Professional Documents
Culture Documents
!& % # ! . (!)# (!&#
4 0)% .!, ( &) 69) )7 ; )=! :< > <#&<.
@ 0>=)< <!G) > <4: %% D) B C)7 >.
L (>IJ:! .GIJ:H& . O@ G & <, Q>O
&= .N M
( .
7>< <= L ! &) N @ G !<
: )XY 9#9( <%: >&J >= :V =! , B Z#J
! ) (4[ :# L 6@G &# >= I &#<
>I] [1I< ( C!I &<! ._ !I > # (J
a& . ::G< !=)< > #( O< <9#9`< ; ... 6G>=) >=)<
>)=! # > 6 &XII< # : > ; 6 0( Y
< #.
`) :I! 6M9< & O 6 <&X > <IX=:) <&X; :4!6
MJ > O,J #V) :I! 6 <&X & L& 6 <&X :c) ;:
Y> 9#9( &Y> @ : :e 6G
!7 6 6 CY@ 0>=)< >J .X# @ :! O>: >=) @ 0>=)
> :e ! O>: &( .
L 6) &# <e4 Y: <9#J (J CI)Y : C 6& LC
)!M <4: :#J <9#J (J CIM9]; D@ .[1 L%J 6G)=! 6 <9#9<
> <# I7& @ G > > <#&< @ D >I>=) <9#9
.:9 69#J 6 :G M @ :9 : )# )=! (J<
> <#&< 9#J MJ )=! L4 .Y< > <#&< ! @ :9 >%9
4 O@ 0>=) ) L> ) Y MJ .9#J> & 9#9
)=! L4< > <# ) I: G M 6G! O) I9 6& I&J .><
@ :9 :c L4 > <#&< :c 6 ( <I! Z&% )G9 :
B .(!G Q & I! O& G :% >< ; 4 :% @ C
:% D@ 6G:I N (G#97 4 (:>&: XL
:% ! O 6 . CY!7)=! 6 (J@ &..
IN (G#97 )J )J 6 )Y ),; # : :c (J)
& .: <#>J .[1](&4&< )c > :4 !=) )% (J !GG M
>:> (JM9 [4 (J>)c . > <#&< < !=) X:
&) 6@ 0 .0),&!)=! O< > #& N .!, )% (J)Y
( > @ : :e # >:# :X# )!IJ 0) Y&
:: > #& & O@ 0>=) N@ !N, !G ! !
6[ )=! (J Q< > #& & 6> @ : 9 .: L%J:
> @ : [ Y& 9 .!_ > #&> . !)e4 6 (J
> @ ; : 6G) (J> [4 > :! <&X )( 6
N@ :X ) (J (.I#@ >: &) 9V) :X :N > &)
L 6 < :
( Y ;) )( Y :, 0< 4
( )X Y >_ >=))=> < > #G!H :X # M 6 :I
e9 ...
Q@ G & .: CY> <#&< : CYN < <9#9 ) <Y
M9< Q :9 e9 (9#9 M G .>< @ <: > <# <
.>=)< > <#&< .9 .) Y( &# (J@ 0>=) ( 9 .
& 0I 6G& O L (X (&# : 0@ #) &> O% )7
6@ 0>=) :% X# O4 4: ) (J @ 0% @D
: < @ 0) ) < <I&; >:# 6% ) <
&; ) )X 9 : .J:Y: D@ .&
: ) ) #< < (J@ 0) (J .`) % ( &
) < (J&; > <#&< 7 G )4< 6& e @ L&,I
> )9@ 0&; ) <&X:Y: O& D@ @ G (!N Z
(J <&X> <#&< @ 6 D .4&; ) D& 6< ):
&; # I & )e !< .> L%J & LI#` :(
`< (J 6> <#&< .J #: CY) <X @ D OG )#
& .X > <#&<.
> O G&) !=)< > # : 6! Z >G 0)=! O< > #&
O)G D@ %% (J O9)=! L< > # < OX`<
( @ 0>=)<
O9& 9 ! .,@ `) !_ > > <# )`G 6
> # 9#J <:I
& 9#J, & ) O@ 0>=)
`) 6 !=) Y MJ D@ @ ! Z > <X@ 0>=)< O9
& 9 ) < Y & > <#&<.
6G N# I L@ G <#! :!7 6 !O CX <#! :!7 6G 6&I
9#9>< (J:c 6 @ 0>=) ( I! :! D!G>( > 4.
(J O!GJ B9! <9#9:> .# (J 6M9 ! B94[ .# (J>< (J O#
! <#! O ; !:! <# 6; ! <#4 ( ! <#!7 ; .6 6G : (J> <#&<
10
11
*)
'&%
&> > (J #M9 :)GJ J e9 X) J> <# < )eJ (1905
:#G X ) J> <#&< )eJ (1915 !: 6.X
:c > <#&< C L7J <,! : (#( O !=)< !: (J 6,<
)) BG C9<( LG7) (Y) C> <# < .@ D< !7 6<9#9
(J@ e9 X 6M9.
; 6G> !=)< <I& > <# < ! O@ 0>=)< ) ) (J <Y<&>I
> <# < )9 : ) C& <X @ ) !7 6 :X:X
C 6> <# <.
) <I GJ !7 6G 6 ( < > <#&< Z,@)
N @ > G G@ ; D>=) @ :I !N
&( (Je9 .! >=) !N B MJ( ! D
(!:; 6Ge :G ),< ; 6G),< @ . 6@ ; 6G
& <X( _! 6e9 X ) 6! D@ <!:G C@
6 (9#J MJ( O# . <#@ :J D & > !:>< >:
),> ( >=:< =< ! )) M )4 (B7 250
: >< : . ),> 0@ I9)< !< OXI# (J B7) M), & 20
: >< : . C @ 0)< !< ),> 6G 6 )J .= .
@ 0), (9! .e9 (J X 6e > M9 N) )C
&.<X
12
13
1& ,2
&
,- .
:+ >Y)J .& B< (JM 6 !
:: 6 (! ; 6M :G )J >< ; !< (J 4 (Y (J O=<
)Y (J =< 6G .<I 6 L# LG .<! ; <# 6 L#
:G & 4 . (J .(! ; 6 ; ! O< (JM.6
1& ,2
,-
2 : >Y)J .& B (JG >!HJ
!)9 !> < >G>< ; !< ) M <!G 6G .M 6 !(
-L# ->4 <##M>< ( ! <= (J O Z, :G ) J
e Z, :G & (J .G .
M G ! L:! O :X9 (J Z& LI[! (!#@ :I
&< &) <JG 4 #< . IJ) Z&X @ 0#< :e )
[!# & . ( ), <MJ . G : 4 )
&) .<J D Z#>=) (!GG : LG),> < M : LG),>
9#J >I< ; > 6 L%9)7 < (J&LI
< 6G .& . ( >
@ :%.[2]0
) L:>#G) (S. Alexander M G L L <II< (
! > N7& . (:( :) ( > L:: !` 6&J M
; _ !` OI . (: ) :< L! = e
G !` OI
< :: & !` L=J > 4 L ` L% !< .[2]<!G
G 6 (JG M Z4 (J JJM M (J L:
:# <9#J < & ; :XG) J .M G( # 4 #
## 6 6JG L M M 6G I . L:
>#G ! ! ; >%9 9#J >=)< > <# 6! ; :G
-1M (J <9#9 & .: >( ) :X C< )%< &< G 1999
14
15
% >J&: (J, MJ I > G M 6 6IX&> >:>( (9 : !< )I !: .6IX 6 :%! G M 6; 6
! J 6:% L :: ) ! B99% = .> :].[4
= !:O
& I! O .> 4 X . L :X> #)=! 6 <IX%
O#:, > <I 6& : ) LeJ :4 :X 0 <JY
& %9 <M ; MM :) D>=) . 6&) !)=! I> O< 6
!=) !: ; 6 B>=) M9< (J I B>e MJ .<I )=! 4
! O 4 (J>< !=) (J :X> X !: (J 6M9].[4
16
*89
*&*2&
,
: <X B ( ) : %@:%! (6 :Y: : 9< >
: (J & 9G . G ; >G :G >J@HJ D M ; >G
].[3
(>>G :% & e ! Z& ( ; 6 Q( M
Z# L 6 Q( (J <4: CY <9 e Z, :G :% G (J
.9 6 HJ . :% G ; 6G #),< 4 6 =) < L
),< < > O# <>G; : <X D:%].[3
G ::% )Y (4 LG7 C, < ; 6G !:%
B> G .! >>G ! )G9 B O: (J CYG :J .& `< ) [G
=) ; `< & 6 C ::% (4 LG7 =) < )e].[3
G B:J 4 I :J & <4 &< L : . D!
; 6G !:% G > ! 6 .G .9! ; >!HJ <>G@ D; M G
: &> . @ 0M ; >G :G <IG : @ & e :
!> O)) 0( 6G) >( L >G )G9; :J .: >#>:
@ J ( :J & <>G&< )%< J .Z# > 6 ., D 6 .
(I )@ B)( (J : CJ . HJ C
>< ` ":, (J 6` Q :) 6``<" O# <,># 6J .<
` Q L 6 4 D )Y 6I].[3
G :% : 9 ; > & .(X ! Z, ! )G9 I:J : 9:%
(J >e`) ; >< 6>: :% ) <>G 6 Q& )7( . C
17
*&*
*:+
18
&+][1
19
20
+ !@
9
M 6< !=) > B=! : :( : ; :I ; (J> Z#:: 6
: ! C B I . I B> X@ &) , M :X
L :Y: ) . :>=) @0
&< (J L), @< !HJ C c D
> Z#! Z#:( ! ! Z# II 6 <II( = < ) (J:C4
)# . C 4 D (J 0,@< N M 6M 6
)J 6G 6 9 > M
G >=) ! 9 4 (J ( :G
< <:Y:> M G )4 @< . .>& B> OM G !N
; : (J:Y: < L 9N 4 ! IX .
21
22
2
+
><XI
=<
:
,
&Z4
(
:(
<!:G#
)<
`
)V
<!:>G
)%
-2M (J <9#9 & .: >( ) :X C< )%< &< G 1999
23
+ ,-
_! .>=) > :# : M ! .(# ! G !> . `
)< :e ( ) )< .<>G <#) (J <#@ 0>=)< ( ! B 6 6G
# L%M G )MG(
%
L%9 6M G 4 L!:G
M (J@ 0< & Ce & G `< . @ &> :I > :(G#J:G
L%9 6G M 4 ; ! ! : : 0@
.## .<II
9 I .@ I :: 0 6M G ; : M 0, ; LI
[ > G # 4 0, I @ 0>=)< . )GJ 0,: (
! O&M M 4 6:% XN) =:) )< J
N) : ! N) >4N M ! (# 4: [ ))C
0 (:e [ & & ) (J:G (J) & e><#
& BJ O, 6 0, (J L%M G : 0,>(
& .M9( B 0, )#N 0, a @ 0, > D&.
, >< . 9 Y 6 >=) 6 MMJ : (
: 9
>( M 0,: J :: < : < &< 6G
) B @) J :)< (J) LG (#
)Y :< M M9( @ :I > CX#! J <# ! JCY:
; CY&) &<
M!( : (!G 6 Q: &< ; >I9
:( &) 4: [ M>< ( ), J D: 6> (J BJ
: C ! )X <I <I CY&) &>< : &< 6:
# (J (eM>( ; (J< M M9( )X <I< <I; L 6CY
I # (J (eM>( . 6@ !) (J>< I B( ! @ (J
4 : L 4:< !=) ) [ @ .J :
24
+ ,-
2
Y)!M )=! (J< .G ) ) ) (J CY:): < ! 6
L# !4 , I4 L <4; L :G O & ; 6 6G .
@ &J ! O G!GI< ) D( )=! OI< > . G)!M (JD
G!G>:>< & & !=)< > (J <# Z# I M 6G >X
<4M ! =) ( : c) MJ< O4 G!G :<G!> ;
6G ! L% <4 <IX L= L O, & (J B 6: C) 4 ! D_ 6
6@ ; &) N L=:) 4<
L&9@ ) Y=) ): . eJ
: (J M G > Z#! O)!M =:) @< ; CeHG
<4:I <IX .)< ) &:J . @( L O!) > & ` O! .D
& HJ :%) M!< (J <!GM9 I< ) )=! LJ< ; (. G CX# `L
<4& ),< >( D( ; ; .),
25
26
27
9
8
D9
; )X# >< &< 6G <:e )#& (:Y 6G :G &X<
X >( ) &) .@) ) (Hermann Werl) L @ 6)(Y
) M > # > )) 6Y )Y( :! .&: )< &)
X CY# 6G <#( .IJ:NY .) 6Y>_
# . ; .. 6G:4: @ 0# )`G 6> ) Y( <%
(#) 0) <YN 4 M.
; :! )Y 6, : >= .:Y: .>_ `) 0(
; eJ 6) )6Y
@ 0>= O! I .# !: (J:, >
)` L ): 7( > . 6 C J@ 0# . ! O@ 0# (
G : ; &> J ! O: <IJ <9)`G6 L> ) :4 &<
_!)X7 >=) 0:% )Y ( ! &< :< @ 0>=) ( >) @9 6
<# 9#9 > #9& 0I J7 ) (J .Y> II `
) (Y:: :I > 7:`9: N ) ` Q .IM #
; 64#4 6G > B9 I ( I 64# .J7@
:I <#@ :X .. ! 6: >#J 6# 6 % & 2
28
29
9 ,-
*)
> IX Z, :G > @ :< > [4 6G )X @ M # @
: > @ :( !: 6!: #)G9 > > [4 ( ( &)
& .@ !& J ) L D> &< (J, J# #
)%I GJ L@ 0>< , &( I9>< [4< % (J 4J#
)G J# 6:G Z& ` D .I# : 6
)#& (J (:Y< : < > :Y C& 6& e LG7:9 L 6@0
> C`) Q( ! !&) N :, @ ` 180 Q< ;J X
> 6 <,I &: 6 I 6 @ 0, ; : ), MJ )6
4< e9 > 6G ; 4< e9.
30
31
* G )F
9
8
D9
, Saccheri quadrilateral
& ) )( Y >G 6 <#: [4 @ )( Y
:G : 6 6#! 6( .I# > < ; M 6):6
< :@ 0M 4
< `! :@ 0M >)9
< `` :@ 0M
> [4
[ ( >
& ) ) 6> (J 4 6)6
X ) 6> (J 4 `! 6G
X ) 6> (J 4< `` . G > (J 4< ``< & L@
)( N@ (J <!G> @ . 6G : 7) @ 0) <!G .
,
W Lambert quadrilateral
( ;) )( ) 6G:G 6< 4 < .X ;) 6
@ )( ) 6 )`Ge4 6 >< @ BG 6G <:)
:: > 6G 4 ) 6 : : M< (J M# : >Z
6#< ` Q !%I #< `.Q
& ) `` )`` > @) (:( )
;):
c
b
(J( )sinh = cosh a sinh :
2
2
(J( ;)sinh c = cosh a sinh b :
a b : c Y
32
[
>%I & Z (J Defect> @ : :)9 2 6 :, M
` Q:
) Defect ( ABC ) = ( Ar + B r + C r
(J@ 0)X
ABC
180
= S ABC
(J> @ : # %4< ` Q . k 2 :#< ` (J Q> @O# :
( (J> [4 )Y L %! (J 0I9 ! Z##< `Q
:!4 6 !%I #< D@ . 6G:I 6: ` Q # ) :4N( (J <IX
>< @.<:
!> K X#> V X ) 6#< ` Q :, 0 (:
K S ABC = Ar + B r + C r
! _># ; 6@ 0):<X
33
(J K > 0 :1@ 0< :, ` Q`) 180 6 (J@ 0< :I
` O 6G> > :e @ 0<.
\ (J K = 0 :@ 0< :, ` 180 Q :! : > >
[4 ! .)9%
\
\ (J K < 0 :@ 0< :, ` Q L4 180 6 :I Z6G
> > @ 0@ :<.
6I <#@ 0) < 6X``:
k2
S = 4 k 2 sinh
34
P !" L PQ L' $% )"%
+, QP L0 '"/ :
tan
G?7 F06 GI 2, 2?0 ( PQ) "7 7 , ' 2'< P 2 .L
5% k0 2<P = 5% O+<"7 "O/ 5 N I
QN 8/ tan
6 2, T<U e GW, .",0" <V 8/6 5% 2, !'O X 2 0O 5%2!'O
[= 2, YZ< 8 YZW . 5% \0 2@N 2 0O XP YP
6, , .L
+7 k I 5% ,
5+! IN T<U) k T<P aN7 2,O (I 2!'O 2 0O'! 2=2,
, I L 2+! I 5% +7 "@N , "@N
aN7 2!'O 2 0O'! d < 2, Z< 2 .2,
2
k 0 0
35
LG71 .4
LG72 .4
36
)F G
9
8
D9
6 @ 0eI >&) <9&!< <#: (J@ 0>< @[ <:
e4 @ 0><e4 ; 6G ; (J II>< [4< 6G 6 @0
<# 6G4< ) @ 0eI X& (Je9 @ .(:@ 0eI
(:
R Z >! :Q
: PR .I# LM QPx
37
:
6>)! P XI: . PQ L .I# @ D 6@ 0>)! XI .m .I#: PQ
!> Z> R XI L .I# > !) .: t .I# L - 6>)! P XI .&: : PS t
38
:
!)9 > ! <XI` L( @ D> B99< 6
6
. L)( BBAA BBCC ACAC
( ) ) (J( ) M ,0I 0
4 Y I @ 0M #(
AAC = CC A
AA = BB
AAB = BBA
39
!: )( -6
9%@:
40
=! ># I (J@ >: : .I# <4M ) # !<4 O
L< # ) I# # : L .I## )( ; 6G
9 :X (J .I#@ >: : :! (J <9%[4< ; N@ L
L # ! )X4 %)[ 0 @ > J C:9 >( (J
) .I#( : & 6 4
@ >: Z,X :X 9< &) 9.
&) 9 (J@ >: LG7(:
!)9 AB( 9 [4 A 6 B 9 (J@ >: (:
1
APi BQ
log
2
BPi AQ
= )d ( AB
41
=
2
_
1
42
43
h
8
, 9& A
> Y)J # !=)< > <# C 0@ (:>=)< . 6@0
> <#&< 6G .> #
> <# < >
Y)9
N) @ 0>=)< ! O@ 0# ) MJ< <#
: (J>< 4< .Y)9 ( &! O @ 0>=) (:
h: :4! 6M9 ( ! (J #9 <J) C&<X
)< :e (J)9 6 <I#)< % (:e
82: Cosmological Principle !8
88
@ ::G B!, : :.
I C >
:
!7 6 :, 6GJ ! O# @ 0GJ (:
oe9 (J ; : !M< :J 6 L.
L <G::
o <G& <X ( !:! <, 6 L9 6< @ 0@
(J:G.
o 7 (J . D!G :)< >.& <G <#
o (J .# ) )9( ; D < ><.
o ( ( & 6>< ; >< .
&
8:
(J> [4 : ; <XI! 6 .I# 6G . .I# : .I#)9.
(J> @ :: ; <XI! 6 .I# 6G .`) 6 .I#: .I#)9.
(J> :e : ; <XI! 6 ; .I# 6G . .I#: .I#)9.
44
*89
,- rF
)) Z4> )c )( (J> <# : 6 ; <:,>< 6#
L> <# ) >< . Z,< :%
:< (Je9 M> C& 6e
6[ 6X "I" "7" .
L> : (J X><# !&: . Ze4 6< <IX @ :X O
> <# L) (J Z4) .<X C&>( : L) <X Z4: ZeI::
(J)& Ze4 64 .: I : : ZeI @ :X # C (J
) .C@ D> <# #.
45
8
8+
: :! M( 6 ) 6 )&[ 6> @ 0) !:I
: x1) <I( > <# : x1 : x4 9% (J . x1@
: x2 x3 @ D) M( .O
x1 = x1 cos + x4 sin
x4 = x1 sin + x4 cos
x2 = x2
x = x
3
3
O
! 6&#)X <I> Z# > (J (G#J:G@ 0)X#! <I t L (J)S C
H ( (J x4 = ict@ 0) i = 1 X % e9 ) (xyz@
:LG7
x = x1 y = x2 z = x3 ict = x4
@ D > &< . 6G< &; @ :LG7
x = x cos + ict sin
y = y
z = z
46
@ 0( <9: xyO 9% I ict tan .! (J I : .xO
! _># 6@ &; :! M( < <
6 )! S C , 6!I )S C
(J : xO 9< (J ict tan L
=< .t
! O)< !I ) S C> # )C
S# u:
-ict tan
u = ic tan
6& :
1 + tan 2
1
= tan
47
cos =
1
1
sin =
u2
c2
iu
c
u2
1 2
c
( &;J )0@ Ce!
y = y
z = z
x =
u2
1 2
c
y = y
z = z
ux
t 2
t =
c
u2
1 2
c
:)I &; 0@ %) V c < #> u <4 O!
x = x ut
y = y
z = z
t = t
)GG M9( J & # : ;: &; &) 6< :, 0@
D t = t X) )X 6 GG M9( J .69 6&) C4 :
.X( GG e9( J M <!
48
s: 8
8:+
> , :2
'8
!G :X < (J)< .#,> & .#,&:< < ) I
.)V
!)9 Ze4 Z: x 6) C# S 6! 6@ x = x1 (J ZeI
: x = x 2 @ (J ZeI) S C::
L = x 2 x 1
x
=
1
u2
u2
1 2
1 2
c
c
= x1
: (J ZeI) S C L = x 2 x 1 ::
u2
L = L 1 2
c
!G :X @ <,! B :)V MJ M, : (J[!I
[!# ) ! <,! : )V) <X: 6 ZeI < I ( I
:X.
49
. 1
> t1 6 t2 (J) S C 4 . <#>< > , S C) <#@6
M> 0@ 6 6I< (J <#) S C) v <)# t1 .t2 >
: :!:M
t1
v2
1 2
c
v2
c2
= t1
t2
2
v
1 2
c
= t2
t1 t2 = ( t1 t2 ) 1
v2
t = t 1 2
c
50
6: :!M
= ut
u
u +u
t
= x ut = u (t 2 x) x
uu
c
1+ 2
c
x ut
2
=x
u
c2
ux
t 2
c
= t
u2
1 2
c
1
=x
1+
=v
1+
51
h
v
:X< )#> D( >J <X .
m=
m
u2
1 2
c
2
dt
dt
0
0
0
0
)V C< G) V< #> D!G( J > <)# C) V< ; G>( :> D!G( J
:(< < #>( J << )4X D@ .<)#
u
ud
u
u
dx u
K = Fdx = (mu )dx = d (mu ) = (mdu + udm)u = (mudu + u 2dm)
dt 0
0
0 dt
0
0
:( 6
>< X) )V u m <X( @ )J
m=
m
u2
1 2
c
: L%! <X )0@ 6
52
m=
m
m 2 c 2 m 2u 2 = m 2 c 2
u2
1 2
c
: L%! 2m #I <X )0@ LY9 6
2mc
K = c 2 dm =c 2 dm =mc 2 m c 2
:D
K = mc 2 m c 2 K =
u
<< 1 <( J <#>>< :>< )< 4X #
c
m
c2 m c2 K = m c2 (
2
u
1
1
u
c
1)
:
53
3 u
1 u
1 u
1) = 1 + ( ) 2 + ( )4 + 1 ( )2
8 c
2 c
2 c
1
2
2
@:D
1
1 u
K = m c2 ( )2 K = m u 2
2 c
2
6@ 0&< 6G> @ 0> <,) <YN >=)< > <#( >=)< >:><
> &# :! <)#)< :e.
54
55
Galaxy
Universe
Atom
56
57
'8
# )=! .J< > <#&< ; 6 <&X:X# )!< #& #<
>:#< . <&X:X# )!< : LG! ZX# O4 ; G C# > ><#
&< 6G 6 ) Y: #< >:# B 6G& .><
:X# )!< Q! :X# >< >=< 6G:% #@ (J !#
& .:9 [!> :I ! I 6@ 0:X# >< <X# e9 )( &.
@ 0:X# <X#( :X# !< ( . Q>< <Y9 ( :X
< & eJ (J 4 . 6 9 . e4 >< <Y9 6G& 6 <
!> @ 0:X# I &; : <#>> : <&4@ 0:X# )@ D<
) I) >< :X ., #<( .&) [!> :, (# 6 .9 .
> <#&< Q :I e9 6 ; .:X <I# ! :X >>< Ce
@ ( e9 : G J )%4< 6XI! 6 6@ e9 O# .@ 0:X# !<
)
( >@) ( L:X# ! ! > 6 6:X# !< : (J L&;
: . 6 >>V:X# !< > :X# )V>=< >0)c
O!G&; : I )> 6 .Q> )c:: (J
&; (J #% # >:# .@ 0:X# ( < & 6G
(J>< <Y9 6G&!< [ >>< @ &.
; LI! 6G :% :X# !< ) L X( &( eJ (J ( & B
@ 0G )=! (J< > <# : > ; )7 #& 9 .Y
> <#&< D9 6&;.
58
x = f ( ) cos
y = f ( ) sin
z = h( )
D@ : : @ (x-x) : : .I# 6 ,! !:X 0@ L9 LG7( J
. @ 6 >_ X# )c> :
Sphere 0)G
x = R cos cos
y = R cos sin
z = R sin
59
Catenoid LG7( # X
x = R cosh 2 cos
y = R cosh sin
2
z =
Pseudosphere 0)
x = R sin cos
y = R sin sin
z = R (cos + ln tan )
Helicoid (: X
x = cos
y = sin
2
z = R
60
8'
<#> Y< Y9 >< .9 C Y 9&):#> >& ) L%9( @ J
.( @ &)J )#( M9 :9 <&
i=1,2
ai bi = a1b1 + a2b 2
jk
= g i1g + g i 2 g
1k
2k
ij
11
21
12
22
ij 2
aij b = aij b = a11b + a 21b + a12 b + a 22 b
i =1 j = 2
ijk 2 2 2
a b = aijk bijk =a111b111 + a112b112 + a121b121 + a122b122 + a211b 211 + a211b 211 + a221b 221 + a222b 222
ijk
i =1 j =1k =1
)L 6G
ai bi = a j b j = ak b k = a1b1 + a2b 2
61
62
G
& 1
8
L Aij 6 Bij>:# ! _! @ 0) @ D>:# 6 !:
Aij + Bij Aij Bij
Aijk
= aibi a j b j
) ( aibi
63
( aijbi ) c j = aijbi c j
n=1,2,3,,n :!( :! e9
aibi = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 + a4b 4 + a5b5 + + anbn
6 D@) V @ u1,u2)V< 4I < f(u1,u2) O!
: t)V 6 0)V
f
u 2u 2 =
f 22
u1u 2 =
f12
f11
u1u1=
i=1,2 ,3
df = fi du i
1
2
3
df = fi du i = f du + f du + f du
1
2
3
( <
x,y,z
df =
f
x
dx +
f
y
dy +
dz
, =
:@G ZG
64
2
:@G 9 &):#> 6 0 Kronecker Delta D! )
1
ij = = i =
0
ij
b k ki = bi
1
11
2
11
3
11
4
11
1
21
2
21
3
21
4
21
ijk =
1
31
2
31
3
31
4
31
1
41
2
41
341
4
41
ai ij = a j
112
2
12
3
12
4
12
113
2
13
3
13
4
13
122
222
3
22
4
22
123
2
23
3
23
4
23
132
2
32
3
32
4
32
133
2
33
3
33
4
33
142
2
42
3
42
4
42
143
2
43
3
43
4
43
if
if
i= j
i j
ij jk = ik
114
2
14
3
14
4
14
124
224
3
24
4
24
134
2
34
3
34
4
34
1
44
2
44
3
44
4
44
)G!& )
i j kj = ik
`-8 :
k = k
ij
ji
ijk =
1 km g jm g ki g ij
)
g ( i +
2
x
x j xk
2ijk =
g jk gki gij
+
u i u j u k
65
z'&
,` 2
x = f (u) cos v
y = f (u) sin v
z = h(u)
.:X# :& V% ( D@ ds 2 = g du i du j : X# ( LG7>
ij
12
21
22
( ) ()
g = f
11
'
+ h
'
g =g =0
12
22
21
()
= f
2
2 ' 2
g12
'
= f f
+ h
g 22
() ( ) ( )
66
{2
x = R cos cos
y = R cos sin
z = R sin
ds 2 = R 2 d 2 + R 2 cos2 d 2
{2
x = R sin cos
y = R sin sin
z = R (cos + ln tan )
2
ds 2 = R 2 cot 2 d 2 + R 2 sin 2 d 2
.<! :X#( 4 <X )0@ < 6G D@
z'&
,\
,` 2
.X#<
< 9% 6 X#
:( !( )! X# <&< &
x = f (u) cos v
y = f (u) sin v
z = h(u)
:X# (!` ( LG7 L&
67
b =
11
12
'2
+h
'2
=b =0
21
f h
b =
22
f
'2
'
+h
'2
b
b
b = 11 12
b21 b22
{2
x = R cos cos
y = R cos sin
z = R sin
II = Rd 2 + R cos2 d 2
{2
x = R sin cos
y = R sin sin
z = R (cos + ln tan )
2
68
}
M (!` ( LG7 M 6 #> # >>( [ J !>
: ( LG7
b b b ( b )
K = = 11 22 12 2
g g11 g 22 ( g12 )
2
b b b b b
K = = 11 22 12 21
g g11 g 22 g12 g 21
K=
s
s
12
1 11
r s
r
+ 11
r 2 12
rs1 g s 2
2
1
g u
u
.` L%J C
:{2
}
R 2 cos 2 1
K= 4
= 2
2
R cos R
:{2
}
R 2 cos 2
1
K= 4
=
R cos 2
R2
:+2
,- *[
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2
II = 0
0
K = =0
1
y = f (u )sin v K =
f ( f 2 + h 2 ) 2
z = h(u )
69
! :,[!> V( ( :X# :e ) Z: ( :X# @:
) Z ! (4 X:# .)9
: I) :, (#:X !> Z:>( :X !>
; Z>(.
[!> )# ) k1 (principal curvature k2 <I&= )V% !>
> (J <XI! > (normal curvature) (c .X[!> V( (J@ 0> <XI# L
)Y @ [!> :
K = k1k2
> ! <XI X!> >> 6 CI9 & C@ (J X#
D> <XI k1 . k2
(J@ LG7:()#
k1 < 0
@(:
k2 > 0JG
!> @ X#
K<0
% @ 0:%http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_curvature :
70
`-8 :
2ijk =
g jk gki gij
+
u i u j u k
1 km g jm g ki g ij
)
g ( i +
2
x
x j xk
ijk =
111 =
121 =
1 g 21 g11 g12
1 g11
( 1 +
1 )=+
2 u
2 u 2
u 2 u
g12 = g 21 = 0 <( J
1 g 21 g12 g 22
1 g 22
( 2 +
1 )=
2 u
2 u1
u 2 u
g
1 g
21 g11 ) = 1 g11
= ( 12
+
2 u1 u1 u 2
2 u 2
221 =
112
g
g
1 g
22
21 g11 ) = + 1
122 = ( 22
+
2 u1 u 2 u 2
2 u1
g
1 g
22 g 22 ) = + 1 g 22
222 = ( 22
+
2 u 2 u 2 u 2
2 u 2
g 22
g
g 22 =
g11
g
g11
1
g11
12
g
21
g
g11 g 21
=
22
g
g
g 12 22
g 22
g12 = g 21 =
g12
g
g12 = g 21 = 0 g 0 g12 = g 21 = 0
71
g
g
g
1
ijk = ikj = g is ( sjk + skj jks )
2
u u u
111 =
1 g11
2 g11 x1
2
11
=
1 g11
2 g 22 x 2
112 =
1 g11
2 g11 x 2
2
12
=
1 g 22
2 g 22 x1
122 =
222 =
1 g 22
2 g11 x1
1 g 22
2 g 22 x 2
z'
A = gdu1du 2
0)G< # :\
A = gdu du
1
g = R 4 cos 2
A = R 2 cos d d = R 2 2 cos d d = 2 R 2
0
, 8F 8<
t=a , t=b 6XI! 6 >>( :4 :
s=
gij du i du j
:D@ ds 2 = gij du i du j ! e X )0@ 6
( )
ds 2 = g11 du1
+ 2 g12 du1du 2 + g 22 du 2
72
,8^
0,( J , 6 0 p XI> L` X#& 4< XI! (J (eJ X :I
.<XI> D( J 6> !>: , 0@ : .X# @ .I
( IJ< [!> , IJ : 6, X 6> < [!>,< M,
kg (#:,< [!> ,
j
i
d 2u k
k du du
k g = 2 + ij
rn
ds ds
ds
du1
kg = g 2 1 ds i j
d u
du du
+ 1ij
2
ds
ds ds
du 2
ds
2 2
i
j
d u
2 du du
+
ij
ds 2
ds ds
73
^8,
> 6I) & ) # :( : 6 )#J )%4< 6XI! 6
X (Je9 . &) ) :> 6) X (Je9( Q!>
:,@ (# >>( @ ) X# (Je9( # .)9:
j
i
d 2u k
k du du
+
=0
ij
ds ds
ds 2
74
<M( ( J , XI! ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) ( x, y, z ) O!
6 @6 : 6>( ( J 6XI> 0@( u + du, v + dv, w + dw) ( u, v, w)
:( 6[
z = z (u, v, w) y = y(u, v, w) x = x(u, v, w)
:
dx =
x
x
x
du + dv +
dw
u
v
w
dy =
y
y
y
du + dv +
dw
u
v
w
dz =
z
z
z
du + dv +
dw
u
v
w
: 6XI> 6 6< 9 ds 2 O!
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2
: L%! <X )0@( J dz dy dx >&Y
ds 2 = Adu 2 + Bdv 2 + Cdw2 + 2 Fdvdw + 2Gdwdu + 2 Hdudv
::% 0@< X )0@ ZG! . (u, v, w) )V ) ( C B A L&
ds 2 = gij dxi dx j
< )<X )0@ 6 6) X &) . x j xi )V gij <X )0@( J D@
. eJ
75
!)9 , @ 0> <XI> ! <XI) ( P @ 0> (J <XI@ 6)&6
) Z( xi + dxi x i + dx i:Q
i
dx i = x j dx j
x
&) : <,! <I% @ 0) <X( <, .(contra variant))V <9:
i
Ai = x j A j
x
L <, )V <9 6G&) <XI! (J 9 6e9HJ ) >J@ 0 (J <,
! <XI 6e9 Q
i
A
76
(J< , : <IJ )V <9 Z, (J <4 CY (J (index) L
L9)@! .) N dxi 6 <, )V <9> xi)9 ( O#
ZG! D@ .<,[ :% . xi 6 Y: xi
!&)=! .< , L7>:# ! Ai O Bi, 9 (J )V<
N2& L) Ai Bi <X 6>:# )V & @ :LG7
i
j
Ai Bi = xk x l Ak Bl
x x
ij
=g
Ai
77
Ai = gij A j
.L&# C)< #> <, )V< 9 < IJ: L &6
Ai Ai
:L9 6 :J 6 L LI! <9 :\
g ij A j = g ij g Ak = ki Ak = Ai
jk
Aijk = g Akir
jr
g ri g sj gij = g ri is = g rs
A2 = gij Ai A j
78
8
I Ai = x i Ak> <# x j::
x
k
Ai = xk xl Ak + 2 xk A
x j x i x j xl x ix j k
: ) <X`!< L Aij( O#>:# . dxi( :J <,
x
Ai
x j
) @ D ZG@ 0& @ ( Ai, j LG7! O>:# O) dAi = Aij dx j <X
x
6 <, &< >:#< L .@ 0 6&#! <G:9 !I :.
!> LI Ai <, 6> P <XI ! <XI, ( P : )V < .<,
<,& !I ( O#H L4[!I @ 0 <,& [!I (
Ai + Ai LI (J (,> P <XI( . Ai + dAi @ 0<XI> 6,
(Je9 ! >%I@ 0 6, 6& <,>J e dAi Ai <,:
dAi Ai = Ai; j dx j
> Ai, j) Ai; j <X dx j <, @ D)X )# 6@ 0) <X<,
! _>#N Ai; j( >:#) Z, M , 6 ; ( .@ 0)X <I >G 6&) [I
>:#.
! Ai O (J <,> P <XI O!I : > P <XI Bi LI(,
>: <# Y 6[( (J@ 0<:
y j
B
xi j
= Ai
x j
A
yi j
Bi
79
Ai = (
y j
y j
B
)
A
=
(
)B
i
xi j
xi j
Ai =
2 y j
dx k B j
i
k
x x
:D@ Bi
Ai =
x j
A
yi j
2 y j xl
k
i Al dx
i
k
y
x x
:LG7< @ X )0@ ZG %
lik =
2 y j xl
xi x k yi
.LJ:# ).&< X )0@&)
Ai = ikl Al dx k
.)V< IJ:< , : I! ( &< < &0@
:() V< 9 < , : I! &< D@
B k = ijk Bi dx j
80
><XI
(xi + i :
! V <XI, U
(xi + i + d i :
Ai = ijk A j d k
II
ijk i
xi
ijk +
III
A j rlj Ar l
81
A = ijk A j
k
ijk
j r l
i
+ (A
A
)
d
jk rl
xl
i
Ai = ijk A j d k + (irk rjl jkl ) A j l d k
x
c
c
:ZX# C (>> : LG .6:I L( & J r j L L> 4
d k = 0
c
l d k = k d l
c
c
: @ &)6&#!
1
kl = ( l d k l d k )
2c
: L%!
= (irk rjl
ijk j kl
l )A
x
(9G! 6 )=> V! <e4 < >G 0@ L :#> O# 6:I L&
: l k L!< G< ( # 0@ :% ,>
= (irl rjk
ijl j lk
k )A
x
82
: L%! kl
A =
i
1
2
lk
ijl ijk j lk
)A
xk xl
ijl ijk j
)A
xk xl
:Q A j Z >! .:#>(
Bijkl
ijl ijk
xk xl
R jk = Bijki
83
:
W G
:LG7< &< )< @ #> &; .
ds 2 = gij dxi dx j
gi j =
ij
:(
(#:, #
j
k
d 2 xi
i dx dx
+
=0
jk
ds ds
ds 2
gij
dxi dx j
= 1 :)7 C
ds ds
:#>
+ s s
R =
sj ik
ijk
ik , j
ij ,k
sk ij
ij
s
s
R = ik
j k + sj ik sk ij
ijk
x
x
(7 :#>
Rij = Rijkk
ij
R = g Ri j
67! :#>
1
2
G ij = Rij g ij R
:# 6G 6 << &#> &=( >=)< LG ( `< :#> 0@
.< Y <) 4 0 > ):e !) .Z:G e< XI! I .) :! X M! .()J :! `L ) :G (Y :! >-
84
` < `
`: ,-
& 6)< e9 =! (J ( > Z[( )G (XIGM . LeJ :G @ 0)< > 0)c <:# D @ D)(Y
%>< M9< e9@ !) J Q)J 6G @ 0 L4 %
L&;
L )J & L )V !: I L X&
[ <4I ),< .
! O[ )< Z,& r 6 !O
& 6)V )< ` < & & 6& M t ! O[ M< Z,& 6)V x
[ )G < & @ 0:%:
y z t .@G `
x1 = r
x2 =
x3 =
x4 = t
& 6&) gij L< ds 2 = gij dxi dx j LeJ :G )< )X4< D <:#.
0
g
44
0
0
g
33
0
0
g
11
g
0
22
0
0
0
0
85
& 6&; :, 0@ (#)< .` L@ 0&; )#I) (J@ e9: >> >< ) >< (J .& > <!:G` L@ 0:, (#)#
)< :G Z ) #<.
< >:# (J R s& ) LeJ< @ LG7 6>:#ijk
R <:# D 6 @ >:#.
:
1212
< >:# Rij (7 6>:# 6G< >:# @ .(7 >:#< )=! (J <V< > <#&< ! D` L&; LI!7 .6 6# C
& L@ >:# C L%! )9% <:, 6&; [ .<4I & 6 & )
e9 6 @ 0&; .@ D 6@ 0&; 6G& 6& L)< (J
! O:% )V <:, : C)< :M.
< < R (7` L) <X <I( ! L% 6@ 0 <#:I !> e9 : Z Z: .)9@ D 6 @ 0 <# 6G<
>:# !7.6
< >:# !7 Gij 6 6G< @ >:# (Je9 @ : Je9 >_ 6)< ):# ).
86
8
1&
' 2
, 8
:! < 6! # 6 6G! (G <& < :#> 0@< #&
.)% < X )# )G LI ) % ( Y
::% 0@ : :>
:<V% 0@< #> eJ (J (#:, # &< ZG!
ds 2 = A( x, y, z , t )dx 2 + B ( x, y, z , t )dy 2 + C ( x, y, z , t )dz 2 + D( x, y, z , t )dt 2
1
2 A( x, y, z , t )
1
( x, y , z , t ) =
2 B ( x, y , z , t )
1
( x, y , z , t ) =
2C ( x, y, z , t )
1
( x, y , z , t ) =
2 D ( x, y , z , t )
( x, y , z , t ) =
=
=
1
g ( g , + g , g , )
2
87
@) !)GN:
A
x
2 B
B12 = 1 2
x x
= A
:`-8
(J <9%# >Y) I L) ( 6G 6 # . .4)LG LJ:#
; .&!< : 6 )!_ #` MATLAB L MATCAD
MAPLE 6 ) <,N )_ 6G# @ 0& .L@ D> : <X#
& & L@ 0>:# 6G & 4 6 < 4 6 @ 0)_.
#>! ; Z, (J&< :,(#
21 = 0
= 12
.g
88
:=
d
d
d
A A A
dy
dz
dt
d
A
dx
d
A
dy
d
A
dz
d
A
dt
A
dy
d
B
dx
0
d
B
dz
d
B
dt
0
d
B
dz
d
D
dx
0
d
d
B B
dz
dt
d
C
dy
0
d
D
dy
d
C
dx
C
dy
d
C
dz
d
C
dt
d
D
dx
d
B
dt
d
D
dy
d
A
dt
d
C
dx
d
B
dy
d
d
C
C
dx
dy
d
B
dx
d
A
dz
0
d
B
dx
d
C
dt
d
d
d
D
D D
dx
dy
dz
d
C
dt
d
D
dz
d
D
dz
d
D
dt
1
11
2
11
3
11
4
11
1
12
2
1 2
3
1 2
4
1 2
1
13
2
1 3
3
13
4
1 3
1
14
2
1 4
3
1 4
4
1 4
1
21
2
21
3
21
4
21
1
22
2
22
3
22
4
22
1
23
2
23
3
23
4
23
1
24
2
24
3
24
4
24
1
31
2
31
3
31
4
31
1
32
2
3 2
3
32
4
3 2
1
33
2
33
3
33
4
33
1
34
2
3 4
3
34
4
3 4
1
41
2
41
3
41
4
41
1
42
2
42
3
42
4
42
1
43
2
43
3
43
4
43
1
44
2
44
3
44
4
44
89
:, 8
Ri j = Rikjk
R = g i j Ri j
R = R
:(7 :#> L &
d2
d2
d2
A +
A + ( x , y , z , t)
A
d y2
dz2
d t2
w11 :=
d2
d2
d2
B +
C +
D
dx2
dx2
dx2
w12 :=
d d d
w13 := B + C + D
dx dx dx
d d
d
d
A B + C + D
dx dx
dx
dx
w14 :=
d d
d
d
d
A A + B C D
dy dy
dy
dy
dy
w15 :=
d d
d
d
d
A A B + C D
dz dz
dz
dz
dz
w16 :=
d d
d
d
d
w17 := A A B C + D
dt dt
dt
dt
dt
R11 := w11 + w12 w13 w14 w15 w16 w17
90
:(7 :#>) L&
d d
d d
d d
d d
R12 := C + D C C D D
dxd y
dxd y
dx d y
dx d y
d d
d d
d d
d d
A C A D B C B D
d y dx
d y dx
dx d y
dx d y
: 8
Rijk
= ik , j ij,k + sj iks sk ijs
R = g R
R = R = R = R
R + R + R
= 0
R1234 = 0
R1213 :=
1
2
d d
d d
d d
d d
A + A A + A B + A C
d y dz
d y dz
d y dz
dz d y
d2 d2
d d d 2
d d d 2
d d
d d
A
B + A B + A + A B + B A B A A
dx dx d y
d y d y dx
dz dz
dt dt
d y2 dx2
R1212 :=
91
:,&
:(7 :#> <#< I 6 e9 !> :I 6& 6G
R = g i j Ri j
2
2
d2 d2
d
d
d d
d d d d
d d
w1:= A + B A B A B A B + A B + A B
2
2
d y
d y
dx dx
dy d y dz dz
dt dt
d y dx
2
2
d2 d2
d
d
d d
d d d d
d d
w2:= A + C A C A C + A C A C + A C
dz
dx
dx dx
dy d y dz dz
dt dt
dz2 dx2
2
2
d2 d2
d
d
d d
d d d d
d d
w3:= B + C B C + B C B C B C B C
2
2
dz
dy
dx dx
d y dy dz dz
dt dt
dz dy
d2 d2
d
d
d d
d d d d
d d
w4:= A + D A D A D + A D + A D A D
2
2
dt
dx
dx dx
dy d y dz dz
dt dt
dt dx
2
d2 d2
d
d
d d
d d d d
d d
w5:= B + D B D + B D B D + B D B D
dt
d y
dx dx
d y dy dz dz
dt dt
dt2 d y2
2
d2 d2 d 2 d 2 d d
d d d d
d d
w6:= C + D C D + C D + C D C D C D
2
2
dz
dx dx
dy d y dz dz
dt dt
dt dz dt
Ricci Scalar
R := 4 ( w1) + 4 ( w2) + 4 ( w3) + 4 ( w4) + 4 ( w5) + 4 ( w6)
92
: 8
1
G = R Rg
2
:( :#> @ L &
d2 d2 d 2 d 2 d d d d d d d d
C + B + C B C + B C + B C B C
g1:= B
dz2 d y2 dz
d y
dx dx d y d y dz dz dt dt
d2 d2 d 2 d 2 d d d d d d d d
D + B + D B D + B D B D + B D
g2:= B
dt2 d y2 dt
d y
dx dx d y d y dz dz dt dt
d2 d2 d 2 d 2 d d d d d d d d
g3:= C D + C + D C D C D + C D + C D
dt2 dz2 dt
dz
dx dx d y d y dz dz dt dt
g1 +
g2 +
g3
G11 :=
93
82The Cosmological Principle !8
88
@ < ) )=! (J< > <#&< 6G:I N < @ (J> <#&<
N< (J> <# < .)7 @ 6 Q:9 C& 9 . ;
)J <Y Ce )`G 6=9 B :J 9 <4X ; C,7
<G9).
@ ::G B!, : :.
I C >
>: (!:G@ 6G> : !)9 :G 6 ; <:,>< 6
6 L) 6G ! _># 6@ >:
), >)7 (J:G > <##< &
N C), ! <##< :G .> J@ >: )GJ C .>( eJ (J
; >( (J .@ >: ; : ) <X C>)7 : ) C& (J <X>:
>:>( >)7 J ; ! . B!, : <!:G:: >: ;L
@ 6G 6 Z&% (J >!NG `( 6:G.
) ( B!,:G B
> ! < #< 6@ L O&Y 1948>
Z#J eJ ! @ D> &> : c) :G (J L # B .>
< !< :G! > : C:G e9 >_ Z, : <J@ e9
9 .& @ 0& :!4 9 B 6G <4XI C ! 6
(J 0 60 L :) Z&G 6e9 (J O! .<>#@ 0>=) ) &< >G
G9 OGG% 4 ) &J ( >.
:G: :: VG )J ) 7:> <#> 6:G D@ 6G
L
:I N L&) <J <!:& @ 0 ( !=)< ! .<# 6G&) > <# !N
!=) MJ C <:, 6: ( ; :4 )V! 6@ 0>=)< . L`
94
D!G>:>( <#! : : <:,> <# < ( ! <#:, :! 0)G <:,
:! M> <#&< ( ! <# <:,: &: <!:G) (
! <#>)c :G 9 C . >=) ( % eJ (J 4 X) <X
:G De9 <#! (J B!, <:, 6 !;I.
&) ( (J B!,@ : <:, :G <!:G 6) Z4( !#9
( ) Z4) . ( !:I ! 6 )` L: C:G ` <J:G(
@ 0 ! #9:I ) (J 64), ) (J 6 .<JG >4:#@ :9
) :M 6.(!:G
!_ @ B!, :: = :G <IX ! O> )V (J@ :G
<XI! LGJ B!,& L LM Z >! .6 M <# 6) (J C 6# JL
L),.
(J @ 0< !_ @ 0 ( M 6 (!:G@ M 6 (!:G (J :
. (J O 6G>= .# Z#M 6.(!:G
95
*
,-
.: & )< MG :< )#& <:e@ )# 6
I) : <#@ 0)< .@ D 6 )< 6G&:! 6 e9 :I <
LI . .@ 0 6 >:# (7 .&; LI!76
: (J (J< : (J LI, .> (J Q@ L%9& .!:
) ( ))=! (J O< > <#&<.
:% &< )< eJ (J (:
ds 2 = Adt 2 + Bdx1dt + Edx12 + Hdx2 dx3 +
d 2 = dxi2
1 =i 2 `J 3
2
e c2
A = c:
d 2
(J &Y LI& L@ 0)< #<.
2
e c2 dt 2
ds = c
2
96
2
2
2 < 0.5 105 B7 LI < 0@( J e c2 1 + 2 Z)I &> @
c
c
y =Y
z=Z
t = X sinh T
t
= tanh T
x
x2 t 2 = X 2
:
:D@
cosh 2 T cosh 2 T = 1
A = F ( x, y ) dA =
F
F
dx +
dy
x
y
dx = cosh TdX + X sinh Tdt dx 2 = dX 2 cosh 2 T + 2 X cosh T sinh TdXdT + X 2 sinh 2 TdT 2
dt = sinh TdX + X cosh Tdt dt 2 = dX 2 sinh 2 T + 2 X cosh T sinh TdXdT + X 2 cosh 2 TdT 2
:
dt 2 dx 2 = X 2 dT 2 dX 2
ds 2 = dt 2 dx 2 dy 2 dz 2 ds 2 = X 2 dT 2 dX 2 dY 2 dZ 2
ds 2 = X 2 dT 2 dX 2 dY 2 dZ 2
. ( ( &X , Y , Z , T ) eJ (J (G#J:G> )< 0@
97
:( M:)<
ds =
2
dr
2m
+ r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2 c 2 (1
2m
)dt 2
:LG7 @ G! #
m=
1
)9! T R [0@ t r #! D@ c = G = 1
4
: L%!
ds 2 = (1
1
2R
)dT 2 (1
1
2R
)1 dR 2 R 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
1
XI>
2
2 R 1 = X 2 2dR = 2 XdX dX 2 =
1
dR 2
X2
: L%!
ds 2 = X 2 dT 2 dX 2 dY 2 dZ 2 ds 2 = (2 R 1)dT 2 (2 R 1) 1 dR 2 dY 2 dZ 2
R>
1
:G Z, )< 0@( J
2
98
< )G (:
1 2
(dt dx 2 ) R 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
ds 2 =
2R
2 Re
2R
dt 2 dx 2 = X 2 dT 2 + dX 2
2R 1
2 R 1 1 2
( )dT 2
) dR R 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
2R
2R
( = ds 2
@ 0)< JG C)< :M ) > XIV e( J (J@ 0)< (
1
><XI
2
99
ds 2 = e A dt 2 e B dr 2 r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
R11 =
1
1
1
B
A AB + A2
2
4
4
r
R22 = e B 1 + r ( A B ) 1
2
R = 0
=
R = g <( J
A = B
A = B
e A (1 + rA) = 1 r 2
= eA
)9!
+ r = ( r ) = 1 r 2
= 1
2m 1 2
r
r 3
100
2m 1 2 2 2m 1 2
r dt 1
r dr 2 r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
ds = 1
r 3
r 3
m 1 2
)< eJ (J @ 0)< )I !: (J 6)M r
r 6
ds = 1 r 2 dt 2 1 r 2 dr 2 r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
3
101
ds 2 = c 2 dt 2 dr 2 r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
)
:Y)9
u=
= sinh
r
<( J`G O# ) < (!:G 6M
t
t = cosh
r = c sinh
= t 1
c = u
u2
c2
1
u2
c2
: ) )< 0@ 6 L%!
d2
+ 2 (d 2 + sin 2 d 2 )
2
1 +
ds 2 = c 2 d 2 c 2 2
d 2 = c 2 2
+ 2 (d 2 + sin 2 d 2 )
2
1 +
1
2 2
1
2
102
K =
1
O Z :I ( & eJ 6 6 :!
c2 2
k = 1 k 0
2
4
dx =
2
1
2
2
2
3
dl = dx + dx + dx +
I
:: 0@ 6&#!
x1 = Rr cos sin
x2 = Rr sin sin
x3 = Rr cos
103
:
dr 2
+ r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 )
ds = c dt R (t )(
2
1 kr
2
104
8F
^
:!I I !: (J 6, LI,< :: (J ! <XI 6e9 &> <G
) : C :: (J (J De9 D@ 6G& 6>:# :I ) LI
; Z, 6 Q>:# ) : C H MG . D>:#
,< .
>:#:, .<#>:# @ N @ 0 c: :>:# 4X>: > ><#
< > JG 6 <4X D@ <G 6G:I N C:I N) LI,<
J 4X)G.#>V
> :I!:! 6 6 ! O` <J :: eJ (J HJ LI,< (J De9
6G&> 6 < ,( % (J@ 0):X
2 = 4 G
2 2 2
+
+
= 4 G
x 2 y 2 z 2
Rij
R = T
@:D
1
) Rij = ( g ijT T ij
2
@:D
6@ 0) X 6G>:
1 2
c2
= R44
g 44 = 1 +
105
106
` 8 +&
! 6@ 0)< )<
ds 2 = adr 2 + r 2 (d 2 + sin 2 d 2 ) bc 2 dt 2
x3 =
x2 =
x1 = r
@ 0)< ( e9 ( 6 .#) ) 0M> X) M[(.
@ .#,>:# 4X>: )9 >:# Rij = 0 (7 @ ZX# %
L& L@ >:# #< .)9%
g11 = a
g 22 = r 2
g33 = r 2 sin 2
g 44 = bc 2
g = abc 2 r 2 sin 2
1
= g11
a
1
2
= g 22
r
s in
1
2
bc
= g 33
r
g 44 =
107
LJ:# ).
a
1 =
11
2a
1
2 = 2 =
12
21
r
1
3 = 3 =
13
31
r
b
4 = 4 =
14
41
2b
r
1 =
22
a
3 = 3 = cot
23
32
r
1 = sin 2
33
a
2 = sin cos
33
2
c b
1
=
44
2a
r )V #> I
b a
R = Rijkk
ij
108
:
b b2 ab a
R =
11 2b
4b 2 4ab ar
rb ra 1
R =
+ 1
22 2ab
2a 2 a
R = R sin 2
33
22
b b2 ab b
2
R = c (
+
+
)
44
2a 4ab 4a 2 ar
R = g i j Ri j
R=
b b2
ab 2b 2a 2
2
+
2 + 2 2
2
2
ab 2ab 2a b abr a r ar r
: )9 #( 7 :#> L &C 67! , :!4 (J
b b2 ab a
=0
2b 4b 2 4ab ar
rb ra 1
+ 1 = 0
2ab 2a 2 a
b b2 ab b
+
+
=0
2a 4ab 4a 2 ar
ab + ab = 0
@
( 4 ) a .b = O
109
lim a 1
r
lim b 1
r
ab = 1
rb ra 1
!@ b 6& + 1 = 0
2ab 2a 2 a
! L%
) ra = a (1 a
=a
b = 1 2m
dr
2m
= ds
+ r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2 c 2 (1 )dt 2
2m
r
1
r
2
GM
c2
)9! -
=m
(J G@ 0) X : O, & >:6 MG c)< :e (J > ,> (:
II
GM
6@ 0)X
c2
= : L%! m
2GM
2
c r
2GM
! b = 0 O
c2
= r = 2m
24
= 5.9742 10
m3
O,
kgs 2
m
)< :e
s
G = 6.67428 1011
b = 1
110
111
GM
c2
: >&Y@ 0I
= (J m< (7
2
R = b b 2 ab2 + 2b 2a2 + 2 2 22
ab 2ab 2a b abr a r ar r
:G >,
4m
3
R=+
m2
6.8 10 23 1
=r
112
82r
:4 < :G Z B7 & L, B7>[ <#( 6 >Y)J
[( ) C B7 <JY LI< B7 :G Z> LI >_ 6
& (J L,@ [( . >Y)J ) M[( )G > X) M B7
I) : <#:M ( ( & 6 @ [( C:G ZG
>=) > C >> (J@ e9 (
.G :I &Y 6G
: <# G.
! CeI) a b 6@ 0) . Z#! .).LJ:#
1
1 2m r
r
=a
b = 1 2m
m
)r ( r 2 m
111 =
1
r
1
3
13
=
r
2
12
=
m
) r ( r 2m
4
14
=
)122 = (r 2m
323 = cot
133 = (r 2m)sin 2
2
33
= sin cos
mc 2
) = 3 ( r 2m
r
1
44
113
j
k
d 2 xi
i dx dx = 0
+
jk ds ds
ds 2
:LG7 @ C ,>
d 2r
d 2
m
dr 2
d 2 mc 2 dt 2
2
( ) (r 2m) ( ) + sin ( ) 3 ( ) = 0
2
r (r 2m) ds
ds
r ds
ds
ds
d 2 2 dr d
d
+
sin cos ( ) 2 = 0
2
ds
r ds ds
ds
d 2 2 dr d
d d
+
+ 2 cot
=0
2
ds
r ds ds
ds ds
d 2t
2m
dr dt
+
=0
2
ds
r (r 2m) ds ds
ds =
2
dr
1
2m
+ r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 c 2 (1
2m 2
)dt
r
r
<( J =
d 2 2 dr d
+
=0
ds 2 r ds ds
d 2t
2m
dr dt
+
=0
2
ds
r (r 2m) ds ds
r
dr
d
c2
dt
( ) 2 + r 2 ( ) 2 (r 2m)( )2 = 1
r 2m ds
ds
r
ds
d
= 0 :G)
ds
114
d
d
w=
6Y)9 6) @9!
ds
ds
dw 2
+ w=0
dr r
dv
2m
+
=0
dr r (r 2m)
:,>
r
dr
d
c2
dt
dt
( ) 2 + r 2 ( ) 2 (r 2m)( )2 = 1 ( &J
r 2m ds
ds
r
ds
ds
(
d
Ce!
ds
dr 2 2
2m
) + 3 ( r 2 m) = 1 + c 2 2
ds
r
r
d
=
ds r 2
dr 2 2
2m 2m 2
2 2
)
+
=
1
+
c
+ 3
r 2 d
r2
r
r
1
Ce!
r
du 2
1 + c 2 2 2m
2
( ) +u =
2 u + 2mu 3
2
d
: #> & 0@ 6 I
d 2u
m
+ u = 2 + 3mu 2
2
d
115
d 2u
GM
+u = 2
2
d
h
(J@ 0& M
: , :
d
=h
dt
r2
d
=
& ( 7 @ 0&< (J> <#&< ( &<
ds r 2
d
=
:M NJ D@ ds = icdt&
ds r 2
= w( 7 @ 0&:
d
= ic
dt
r2
d 2u
m
@ h = ic %& + u = 2 + 3mu 2
2
d
@ :LG7
d 2u
mc 2
+ u = 2 + 3mu 2
2
d
h
= .m
mc 2
! 3mu 2 <#
h2
#:
3h 2u 2 3 2 2
= 2r
c2
c
r( & L)< # X > Z%) 6 6 >=: #7
48 :) (J`! @ 0> 4 #( 4 7.7 108 0)V .
d 2u
GM
: & G+ u = 2 G
2
d
h
::
116
u=
h2
{1 + e cos( )}
:X )0@( J
d 2u
mc 2
+
u
=
+ 3mu 2 << &#> 6< , &< >:, :,@
2
2
d
h
: : >=) >
3mu 2 =
3m 2
2
{1 + e cos( )}
4
h
:>&
d 2u
3m 2
2
+
=
+ 4 {1 + e cos( )}
u
2
2
d
h
h
: &0@ :
u=
3m e
1 + e cos( ) + 2 sin( )
h
h
I ( M! : u =
h2
h2
3m
h2
{1 + e cos( )}
O< &< ( #> ( !_ M 0@ # e< XI!
X 6( GG D!G M, Q X e< XI! I :%< G9;
. (Y)
117
3m
3 2
3
=
= 2
2
2 2
h
ch
cl
:X )0@( J
= GM sun
l=
3
3
11 m
30
20 m
= 6.67 10
(1.99 10 kg ) = 1.327 10
kgs 2
s2
h2
h=
(1 e ) a
2
= 2
=
3GM
6 GM
= 2
2
h
c (1 e2 ) a
c2
6 GM
c 2 (1 e2 ) a
:X Z:G
(:) XI )B7 : X ) X4 %!
a = 5.79 1010 m
e = 0.206
c = 299 792 458
m
s
:e)<
= 5.019775 10 7 radian :
6!
360
( 2.0626 10
60 60 =
2
)
radian
#
( 2.0626 10 )
5
= 5.019775 10 7 radian
radian
= 0.10354
>#&X 88: >#Y
118
Y#:
365.25
0.10354 = 0.4297
88
X 43.0
M)8.3 0
3.8
119
)8
eJ (J .G)< : M
2m 2
)dt
r
+ r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 c 2 (1
dr
2m
= ds
2
r
CXI:e 9 (J 6XI! 6@ e9 )#I) : <# ds = 0@D
:> @ 0& (J L%9#:
d 2u
mc 2
+
u
=
+ 3mu 2
d 2
h2
=u
( ::
120
1
m
) cos + 2 ( 2 cos 2
R
R
=u
L::
@ 0& ! : 6:, I 4
@ (J D! @ &7 (:e:G
2m
R
cos =
2m
+
2 R
GM
(J@ 0)X
c2
= m:
4GM
c2 R
< B7
)< :e (J
O, & >:6
! )X4 %B7
M = 1.99 1030 kg
m
c = 299 792 458
s
3
11 m
G = 6.67 10
kgs 2
R = 6.95 108 m
121
m3
1.99 1030 kg
kgs 2
4 6.67 10 11
8
299 792 458 6.95 10 m
s
122
+, : *'( )( '& !"# $ %
*'("*. /01' 2 ') % :9 (*. 567"*. % ') +, !"# $
& < ) <."6 < 0 . + %@ "*0 7*
. ) %++9D )*G7 @ " $ :"*0 I ,L.
" "." M).
" P 0 7& " M" + % N0" " .S
" )" G .". S9. " )" ) 00 :T N)* :M" "
<"+ ) <!"V6M (<'$0X N0"V "D7 00 , " @S90
$ ) N0 !"VL0 ".M) N0"V G, <S7 .". " /
L0 ".M . *'S0
"6 7
"6 S7
123
ds
2
) ds 2 = gii ( dx i
x4
) C
ic
@:D
ds 2 = g 44 ( dx 2 ) = c 2 g 44 dt 2
2
(J@ 0) x4 tci X )9 X s( t< M (J 6> x1 ) XI x2 (x3
(:
s = ic g 44 dt
(J@ 0) s X D dsJ 6 6> 6 6 6G_ #)C
s
Q
ic
T = g 44 dt
LI, &Y (J 6@ 0 g44 Z# ,:> (# 6(:
2
c2
124
g 44 = 1 +
@:D
2
dt
c2
dT = 1 +
!7 X% 6 &) <#& 9 M> ( > )c> !7
:X X% 6 67 6> (J 6 6!G9 6#< . ! O@0
9 M> dT 1 2 , (J (# LI 6@ 6 dt1 dt 20
2
> Z#< M .6 6)dt <X
c2
: L%! dT = 1 +
21
2
dt1 = 1 + 2 2 dt2
2
c
c
dT = 1 +
: L%! .
22
dt1
c2
=
dt2
2
1 + 21
c
1+
125
ta ta = t t ta t = ta t
b b
b
b
6@ 0) X e @@ @ 0@ (J@ 0> <XI 6 LI#G @ 0> <XI#
9 M> @@ L 6 6@ 6 Z# <#:: (JG : @ ! #9
1 2@@ :X @ 0@ (J 6@ 0> <XI:
2
1 + 21
1
c
=
2
2
1+ 22
c
2
2 2
V
1 + 2 1 1 + 2 1 1 + 21
c
c
c
22
c 2 1 + 1 2
1
c2 c2
1
22 2
2
21
1+ 2 1 2
1+ 2
22
c
c
c
1+ 2
1+
1
= 1+ 1 2 2
2
c
21
c4
126
G = 6.67 1011
m
s
( J :e)<
m3
kgs 2
M s = 1.99 1030 kg
B7) X4 %!
R s = 6.95 108 m
<
M e = 5.97 1024 kg
) X4 %!
R e = 6356000m
GM
)0 &. ; !XI> 0@ 6 G LI>
R
GM e
= 6.27 107
Re
e
= 1 + e 2 s 1 1.00000212
GM s
s
2
c
=
= 1.907 1011
Rs
e =
s
127
W
` 8!
> (J Q@ L%9 (J LI< : J _>#! .&; LI!7 .6&; LI
!7 R = 0 6 &; ; < ,>:>( eJ (J J 6G 2 = 0
! > &; LI N) <G:: ) J 6G :G @ 0 `
<G:: L V :: (J:G( (J@ 0< ! 6<
>=)< > <#&< <JG C&; :: ) (J) 2 = 4 G (poisson@ 0& G
O, :> (!:G 6 .(<J`G
Z, :G >:# (7# >:# )9%
:% &; LI
>:# > Z :>:# ; T <4X )V 6G# 6>:# ; T )V
C>:# R )V
R = kT
(J@ 0) k <X O &< L# #& & # BN) MJ( .
> ( 6G> 6@ 0) X( M
=0
(J T MG .X#
>=)
e9 :I M) : (J k <4 D@ J@ 0) <X)V 6G
> (JMG .X#
(J> )! > X <I!(G
1
R Rg = 0
2
128
D
dx
A = A
ds
ds
:
1
R Rg = kT
2
=
g g
if
if
= 11 + 22 + 33 + 44 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
: &;0@ L%!
1
g R Rg g = kg T
2
R (1 + 1 + 1 + 1) R = kT R = kT
2
129
R = kT
1
) R = k (T 1 g T
2
_! 6@ 0&;:
(J -1 T = 0 %@ 0&; :% R = 0 @ 0> , <JGC
R = 0
R Rg + g = kT
2
1
m2
>=) 6
(J < 1050 !: 6G
@ `.O
)Y> @ 0): L%! g (J <X
R = kT + 4
130
) R = g k (T 1 g T
2
k
=
2.073
10
kg.m
c4
=k
131
2
82
& 1
8
L4 > G)=> !:G< > #& LeJ ! >=) :! 7> >
& !: 6G!M ; I)=! 6< > <#&<.
! 6&< :: (J 2 = 4 G@ 0& J`G ( < J)VM 6
) )9! . (t M @ ) Z4: (J 4> <XIeJ : > )c)
; 6G :G (J @ 0> <XI ; ! : (J = a + b + c 2 + d 3 + ... :@
# 9 (Je9 [4 6> <XI ) ) )M > . <XI :<
(:
2
3
= G 2
d
&; !:) 6 ! (
d
4
3
= GM
R
R2
132
M
d 2R
R = 2 <X )0@( J
h
dt
R (t )
2
G
3
2
3
= G 2 :,
1
6
2
= 4 GR + 1 c 2 R R
= GM + c R
R
3
3
R2
3
GM c 2 R
.& C( LG 6 0) e )@ 2 R (J R = 2 +
&6J) )e!
R
: L%!
2 R 2
= R 2
= 2 RR = ( R ) 2 RR
R R
( )
2GM c 2 R 2 2
R 2 =
+
kc
R
3
2 X )0@( J
: &0@ L%! C = 2GM > Y)J LG O kc
C c2 2 2
R 2 = +
R kc
R
3
133
1&
) :# )< )Q! @
k = 0 k = 1 < )0@( J
ds 2 = c 2 dt 2
R 2 (t ) 2
dr R 2 (t )r 2 d 2 R 2 (t )r 2 sin 2 d 2
2
1 kr
G = R Rg + g = kT
2
1 kr 2
2 R 2 (t )
B = g 22 = R 2 (t )r 2
1
2 R (t )r 2
C = g 33 = R 2 (t )r 2 sin 2
1
2 R (t )r 2 sin 2
A = g11 =
R 2 (t )
1 kr 2
D = g 44 = c 2
1
2c 2
134
2 +
11
22
33
2
2 2
g
g
g
Rc
Rc
R
G44
3R 2 3k
=
+
g 44
R 2c 2 R 2
0@( J
D@ G = 0
O!
G =
8 G
T
c4
2R
R 2
k
+
+ 2 =0
2
2 2
Rc
Rc
R
)9 P Ve< 4 8 GP
: &< 0@( J 6) X
4
c
R 2
k 8 G
+ 2 =
2 2
Rc
R
3
3c 2
R
3
3
: L%! R 3 (J
R 2
k 8 G
+ 2 =
&6J) )e!
2 2
Rc
R
3
3c 2
c R
8 G 3
R 2 R + kc 2 R
=
R
3
3
135
+ R 3 + kc 2 R c 2 RR
I )X )## 2
2 RRR
2
!)e ) 6J& 2 (J 2 R + R + k = 0
L%! RR
2
2 2
2
Rc
Rc
2R
R 2
k
+ R 3 + kc 2 R c 2 RR
2 =0
+
+ 2 = 0 2 RRR
2
2 2
Rc
Rc
R
8 G 3
6G ! _># LY9)R X
3
# )9 G L@ 0) X#
O` C L:
8 G 3
8 G 3
R =0
R =C
3
3
>&Y@ 0> ,
R 2
k 8 G
8 G 3
= + 2
(J&
R =C
2 2
2
Rc
R
3
3c
3
!: L%
C c 2 R 2
R 2 = +
kc 2
R
3
@ 0( &< [)9 <4I 4 >G 6> 6>=)< :! 7>< )=! 6<
> <#&< .` L@ 0& > <#&< (J>: " V" )):# )
L@ 0&< ,! (J Q 6G)&< % &) @0
>#> %
&< ::! (J . )J > !_ :G <I 6G> 6@ 0&<
L C>: :! 7>(.
@ D 6GI! <#_ @
136
137
138
139
1
\
::X# 0@ 6 L
)< :X
Hyperbolic Paraboloid
(:@ JG .#,
Paraboloid
JG .#,
z=
(x
2
+ y2 )
z=
1
2
(x
y2 )
:-2
^
:( )< 0@ L:
x = r cos
y = r sin
:
x = r cos dx = cos dr + r sin d
y = r sin dy = sin dr r cos d
2
2
a
ar 2
z = ( r cos ) + ( r sin ) =
dz = ardr
2
2
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ds 2 = (1 + a 2 r 2 ) dr 2 + r 2 d 2
140
:,
8
D9
-2
^
a
2
2
( r + ) + ( r ) z = 2ar dz = 2a dr + 2ard
2
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ds 2 = ( 2 + 4a 2 2 ) dr 2 + 8ar drd + ( 2 + 4a 2 r 2 ) d 2
141
2
\
:LG7 @ JG .#,&<
z = a ( x2 + y 2 )
1
g11 =
2 2
g11 = 1 + a r
g 22 = r
g 21 = g12 = 0
111 =
1 g11
a2r
1
11
=
2 g11 r
1 + a 2r 2
112 =
1 g11
1
12
= 121 = 0
2 g11
1 g 22
r
122 =
2 g11 r
1 + a 2r 2
1 g11
2
2
11
=
11
=0
2 g 22
122 =
2
12
=
1 g 22
1
2
2
12
= 21
=
2 g 22 r
r
222 =
1 g 22
222 = 0
2 g 22
g 22 =
1 + a 2r 2
1
r2
g 21 = g12 = 0
142
11
12 +2 1 +2 2 2 1 2 2
21
11
22
11
11
12
21
12
R1212 = g 22
R1212 = g 22
R1212 = g 22
12
1 2 2
+22111
21 12
r
2 2
2
12
a2 1 = a r
2 1
2 R
=
r
+
+22111122112
1212
2
r
1+a 2r 2 r 2 1 + a 2 r 2
r
1 a2r 2
a2
=
2
2 2
2 2
r 1+ a r 1+ a r
R11 = g 22 R1212 =
2 2
a2r 2
a r
=
2 2
2 2
1 + a r 1 + a r 1 + a 2r 2
R22 = g11R1212 =
ij
11
22
R = g Ri j = g R11 + g R22
2
1 a 2r 2
1
a
=
+
2 2
2 2 2
1 + a r 1 + a r r 1 + a 2 r 2
R=
2a 2
=
2
1 + a 2r 2
2a 2
(1 + a2r 2 )
12
1 11
r s
r
K=
+ 11
r 2 12
rs1 g s 2
g
r
143
2
2
12
1 11
2
1
2
2 2
2 2
K=
+ 11112
12
11
+ 11
22 12
21 g 22
g
r
::
K=
2
12
2
1
1
a2
1
1 2
2 2
=
+
2 r2
r
K
11 12
12 21
2
2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2
r (1 + a r ) r
r (1 + a r ) r 1 + a r r
K=
a2
(1 + a2r 2 )
144
3
\
:LG7 @ G)<
ds 2 = dx 2 dy 2 dz 2 + e2ax dt 2
::X .O I a
.< )0@ )9% <9 LJ:# ). L Z# . :#> L &6 (# [!> .e9< @ 4X :#> L &67! LI &< 6 .e9 @ x(t ) (#:, &< -
x 4 = t x3 = z x 2 = y x1 = x :)9!
:() 9% <9 LJ:# ).
g11 = 1
g 22 = 1
g33 = 1
g 44
1 g 44
144 =
144 = ae2 ax
1
2 g11 x
1 g 44
4
4
14
=
14
= a
1
2 ax
2
g
x
44
=e
4
14
4
14
s
s
+ 4s 411
4s114
4
s
4 4
2
R11 = R141
= 4s114
= 4114 = a
4
R11 = R141
= a 2
1
R44 = R414
=
144
1
141
x
s
s
1
+ 1s1 44
1s 4 41
R44 = R414 =
1
R44 = R414
=
144
1
s
1s 4 41
=
( ae2 ax ) ( ae2ax )( a ) = a 2 e2 ax
x
1
R44 = R414
= a 2e2ax
144
1
4
144 41
145
:(#[!>
ij
1
2 2 ax
2
)( a e
) = 2a
2
ax
e
R = 2a 2
:e9< @ 4X :#> L&
gij
dxi dx j
=C
ds ds
d 2t
dt dx
2a
=0
2
ds ds
ds
2
d 2x
2 ax dt
( ae ) = 0
ds 2
ds
2
dxi dx j
dt dx
gij
= 1 (ae2 ax ) = 1
ds ds
ds ds
: =
2 a ( x x0 )
d
= a (1 + 2 ) ln(1 + 2 ) = 2a ( x x0 ) 1 + 2 = e
ds
1 + 2 = e
2 a ( x x0 )
dx
) 9!
ds
146
4
\
:LG7 @ G)<
ds 2 = a 2 (t )(dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ) + dt 2
::X
)9% <9 LJ:# ).
)9% <9 ( 7 :#> L&
e9( @ #[!>
:LJ:# ).
x 4 = t x3 = z x 2 = y x1 = x :)9!
g11 = a 2 (t )
g 22 = a 2 (t )
4
4
11
= 422 = 33
=
1 g11
1
4
4
4
(a 2 (t ))
11
= 22
= 33
=
4
2 g 44 x
2 t
g33 = a 2 (t )
g 44 = 1
2
3
= 34
=
114 = 24
1 g11
1
1
2
3
14
= 24
= 34
=
( a 2 (t ))
4
2
2 g11 x
a (t ) t
4
4
11
= 422 = 33
= aa
a
114 = 224 = 334 =
a
141
x
141141
4
1
R414
a a
a
= =
t a a
a
2
3
R1414 = R424
= R434
=
a
a
147
4
R141
4
11
x 4
4 1
11
14
R1414 =
a
( aa ) ( aa ) = aa + 2a 2
t
a
4
4
4
+ 2a 2
R141
= R242
= R343
= aa
2
3
R44 = R1414 + R424
+ R434
= 3
a
a
4
+ 2a 2
R11 = R141
= aa
2
+ 2a 2
R22 = R424
= aa
4
+ 2a 2
R33 = R343
= aa
:(#[!>
a 2
a
a
+ 2a ) 3 = 6 6
R = g R11 + g R22 + g R33 + g R44 = 2 ( aa
f
a
a a
11
22
33
44
a 2
a
R = 6 + 2
a a
:e9( @ #:,&<
j
i
d 2 xk
k dx dx
+ ij
=0
ds ds
ds 2
d 2t dx 2
+ aa( ) = 0
ds
ds 2
2
d t dy 2
+ aa( ) = 0
ds
ds 2
2
d t dz 2
+ aa( ) = 0
ds
ds 2
d 2 x a dt dx
+ (
)=0
ds 2 a ds ds
d 2 y a dt dy
+ (
)=0
ds 2 a ds ds
d 2 z a dt dz
+ (
)=0
ds 2 a ds ds
148
: t0 <= (J
dx dy dz
=
=
= 0 )7 @ O ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) <XI>( J e9( @ J
ds ds ds
:)#) X &; 6
d 2t
= 0 t = t0 + bs
ds 2
:6) X &; 6
x = x0
d 2x d 2 y d 2z
=
=
= 0 y = y0
ds 2 ds 2 ds 2
z = z0
149
5
\
:)
ds 2 = r 2 (d 2 + sin 2 d 2 )
:( e9 @ LJ:# ). 6&) )< )
x = x =
2
111 =
1 g11
111 = 0
2 g11 x1
112 =
1 g11
1
12
= 121 = 0
2
2 g11 x
122 =
1 g 22
122 = cos sin
1
2 g11 x
2
11
=
1 g11
2
11
=0
2
2 g 22 x
2
12
=
1 g 22
cos
2
12
= 221 =
= cot
1
2 g 22 x
sin
222 =
1 g 22
2
22
=0
2 g 22 x 2
g11 = r 2
2
2
g 22 = r sin
< )0@( J
150
2 2
11
12 +2 1 +2 2 2 1 2 2
21
11
22
11
11
12
21
12
2
x1
x
R1212 = g 22
cos
1
cos2
2
2
2
=
sin
(
) 22112
r
2
2
sin
sin sin
R1212 = r 2 sin 2
R1212 = r 2 sin 2
R11 = g 22 R1212 =
1
2
r sin
2
r 2 sin 2 = 1
R12 = R21 = 0
R22 = g11R1212 =
r 2 sin 2 = sin 2
e9 !> @ D@ ( e9 @ 7<
ij
R = g Ri j = g11R11 + g 22 R22 =
R=
1 +
r sin
2
sin 2 =
r2
r2
Rijkl =
1
( g g gil g jk )
r 2 ik jl
.< @ `X )0@ < I 6G( O 6 r <X )0@( J )
151
6
\
: 6 )l k j i L
G
Rl + Rl + Rl = 0
ijk
kij
jki
:
l
lij
s
Rl = ikj
+ lsj s l ij
ijk
ik
sk
k
x
x
:
R l + R l + Rl =
ijk
kij
jki
lij
l
l s
l s
ik
=
j k + sj ik sk ij
x
x
l
l
kj ki
+
+ lsi s lsj s
i
j
kj
ki
x
x
l
lji jk
+
+ l sji lsi s
i
sk
jk
x
x k
=0
152
7
\
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 dt 2 ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 dt 2
1
r
144 = e2( )
122 = re2
2
33
= sin cos
111 =
3
13
=
1
r
323 = cot
1
r
133 = r sin 2
144 = 0
122 = r
2
33
= sin cos
111 = 0
3
13
=
1
r
323 = cot
153
8
\
) :#)< )
dr
ds 2 = a 2 (t )
+ r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin 2 d 2 dt 2
2
1 kr
:< )0@( J
a 2 (t )
1 kr 2
g 22 = a 2 (t )r 2
x1 = r
g11 =
x2 =
x3 =
g 33 = a 2 (t )r 2 sin 2
x4 = t
g 44 = 1
:(
aa
1 kr 2
2
422 = aar
4
11
=
4
2 sin 2
33
= aar
2
3
141 = 114 = 242 = 24
= 343 = 34
=
122 = r (1 kr 2 )
133 = r (1 kr 2 ) sin 2
2
2
3
3
12
= 21
= 13
= 31
=
1
r
2
33
= sin cos
3
323 = 32
=
cos
= cot
sin
a
a
da
= a )< 0@ LJ:# ).
dt
154
aa + 2a 2 + 2k
1 kr 2
R22 = r 2 (aa + 2a 2 + 2k )
R33 = r 2 (aa + 2a 2 + 2k ) sin 2
R44 = 3
a
a
ij
6
(aa + a 2 + k )
a2
6
(aa + a 2 + k )
a2
67! :#>
1
2
1
aa + 2a 2 + 2k 1 a 2 6
( aa + a 2 + k )
11
2 11
1 kr 2
2 1 kr 2 a 2
2aa + a 2 + k
G11 =
1 kr 2
G = R11 g R =
1
2
= r 2 ( 2aa + a 2 + k )
G22 = R22 g 22 R = r 2 ( aa + 2a 2 + 2k )
G22
1
33
2 33
2
G = r ( 2aa + a 2 + k ) sin 2
1 2 2 6
( a r ) a 2 ( aa + a 2 + k )
2
G = R33 g R = r 2 ( aa + 2a 2 + 2k ) sin 2
33
1 2 2 2
6
a r sin ) 2 ( aa + a 2 + k )
(
2
a
155
1
2
G44 = R44 g 44 R =
G
44
3a 1
6
( 1) 2 ( aa + a 2 + k )
a 2
a
3a 2 3k
= 2 + 2
a
a
156
9
\
:LG7 @ eJ <)
ds 2 = e2 ( x ) dx 2 e2 ( x ) dt 2
d
( x) =
dx
g 22 = e2 ( x )
111 =
1 g11
111 =
2 g11 x
112 =
1 g11
112 = 121 = 0
2 g11 t
122 =
1 g 22
122 = e2( )
2 g11 x
2
11
=
1 g11
2
11
=0
2 g 22 t
2
12
=
1 g 22
2
2
12
= 21
=
2 g 22 x
222 =
1 g 22
222 = 0
2 g 22 t
d
( x) =
dx
2 2
11
12 +2 1 +2 2 2 1 2 2
21
11
22
11
11
12
21
12
x
t
R1212 = g 22
R1212 = e2 ( + 2 )
157
R11 = g 22 R1212 =
( e2 ( + 2 ) ) = + 2
R12 = R21 = 0
R22 = g11R1212 =
( e2 ( + 2 ) ) = e2( ) ( + 2 )
1
ij
R = g Ri j = g11R11 + g 22 R22 =
( + 2 ) e12 ( e2( ) ( + 2 ) )
R=0
158
10
\
1 2 1 2
dx + 2 dy
y2
y
<:@< 9%( G#97: <9% )< 0@&)
:L
g11 = g 22 =
1
y2
g12 = g12 = 0
x2 = y
111 =
1 g11
1
11
=0
2 g11 x1
2
11
=
1 g11
1
2
11
=
2
2 g 22 x
y
112 =
1 g11
1
1
12
=
2
2 g11 x
y
2
12
=
1 g 22
2
12
=0
1
2 g 22 x
122 =
222 =
x1 = x :)9!
1 g 22
122 = 0
1
2 g11 x
1 g 22
1
2
22
=
2
2 g 22 x
y
=0
ij
ds ds
ds 2
du i du j
gij
=C
ds ds
.O I< X )0@( J C
:(#:, &; ZG! LJ:# ). Z#
159
: x 2 = y
x1 = x
d 2 x 2 dx dy
=0
dt 2 y dt dt
d 2 x 2 dx dy
=0
dt 2 y dt dt
2
d 2 y 1 dx 1 dy
+
=0
dt 2 y dt y dt
dx 2 dy 2
+
= a2
2
( y(t ) ) dt dt
1
C >Y)J O I a2
::< 4I &< [:
:
dx
= F )9! t J)V < 6 y
dt
dx
dF 2 dy
dF
dy
=F
=(
)F
=2
ln F = ln y 2 + ln b ln F = ln by 2
dt
dt
y dt
F
y
F = by 2
dx
= by 2
dt
:<,>( &< ``< J :, @ Ce!
dy
2 4
2 2
dt + b y (t ) = a y (t )
ay0
a cosh at a 2 ( b 2 y 20 ) sinh at
160
dx
= by 2
dt
( by ) sinh at
+
a cosh at a ( b y ) sinh at
2
x(t ) = x0
.<< 4 x0
: L%! x(t ) y (t ) 6
sinh at =
cosh at =
a x x0
by0 y
by 2 0 ( x x0 ) a 2 b 2 y 2 0
by0 y
a2
( x x0 ) 2( x x0 ) 2 y 2 0 + y 2 = y 2 0
b
2
a2
a2
x x0 2 y 2 0 + y 2 = 2
b
b
.M)
x0 +
0
a2
a
y 20
2
M )
)X4 %! 0) 6 0@
b
b
161
\ 11
)- }8
(J ) 1949 : : ) (Kurt Godel L &; LI!7:G 6
@ :G 0.01!< (J)I (J .@ >: (!:G: >>
MG <IV >>( &: 6 ! (J <XI@ e9 @ ( ) # Z4)9#
.(Y
) >Y@ >: (J (!:G@ ` )X#! 6 >! D N) )< !< (J
> <# : Q (J> <# < &< Q9 . :4! 6> <#
.
! (J Q@ ` & )@ (Y >: > II &< ) O@ >:
:9 )9# 6 6G (YN@ @ >: (!:G (J <!GM9 .D9
<!G( @ !: )J .> (9G& ( C9 .> <#(
`> (J@ .Q
)< : eJ (J ( & @ LG7
e2 x 2
)dy dz 2 + 2e x dtdy
2
ds 2 = a 2 (dt 2 dx 2 +
ds 2 = g ij dxi dx j
g 13 dx1dx3 + g 31 dx3dx1 2 g 13 dx1dx3
@:D
162
2 g 13 = 2e x g 13 = e x
:
g11
g
gij = 12
g13
g14
g 21
g 22
g 23
g 24
g 41
1
0
g 42
gij = a 2
x
g 43
e
g 44
0
g31
g32
g33
g34
0
1
ex
0
e2 x
2
0
0
0
:D@
g=
a2
a 2e x
a2
a 2e x
0
2
a e2 x
2
0
a 8e 2 x
2
a2
g ij =
11
g
g12
13
g
g14
g 21
g 31
g 22
g 32
g 23
g 33
g 24
g 34
g 41
g 42
g 43
g 44
g11
g
= 12
g13
g14
g 21
g 22
g 23
g 24
g31
g32
g33
g34
g 41 1
g 42
1
g ij = 2 0 x
g 43
a 2e
0
g 44
0
1
0
0
2e x
0
2e2 x
0
0
0
2
13
e2 x
=
2
2
33
3
12
= e x
163
:D@ i = 1
Rij =
2
ij + 1ij tsi tjs
x
1
2e x x 2e x x 2e2 x 2 x 1
R = 2 1 + 2 e + 2 e 2 e = 2
a
a
a
a
a
R=
1
a2
164
e2 x 2
dy dz 2 + 2e x dtdy) : <)
2
ds 2 = dt 2 dx 2 +
e2
2 x
dy 2 dz 2 + 2e
2 x
dtdy
:< )0@( J
r0
0 2
T ij = u iu j : .&( @ J <4X :#> << J` 6 : . (J
< &, O G =
1
D@ . <)# u i u j < J`G :#>( @ J
2
8 Ga
. =
1
2a 2
165
:
)< .!7 6@ :LG7
dr
r 2 d 2 r 2 sin 2 d 2 + c 2 dt 2
2
1 kr
ds 2 =
(J<9%
dr
2
2
2
) = r (1 r )( r 1
d
x 2 + y 2 = 1
(J@ 0&< x y GM<.
2
O M :J: (J )#@ [ (,(
c
) c <X)< :e(.
!< ) (J@
166
167
,- *&*
:+*
' G
General Relativity Glossary
(M,! - ())
Dilation of time
Summation convention
Doppler effect
Compton effect
Parallel displacement
Fundamentalist
Even horizon
Agree posteriori
Agree priori
Aether
Coordinate
Coordinate surface
Gravitational red shift
Parallel transpotr
Big Bang
Torsion
Space warp
First fundamental form
Second fundamental form
Curvature
Geodesic curvature
Ricci curvature
Scalar curvature
Fitzgerald contraction
Contraction
Elliptic
Dimension
Bolyai
Evidence
6M #
C,< 49
))
:)
:
(:
J
),( & N 9
), L4 # 9
)
[
X#[
,[< )
: I![
.=& ,9!
:
e9 :X! e9 :
( LG7
(!` ( LG7
:I!>
(#: !>
(7!>
( :I !> ( I!>
)MJ I!
-I G!
(,
&
(:
<>
168
Affinity
Affine
Divergence
Lorentz transformation
Skew- symmetric
skew-symmetric
Gradient
Connection
Superposition
Quadratic
simultaneity
Synchronization
Synchronization of clocks
Gravitational acceleration
Rectification
Apriori cincept
Congruence
Mapping
Acceleration
Differential
Contradiction
Equivalence
Equivalence of mass
Mass Energy equivalence
Homology
Representation
Spherically symmetric
Contradiction
Consistency
Curvature tensor
Einsteins tensor
tensor
Levi-Civita tensor
Metric tensor
Gravitational constant
Cosmical constant
Black hole
(9
M>:
)c>< 9
)c>< 9
X)
Z)
&)
6M
6M
# 6M
, #
%
(4 :%
X
X
L,&
(Y9
:#>( J I
JG
<G JG
<4X< G JG
L
)GJ L`
) )c>
4>
:
[!>:#>
67! :#>
): :#>
( : :#>
):#>
, O
(!: O
: ZI
169
Wormhole
Gravity
Scalar product
Gravitational potential
Potential
Geodesic
Event
Bounded
Kinetic
Tensor calculus
Perihelion
Conservation
Gravitational field
Einstein field
Tensor field
Invariant field
Vector field
Field due to
Absurd statement
Property
World- line
Osculation circle
Kronecker delta
Curl
Ricci
Aberation of light
Velocity
Umbilical
Saddle surface
Catenoid
Helicoid
Pseudoplane
Pseudosphere
Electrical intensity
Magnetic intensity
Radiation
Sirius
ZI
<
(
,
:
0)I( #:
&4 -
)
:#> #
e
9
, LI
67! LI
:#> LI
)V ; LI
(, LI
) LI
:I& ; .G
:%
(
%)
)G! )
(7
:e !) :e
)
<)
() X
LG7( # X
(: X
9
0)
()G LI
(#>V LI
<&&
<!&)
170
Schwarzschild
Energy
Centrifugal
Axiomatic method
Phenomenon
Gravitational lens
Momentum
Christoffel symbols
Element
Defect
Graviton
Excess
Interval
Mass less
Space
Space time
Euclidean space
Riemannian space
Physical space
Non- Euclidean space
Absolute future
Ultra ideal
Hypersphere
Einsteins law of gravitation
Galilean law of inertia
Biot- Savart law
Force
Mass
Mass inertial
Massive mass
Galactic mass
Density
Quantum
Universe
Invariant
Infinite
Helix
M:
4
M) )
:Y: I)
)c
<,<
< < ). M
LJ:#): -LJ:# ).
4 L -)%>
%I! Z
:J)
J
J
<G 4J
eJ
G - eJ
4 eJ
(! eJ
(MJ eJ
4 ; eJ
X eJ
(` :J
0) :J
67! , :!4
:V X& :!4
: :!4
0:4
<
& G - <X&<
< Y <
<),<
J`
:!:G .
:
)V;
(; >
Z:
171
Absolute past
Principle of equivalence
General principle of relativity
Special principle of relativy
Machs principle
Curvature vector
Coaxial
Metric
Isogonal
Equidistance
Isoareal
Bianchi identity
Orthogonal
Variable
Isometric
Equivalent
Manifold
Controversial
paraboloid
Conform
Conformal
Local
Paradox
Contravariant
Light cone
Conoid
Orbit
Observer
Order
Component
Rectilinear
Flat
Postulate
Trajectory
Derivative
Assertion
Equation of continuity
X( Y
JG
&#>
#>
< [!>,
<)
M #
9 #
# #
(,!< IX
&
)V
BI
JG
Z&7 - :>
, )`
JG .#,
J
LG7 9 J
(
0)
)V
:e )
(! )
)c! Z4)
)
)%> )
.I#
X#
#
)#
7
4%
9&<
172
Tensor equation
Coexistence
Fallacy
Asymptotic
Parabolic
Discriminant
Curve rectifiable
Catenary
Minkowski
Covariant
Axiom
System
Ideal point
Model
Incidence geometry
Non-Euclidean geometry
Elliptic geometry
Affine geometry
Intrinstic geometry
Parabolic geometry
Pan - geometry
Spherical geometry
Absolute geometry
Hyperbolic geometry
Inertial frame
Existential
Unit
Parametric
:#>&
&
XV
I
JG
M
:X >( 6>
##>>(
(G#J :G>
)V J:
:Y:
!=
` XI!
:!
:4:><
<4>< ;
,>
9>
>
,>
: >
> )
IX>
:@>
L& C) LG
:
(& X
173
,- *&*
:+*
' G
General Relativity Glossary
(( )- M,!)
Aberation of light
Absolute future
Absolute geometry
Absolute past
Absurd statement
Acceleration
Aether
Affine
Affine geometry
Affinity
Agree posteriori
Agree priori
Apriori cincept
Assertion
Asymptotic
Axiom
Axiomatic method
Bianchi identity
Big Bang
Biot- Savart law
Black hole
Bolyai
Bounded
Catenary
Catenoid
Centrifugal
Christoffel symbols
Coaxial
Coexistence
174
Component
Compton effect
Conform
Conformal
Congruence
Connection
Conoid
Conservation
Consistency
Contraction
Contradiction
Contradiction
Contravariant
Controversial
Coordinate
Coordinate surface
Cosmical constant
Covariant
Curl
Curvature
Curvature tensor
Curvature vector
Curve rectifiable
Defect
Density
Derivative
Differential
Dilation of time
Dimension
Discriminant
Divergence
Doppler effect
Einstein field
Einsteins law of gravitation
Einsteins tensor
Electrical intensity
Element
)%> )
:)
J
LG7 9 J
X
X)
(! )
9
:
-I G!
:#>( J I
4>
)V
, )`
[
X#[
(!: O
)V J:
:I!>
[!>:#>
< [!>,
:X >( 6>
%I! Z
J`
7
(Y9
6M #
&
M
))
67! LI
67! , :!4
67! :#>
()G LI
4 L -)%>
175
Elliptic
Elliptic geometry
Energy
Equation of continuity
Equidistance
Equivalence
Equivalence of mass
Equivalent
Euclidean space
Even horizon
Event
Evidence
Excess
Existential
Fallacy
Field due to
First fundamental form
Fitzgerald contraction
Flat
Force
Fundamentalist
Galactic mass
Galilean law of inertia
General principle of relativity
Geodesic
Geodesic curvature
Gradient
Gravitational acceleration
Gravitational constant
Gravitational field
Gravitational lens
Gravitational potential
Gravitational red shift
Graviton
Gravity
Helicoid
Helix
(,
,>
4
9&<
9 #
JG
<G JG
JG
4 eJ
J
&4 -
<>
J
:
XV
) LI
( LG7
)MJ I!
X#
0:4
(:
<),<
:V X& :!4
&#>
0)I( #:
(#: !>
, #
, O
, LI
<,<
,
,[< )
:J)
<
(: X
Z:
176
Homology
Hyperbolic geometry
Hypersphere
Ideal point
Incidence geometry
Inertial frame
Infinite
Interval
Intrinstic geometry
Invariant
Invariant field
Isoareal
Isogonal
Isometric
Kinetic
Kronecker delta
Levi-Civita tensor
Light cone
Local
Lorentz transformation
Machs principle
Magnetic intensity
Manifold
Mapping
Mass
Mass Energy equivalence
Mass inertial
Mass less
Massive mass
Metric
Metric tensor
Minkowski
Model
Momentum
Non- Euclidean space
Non-Euclidean geometry
Observer
L
:@>
0) :J
` XI!
:4:><
L& C) LG
(; >
J
>
)V;
)V ; LI
# #
M #
BI
)
)G! )
( : :#>
:e )
(
M>:
(#>V LI
Z&7 - :>
X
<
<4X< G JG
& G - <X&<
<G 4J
< Y <
<)
):#>
(G#J :G>
:!
< < ). M
4 ; eJ
<4>< ;
)c! Z4)
177
Orbit
Order
Orthogonal
Osculation circle
Pan - geometry
Parabolic
Parabolic geometry
paraboloid
Paradox
Parallel displacement
Parallel transpotr
Parametric
Perihelion
Phenomenon
Physical space
Postulate
Potential
Principle of equivalence
Property
Pseudoplane
Pseudosphere
Quadratic
Quantum
Radiation
Rectification
Rectilinear
Representation
Ricci
Ricci curvature
Riemannian space
Saddle surface
Scalar curvature
Scalar product
Schwarzschild
Second fundamental form
simultaneity
Sirius
)
&
%)
: >
JG
,>
JG .#,
0)
:
: I![
(& X
e
)c
(MJ eJ
#
:
JG
:%
9
0)
&)
:!:G .
<&&
%
.I#
)GJ L`
(7
(7!>
(! eJ
() X
( :I !> ( I!>
(
M:
(!` ( LG7
6M
<!&)
178
Skew- symmetric
skew-symmetric
Space
Space time
Space warp
Special principle of relativy
Spherical geometry
Spherically symmetric
Summation convention
Superposition
Synchronization
Synchronization of clocks
System
tensor
Tensor calculus
Tensor equation
Tensor field
Torsion
Trajectory
Ultra ideal
Umbilical
Unit
Universe
Variable
Vector field
Velocity
World- line
Wormhole
)c>< 9
)c>< 9
eJ
G - eJ
e9 :X! e9 :
#>
> )
) )c>
C,< 49
Z)
6M
# 6M
!=
): :#>
:#> #
:#>&
:#> LI
:
)#
(` :J
<)
:
)V
(, LI
)
(
ZI
179
1973 "! #$ -
. 789 :;<= 1- . ( 1 -12 "- -. )(' * )
. ? ' . ( 1 -12 "- -. )(' ; )
1979 B$$ B)< ) C! A BC;2-" D
!)! =! J 7 K <:G HI 1 C' -);! 2-; 1"
1999 C.-
.! : ! D N M N#) #
. - '-) 1.-) 1 -( U
180
181
*9
3-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
*)
'&11---------------------------------------------------------------------------- %
) (!G & .< (JM13----------------------------------------- 6 ) (!G & . (JG 13 --------------------------------------
*89
*&*2&
, 16--------------------------------------------------------------------
*&*
*+&
:+ 18---------------------------------------------------------
M 6< !=) :X:J 18--------------------------------------------- M 6< !=) !:20--------------------------------------------------------- 6 M 6< !=) >20-------------------------------------------------------- B M 6< !=) !21--------------------------------------------------------- O M (J>=) >23----------------------------------------------------------- # -M )=! (J< 24--------------------------------------------------------------- . G
9
27 -------------------------------------------------------------------------
8
D9
29 ----------------------------------------------------------
> (Je9 & 9 . e4 > @31----------------------------------------------- : ( Y ) 31-------------------------------------------------------------- ( Y ;) 31------------------------------------------------------------- !%I #< 32-------------------------------------------------------------------- < : 34---------------------------------------------------------------------- & e4 >< @36------------------------------------------------------- <: !: )( 39------------------------------------------------------------- 6
h 43----------------------------------------------------------------------------
: ( >)=! O< >43----------------------------------------------- # -:9 ) (J Z4>44----------------------------------------------------------- <#
182
:X# !57 ------------------------------------------------------------------ &>) >=)< :X# 60-------------------------------------------------- & ; ) Y>:# 62----------------------------------------------- LG7( 65-------------------------------------------------------- X# LG7( `!( 66-------------------------------------------------------- X# !> 68---------------------------------------------------------------------- #< 71---------------------------------------------------------------------- X# : :4 >>( 71------------------------------------------------------------------ [!> :,72----------------------------------------------------------------- (# :,73------------------------------------------------------------------------- (# Y > #& 74------------------------------------------------------------- !I : 78-------------------------------------------------------------------- >:# !> )80--------------------------------------------------- LJ:# & .&; > <#&< 83---------------------------------------------------- L (J Q L#> <#&< 84----------------------------------
)) L !: ) (Y > <#&< 6G IX: 86----------------------- :G:93---------------------------------------------------------------- :: .9 .)< )=! (J< > <#&< 95------------------------------------------ :!4 , !7104------------------------------------------------------------ 6 L: M 106------------------------------------------------------------------
:G112--------------------------------------------------------------------- Z -!) )#:e 119-------------------------------------------------------------
183
122-------------------------------------------------------------------- $%# ! 127--------------------------------------------------- (%( 131------------------------------------------------------------------- 137--------------------------------------------------------------------------- )*+%, $ !"#
)( +( 167------
$ !"#
)+ ((173 ------
184
www.jalalalhajabed.com
: "! # $
jalal.alhajabed@hotmail.com
jalal.alhajabed@yahoo.com