the
appropriate type of sealing of the relay is
specified i.e. dust seal, plastic seal or
hermetic seal.
Contact resistance changes with time
As described above, the contact resistance
increases with the formation of layers on the contact surface. The thickness and the speed of
growth depends on contact material, ambient atmosphere and temperature. This is
fig 4.8VoltageDrop
fig 4.9ContactReistance
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especially important when the contact resistance is tested after a prolonged period of
storage. The testing procedure has to provide both types of cleaning effect:
mechanical cleaning by switching the relay several times
electrical cleaning by using the appropriate test voltages/currents.
4.3 Electric arc - switching
An electric arc is a current intensive gas
discharge which occurs when opening a
switch or as a result of a flashover (spark).
Under certain circumstances the air path
between the two contacts is ionized. Atoms
are broken up into ions by thermal effect
and/or by the effect of a high electric field.
Ionization causes the normally non
conducting air to become conductive and its
conductivity is maintained if sufficient energy
is supplied. The arc represents an additional
resistive current path in the load circuit (see
fig 4.10).
The minimum voltage and current for the
generation and maintenance of a stable
electrical arc depends on the contact
material and the length of the air path
(distance between the contacts).
Due to the extremely high temperatures of
the arc - between 6000C and 10000C -
the surface of the contacts will melt.
Evaporation or sputtering of the contact
material leads to wear and material
migration, reducing the service life of the
contacts. As a side effect of evaporation of
the contact material, the insulation
resistance of plastic material in the vicinity of
the contacts may be degraded as
conductive contact material will condense or
be sputtered on the insulating plastic parts.
U
R
I
Contact
current
Load
Supplyvoltage
RARC
ARC
Electric Arc
S006
fig 4.10ElectricArc
fig 4.11ElectricArc
CONTACT SYSTEM
21
Material migration from the cathode to
anode can cause rapid contact wear. The
resulting formation of craters and cones on
the contact surfaces eventually leads to
failure due to the mechanical interlocking of
contacts and the reduced contact gap. This
material migration effect can be ignored
when switching ac circuits, as due to the
change in polarity, contacts are statistically
as often anode as cathode.
Electrical arcing does not only occur when
loads are switched off, but are also
generated when the contacts are closed for
the following reasons:
As the contacts are closing, the
decreasing contact distance leads to a
strong electrical field resulting in a spark discharge and an electric arc. This arc may,
however, help to electrically clean the contact surfaces.
After impact of the contacts the kinetic energy leads to bouncing. The contacts will
rebound and slightly open several times. This bouncing may be regarded as a switching
process. While bouncing, even though the contacts are separated for a short time, the
normally high inrush currents maintain an arc between the contact surfaces. Excessive
heating at the contact points can melt the surface and, in extreme cases, lead to welding.
Arc in DC circuits
Switching resistive loads
In dc circuits it is generally during contact breaking that arcs occur. When breaking, the
contacts move further apart and, as the gap between the contacts increases, the minimum
voltage to maintain an arc normally rises above the source voltage and the arc is
extinguished. If, however, the supply voltage/current is sufficiently high enough to maintain a
stable arc across the open contacts, the relay will be destroyed as it cannot withstand the
prolonged high temperatures generated by the arc.
Switching inductive loads
In inductive circuits, the emf (energy L*I
2
/2 stored in the inductance) is a secondary energy
source which causes the arc to be maintained until the energy in the circuit has been
converted to heat. This leads to considerably longer arc durations. To prevent destruction of
the contacts and to keep the arc duration within limits, the switching voltage/current has to
be within the maximum DC breaking capacity. This data is given for each relay type.
Material Migration
anode
cathode
S008
fig 4.12Material Migration
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Arc in AC circuits
In AC circuits the supply helps to extinguish the arc as it will collapse when the current
becomes too low or reaches zero (every 10ms for 50Hz supply).
The arc may however be re-established if the supply voltage is above the maximum
switching voltage for the particular relay or if the contacts at the current zero-crossing are not
completely opened. In this case the air gap is still relatively small and the electric field may
be strong enough to cause electrical breakdown, especially with surge voltages associated
with inductive loads.
The arc may also be re-established if the high temperature generated by the previous arc
allows re-ionization of the air path.
After a few cycles however, the contact gap will be sufficiently large and the energy in the
circuit too weak to re-ignite the arc.
In order to limit the negative effects of the arc and to extend contact life, it is necessary to
extinguish the arc as quickly as possible. This can be done by relay design or by using
certain electric arc suppression circuits.
Design
The primary design factors influencing
arcing are the length of the air gap between
the contacts and their opening speed. The
wider the contact gap the better the arc
extinguishing properties as more energy
(voltage/current) would be necessary to
maintain (DC) or re-ignite (AC) the arc (see
fig 4.11).
Design limits for a relay often mean it is not
possible to provide a sufficiently large air
gap to elongate the arc. However, in order
to increase the maximum breaking capacity
the contacts of a multi-pole relay may be
connected in series, leading to more than
one arc and hence giving a longer total arc
length and better arc extinguishing
properties.
Electric circuits
Contact protection circuits reduce the duration of electrical arcs and can significantly
increase the service life of the relay and suppress electrical noise. This is especially important
when switching inductive loads. For arc suppression circuits see chapter 4.5.3.
U
R
I
Load
Supplyvoltage
41
31
21
11
44
34
24
14
arc 4
arc 3
arc 2
arc 1
Contacts in Series
S009
fig 4.13ContactsinSeries
CONTACT SYSTEM
23
Despite the extremely high temperatures and other adverse effects resulting from arcing, the
electric arc also has some advantages such as the electrical cleaning effect and surge
limitation.
Electrical cleaning
The high temperature created by the arc clean the contact surfaces by destroying (burning,
decomposing) chemical layers and other non conductive contaminants in the vicinity of the
actual contact point. Also, existing small particles may eventually be burnt away. As a result,
this cleaning effect keeps the contact resistance stable and therefore has a positive effect on
relay reliability.
Surge voltage peaks - The electrical arc can be considered as an additional resistor in the
load circuit (see fig 4.10). This helps to limit the surge voltages when switching inductive
loads.
4.4 Electric loads
Electric loads can be classified according to:
Type of load/ supply
Resistive loads
Voltage and current are directly dependent variables, Ohms law
U=R*I
applies at all times, regardless of DC or AC supply.
ELECTRIC LOADS
the electrical type of load resistive
capacitive
inductive
type of supply DC
AC
level of load low level
intermediate
high level
typical load characteristics inrush current
switching current, e.g. lamp loads,
motors, solenoids, etc.
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Inductive loads
The load inductance has an inertia effect on the current. Inductive loads always have a
resistive component (coil resistance etc.). Once DC voltage is applied the current is
I=U/R(1-e
-t/T
)
T=R/L, being the time constant, given in ms.
For an AC supply the current lags the voltage, expressed as phase shift angle or power
factor cos. The higher the time constant or lower the power factor, the higher the
inductivity.
When inductive loads are switched off, the energy stored in the inductance generates high
surge voltages. Typical inductive loads are electromagnetic components such as coils,
transformers, motors, solenoids, contactors, other relays, etc.
fig 4.14InductiveDC Load fig 4.15AC-Loads
CONTACT SYSTEM
25
Capacitive loads
If DC voltage is applied to a combined
capacitive/resistive load the current is
I=U/Re
-t/T
the time constant T=RC in ms.
For an AC supply the stable state current
leads voltage. When capacitive loads are
switched on, the resulting peak current can
be extremely high if the circuit resistance is
low (see inrush current).
Load level
The load currents usually applied to power relay contacts extend from a few A up to 30A or
higher. With regard to thermal contact effects and arc phenomena, loads can be classified
as:
Dry circuits
Voltage <80mV, current <10mA, no electrical cleaning effect
Low level circuits
Voltage 80mV to <300mV, current <10mA,
practically no electrical cleaning effect.
Relays for these loads range from micro
relays to small PCB relays for signal
switching. The most important consideration
in this load range is contact resistance and
contact reliability.
Intermediate level
Voltage 300mV to <10V, current <300mA,
short arcing will occur and the electrical
cleaning effect helps keep contact resistance
low. There is a wide variety of applications
in this load range, such as household
appliances, air conditioners, audio devices
and business machines.
fig 4.16CapacitiveDC Load
fig 4.17LoadLevels
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Heavy loads
Voltage >10V , current >300mA. For these loads, stable arcs, contact erosion and material
migration are predominant features.
Minimum, maximum load
The minimum contact load (current/voltage) influences the choice of contact material which
should be selected to maintain a stable contact resistance over the electrical life of the relay.
If there is no electrical cleaning effect, the contact material has to be chosen according to its
resistance to oxidation and other chemical reactions to minimize contact resistance (e.g.
gold plated contacts).
Another selection criteria is the relay design e.g. the mechanical cleaning characteristics of
the contacts (high relative movement, wipe, twin contacts).
The limits for maximum contact load are determined by the:
switching capacity of the relay for inrush currents and when breaking the load circuit
contact material needed to obtain a reasonable electrical life
contact design to withstand inrush currents and resistance against contact welding
design of the contact system for conducting high currents, while taking into account
heating of contacts and contact springs
ambient temperature
Typical load characteristics
Inrush currents for some loads can be
significantly higher than the steady state
current or the currents given in the
specification of the equipment. Typical
examples are:
Incandescent lamps
For incandescent lamps the inrush current
may be 10-15 times the steady (rated)
current. This is due to the increase of the
load resistance with the temperature rise of
the filament. The steady state current is
given for hot filament, for cold wire the
resistance is much lower.
For halogen lamps the inrush current can be
as much as 20 times the steady state
current.
The inrush current for sodium vapour lamps is approximately 1-3 times and for mercury
lamps approximately 3 times the rated lamp current.
Incandescent
lamp I/I =10-15 I N
Motor
load I/I =10-50 I N
Solenoid
load I/I =(3)-10-20 I N
Capacitive
load I /I =20-40
(-100)
I N
Halogene
lamp I/I =10-20 I N
Load Characteristics
S013
fig 4.18LoadCharacteristics
CONTACT SYSTEM
27
The same effect of high inrush currents due to low initial component temperature exists for
other resistive loads such as heaters. The temperature difference between cold and hot
heating elements is not as big for incandescent lamps and therefore the difference in
resistance is smaller.
Fluorescent lamps
The inrush current is typically 5-10 times the steady state current. Depending on the
capacitive effect of the power correction circuit however, the inrush currents may be
considerably higher.
Motor loads
When a motor starts, there is no EMF as the rotor is standing still. The inrush current for the
acceleration phase can be 5-10 times the rated current.
Solenoids, contactors
Unenergized solenoids have a low inductance due to the big air gap in their magnetic
system. The inrush current can be 10-20 times the steady state current measured in the
pulled in position. The same applies to other electromechanical loads such as contactor
coils.
Load categories AC-x, DC-x
EN 60947-1 and VDE 0660 describe the typical electrical load of applications and
respective test characteristics (inrush current, T or cos for switching on, switching current
and T cos for switching off). The defined categories are as in fig 4.19 and fig 4.20.
UTILIZATION CATEGORY
according to VDE0660
Category Typical applications
AC-1 non-inductive or slightlyinductive loads,
resistance furnaces
AC-2 slip-ring motors: starting, plugging
AC-3 squirrel-cage motors: starting, switching, off
during running
AC-4 squirrel-cage motors: starting, plugging, inching
AC-5 different incandescent lamp loads
AC-11 AC electromagnets
AC-14 low electromagnetic loads
AC-15 AC electromagnetic loads
AC-20 switching without load
AC-21 resistive load with overload
AC-22 resistive-inductive load with overload
AC-23 motor loads and other heavyinductive loads
fig 4.19UtilizationCategory
UTILIZATION CATEGORY
according to VDE0660
Category Typical applications
DC-1 non-inductive or slightlyinductive loads,
resistance furnaces
DC-2 shunt motors: starting, switching off during
running
DC-3 shunt motors: starting, plugging, inching
DC-4 series motors: starting, switching off during
running
DC-5 series motors: starting, plugging, inching
DC-13 DC electromagnets
DC-14 electromagnetic loads with shunts
DC-20 switching without load
DC-21 resistive load with overload
DC-22 resistive-inductive load with overload
DC-23 motor loads and other heavyinductive loads
fig 4.20UtilizationCategory
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Motor categories according UL508
Test loads representing motor loads are specified in UL508 according to the horsepower
rating, inrush current, switching current and power factor. These are specified for overload
and endurance tests.
Loads for TV rating according UL
For television, radio and other household equipment, relays are tested for high inrush
current resistance.
4.5 Contact - functions
In this chapter the four switching states of a relay contact are examined in detail. These are:
closing of the contact or switching the load ON,
closed contacts or conducting the load current,
opening the contacts or switching the electrical load OFF
open contacts or maintaining isolation properties across the contact gap.
To discuss these states in relation to the control voltage applied to the coil, the N/O contact
of a monostable relay is considered as the sample contact.
Contact voltage, switching current
The switching voltage is the voltage between the contacts before making or after breaking.
The switching current is the current which a relay contact carries immediately after making
and before breaking.
4.5.1 CLOSING CONTACTS - SWITCHING ON
The relay being an electromechanical
component takes time to react electrically as
well as mechanically to an input on the
primary side (coil). Due to the inductivity of
the coil, the coil current lags the input signal
and has to build up the coil operating
current necessary to move the armature.
This response time is the electrical pull-in
time. The mechanical parts then have to be
accelerated to get to the other switching
position, giving an additional mechanical
component to the pull-in time.
fig 4.21ClosingContacts
CONTACT SYSTEM
29
Bouncing
When the moving contact arrives at the fixed contact, part of its kinetic energy will cause
elastic deformation and the contact will rebound several times. This period is the relay
bounce time.
Although bouncing has an advantageous mechanical cleaning effect, there are negative
effects such as wear due to arcing. If preventative measures are not taken, pulse triggered
control circuits or circuits acting as counters can receive false input information because of
multiple closures of the contacts.
Electrical effects on closing contacts
When power switching, closure of the contacts and subsequent bouncing creates an
electrical discharge. Every bounce of the contact is like one switching operation. The high
inrush currents usually present tend to generate an arc, leading to high temperatures on the
contact surface, contact erosion, material transfer and even contact welding as the molten
surface areas are forced together.
Depending on the application the contact wear during switching ON can be as high or
considerably higher than for switching OFF. This has an important impact on the electrical
life of the relay.
On the other hand, the discharge and subsequent high temperatures during power switching
have a cleaning effect on the contact surface. Layers of oxides, sulphides and other
contaminants which cause high contact resistance are burnt away or disintegrated, keeping
the contact resistance low.
At a sufficiently high contact voltage, fritting will take place generating a highly conductive
metallic contact between the two contact surfaces.
Inrush current
As previously described, arcing combined with contact bouncing is one of the parameters
that limits inrush current.
The maximum make or inrush current for a relay is the maximum current that can be applied
for a four second period immediately after contact closure. This parameter is specified for a
duty cycle of 10%.
Care has to be taken during the design and test phase of an application to ensure that the
peak inrush current will not exceed the relay specification. Inrush currents can be extremely
high compared to the rated current of the load to be switched. Typical current vs. time
diagrams for different typical electrical loads are shown in fig 4.18.
Dry switching, low level switching
For dry circuits and low level contact voltages up to 100mV and contact currents of less than
10mA, no electrical discharge in the form of an arc will occur. Nor will fritting take place.
Therefore there is no electrical cleaning effect.
POWER RELAYS
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The destruction of the layers on the contact surfaces can only be achieved by the mechanical
effects of contact bouncing and relative movement. Contact materials with high resistance to
the building up of oxide layers have to be selected (e.g. gold plated contacts). If typical
contact materials for power switching are used in such applications (e.g. AgCdO), the
resultant increase in contact resistance can cause reliability problems (see contact
resistance).
Contact material - required properties
The choice of contact materials has a great impact on a relay's characteristics during the
switching ON process and the maximum inrush current capability. The properties required
by contact material for this switching phase are:
elasticity/softness to absorb kinetic energy to reduce bouncing
high thermal conductivity to maintain a low temperature at the contact surface
high melting temperature to avoid material migration, evaporation, sputtering and
welding
4.5.2 CLOSED CONTACTS - CONDUCTING
During the time when the contacts are closed only thermo-electric effects have to be
considered.
The load current heats the contact point due to the contact resistance. The heat generating
power is P=I
2
*R
contact
.
For high load currents, the heat generated will be sufficient to either destroy low conductive
layers or to heat the contact point beyond the softening temperature leading to a larger
effective contact area. Both effects will reduce the contact resistance, leading to a reduction
of heat generation which in turn will result in a stable thermal situation.
The maximum ambient temperature for a
relay is given assuming full load current on
all relay poles. This full load will also heat
the coil system by approximately 10K.
Maximum thermal current
This is the maximum load current that can
be permanently applied without being
switched.
If load currents exceeding the maximum
thermal current are applied for too long,
damage due to excessive temperature within
the relay will result. These thermal effects
can lead to contact welding if the contact is
heated beyond its melting temperature, or
fig 4.22ContactResistance
CONTACT SYSTEM
31
degradation of the mechanical properties of contact springs. In addition, plastic parts like
actuators or the relay base may deform as a result of being in direct contact with the
overheated metal parts.
I
2
t, short-circuit protection
Relay contacts will withstand limited
overcurrents of very short duration (current
peaks) without welding. This is due to the
fact that it takes time to heat the thermal
mass of the contact, and the contact points,
to the melting temperature. However, there
is an absolute maximum current, above
which tack welding will occur.
Therefore, two values have to be considered
for short duration overcurrents without
switching. In applications or for the design
of short-circuit protection (see switching
characteristic of a melting fuse fig 4.23)
both limits have to be satisfied.
I
2
t-value -As the heating power applied
to the contacts is P=I
2
*R, the energy limit
can be expressed as the square of the current multiplied by the duration of the pulse; e.g.
500A for 5ms give an I
2
t-value of 500
2
*5*10
-3
=1250A
2
sec.
Absolute maximum current in A
These maximum values range from 20000A
2
sec/500A for industrial power relays to
1000A
2
sec/200A for PCB-relays.
When considering continuous high currents or electrical overload, heat dissipation via the
relay terminals is of great importance and care has to be taken in the design of connections
and selection of terminal type. The minimum specified PCB conductor widths and wire cross
section must be adhered to.
Contact material, required properties
The properties required by contact material for the conducting state are:
high melting temperature to prevent welding
low specific resistance
fig 4.23OperationArea
POWER RELAYS
32
4.5.3 OPENING CONTACTS - SWITCHING OFF
When the coil power is switched off, the
armature will drop out and the contacts will
open. The inductivity of the coil and certain
circuits (flywheel diodes) causes an electrical
time delay. The necessary acceleration of
the moving masses add to this delay.
The release time decreases with lower coil
inductance, lower mass of moving parts,
greater restoring force (spring) and shorter
actuator travel but increases for flywheel
circuits.
Release time is measured from switching the
coil energization off to the opening of the
contacts for N/O contacts, to contact
closing for N/C and C/O versions.
Before the contacts open, contact pressure
decreases to zero and vibration leads to a bouncing effect on the opening contacts.
Electrical arc
When the contact surfaces separate, the high electrical field (short contact gap) and the load
current will generate an arc. Depending on the switching current/voltage and the contact
opening characteristics the arc will be maintained for a certain time (see chapter 4.3).
Effects of arcing
Extremely high temperatures within the arc area causes melting and consequently contact
wear, material migration, evaporation and sputtering of contact material, together with a
reduction of insulation properties which may finally lead to relay failure.
Switching of high DC loads causes material transfer from the cathode to the anode. Uneven
contact surfaces develop, forming a pip and a crater. Eventually such contacts may
mechanically lock as if they were welded (see fig 4.12).
The positive effect of the switching arc is the electrical cleaning of contact surfaces by
burning away or disintegrating layers or other contaminants, and limiting extreme surge
voltage when switching inductive loads.
fig 4.24OpeningContacts
CONTACT SYSTEM
33
Rated/ maximum breaking capacity for AC circuits
The rated breaking capacity is the product of rated switching current and rated switching
voltage.
The maximum breaking capacity can be higher than the rated breaking capacity especially
in the case of a short circuit or system failure. The relay may not be damaged by exceeding
the rated breaking capacity in this way but, of course, no electrical life can be guaranteed
under these conditions.
The maximum breaking voltage is the maximum voltage the relay contacts can switch. For
voltages above the maximum switching voltage the arc may either re-ignite or not extinguish
at all. This voltage should not be exceeded especially when using multi-pole relays as a
flash-over might occur between adjacent poles and destroy the relay. (see 4.9 multi-pole
relays).
Arc extinguishing
Arc extinguishing for AC circuits
The arc is extinguished when the external power source (power supply, energy in inductance,
etc.) cannot supply sufficient energy in the form of current/voltage for ionization to occur.
The energy necessary to maintain a stable arc is a function of current, voltage and length of
air path.
For AC loads, the arc will extinguish when the current passes through zero. In some
instances (small contact gap, timing, applied voltage above the dielectric strength) the air
between the contact surfaces may be re-ionized and the arc re-ignited.
For high frequency AC (appr. >1000Hz) the tendency for the arc to re-ignite is very high.
This gives a switching characteristic similar to DC switching (long duration arcs and the DC
limitations of maximum DC breaking capacity have to be considered).
POWER RELAYS
34
Arc extinguishing for DC circuits
DC circuits, unlike AC circuits, do not have
the advantage of self extinguishing arcs as
there is no zero crossing of the current every
half cycle. Depending on switching voltage,
current and load characteristics, the arc may
be stable for an extended period or not
extinguish at all.
The DC breaking capacity indicates the
maximum switching current and voltage for
a resistive or inductive load for the arc to be
extinguished within 10 milliseconds (10 ms
has been chosen as maximum possible
arcing time when switching resistive AC
loads at 50Hz).
Above this limit, it cannot be certain that the
arc is extinguished. Switching conditions at,
or near the maximum breaking capacity will reduce electrical life drastically due to the
duration of the arc.
Arcs can be extinguished more easily by increasing the air path between the contacts. As the
relay design sets limits to the contact gap, this longer air path may be achieved by
connecting the contacts of a multi-pole relay in series.
Contact protection circuits, arc suppression
To increase electrical life it is necessary to reduce the negative effects of the arc as far as
possible by suppressing or quickly extinguishing the arc. This can be achieved using contact
protection circuits, also called arc suppression circuits.
The basic function of these protection circuits is to take some of the switching energy out of
the arc, or the switching process itself (e.g. by RC circuits across the contacts).
Flywheel circuits allow the inductivity to maintain a load current via the diode. The switching
characteristics of the contacts in this case are similar to a resistive load.
The use of protection circuits is especially important when the relay is used to switch
inductive AC and DC loads as the back EMF needs to be suppressed to a low level.
Although inductive DC loads are more difficult to switch than resistive loads (see maximum
breaking capacity), the use of a proper arc suppression circuit can make the switching
characteristics similar to that of resistive loads.
Contact protection circuits not only protect the contacts, but are often also necessary to
protect other electronic components in the circuit or to limit other interference and comply
with EMC standards.
fig 4.25DC BreakingCapacity
CONTACT SYSTEM
35
Protective circuits do, however, have disadvantages. The most obvious is the initial cost of
adding the protection components. This cost however may be recouped by being able to use
a relay with a lower current rating and/or by obtaining a longer electrical life.
There are several methods of protecting the relay contacts. The most suitable for a given
application will depend on the supply (AC or DC) and the characteristics of the load to be
switched. For every application a suitable circuit has to be selected. An optimum solution
can often only be found by examining the waveforms on an oscilloscope and by
comparative life cycle testing.
The most commonly used circuits and information regarding their characteristics are given
below.
Diode circuit (for DC circuits only)
This is the most commonly used method of
arc suppression.
suitable for all loads, low cost, easy
mounting, effective, no surge peaks
very long reaction delay, i.e. release
delay for loads such as relays, magnets,
contactors etc.
The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode
should be at least 10 times the nominal
circuit voltage and the forward current equal
or greater than that of the load current.
Zener diode circuit (for AC and DC
circuits)
This is an effective circuit when the release
delay in a diode circuit is too long.
shorter delay than for diode circuit, well defined voltage level in the circuit, independent
of supply polarity
less effective than diode circuit, expensive, not suitable for heavy loads
The breakdown voltage of the zener diode has to be higher than the power supply voltage.
Diode and zener diode circuit (for DC circuits only)
Advantages and disadvantages as above
Varistor circuit (for AC and DC circuits)
Similar to the zener diode circuit, the varistor prevents excessively high emf surge voltages.
low overvoltage levels, short delay, independent of polarity, can be used at relatively
high voltages
Diodecircuit Zener diode circuit
RC circuit Varistor circuit
RL RL
RL RL
L L
L L
D
C RV
Protection Circuits
S072
fig 4.26ProtectionCircuits
POWER RELAYS
36
low arc suppression properties, no significant extension of contact life, not suitable for all
loads
RC circuits across the contacts (for AC
and DC circuits)
For this contact protection, an RC circuit is
connected in parallel to the relay contacts.
When the relay contacts open, the capacitor
suppresses the arc discharge. The series
resistor limits the current when the contacts
close again.
no delay, good arc extinction properties
no suppression but reduction of surge
peaks, additional contact load because
of higher inrush current
The required values for R and C may be
taken from fig 4.28. The voltage U refers to
the actual overvoltage produced during the
switching process, which can be measured
using an oscilloscope. The current has to be calculated from this voltage and from the
known resistance, across which the voltage was measured.
If RC circuits in parallel to the contacts are used with an AC supply, special care has to be
taken with regard to the effect of leakage current across the RC circuit. For high impedance
loads and electronic circuits this leakage current may cause problems.
Protection circuits shown in fig 4.27.a have to be avoided due to extreme inrush currents
and the probability of contact welding.
Combination of RC circuit and diodes (for DC circuits only)
This combination is often used if highly inductive currents have to be switched and a diode
alone is not sufficient to suppress the switching arc.
the arc can be almost completely extinguished and the electrical life increased by up to a
factor of 10
delay (diode), large capacitors necessary
Combination of RC circuit and zener diodes (for AC and DC circuits)
as for RC and diode, independent of supply polarity
C circuit RC diode circuit
C circuit RC circuit
RL RL
RL RL
L L
L L C RV C
C
RV
C
D
Protection Circuits
S083
fig 4.27ProtectionCircuits
CONTACT SYSTEM
37
RC circuits parallel to the load (for AC
and DC circuits)
The RC circuit mounted directly at the load
reduces surge peaks.
short delays
expensive for higher loads
To begin with R and C values can be
calculated using:
C=0.5..1F per A load current
R=0.5..1 per Volt contact voltage or
R=0.5..1 times load resistance
The optimum values should be established
by experiment and the effect checked with
the actual load parameters using an
oscilloscope.
The protection circuit shown in fig 4.27 may
be very effective at suppressing arcs but
extreme inrush currents during contact
closure render this solution impractical due
to contact welding.
Reduction of arc duration by
connecting two contacts in series
This method is not a contact protection
circuit as such. However, connected in this
way the maximum breaking capacity and the electrical life of a multi-pole relay with a DC
load can be increased. The duration of the arc will be reduced significantly, but the arc
energy remains the same leaving surge peaks and material migration unchanged. Therefore
the result is not as effective as an RC circuit or diode.
EMC considerations
Electromagnetic compatibilit of equipment is a further consideration. Whereas relays do not
pose any problem as to susceptibility to external interference (immunity), the topic of
emission or electromagnetic disturbance needs further deliberation.
An electromagnetic disturbance is defined by law as "any electromagnetic phenomenon
which may degrade the performance of a device, unit of equipment or system". All
frequencies and all forms of interferences are involved. The EU Directive covers all electric,
electrical and electronic appliances, equipment and installations containing electrical
and/or electronic components.
As relays are just components, they do not fall within the scope of the EU Directive, but any
equipment using relays will.
fig 4.28RC Protection
POWER RELAYS
38
Emission from the relay contacts during switching may cause problems depending on the
type of load switched and to some extent on the relay design. In particular, the switching arc
and voltage spikes due to back EMF are likely to cause emissions. These factors are
generally beyond the control of the relay manufacturer.
Where emission problems occur, a contact protection circuit should be used to reduce or
eliminate the effects of arcing and/or back EMF spikes. An optimum arc suppression circuit,
however, does not necessarily eliminate all EMC emission problems. Equipment testing will
be necessary to guarantee compliance with the directives and standards.
Switching frequency, NO
x
generation (corrosion)
When switching at a high frequency rate and with high arc intensity, abnormal corrosion
may occur. NO
x
will be generated which will react with other substances (e.g. water vapour)
under the influence of the electrical arc, eventually forming nitric acid which may form a
blue-green corrosive deposit. To reduce this effect, the vent tab of sealed relays should be
opened when switching at a high frequency.
This phenomenon also has to be considered when carrying out accelerated contact life
testing of relays under high load conditions.
4.5.4 OPEN CONTACTS - ISOLATION
Once the arc is extinguished and the air path loses its conductivity, the air between the
contacts resumes its function as an insulator.
Dielectric strength
Dielectric strength is the effective voltage insulation can withstand without electrical
discharge or breakdown. For an air gap this limit is dependent on the distance between the
contacts and other parameters such as atmospheric pressure, humidity, contact shape and
temperature.
CONTACT SYSTEM
39
Tests for dielectric strength are conducted with either:
a specified AC voltage applied to the respective terminals for 1 minute, the maximum
leak current is 5mA; the test condition is given in catalogues as e.g. 1000VAC 1min.
an impulse voltage as specified in IEC-255-5 with a wave form as shown in fig 4.30,
T
f
=1.2sec, T
t
=50sec. Other wave forms may be specified.
Dielectric strength can also be measured between other terminal points, for instance, the
maximum breakdown voltage between adjacent poles of a relay (especially important when
using different voltage levels on adjacent poles) or between the contact system and the coil
terminals (primary side).
4.6 Contact material
Contact material has a major influence on the performance of a relay affecting maximum
inrush current, maximum switching current, contact resistance, etc. together with contact
reliability and electrical life.
The requirements fulfilled by a contact material are as numerous as the contact functions.
Ideally the contact material should have the following properties:
high electrical conductivity for low resistance
high thermal conductivity to dissipate generated heat quickly
high specific heat to withstand heating for long periods
high melting temperature to prevent welding and excessive contact wear
resistance to material migration (DC applications)
high evaporation temperature to prevent sputtering and reduce arc re-ignition
resistance to mechanical wear
elasticity/softness to absorb kinetic energy and reduce bouncing
fig 4.29BreakdownVoltage fig 4.30DielectricStrength
POWER RELAYS
40
resistance to environmental influences such as gases, humidity and aggressive
environments
resistance to oxidation and corrosion
When looking at these different technical
requirements some contradictions become
clear:
physical properties cannot be combined,
for example, electrical and thermal
conductivity are proportional, so whereas
good electrical conductors are soft and
have a low melting temperature bad
conductors have the opposite
characteristics.
Therefore, no single metal can combine
all properties. Even alloys have the same
principal characteristics as their
constituent parts so by increasing
resistance and hardness, the melting
temperature could decrease, etc..
other contradictions also occur in
application as the required material properties can be the complete opposite for different
design objectives. For example, softness for short bounce time and hardness for
mechanical resistance against wear.
precious metals show less tendency to generate low conductive layers, however they are
too expensive to be used commercially for most applications.
highconductivity
highinrushcurrent
highswitching
current
high temperature
resistance
highmechanical
resistance
lowprice
lowarcing
tendency
Contact Material
Objectives
S020
fig 4.31ContactMaterial
CONTACT SYSTEM
41
These examples prove that an optimal contact material, fulfilling all technical requirements
does not and cannot exist. This, however, does not prevent the wide use and application of
relays. Different contact materials can be selected for respective applications, e.g. signal
switching (prime objective: contact resistance) versus power switching (prime objective:
electrical life).
There is no known universal contact material which suits the entire range of high power
applications. The choice primarily depends on the type of load (AC , DC, resistive, inductive,
capacitive, lamp, etc.) and switching voltage and current.
Other important factors include ambient
atmosphere, switching frequency, etc., not
forgetting the relay design itself. Contact
size and air gap directly effect the electrical
life and opening speed or available space
in the contact area leads to different
electrical life results.
In practice, power relays are used in a
variety of applications with different
electrical loads and a wide range of
voltage, current and power ratings. fig 4.33
shows an outline of voltage/current areas
for common applications.
MECHANICAL
RESISTANCE
+ hardness
+ resistance against
mechanical wear
TEMPERATURE
RESISTANCE
+ resistant to
inrushcurrents
+ resistant to
electrical wear
CONDUCTIVITY
+ lowcontact
resistance
+ short bouncing
+ high inrushcurrents
+ mech. destruction
of layers
+ advantages in
production
processes
+ resistant against
arc reignition
+ lowweldability
+ electrical destruction
of layers
+ price
Contact Material
Properties
S019
fig 4.32ContactMaterial fig 4.33ApplicationRange
fig 4.34Rangeof Application
POWER RELAYS
42
Characteristics of common contact materials
Fine grain silver (AgNi0.15)
This material is a general application
material suitable for switching loads from
10mA to 10A with voltages >12V.
It has high electrical and thermal
conductivity and shows good resistance to
oxidation. It does, however, easily develop a
sulphide film drawn from the atmosphere so
care is required in low voltage and low
current applications.
The addition of the 0.15% Ni to the silver
gives the alloy a greater mechanical stability
resulting in better resistance to contact wear
and the reduced possibility of contact
welding.
Fine grain silver sometimes is supplied with
a 0.3m gold flash
Fine grain silver:
universal material for low to medium contact loads
with high currents there is a tendency for welding, material migration and wear
at low loads resistance problems due to layers
Silver cadmium oxide (AgCdO)
AgCdO contacts have a greater resistance
to wear and welding than fine grain silver,
making them suitable for switching inductive
or high current loads such as motor loads,
heating resistors, lamp loads, solenoids etc.
This is because the addition of cadmium
oxide to the silver increases both the
mechanical and thermal stability. Improved
thermal stability gives the contacts their wear
resistant properties and reduces the rate of
material transfer when switching a DC load.
The contact resistance for AgCdO is higher
than that of fine or hard silver and sulphide
films form easily.
fig 4.35AgContacts
fig 4.36AgCdO Contacts
CONTACT SYSTEM
43
In application a minimum load of 100mA at 12V is recommended, but during relay testing
these values should be exceeded.
For resistive loads at mains voltage AgCdO shows better results than AgSnO
2
.
AgCdO contacts:
typical power relay contact material
medium to heavy load switching
high mechanical resistance
high resistance against welding
Silver Nickel (AgNi10)
Silver Nickel 90/10 is a contact material
with a wide range of applications in the
range of >100mA up to power switching
(e.g. 16A).
In comparison with AgNi0.15 this material
shows better resistance against contact wear
and higher resistance to contact welding at
high loads. The disadvantage is a slightly
higher contact resistance.
AgNi10 is suitable for medium to high
contact loads. The most important uses are
in DC switching, particularly in automotive
applications where high inrush currents
occur e.g. when switching lamps, window lift
motors etc.
Silver Nickel:
universal material for medium to high contact loads
higher resistance than AgNi0.15
high mechanical resistance
high resistance against welding
Hard silver (AgCu3)
Hard silver is similar to fine grain silver being suitable for switching loads in the range 10mA
to 10A at 12V or greater. Hard silver has, however, a greater mechanical strength than fine
grain silver, making it less susceptible to welding and contact wear.
This gives a greater contact life when switching high loads but with a higher contact
resistance. An important criteria to be considered is the wiping movement necessary to
destroy any surface film mechanically.
fig 4.37AgNi10Contacts
POWER RELAYS
44
Silver tin oxide (AgSnO
2
)
Although the general properties of AgSnO
2
are similar to those of AgCdO, there are
some fundamental differences. AgSnO
2
has
both a higher melting point and a higher
thermal stability than AgCdO and therefore
has a greater resistance to micro-welding.
Additionally, the contact erosion rate is
lower because any arc spreads to the
outside of the contact, preventing creation
of a local hot spot and potential weld.
Owing to the higher thermal stability,
contact material transfer is only marginal
and contact life is greatly increased.
AgSnO
2
contacts exhibit a more uniform
contact wear pattern and the lower tendency
for material migration limits the build up of
cones and craters giving a higher electrical life in DC applications.
AgSnO
2
is particularly suited to applications involving high inrush currents or inductive DC
loads.
AgSnO
2
contacts:
suitable for applications where there is a high inrush current such as fluorescent light
loads, tungsten and tungsten halogen lamps, capacitive and motor loads.
DC applications
higher thermal stability than AgCdO
greater resistance to micro-welding
more mobile arc and therefore less contact erosion
improved electrical life when switching DC loads
fig 4.38AgSnO Contacts
CONTACT SYSTEM
45
Other contact materials
CONTACT MATERIALS
Contact
material
Typical properties Typical applications Range of
applications
Fine Gold Best corrosion resistance, but
rarely used as a pure metal (too
soft).
Danger of cold welding
Gold plating of 1m
thickness as storage
protection. Economical
contact protection in
sulphuric atmosphere, with
2..3m thickness (minimum)
Hard Gold
AuNi1
AuCo1
Very good corrosion resistance,
low and stable contact resistance,
for very small contact loads
Dry circuits, use in sulphuric
atmosphere (min 2..3m)
V..60V
A..0.2A
Gold-Silver
AuAg10
Lowest contact resistance (stable
even with smallest loads)
Dry circuits, measuring
circuits
V..60V
A..0.2A
Gold-Nickel
AuNi5
Free from material transfer within
a wide range of loads; small
contact resistance; easy arcing;
friction oxidation is possible in
case of small breaking capacity,
high number of operations and
big contact overtravel; very
expensive
For medium current and
voltage levels
100mV..
..60V
1mA..0.3A
Silver-
Palladium
AgPd30
Better tarnishing resistance than
with Ag, greater hardness, low
contact wear, expensive; stable
contact resistance
Signal circuits with medium
loads
1V
1mA..1A
Tungsten
W
Highest melting point, high wear
resistance with heavy loads, little
transfer of material
Circuits having highest
making and breaking
requirements
60V
1A
POWER RELAYS
46
Plated contacts
Gold plated contacts
Used for signal switching, low level and dry
circuits, gold has an excellent resistance
against chemical reactions and formation of
films. However, it is very soft and has a low
resistance to mechanical wear. The low
melting temperature may lead to increased
electrical wear and welding. The softness of
gold can result in cold welding under
certain circumstances, when the relay is
ultrasonically cleaned, for example.
A compromise between the cost and
benefits of gold plated contacts is the use of
a 1-2m gold plate which is thick enough to
completely cover the surface (without any
microscopic holes which might cause
corrosion) but thin enough to give the same
switching characteristics as a thicker plating at low loads. At higher loads the plating will be
burnt away, the switching characteristics then being determined by the underlying contact
material.
Gold flashed contacts
Often, fine grain silver contacts are coated
with a 0.3m gold flash which protects the
surface, reducing the effect of corrosion,
thereby increasing shelf life of the contacts.
Gold flashed contacts do not give the same
contact characteristics as gold plated
contacts. The thin coating will be quickly
worn away by mechanical wear, or
evaporated by electrical switching. Gold
flashing does not effect the switching
characteristics of the base material.
fig 4.39Au-platedContacts
fig 4.40Au-platedContacts
CONTACT SYSTEM
47
Contact design
As contact material is expensive, contacts are usually made of copper with a layer of contact
material (e.g. AgCdO) on the contact face. The thickness of the layer is sufficient to
withstand electrical wear during the specified life of the relay. In some special applications
where extreme arcing and contact erosion is expected, the entire contact rivet may be made
from the contact material.
Multi-layered contacts have been designed in the search for a "universal contact". Materials
highly resistant to wear are covered with other contact metals with less resistance to electrical
erosion and low contact resistance. If such contacts are used in low power applications, the
top layer gives the advantage of having a low and stable contact resistance. In the case of
high power switching the top layers will quickly be burnt away, exposing the highly arc
resistant material below.
However, such multi-layer contacts are not widely used in power relays. The reason is that
extensive sputtering of the soft surface material can reduce the insulation properties of
plastic parts near the contacts. Furthermore, this erosion effect is irreversible. Once used for
switching high loads, the advantage of low contact resistance for low loads is gone.
For the relatively large contacts used in power relays, the cost of multi-layer contacts is
considerable.
Riveted/ welded contacts:
Another aspect of contact design depends
on manufacturing methods, and to a lower
extent, the application.
Two production methods for contact
assembly are widely used:
riveting the contact to its carrier or
welding the contact material to the
contact spring.
Both techniques are accepted but riveted
contacts suit the requirements of a power
relay better. This is due mainly to their
higher electrical and thermal conductivity
together with the ease of guaranteeing a
good connection when using thin contact
carriers.
Welded contacts are mainly used in signal relays.
Welded contact
rivetedcontact
Contact Design
Weldedandrivetedcontacts
contact
material
contact
material
welding
points
contact
spring
Curivet
C/O contact
S026
fig 4.41ContactDesign
POWER RELAYS
48
4.7 Contact configuration
Contact configurations available in power relays are defined in terms of:
number of poles
contact function
types of contacts
Number of poles
indicates the number of electrically
independent, but mechanically linked,
contact sets in the relay, e.g. a three pole
relay can switch three separate electrical
circuits or loads. fig 4.42 shows the
schematic of a 2- and 4-pole relay.
Contact function
Contact configurations and design of
contact groups are defined according to
their function and based on DIN 41020 and
by NARM, where the various combinations
have been given form letter symbols. The
most common contact configurations are:
N/ O - normally open contact
is a contact which is open in the non
energized position of the relay and will be
closed after coil energization. Also called
form A, or make contact
N/ C - normally closed contact
is a contact being closed in the non
energized relay position and opens when
energized, breaking the circuit. Also called
form B or break contact.
C/ O - change over contact
is the contact configuration comprising both
make and break contacts, electrically
connected. Also called form C contact or
double throw. This contact form has three
terminals.
(1)
12
(2)
22
(3)
32
(4)
42
(5)
14
(6)
24
(7)
34
(8)
44
(9)
11
(10)
21
(11)
31
(12)
41
(13)
A1
(14)
A2
(1)
12
(4)
42
(5)
14
(8)
44
(9)
11
(12)
41
(13)
A1
(14)
A2
2-pole
relay
4-pole
relay
Multi-pole Configuration
S048
fig 4.42Multi-poleConfiguration
Contact Configuration
Designation D GB USA Symbol
Make contact
Normallyopen 1 A SPST-NO
contact
Break contact
Normallyclosed 2 B SPST-NC
contact
Changeover
contact 21 C SPDT
Twin make SPST-NO
contact (11) U DM
S027
fig 4.43ContactConfiguration
CONTACT SYSTEM
49
Double make/ double break contact
has both a make and a break contact but in this case there is no electrical connection
between the make and break contacts. This version has four terminals.
The different mechanical characteristics of the relay (magnetic system and contact spring
system) leads to different electrical parameters of N/O and N/C contacts. In general, due to
the higher contact pressure of the N/O contact, parameters such as the electrical life,
mechanical cleaning effect and inrush current can be higher, while bounce time and contact
resistance are lower compared to the N/C contact.
Contact assembly designations
Abbreviations used to define the contact assembly and exact nature of the contacts are as
follows:
number of poles
SP single pole
DP double pole
nature of contact pole
ST single throw
DT double throw
Single throw relays have two contacts configured as either one normally open or one
normally closed contact set. Double throw relays have three contacts configured as a
changeover contact set.
normal position of contacts for an unenergized relay coil
N/O normally open
N/C normally closed
function
B break
M make
DB double break
DM double make
Terminal designation
Terminal identification is specified according to DIN EN 50005
The terminals of switching contacts are designated with a two digit code. The first digit
indicates the number of poles concerned, the second digit specifies the switching function
i.e.
1 change over contact
2 normally closed contact
4 normally open contact
For example, terminal 22 denotes the normally closed contact of pole number 2.
Coil terminals are designated A1, A2, etc. for 1-coil and 2-coil magnetic systems.
POWER RELAYS
50
Terminal designationsof octal type plug-in relays are defined according to IEC 67, DIN
41556. The system consists of consecutive numbers to indicate the terminal. For modern
octal plug-in relays both numbering systems are indicated on the case.
Types of contact
Contacts used in power relays are one of two types, single or twin.
Single contacts
are contact sets with one contact rivet per contact spring and are preferred when switching
high currents.
Twin contacts
(or bifurcated contacts) are contacts with two contact tips per contact spring. Both tips
operate in parallel, are electrically connected, and switch simultaneously.
The main advantage of using bifurcated contacts over single contacts is a substantial
increase in contact reliability, particularly when switching low level or signal currents. The
mathematical probability of a good contact being established when two parallel contacts
are used rather than one is higher. In practice it has been found that the failure probability is
reduced by a factor of between 4 and 25, compared to a single contact.
These figures should only be used as a guide, the actual reliability will depend on many
application parameters.
N/C N/O C/O
.2 .4 .4 .2
.1 .1 .1
2-pole relay
11
21
12
22
14
24
Terminal Designation
S028
fig 4.44Terminal Designation fig 4.45Terminal Designation
CONTACT SYSTEM
51
Another advantage of bifurcated contacts is
increased vibration resistance. The effect of
lower individual contact mass and higher
resonance frequencies can increase the
vibration resistance from 4g to 10g, for
instance. The actual figures will depend
upon the relay type.
Bounce time is also reduced by the use of
twin contacts because of lower contact mass
and the fact that the two contacts do not
close at exactly same time and electrically
overlap.
This can be important when using the relay
to switch solid state inputs.
The major disadvantage when using twin
contacts is the reduction in breaking
capacity. The reason for this is that the smaller contacts on the bifurcated version have a
lower thermal capacity. This reduction in switching capacity can be considerable (e.g.
2000VA for single compared to 500VA for twin contacts). Data should be checked with
catalogues and data books.
Safety contacts/ safety relays
Safety relays have a multi-pole design but prevent simultaneous closing of any N/O or N/C
contacts, even in the event of malfunction due to contact welding. In the case of a
malfunction, a minimum contact gap of 0.5mm has to be guaranteed.
These relays are designed according to different standards (e.g. EN60204, IEC 204,
VDE0113 etc.) and are used in control systems of equipment where malfunction could cause
personal injury or considerable damage.
4.8 Contact reliability/ life
Reliability is the measure of a products' ability to fulfil its intended function for a defined
period of time. For relays, reliability is expressed in terms of the number of switching
operations. If reliability of systems containing several of the same type of relays is to be
determined, it is calculated by the number of relays*switching operations.
Reliability criteria depends on the application of the relay. For medium and higher contact
loads, electrical service life is usually applied as the evaluation criteria while for low loads
the principal requirement is usually for consistency of contact resistance.
In all instances the ambient and operating conditions are crucial. In defining reliability
expectations for a product, the fitness for use must also be taken into account. Only if the
fig 4.46ContactType
POWER RELAYS
52
product, application and requirement profile are matched as closely as possible, can one be
assured that operation will take place with the minimum of problems.
Parameters for electrical life
Quality of electrical contact should be considered with regard to contact reliability. Contact
failure modes might include high or unstable contact resistance due to layers, isolating films
on the contact surfaces or other contaminants like micro-particles or dust.
Probability of failure
The occurrence of failures in the life of a
component can be described in probability
terms i.e. in the form of a Gaussian
function.
The probability of a failure occurring at a
certain time is specified by its probability
density function.
For electrical life, the mean value X
indicates the typical life.
Some components will fail after and some
before this value.
The cumulative failure probability function is
the integral of the probability density
function and gives the percentage of
failures, (i.e. the percentage of components which attained the end of their service life) as a
function of time.
The complete diagram for the probability density function and the cumulative failure
probability is shown in fig 4.47.
CONTACT FAILURE MODE
Arc discharge Surface layer Particle
contact welding
contact erosion
material transfer
inorganic layer
(oxide, sulphide)
organic layer (oil,
grease, vapour)
abrasion (plastics)
dust
influence of contact
material
influence on contact
resistance
influence on contact
reliability
fig 4.47ProbabilityFunctions
CONTACT SYSTEM
53
Bathtub curve
Similar to other electrical and electronic
components, the failure rate of relays over a
number operations can be shown in a
diagram. The expected failure rate is not
constant over the entire period of use.
Because of the shape of this curve it is
called the bathtub curve.
The bathtub curve can be divided into three
phases:
Phase 1: initial period, early failures.
In this phase, contact reliability is the prime
factor. Particles from the production process
and transport and/or layers built up during
storage, increase the probability of an early
failure.
When switching low power the chance is that, if contaminants exist, they will lead to faulty
switching operations.
When switching high power, the electrical cleaning effect will increase the quality of contact
and the failure rate during the initial phase will be drastically reduced.
Phase 2: random failures, service life - see contact reliability.
During this phase the failure rate is constant and very low. Early failures have been
eliminated and failures due to contact wear are still far away. Only random failures without
any specific related cause will occur.
Phase 3: wear failures - see electrical life
When switching low power, the end of electrical life is generally due to contact wear. This
takes a long time, and as a result, the bathtub curve deteriorates into a rather flat curve over
operational life. Contact reliability during this period is the main cause for concern.
Switching high power considerably reduces the problems of contact reliability (quality of the
electrical contact) as the electrical cleaning effect reduces the influence of contaminant
layers or particles. The contact failure rate for low and high power switching is shown in fig
4.49 and fig 4.50.
fig 4.48Bath-tubCurve
POWER RELAYS
54
Contact reliability
Contact reliability can be improved by:
increasing electrical cleaning, selection
of the correct type of relay for the
application (e.g. signal relay or power
relay), correct circuit design taking into
account switching voltage and current.
twin contacts. Bifurcated contacts are
designed to establish a good contact
even in the case of a non conductive
layer or an insulating particle being
trapped between the contact surfaces.
burn-in procedure. The object of this is
to reduce the early failure rate in an
application by applying a test procedure
to fail relays showing poor contact
reliability in the initial phase.
reliability testing. In these tests, switching
operations are continuously repeated under a specified load. Contact failure modes such
as the increase in contact resistance and eventual contact welding are checked at each
switching operation.
fig 4.49Bath-tubCurve fig 4.50Bath-tubCurve
fig 4.51Burn-in
CONTACT SYSTEM
55
Characteristic values for reliability.
is the failure rate and is given in number
of failures per time or per number of
operations.
Failure rate is a parameter for the reliability
of a product defined as the proportion of
failures in a given number of operating
products divided by the operating time.
When indicating failure rates, the failure
criteria, as well as the operating and
ambient conditions, must be stipulated.
MTTF Mean time to failure given in
[time/failure]
MCTF Mean cycles to failure in
[operations/failure]
=1/MTTF or 1/MCTF
MTTF is the mean time until a failure occurs.
It gives the mean life of a product for precisely defined operating conditions. The parameter
MTTF is the reciprocal value of the failure rate and is given in terms of hours (h). MTTF
values of differing products can only be compared when test or operating conditions are the
same.
Electrical life
Electrical life is the number of operations for a given contact load under specified conditions
before a permanent contact failure occurs.
Without specified switching conditions (e.g. current/voltage, duty cycle, maximum switching
rate, etc.) and the criteria for contact failure (e.g. contact welding, number of faulty
operations, contact resistance above a specified value, etc.) the specification of electrical life
cannot be determined.
Statistically, electrical life can be seen in phase 3 of the bathtub curve. The end of service
life is indicated by an increase of the failure probability with respect to the number of
operations. This is due to:
wear and burnout of relay contacts.
welding of contacts
Welding of contacts occurs at the instant of contact closure by an arc discharge
simultaneously with contact bounce.
reduction in contact force because of contact erosion
mechanical locking
Material migration caused by transfer of molten contact metal forming a crater and cone,
eventually leading to a failure in contact opening.
failure rate = 1/MTTF or 1/MCTF:
= i/T(N*Ops) = failures/time =
failures/operations*(relays*operations)
i number of failures
N number of relays
Ops number of operations
The failure rate is given either in failures/hour or
failures/switching operation.
For relays it is common to use "percent failures per
10.000 operations" [%/10
3
Ops] as unit, e.g.
1%/10
3
Ops is equivalent to 1 failure per 1 million
operations.
Example:
N = 1.000 relays, i = 10 faulty relays,
Ops = 10.000 operations
= 10/1000*10.000 = 1/10
6
= 10
-6
=1ppm (1
failure per 10
6
switching operations)
MCTF = 1/ = 1/10
-6
= 10
6
switching operations
Assuming 100 operations per hour
MTTF = MCTF/Ops/h = 10
6
/10
2
= 10
4
hours
POWER RELAYS
56
reduced insulation
The depositing of scattered contact metal and condensation of evaporated contact
material on the surfaces of insulators, as well as thermal deterioration, can cause a
reduction in their insulation properties such as insulation resistance and dielectric
strength.
According to IEC 255, the life of a component is considered to be reached if any of the
insulation characteristics fall below 75% of the specified values.
powder deposits on the contact surfaces caused by wear of plastic parts such as the
contact actuator, oxide powders caused by rubbing motion of moving parts and those
produced by erosion of contact metal. Carbide deposits produced by dissolution of
organic gases absorbed by the contact surfaces.
As with reliability, electrical life is a statistical
approach to defining part of a relay's
specification. This means that there is not
one single value for electrical life, but a
probability function of contact failure as a
function of switching operations.
The electrical life of a relay can be indicated
in different ways. In terms of either statistical
values B10, T and b (see Weibull diagram
and fig 4.55) or as typical life.
Typical life
is the mean value of switching operations
under a specified load. For relays, the typi -
cal life represents the number of operations
for which statistically approximately 50% of
the relays will still be functional.
fig 4.52Electrical life
CONTACT SYSTEM
57
Electrical life for different loads
AC loads
In most catalogues, the electrical life for AC
loads is given in the form of a diagram as in
fig 4.53. These diagrams indicate the
typical life - usually for N/O contacts and
for unsealed relays either in respect of the
breaking capacity in VA or the switching
current in A.
Both types of diagram are valid for one
switching voltage only, usually, the nominal
voltage (e.g. 250VAC). For loads with an
identical breaking capacity, but a different
switching voltage, the one with the lower
switching current will result in a higher
contact life.
Switching inductive loads reduces contact
life. The expected reduction is shown as a
multiplication factor in fig 4.61 as a function
of the power factor (cos).
DC loads
Because the major consideration is arc
duration, which is dependent on the precise
load and relay design, the electrical life
cannot be indicated in the form of a
diagram as for AC loads.
Usually, the electrical life is given for some typical loads. The life for other loads is estimated
by interpolation or by testing in the actual application.
Contact life with DC loads is highest for pure resistive loads. For inductive loads, the larger
the inductance (longer time constant L/R), the shorter the expected contact life. This may be
partially compensated by contact protection circuits.
fig 4.53ContactLife
Example:
for the nominal voltage of 220VAC and a breaking
capacity of 1.1kVA (current 5A) the expected typical life
for resistive load is 350.000 operations; under the
assumption of an inductive load with a cos of 0.4 the
expected typical life is -350.000*reduction factor 0.7
giving 245,000 operations.
fig 4.54ReductionFactor
POWER RELAYS
58
Weibull diagram
Apart from the typical electrical life of a
relay, it may also be defined by a
cumulative failure probability. In order to
process the probability distributions
mathematically, and be able to convert the
data to relatively simple graphs, the
probability density function is approximated
by functions such as Gauss' distribution, or
in the case of relays and other components,
by the Weibull distribution.
The absolute failure probability for a
specified contact load is approximated by a
straight line in the Weibull diagram.
The general formula for the probability
distribution is:
probability of survival is R=e
-(t/n)b
probability of a failure is defined by F=1-R.
Three parameters B
10
, T and b represent the failure probability of the relay:
Characteristic life T, indicates the point where statistically 63.2% of the relays will have
failed.
B
10
represents the number of operations for which statistically 90% of the relays will still
work.
Weibull exponent b, gives an indication of the degree of random failure. In the diagram,
b is represented by the gradient of the Weibull line. For b<1 the failure rate diminishes
as the number of operations increases, indicating that the failures are early failures. For
b=1 the failure rate is constant (random failures) and for b>1 the failure rate increases
with switching operations, indicating failure due to wear.
fig 4.55Weibull Diagram
CONTACT SYSTEM
59
The line will be relatively flat for random
failures but for the end of electrical life the
Weibull line will be very steep. In the
theoretical case of a vertical line all relays
would fail at exactly the same number of
operations.
The advantage of this method is that trends
can be quickly recognized using relatively
small sampling sizes, the failures giving a
good indication of the reliability of the total
batch.
Of course, the electrical life diagram giving
the typical life, and the Weibull diagram,
are linked via the general reliability curves
of failure rate and cumulative failure
probability as indicated in fig 4.56.
Sealed relays
When switching a full load on the contacts
at extremes of switching rate and ambient
temperature, nitric acid may be produced as
a result of the high energy arc discharge. To
maintain specified performance the relay
should be opened or vented. Usually, this
can be accomplished by opening a vent
hole after completion of any cleaning
process.
If the relay has to remain sealed during
application because of a harsh ambient
environment (gases, humidity, dust), and
used at maximum current and switching
frequency, the electrical life has to be
derated.
fig 4.56Electrical Life
fig 4.57SealedRelays
POWER RELAYS
60
4.9 Application advice
Circuit layout
AC-DC switching
The switching capacity of a relay is lower for
DC loads than for AC. Due to the lack of
zero voltage crossing, the arc discharge
lasts longer. There is also the contact
material transfer phenomenon when
switching DC loads which may cause
contact locking.
Therefore, if AC or DC switching can be
chosen during the design stage, as shown in
fig 4.58, AC switching should be chosen as
it will lead to higher switching capacity and
longer electrical life.
Polarity switching
The contact gap in relays with C/O contacts
is rather small and the response time may
be shorter than the arc extinction time.
This means that the N/C contact could be
closed before the arc to the N/O contact is
extinguished. In this case the arc between
the opening contacts will give an electrical
connection to the closing contact. The N/C
contact will be electrically connected to the
N/O contact causing a short circuit. If the
supply can supply enough energy to
maintain a stable arc, welding and the
complete destruction of the contact system
will occur. Such circuits must be avoided
under all circumstances!
fig 4.58AC-DC Switching
fig 4.59PolaritySwitching
CONTACT SYSTEM
61
Motor reversing
When reversing a motor by switching
between two polarities, the arc between the
opening contacts may short to the closing
contacts, leading to a short-circuit of the
power supply (see above).
As there is practically no load in this circuit,
the current will be strong enough to
maintain the arc and burn the relay contact
system.
A motor reversing circuit using only C/O
contacts must not be used.
An additional relay should be used to first
disconnect the motor from the power source,
and only then the reversing relay switched
after the arc has extinguished.
Multi-pole relays
When selecting relays and circuit design for switching multiple poles with different
voltages/loads, special considerations are necessary.
Loads and contacts should be connected with the same polarity and potential as shown in
fig 4.61.
If the loads are connected as No.2 in fig
4.61 there is a chance that under some
load conditions (spikes, surge voltage) the
dielectric strength between adjacent relay
poles may not be sufficient, and an arc
discharge may cause short circuits.
This is especially important when switching
loads at or near the maximum breaking
voltage given per pole! The maximum
voltage between the poles guaranteeing
sufficient creepage and clearance distances
is given by the voltage rating according to
VDE0110.
If switching different potentials within one
relay is unavoidable, a type with sufficient
dielectric strength has to be selected.
Alternatively, a large gap between two
fig 4.60MotorReversing
fig 4.61Multi-poleWiring
POWER RELAYS
62
adjacent contacts should be created by interposing an unused contact set between the sets
of switching contacts.
3 phase switching
The same considerations for multi-pole
relays applies to the switching of a 3 phase
power supply.
Even if using the relay poles within their
specified limits, maximum switching voltage
and current per pole, the arc discharge and
connected ionization during the switching
procedure may lead to short-circuits
between adjacent poles. In such cases, the
resulting short circuit current may maintain a
stable arc, destroying the contact system.
When switching 3 phase supplies, relays
with sufficient isolation characteristics have
to be selected. For switching 3x380VAC,
relays with an insulation category of C380
according to VDE0110 should be used. In
certain cases, it may be possible to use relays with a B380 rating (depending on load
conditions).
When selecting a relay, choose one with a higher maximum breaking capacity as the
insulation characteristics will degrade during the electrical life of the relay. Stronger contacts
are less susceptible to wear and hence to these negative effects.
Special attention has to be paid when switching 3 phase inductive loads such as motors.
Back-EMF surge voltage peaks, generated during switching, may be higher than the
dielectric strength between adjacent poles. The resulting breakdown of the insulation will
lead to an arc, causing a short circuit between two phases, destroying the relay. Testing in
the application is necessary to ensure safe design.
Connecting contacts in parallel
The switching capacity of a relay cannot be increased by connecting relay poles in parallel.
The contacts will not switch simultaneously. Only one contact will switch the overload and be
affected by the arc. The overload will increase contact wear or cause welding.
Phase synchronization of AC loads
If the switching of an AC load is synchronized with the AC phase, the polarity of the contacts
during the switching procedure will always be the same, leading to material migration and
the mechanical locking effect as for DC switching. Reduced electrical life will be the
consequence.
fig 4.623-PhaseSwitching
CONTACT SYSTEM
63
Different contact loads in one relay
Switching of two extremely different loads like high loads and micro current loads in one
relay should be avoided.
Contaminants generated by switching high power may be deposited on the contacts
switching the low load and, as there is no electrical cleaning effect on these contacts, they
increase the probability of contact failure, putting the reliability of the relay in question.
Dummy resistor - electrical cleaning
When switching low power and dry circuits there is no electrical cleaning effect, which may
result in high contact resistance and reduced contact reliability.
Apart from using bifurcated contacts and a suitable contact material, the electrical cleaning
effect can be increased by adding a dummy resistor in parallel to the load, increasing the
switching current.
Contacts in series, DC switching
Arcs may be extinguished by providing a
longer air path between the contacts. This
can be achieved by connecting the contacts
of a multi-pole relay in series, thus
multiplying the air gap by the number of
poles.
Contact protection circuits
Contact protection circuits can increase the
electrical life of the relay.
The most widely used circuits are shown in
chapter 4.5.3.
U
R
I
Load
Supplyvoltage
41
31
21
11
44
34
24
14
arc 4
arc 3
arc 2
arc 1
Contacts in Series
S009
fig 4.63ContactsinSeries
POWER RELAYS
64
4.10 Selection of contact system - summary
CONTACT SYSTEM
PARAMETER CHARACTERISTIC SELECT CHECK
contact configuration number of poles
contact function
N/O, N/C or C/O contacts
type of contact
single, twin contact
load supply voltage -VAC, VDC
type of load
resistive, inductive, capacitive
load current
inrush current
switching characteristics contact rating
contact material
contact resistance
maximum contact voltage
breaking capacity
make current
electrical life
dielectric strength between open
contact/poles