Nothing lasts forever.

To many of us, forever is

our life span, which can vary widely among indi-
viduals. The permanence of inanimate objects
also varies in absolute time and importance. For
example, commercial communication satellites
are expensive to fabricate, difcult to deploy and
generally inaccessible for repair, so it is impor-
tant that they function properly for a long time.
Replacement valves and pacemakers for human
hearts can be replaced or repaired, but not with-
out considerable risk to the recipient. Equipment
sent to the remote research stations of
Antarctica is expected to stand up to harsh con-
ditions. Buildings, bridges and monuments are
also built to endure, but they have nite life-
times. Intelligent completions, which combine
production monitoring and control, are becoming
more common, and require reliable downhole
gauges and ow-control valves.
1
Downhole equipment in the oil eld also
must stand the test of time. The productive life
of an oil or gas well may be 10 or more years, so
permanent downhole equipment must last at
least that long to satisfy operators expectations.
Because it is impractical to conduct equipment
tests of such long duration, reliability engineer-
ing and failure testing have become mainstays of
those people who develop permanent monitoring
systems. The result has been an impressive
reliability track record for permanent monitoring
installations worldwide.
In this article, we begin by examining the
challenges in permanent monitoring. Next, we
consider how engineers develop robust perma-
nent gauges to provide a continuous stream of
data for the life of a well. Finally, we present
examples that demonstrate how the use of per-
manent gauges adds value by helping to optimize
production and forewarning operators of prob-
lems so that preventive or corrective action can
be taken.
FloWatcher, NODAL, PQG (Permanent Quartz Gauge),
PressureWatch, PumpWatcher, Sapphire and WellWatcher
are marks of Schlumberger.
1. For more on ow-control aspects of intelligent
completions: Algeroy J, Morris AJ, Stracke M,
Auzerais F, Bryant I, Raghuraman B, Rathnasingham R,
Davies J, Gai H, Johannessen O, Malde O, Toekje J
and Newberry P: Controlling Reservoirs from Afar,
Oileld Review 11, no. 3 (Autumn 1999): 18-29.
20 Oileld Review
Downhole Monitoring: The Story So Far
Joseph Eck
Houston, Texas, USA
Ufuoma Ewherido
Jafar Mohammed
Rotimi Ogunlowo
Mobil Producing Nigeria Unlimited
Lagos, Nigeria
John Ford
Amerada Hess Corporation
Houston, Texas
Leigh Fry
Shell Offshore, Inc.
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Stphane Hiron
Leo Osugo
Sam Simonian
Clamart, France
Tony Oyewole
Lagos, Nigeria
Tony Veneruso
Rosharon, Texas
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Franois
Auzerais, Michel Brard, Jean-Pierre Delhomme, Josiane
Magnoux, Jean-Claude Ostiz and Lorne Simmons, Clamart,
France; Larry Bernard and David Lee, Sugar Land, Texas,
USA; Richard Dolan and Brad Fowler, Amerada Hess
Corporation, Houston, Texas; David Rossi and Gerald Smith,
Houston, Texas; John Gaskell, Aberdeen, Scotland; and
Younes Jalali and Mike Johnson, Rosharon, Texas.
We thank Philip Hall, Chief Executive of The Sir Henry
Royce Memorial Foundation, for information about Sir
Henry Royces bumping test machine.
Reservoir monitoring requires dependable downhole data-acquisition systems.
Products based on sound reliability engineering and failure testing, essential to
building durable permanent monitoring systems, are responsible for an impressive
track record for permanent gauge installations worldwide. Gauges supply data
useful for both short-term troubleshooting and for long-term development planning.
Winter 1999/2000 21
Challenges in Permanent Monitoring
From the perspective of reliability, permanent
downhole gauges used in oil and gas wells are
similar to commercial communication satellites,
although other industries, such as the automotive
industry, confront similar reliability challenges.
Each system must endure a long life under harsh
environmental conditions. Once in place, the
devices are not routinely repaired, replaced or
recovered. Parts may never return to surface for
lab analysis of what worked and what didnt; it is
difcult to determine what failed without retriev-
ing and examining a malfunctioning device.
A typical approach to these challenges is to
include redundant components in the hope that
if one part fails, its backup will function. When
used wisely, redundant designs can improve reli-
ability signicantly. However, in both downhole
gauges and satellites, redundant components
occupy valuable, limited space and consume
precious power. Common failure modes must be
avoided when specifying redundant components.
For example, if a particular component is prone
to failure in a particular environment, its backup
part should be made from different material so
that it too wont fail under the same conditions.
The annals of aviation include numerous episodes
of common-failure-mode disasters. Charles
Lindbergh undertook a transatlantic ight in the
single-engine Spirit of Saint Louis in 1927 only
after careful study convinced him that the lack of
backup systems would not put him at risk.
2
In addition to fabricating durable permanent
downhole equipment, engineers and designers
work together to address the complexity of
equipment installation and conditions at the
wellsite. Competent eld engineers and robust
equipment are both essential for reliability. For
example, it is difcult to maintain a high level of
manual dexterity for hours at a time in an icy
downpour or a erce wind. It is important for the
eld crew to install a monitoring system using
well-designed installation tools that ensure
installation consistency, especially in remote
locations. Simplifying the installation process as
much as possible also improves success rates.
Early failure of permanent monitoring systems
decreases when a well-prepared crew performs
the installation with familiar tools.
Operators have used permanent downhole
pressure gauges since the 1960s.
3
The vast body
of experience is paying off in the latest genera-
tion of gauges, for which statistically valid relia-
bility data are now available. There are now
thousands of gauges deployed worldwide, over
800 of which have been installed by Schlumberger
since 1973 (above and next page, top). A signi-
cant increase in installations occurred after a
new generation of more reliable gauges was
developed in the early 1990s.
22 Oileld Review
Metal-to-metal sealed
cable head
Hermetically sealed
welded housing
Cable driver and
fault-tolerant regulator
Digital pressure,
temperature and self-test
1
1
0
1
0
Quartz crystal resonators
to measure temperature
and pressure
Protection bellows
P/T
Pressure connection
Gland radial
connection
Autoclave axial
connection
or
1
/4-in. encased cable
>
Permanent downhole pressure guage. This
PQG Permanent Quartz Gauge system measures
pressure and temperature using quartz crystal
resonators.
1973 First permanent
downhole gauge installation
in West Africa, based on
wireline logging cable and
equipment
D
e
p
e
n
d
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
1975 First pressure and
temperature transmitter on
a single wireline cable
1978 First subsea
installations in North Sea
and West Africa
1983 First subsea
installation with acoustic
data transmission to surface
1986 Fully welded metal
tubing-encased permanent
downhole cable
<
Schlumberger milestones in permanent monitoring. Incremental improvements in dependabilitythat is, reliable
delivery of high-quality measurementsof permanent gauges are shown qualitatively by the time line below.
2. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/lindbergh/timeline/
index.html
3. Nestlerode WA: The Use of Pressure Data From
Permanently Installed Bottom Hole Pressure Gauges,
paper SPE 590, presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain
Joint Regional Meeting, Denver, Colorado, USA,
May 27-28, 1963.
4. For more on permanent downhole pressure gauge hard-
ware: Baker A, Gaskell J, Jeffrey J, Thomas A, Veneruso
T and Unneland T: Permanent MonitoringLooking at
Lifetime Reservoir Dynamics, Oileld Review 7, no. 4
(Winter 1995): 32-46.
Winter 1999/2000 23
Dependability, the Sine Qua Non
A basic permanent downhole gauge consists of
sensors to measure pressure and temperature,
electronics and a housing (previous page, right).
4
A mandrel on the production tubing holds the
gauge in place. A cable, enclosed in a protective
metal tube, is clamped onto the tubing. The cable
connects the gauge to the wellhead and then to
surface equipment, such as a computer or control
system. Because acquiring and transmitting good
data depend on proper functioning of each part,
such systems are only as reliable as their weak-
est component.
A complete monitoring and communication
system, such as the WellWatcher system, han-
dles diverse sensors, including a FloWatcher
sensor to measure ow rate and uid density,
a PumpWatcher sensor to monitor an electric
submersible pump and a PressureWatch gauge
to measure pressure and temperature (below).
Surface sensors measure multiphase ow rate
and pressure and detect sand production. In
addition to surface controls for valves and
chokes, there is a computer to gather data, which
Surface sensors and controls
Multiphase flow rate
Valve and choke control
Pressure measurements
Sand detection
Permanent downhole sensors
FloWatcher sensor
to monitor flow rate
and density
PumpWatcher sensor
to monitor electric
submersible pump
PressureWatch gauges
to measure pressure
and temperature
Host server and database
Data-retrieval and
communications software
Integrated
applications
>
A complete permanent monitoring system for measuring pressure, temperature, ow rate and uid density downhole. Surface sensors measure
ow rate and pressure. A data-retrieval and communications system facilitates data transfer to the ofce of the end user.
1986 Introduction of quartz
crystal permanent pressure
gauge in subsea well
1990 Fully supported copper
conductor in permanent
downhole cable
1993 New generation of
quartz and sapphire crystal
permanent gauges
1994 PQG Permanent Quartz
Gauge performance substant-
iated by gauge accreditation
program at BP. Start of long-
term lab testing
1994 FloWatcher installation
for mass flow-rate measurement
are stored at the wellsite or transmitted to the
ofce (below).
5
Permanent downhole systems must be
dependable throughout their lifetimesthey
must be reliable and stable. Dependability con-
jures different meanings for different people, but
is used in this article to refer to the combination
of reliability and stability. Reliability in the con-
text of downhole gauges refers to proper instal-
lation and ongoing delivery of data from the
gauge. It can be dened as the probability that
the gauge will perform as specied without fail-
ure for a certain amount of time under the
required environmental conditions.
Stability refers to the actual measurement.
Measurements from an unstable or excessively
drifting gauge might prove more troublesome to
an oileld operator than outright failure of the
gauge. It is important to know whether gradual
variation in a measurement with time indicates
an actual change in the reservoir or reects a
drift problem with the measuring device.
To ensure a dependable product, it is essen-
tial to maintain strict quality control throughout
the entire engineering process. Quality is the
degree to which the product conforms to speci-
cations. To truly achieve world-class reliability
and stability entails systematic product develop-
ment and qualication testing, use of qualied
components and proven design methods, strict
audits and tracking of generic parts, failure analy-
ses and consultation with industrial and academic
peers. Reliability and stability cannot be tested
into a product after it is built, but instead must be
considered throughout the entire process, from
design and production to installation.
The Road to Reliability
During the past 10 years, Schlumberger has
enhanced the dependability of its permanent
monitoring systems through improvements in
engineering and testing processes, system
design, risk analysis, training and installation
procedures (next page, top).
6
Like other tools and
systems developed by Schlumberger, permanent
gauge development follows a logical sequence of
engineering phases. Dependability concerns are
paramount during each phase.
The engineering phase begins with develop-
ment of a mission prole, or a verbal description
of the technical concept that serves as an engi-
neering framework. The mission prole denes
the role of each component and the environmen-
tal conditions components will encounter during
24 Oileld Review
WellWatcher
acquisition unit
Sensors
Automatic
data-
retrieval
server
Automatic data-
retrieval client
Central storage
Central storage
configuration
Archiving
database
ASCII files
Data browser
Data access library
Engineering
offices
H E L I K O P T E R S E R V
Wellsite Office
>
Data ow. Measurements are transmitted from the downhole device through the cable to surface. The surface data-acquisition unit can send data by
satellite to engineering ofces, where data are stored in a library for easy access.
Winter 1999/2000 25
their expected lifetime. All components of the
system are screened and qualied to withstand
the expected conditions. Accelerated destructive
tests subject components to conditions much
more extreme than expected over their lifetime,
such as greater mechanical shocks and vibrations
and higher-than-downhole temperatures and
pressures. This type of testing helps determine
failure causes and failure modes. Long-term test-
ing of the system enables engineers to validate
reliability models and quantify measurement
stability (below).
A drawback to accelerated testing is that
failure can occur simply because of the stressful
test procedure, and the test might not be a good
predictor of actual performance. It is impossible
to test everything, but it is important to test as
much as possible to increase condence that the
product will perform as required in commercial
operations. Feedback from eld engineers is a crit-
ically important complement to laboratory testing.
Product engineering
Mission profile and requirements
Prototype product design
Risk analysis and test plans
Components qualification testing
Reliability qualification testing
Technical reviews and audits
Sustaining, product improvement
Training and personnel development
Training with development and
field engineers
Well completions installation training
Performance evaluation and growth plan
Technique improvement
Project engineering
Reservoir engineering and production
requirements
Well completions design and
installation planning
Well construction, installation and
operation
Project improvement
Reliability and data quality
management
Collect field track records into database
Analyze results and feedback for
improvement
Review with operators, development and
field engineers
>Permanent monitoring system development. From the initial mission prole to failure analysis, collaboration between engineers, eld personnel and
operators contributes to continual improvements in permanent monitoring systems.
Permanent gauge stability test. This plot
of pressure versus time represents testing
of a PQG Permanent Quartz Gauge system at
elevated pressures and temperatures for more
than two years. The initial test conditions were
140C [284F] and 7000 psi [48.2 Mpa]. Testing
was then accelerated, with the temperature
increased to the maximum rated temperature
of 150C [302F], and then to 160C [320F] and
170C [338F], to make the gauge fail. Each
time the temperature was increased, there
was a brief period of measurement drift before
the gauge reached stability. The gauge drifted
less than 3 psi/yr [20 kPa/a]. During the test,
the gauge performed as expected, but the test
cell had to be repaired twice!
5. For a related article on data delivery in this issue: Brown T,
Burke T, Kletzky A, Haarstad I, Hensley J, Murchie S,
Purdy C and Ramasamy A: In-Time Data Delivery,
Oileld Review 11, no. 4 (Winter 1999): 34-55.
6. Veneruso AF, Sharma S, Vachon G, Hiron S, Bussear T
and Jennings S: Reliability in ICS* Intelligent
Completions Systems: A Systematic Approach from
Design to Deployment, paper OTC 8841, presented at
the 1998 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,
Texas, USA, May 4-7, 1998.
0
10,000
10,005
10,010
10,015
10,020
10,025
10,030
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
PQG
pressure reading
1 year 2 years
T
e
s
t

c
e
l
l

r
e
p
a
i
r
s
T
e
s
t

c
e
l
l

r
e
p
a
i
r
s
-3 psi/year drift
0 psi/year drift
Duration of testing, days
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
150C 160C 170C
PQG Stability Test at 10,000 psi
>
Tests for susceptibility to mechanical shock
and vibration, such as those expected during
transport and installation, are also performed.
7
These tests are similar in concept to those
developed by Sir Henry Royce, the engineer
behind the success of the Rolls-Royce auto-
mobile. By repeatedly bumping the car on an
apparatus that simulated bumps in a road,
Royce determined which parts of the chassis
were not strong enough and developed better
ones (right).
8
The changes included replacing
rivets with bolts and using a few large bolts
rather than many small ones.
In the system-design phase, engineers ensure
proper interfacing between the completion
components. Communication with completion
engineers and third-party vendors has resulted in
continual improvement in downhole cable con-
nections and protection of the system.
Both experts and end users provide input dur-
ing the development phase, as engineers perform
simulations and build mock-ups. Conducted fre-
quently, design reviews include eld personnel.
Design rules have been prepared to address the
need for low stress on components, minimal
external connections and other concerns.
Once the system is built and is ready for
installation, a specially trained crew reviews
detailed installation procedures and project
plans with operations personnel and third-party
vendors. Performance of the eld installation
crew plays an important role in system reliability,
so formal training programs for both system
design engineers and eld installation techni-
cians are conducted. Whenever possible, system
design engineers attempt to simplify installation
requirements because factors such as frigid
temperatures, gusty winds and long hours may
present additional challenges to the crew. A
design that allows fast, easy installation relieves
some of the burden on the field crew and
minimizes risk and rig time.
26 Oileld Review
> Torturing tools. By exposing an automobile chassis to repeated mechanical shocks (top), Sir Henry
Royce observed which parts were prone to failure and built better ones for Roll-Royce, beginning
around the turn of the last century. Today, highly specialized testing machines and accelerated test
techniques developed by Schlumberger verify the endurance of downhole equipment against
mechanical shocks (bottom).
7. Veneruso A, Hiron S, Bhavsar R and Bernard L:
Reliability Qualication Testing for Permanently
Installed Wellbore Equipment, abstract submitted to the
2000 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
to be held in Dallas, Texas, USA, October 1-4, 2000.
8. We thank Philip Hall for information about the bumping
test machine. Mr. Hall retired from Schlumberger after
22 years of service, both in the oileld and in electronics.
He is Chief Executive of The Sir Henry Royce Memorial
Foundation, The Hunt House, Paulerspury,
Northamptonshire, NN12 7NA, England.
Winter 1999/2000 27
Learning from Experience
If a permanent downhole gauge fails, engineers
analyze the circumstances and sometimes
attempt to reproduce the failure modes in the
engineering center or other testing facility. Failure
mechanisms are not random; in most cases there
are underlying causes at work that must be
uncovered, such as design problems, faulty mate-
rials or improper installation. Schlumberger has
established an on-line database to capture data
about system installations, including details
about environmental conditions, to identify any
patterns in failures (right). The database allows
statistical analysis of the data by region, operator,
environmental conditions and other operational
parameters. Careful analysis of the worldwide
database increases condence that the appropri-
ate lessons are learned from eld experiences
and helps focus efforts on possible areas of
improvement.
From August 1, 1987, to the present, the per-
formance of 712 permanent gauge installations
has been tracked. The oldest system is more than
16 years old, having been installed a few years
before the database was established. Analysis of
572 new-generation digital technology installa-
tions made since their introduction in March
1994 indicates that over 90% of these
PressureWatch Quartz and Sapphire systems
were still operating after 2.5 years (below). The
analysis, based on methods introduced by
> Permanent downhole gauge database. Careful tracking of each system enables analysis of
gauge performance. Comparison of environmental conditions helps teams prepare to install
gauges in new locations by learning from past experience in similar areas.
0
0.0 0.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 4.5 3.5 5.0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Operational life, years
S
u
r
v
i
v
a
l

p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,

%
Permanent gauge operating life. Since record-
keeping began in 1987, Schlumberger has installed
more than 700 permanent gauges worldwide.
Analysis of 572 new-generation digital technology
installations made since March 1994, shown by
the purple line, indicates that over 88% of these
PressureWatch Quartz and Sapphire systems
were still operating after 4 years. The lavender
trend line begins at 97% and decreases by 3%
per year, a higher failure rate than that of the
actual data. The photograph shows the production
facilities of the Baldpate eld, operated by
Amerada Hess.
>
Mltoft, helps reveal the key factors inuencing
the reliability of permanent monitoring systems
(above right).
9
The Mltoft method addresses a
systems actual operational time rather than its
calendar time, a key advantage when studying
eld installations over a long time period. The
method helps pinpoint areas for improvement in
system design and deployment.
Operating companies have independently
studied the reliability of permanent gauges.
10
Different manufacturers and operators measure
performance according to their own standards.
Schlumberger has chosen to focus on the whole
system rather than a single component because
it is vital that the entire system operate properly
and provide usable data.
Downhole to Desktop: Using the Data
After the equipment has survived the ordeal of
testing and installation, the real challenge begins
once a permanent monitoring system is placed
securely in a well. A system that takes a mea-
surement every second of the day produces over
31 million data points per year. Coping with the
volume of data from permanent monitoring
systems is an issue that operators and service
companies continue to address.
11
Some operators
have chosen to sample their data at specic
times or when the change in a measurement
exceeds a predetermined threshold. Others sam-
ple their data at greater time intervals, such as
30 seconds, to reduce data volume.
Once reaching the end user, the data are applied
to two general production issues: reservoir
drainage and well delivery (right). Reservoir-
drainage aspects include pressure monitoring,
pressure maintenance, material-balance models
and simulation models. Well-delivery issues,
such as skin and permeability, affect production
engineering.
When a well is shut in for maintenance, a
pressure gauge offers the small-scale equivalent
of a pressure buildup test. Subsequent well shut-
ins allow engineers to analyze the repeatability
28 Oileld Review
Reservoir drainage
Application Description
Well delivery
Application Description
Pressure monitoring Static bottomline pressure survey
Pressure maintenance Future development plans (reservoir
repressurization: install injection facilities?)
Real-time fracturing and stimulation
operation monitoring
Appraisal of injection and production
profile along the well
Material balance model updating Input data for continuous update and
refinement of material balance model
Well test interpretation and analysis
(buildup, drawdown, multirate and
interference well testing)
Reservoir boundaries, well spacing
requirements, interwell pressure
communication
Water and gas injection monitoring Evaluate degree of pressure support
from injector wells
Appraise performance of injection program
Reservoir simulation model
refinement and validation
Historical database for pressure
history matching
Calibration tool for simulation model
Well test interpretation and analysis
(buildup, drawdown, multirate and
interference well testing)
Skin, permeability and average
reservoir pressure
Production engineering Input for NODAL analysis
Productivity Index (PI) and long-term
variation in PI measurement;
generation of water, gas and sand
production rate correlation as a
function of pressure
Flowing bottomhole pressure survey
to determine maximum offtake
_
Flow well at optimal pressure above
bubblepoint pressure to avoid
liberation of free gas
Complement or corroborate other
reservoir monitoring measurements
Corroboration of information provided
by innovations such as 4D seismic
surveys, time-lapse well logging
>
Typical applications of permanent downhole gauge data. Data from downhole
gauges can be used to improve both reservoir drainage and well delivery.
Operational time
A
c
c
u
m
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
a
i
l
u
r
e
s
,

%
Flaws
(manufacturing and installation related)
Random overload
(design related)
Predictable wear-out
(design and environment related)
Characterizing performance over time.
Even the most reliable permanent gauge can
fail and the root cause often is a matter of
speculation. Production-related or installation
flaws account for many early failures. At
intermediate stages, failures occur at a low,
relatively steady rate, apparently because of
random overloads. After many years of service,
failures may occur as components age.
>
Winter 1999/2000 29
of the tests and improve condence in selecting
a reservoir model. If all the wells in a eld are
shut in, downhole gauges can measure the aver-
age reservoir pressure. The average reservoir
pressure measured this way is a key component
of decline rate and reserve estimations and a
parameter for reservoir simulations.
12
In uid-injection projects, permanent downhole
pressure gauges can be used to better maintain
pressure, displace oil, arrest subsidence and dis-
pose of uids. By monitoring a continuous stream
of pressure data, operators can control reservoir
performance by injecting uids to keep reservoir
pressure above bubblepoint pressure to ensure
production of oil rather than gas. Permanent
gauges can also help determine the optimal pro-
duction rate when there are concerns about sand
production or water coning at high ow rates.
Downhole pressure gauges allow engineers
to allocate production to specic wells. Knowing
the downhole pressure, the wellhead pressure
and the general properties of the produced uids
allows calculation of the ow rate for a well and
calibration of ow rates with test data. Offshore
satellite elds tied back to platforms and elds
owned by multiple partners are good candidates
for this particular application of downhole pres-
sure gauges.
In articial-lift applications, downhole pres-
sure gauges help engineers determine how well
the articial-lift system is performing. For exam-
ple, a prolic, highly permeable, unconsolidated
oil reservoir might have high deliverability, but
the bottomhole pressure of the well might be
inadequate to produce the uid to surface. If an
electric submersible pump or gas-lift system is
installed in the well, the operator can add a
downhole gauge to assess the performance of
the lift system.
Gauges in Action
The permanent monitoring applications that fol-
low come from widely separated regions with
different operational challenges and operator
priorities. In each case, the operator might mea-
sure the value of permanent monitoring systems
in a variety of ways, such as additional barrels of
oil recovered through more efcient reservoir
drainage or delivery from individual wells, or in
cost savings through decreased well interven-
tions. Appraisal of a deep, sour, high-pressure,
high-temperature (HPHT) discovery in the Middle
East presented numerous operational and inter-
pretation challenges. Unlike the prolic shallow
oil elds nearby, the discovery well produced
anomalously high API gravity oil for the region
from a fractured carbonate reservoir with limited
microporosity. A thick salt layer above the reser-
voir complicated interpretation and operations.
Nevertheless, the accumulation presented fasci-
nating opportunities to evaluate fracture fairways
below structural spillpoints and hydrocarbon self-
sourcing in a kerogen-rich reservoir rock.
Data from the initial discovery well were inad-
equate to calibrate reservoir simulations or to
plan development. A deep appraisal well, drilled
over the course of a year with mud weights
exceeding 20 pounds per gallon [2.4 g/cm
3
], pro-
vided core, mud log and wireline log data. An
extended well test generated enough data for
engineers to decide how to proceed.
The extremely high formation pressures and
use of kill-weight mud in wellbores meant that
wireline-conveyed pressure measurements were
not possible. Instead, the operator selected a
FloWatcher system to measure pressure, temper-
ature and ow rate continuously. This installation
was the rst use of the FloWatcher system at a
pressure of 15,000 psi [103.4 Mpa], so advance
preparations were necessary. The wellhead,
which had already been procured, was modied
to allow an exit for the cable. A shed was built to
accommodate surface monitoring equipment.
The permanent monitoring system was
safely installed and an extended well test was
conducted for four months, with oil owing
through a 70-km [43.5-mile] flowline. The
FloWatcher system was selected in part
because pressure measurements at the Venturi
inlet and throat allowed determination of the
absolute pressure, the pressure change across
the Venturi and the flow rate. Despite a
repairable seal failure in the Venturi, it was still
possible to obtain pressure measurements from
the pressure gauge, which functioned as
expected throughout the test. Also, the mandrel
design for the system was relatively inexpensive.
The permanent monitoring system enabled
engineers to produce at the maximum rate while
maintaining pressure above the bubblepoint, and
to gather the data they needed to formulate
development plans. Given the operational chal-
lenges of this particular well and area, the
remote location and the importance of gaining
useful data, an extended well test with a perma-
nent downhole monitoring system proved to be
the optimal approach.
Permanent downhole monitoring systems
have been used in the Gulf of Mexico for several
years. Shell Offshore, Inc., has installed perma-
nent gauges in each of the 10 wells it operates in
the Enchilada area in the continental Gulf of
Mexico (above). The Enchilada area comprises
thin-bedded turbidite reservoir sands located both
> Enchilada eld. The Enchilada area includes several blocks in the Garden Banks area offshore
Louisiana, USA. The blocks are 3 miles [4.8 km] long and 3 miles wide.
9. Mltoft J: Reliability Engineering Based on Field
Informationthe Way Ahead, Quality and Reliability
International 10, no. 5 (May 1994): 399-409.
Mltoft J: New Methods for the Specication and
Determination of Component Reliability Characteristics,
Quality and Reliability International 7, no. 7 (July 1991):
99-105.
10. van Gisbergen SJCHM and Vandeweijer AAH:
Reliability Analysis of Permanent Downhole Monitoring
Systems, paper OTC 10945, presented at the 1999
Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, USA,
May 3-6, 1999.
11. A complete discussion of processing and reducing data
from permanent downhole gauges is beyond the scope
of this article. For one example of how to process data:
Athichanagorn S, Horne R and Kikani J: Processing and
Interpretation of Long-Term Data from Permanent
Downhole Pressure Gauges, paper SPE 56419, pre-
sented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Houston, Texas, USA, October 3-6, 1999.
12. Baustad T, Courtin G, Davies T, Kenison R, Turnbull J,
Gray B, Jalali Y, Remondet J-C, Hjelmsmark L, Oldeld T,
Romano C, Saier R and Rannestad G: Cutting Risk,
Boosting Cash Flow and Developing Marginal Fields,
Oileld Review 8, no. 4 (Winter 1996): 18-31.
TEXAS
LOUISIANA
Garden Banks
Baldpate
Baldpate
North
Enchilada
0
0 160 km
100 miles
above and below salt. The rst gauge was
installed in September 1997, and to date all of
the gauges continue to operate without failure.
Permanent downhole pressure gauges fulll
two major requirements for Shell Offshore: daily
operations improvements and better long-term
reservoir management. In both cases, pressure
data must be accessible to reservoir specialists
in a format they can use efciently. The system
installed by Schlumberger stores the data for
subsequent pressure transient analysis. Shell
Offshore retrieves the data from the system and
uses its own computer-assisted operations (CAO)
system to manage the data stream on a long-
term basis.
Shells CAO acquisition unit captures surface
and downhole pressure measurements at
approximately 30-second intervals for trend analy-
sis and long-term archiving of pressure data. In
the past, most decisions about daily operations
were made on the basis of surface pressure or
tubing pressure measurements with infrequent
downhole wireline pressure measurements. A
decline in surface pressure could indicate reser-
voir depletion or a downhole obstruction, but this
ambiguity could not be resolved with surface
data alone. Now, with both surface and down-
hole pressure measurements, it is possible to
quickly diagnose production problems. For exam-
ple, if both surface and bottomhole pressure
curves track each other on a declining trend, then
the probable cause is reservoir depletion. On the
other hand, if the surface pressure is dropping
but the downhole pressure remains constant or
increases, then the engineer might suspect that
salt, scale or parafn is plugging the tubing
(right).
13
Therefore, engineers for the Enchilada
area use surface and downhole measurements to
diagnose production problems and optimize
remediation treatments.
Permanent downhole pressure gauges are
especially important for effective reservoir man-
agement in the Enchilada area and areas like it.
Thin-bedded reservoirs, such as turbidite sands,
can be difficult to evaluate by wireline methods.
Producers want to determine if the reservoir is
continuous. During the initial development, few
appraisal wells had been drilled and the subsalt
location of several prospects made it difficult to
define the reservoir geometry and extent.
Gathering early reservoir pressure data from
each well aided development planning. In addi-
tion, the long-reach, S-shaped wells in the
Enchilada area are expensive to drill and not
easily accessed by wireline methods.
Furthermore, the mechanical risk of running
wireline pressure devices into these high-rate
wells is unacceptable. Therefore, the perma-
nent gauge system allows frequent reservoir
pressure monitoring without mechanical risk
and with minimum deferred production.
Frequent pressure measurements help optimize
production rates, and enhance understanding of
ultimate reserve potential.
The Enchilada area example afrms that data
from permanent gauges are valuable throughout
the life of the well. Run time is a major concern for
Shell Offshore because the Enchilada wells are
expected to produce for at least 10 years. The reli-
ability and durability of these permanent gauges
have a direct impact on the assets value. The suc-
cessful application of permanent monitoring tech-
nology convinced Shell to install gauges in two
wells on their deepwater Ram-Powell platform,
offshore Gulf of Mexico. The second of these
installations, a PQG Permanent Quartz Gauge sys-
tem set at a depth of 23,723 feet [7230 m], is the
deepest installation by Schlumberger to date.
30 Oileld Review
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Time
P
surface
P
bhp
P
surface
P
bhp
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Time
Diagnosing production problems. Plots of both
bottomhole, P
bhp
, and surface pressure, P
surface
,
versus time help engineers diagnose production
problems. In the top example, surface and
bottomhole pressures are declining, but the
curves track each other, suggesting reservoir
depletion. In the bottom plot, the surface
pressure diverges and drops at a faster rate
than the bottomhole pressure. One possible
conclusion is that scale is plugging the
production tubing.
>
Winter 1999/2000 31
Complicated deepwater developments, such
as the Baldpate eld in Block 260 of the Garden
Banks area of the Gulf of Mexico, challenge oper-
ating companies (above). The rst downhole
gauge in the Baldpate eld was installed in
August 1998. Seven of eight wells have down-
hole gauges. The eld is expected to produce for
6 to 10 years.
Baldpate eld comprises two major Pliocene
reservoirs at depths of 15,500 to 17,500 feet
[4724 to 5334 m]. Original reservoir pressures
exceeded 13,000 psi [89.63 MPa]. Production
from the sands in the Baldpate North area is
commingled in a seventh well. The eld reached
peak production of 58,000 BOPD [9216 m
3
/d] and
230 MMscfg/D [6.5 MMm
3
/d] by June 1999.
Installation of permanent downhole gauges is
particularly demanding at the well depths and
pressures of Baldpate eld. Success depends on
a thoroughly trained, competent wellsite crew.
For example, the crew must avoid potential pit-
falls such as damaging the cable and making bad
splices. Extensive prejob planning allows the
entire team to anticipate problems and work out
solutions before installation. Having many of the
same crew work on every installation builds
experience and carries lessons learned from one
job to the next.
Amerada Hess Corporation, operator of
Baldpate field, elected to install permanent
downhole pressure gauges for both mechanical
and reservoir management purposes. Expensive
gravel-pack completions and tubing in high-rate
wells are prone to damage if there is excessive
drawdown or if the erosional velocity is too
high.
14
As ow rates were ramped up during the
initial stages of production, pressure data helped
avoid damage by ensuring that predetermined
limits on drawdown and erosional velocity would
not be exceeded. By measuring the pressure drop
across the completion, engineers calculated
the mechanical efciency, or mechanical skin, of
the completion.
15
Acquiring a constant stream of pressure data
enables reservoir engineers to ne-tune compo-
sitional models for reservoir simulation, perform
history matching of pressure depletion of the
reservoirs over time, test secondary recovery
scenarios and predict ultimate recovery. The
pressure data are also used for frequent pres-
sure-transient analysis. This analysis provides
calculations of effective permeability, mechanical
skin, non-darcy ow effects, average reservoir
pressure and approximate distance to various
reservoir boundaries.
Interference tests can be performed because
there are permanent downhole pressure gauges
in all the wells. Each well responds to rate adjust-
ments in offset wells within hours. The pressure
responses can be used to assess reservoir conti-
nuity. Data from pressure gauges conrmed the
geologic model of laterally continuous basin oor
fan sands.
Of seven gauges installed in the Baldpate
eld, six are working. The lone failurethe only
failed gauge out of 43 gauges installed by
Schlumberger in North Americaappears to
have resulted from a problem within the gauge
itself, although it has not been recovered for
postmortem analysis. The installation of gauges
in all the wells meant that the loss of one gauge
was an inconvenience rather than a major dif-
culty. It was not worth retrieving or repairing the
failed gauge because of the cost and mechanical
risks of pulling tubing. Data from the gauges in
the other wells are sufcient for ongoing reser-
voir management.
Amerada Hess carefully manages the high
volume of data from permanent downhole pres-
sure gauges. The data are stored in the hard drive
of a personal computer on the production tower.
From the ofce, an engineer can control sampling
rate and electronically retrieve data from the
remote production tower and move them to the
office. Eventually, however, Amerada Hess
expects to move and store the complete data vol-
ume elsewhere. Data can be downloaded into a
pressure-transient software package and ana-
lyzed within minutes.
13. For more on scale: Crabtree M, Eslinger D, Fletcher P,
Miller M, Johnson A and King G: Fighting Scale
Removal and Prevention, Oileld Review 11, no. 3
(Autumn 1999): 30-45.
14. Erosional velocity is the velocity at which an impinging
uid degrades a metal at the molecular level. In this
case, the operator was concerned about the possibility
of high-ow rate wells producing sand from the uncon-
solidated reservoir and damaging the production tubing.
15. Pahmiyer RC, Fitzpatrick HJ, Jr. and Dugan J:
Completion Efciency Measures for High-Permeability,
Unconsolidated Sand Environments, presented at the
1999 SPE European Formation Damage Conference,
The Hague, The Netherlands, May 31-June 1, 1999.
> Baldpate eld location. Baldpate eld is located offshore Louisiana in Block 260 of the Garden
Banks area.
TEXAS
LOUISIANA
Garden Banks
Baldpate
Baldpate
North
Enchilada
0
0 160 km
100 miles
An example from Africa demonstrates other
applications of downhole gauges. Since 1992,
Mobil Producing Nigeria Unlimited has installed
permanent downhole pressure gauges in 12 of its
elds offshore Nigeria: Usari, Oso, Mfem, Ubit,
Iyak, Enang, Asasa, Ekpe, Asabo, Unam, Edop
and Etim (above).
16
Mobil has used continuous pressure mea-
surements from downhole gauges in many ways.
The most basic applications include determining
the reservoir drive mechanism, assessing deple-
tion patterns and reservoir discontinuities, and
planning pressure maintenance programs.
Permanent downhole gauges measure downhole
pressure in wells whose high wellhead pressure
precludes use of wireline pressure measurement
techniques. Mobil can avoid the costs of shutting
in wells with high ow rates solely for gathering
data. In elds with many wells, data from strate-
gically placed pressure gauges allow reservoir
engineers to calibrate pressure measurements
gathered by wireline methods with those from
permanent gauges.
In the Edop eld, 7 of approximately 40 wells
have downhole pressure gauges. Mobil expected
to inject gas to maintain reservoir pressure, so
the initial plan was to place a downhole pressure
gauge in a well in each of four fault blocks in the
Edop eld and assess the connectivity of the
reservoir across fault blocks. Results from the
gauges showed no communication across the
fault blocks, and that separate injectors would be
required for each fault block. The downhole pres-
sure gauges also indicated that the planned
injection patterns needed to be changed, so the
downhole pressure gauge data were then inte-
grated with the 3D geological model to modify
and optimize producer and injector locations.
32 Oileld Review
16. Ogunlowo RF, Ewherido UJ and Oyewole AA: Use of
Down-hole Permanent Gauges in Reservoir Description
and Management of a Gas Injection Project in Edop
Field, Offshore, Nigeria, prepared for the 23rd Annual
International Conference and Exhibition, Abuja, Nigeria,
August 4-6, 1999.
17. Algeroy et al, reference 1.
Huck R: The Future Role of Downhole Process Control,
Invited Speech, Offshore Technology Conference,
Houston, Texas, USA, May 3, 1999.
18. Christie A, Kishino A, Cromb J, Hensley R, Kent E,
McBeath B, Stewart H, Vidal A and Koot L: Subsea
Solutions, Oileld Review 11, no. 4 (Winter 1999): 219.
Niger Delta
Qua Iboe
terminal
Oil fields with downhole gauges
0 15 miles
0 24 km
AFRICA
Asabo
Enang
Edop
Asasa
Etim
Unam
Ubit
Iyak
Mfem
Oso
Usari
Ekpe
>Offshore Nigeria. Since 1992, Mobil Producing Nigeria Unlimited has installed permanent downhole
gauges in the 12 offshore elds shown in red-rimmed green. Approximately 95% of the gauges are still
operating today.
Winter 1999/2000 33
Pressure data provided by downhole gauges
were critical in determining communication ef-
ciency around shale bafes that had escaped
detection by seismic and well logging methods.
Also, the continuous data provided by the gauges
led to better reservoir simulation results than sin-
gle data points from wireline measurement
methods. As the injection project proceeded,
instantaneous pressure responses within the
continuous stream of data enabled engineers to
determine how much compressor downtime their
injection project could accommodate (right).
In other fields operated by Mobil offshore
Nigeria, 20 to 25% of the wells have downhole
pressure gauges. Approximately 95% of the
gauges provided by Schlumberger are still oper-
ating. The rare instances of failure have been
attributed to problems in control lines, bad
cable splices, failure at the wet connector or
problems at the Christmas tree rather than prob-
lems with the gauges themselves. However,
these are still considered failures of the system.
Improvement beyond the current 95% success
rate is expected.
Outlook for Reservoir Monitoring
Permanent reservoir monitoring is vital to intelli-
gent completions, a modern approach to improving
reserve recovery.
17
Efcient, benecial operation
of downhole ow-control valves depends on
understanding reservoir dynamics, so the combi-
nation of acquiring downhole data and using
flow-control valves is essential. At present,
knowledge of the reservoir comes from analyzing
pressure and production data and, in some cases,
data from downhole flowmeters. Ongoing
research and development of owmeters are
expected to provide accurate measurement of
ow rates as well as multiphase uid properties.
In addition, researchers are addressing the chal-
lenges of accurately measuring ow rates in
directional and horizontal wells.
Improved links between data acquisition
systems and operators will facilitate real-time
data transmission and display. Permanent mon-
itoring allows engineers to get a sense of the
reservoir, but to see the reservoir requires
that the data be transformed into a usable for-
mat. If data access or display is too cumbersome,
downhole pressure gauge data are in danger of
being ignored.
The costs and economic benets of perma-
nent monitoring must be considered together.
Success stories from around the world, such as
those presented in this article, should serve to
bolster condence in permanent downhole pres-
sure gauges. As condence in the dependability
of permanent gauges and other systems contin-
ues to grow, the value of the data will overcome
short-term concerns about cost in many cases.
Today, operators are venturing into remote
areas and water depths approaching 10,000 ft
[3048 m] and are completing wells subsea with
the expectation of limited or no interventions.
18
Optimal production in these arenas will necessi-
tate permanent monitoring systems that are
compatible with other completion equipment.
As with permanent downhole pressure gauges
and ow-control valves, dependability of down-
hole owmeters and other permanent equipment
in wells will remain the key criterion for choosing
to deploy these devices in expensive, inaccessi-
ble wells.
The successful application of rigorous prod-
uct development and testing processes with
concurrent reliability engineering and eld ser-
vice quality control has set the standard for
dependable permanent monitoring systems. This
reects a long-term commitment of people and
resources. Employing these engineering pro-
cesses enhances future permanent monitoring
systems. For operators, these enhancements
translate into early diagnosis of problems, fewer
well interventions, reduced risk and greater
reserve recovery. GMG
2150
2100
2050
2000
1950
1900
1850
1800
1750
1700
1650
t
min
= 4/00 P
max
= 2100 psia t
max
= 7/00
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
a
12/98 2/99 4/99 6/99 8/99 10/99 12/99 2/00 4/00 6/00 8/00
>Pressure response in Edop eld. In the central fault block, gas injection is increasing
reservoir pressure, as shown in this plot of pressure measured in four different wells
versus time in the Intra Qua Iboe 3 reservoir. Predicted pressures, shown in dashes, were
calculated on the basis of well placement, drainage radius, production rates and expected
gas injection rates. t
min
, or April 2000, represents the earliest predicted date when the
reservoir pressure will attain the target pressure (P
max
), while t
max
represents the latest
projected date to reach the desired pressure and occurs in July 2000.