Clamp-on Doppler fowmeters are

subject to interference from the pipe

wall itself, as well as from any air
space between the sensor and the
wall. If the pipe wall is made of stainless
steel, it might conduct the transmit
signal far enough so that the
returning echo will be shifted
enough to interfere with the reading.
There are also built-in acoustic discontinuities
in concrete-lined, plastic-
lined, and fberglass-reinforced
pipes. These are signifcant enough
to either completely scatter the
transmitted signal or attenuate the
return signal. This dramatically
decreases fowmeter accuracy to
within only !"#$, and, in most
cases, clamp-on meters will not wor%
at all if the pipe is lined.
&etted transducer designs'both
Doppler and transit time are a(ailable
'o(ercome many of these signal
attenuation limitations. The full-pipe
transit-time meter originally consisted
of a fanged spool section with wetted
transducers mounted in the pipe
wall in transducer wells opposite to
one another but at )*-degree angles
to the fow +igure )-,-$. Transit-time
fowmeters can be either single-path
or multiple-path designs +igure )-,.$.
/ingle-path fowmeters are pro(ided
with a single pair of transducers
that ma%e a single-line (elocity
measurement. They use a meter factor
that is pre-determined by calibration
to compensate for (ariations in
(elocity profle and for fow section
construction irregularities.
In the design of multi-path
fowmeters, se(eral sets of transducers
are placed in di0erent paths
across the fow section, thereby
attempting to measure the (elocity
profle across the entire cross-section
of the pipe. 1ulti-path instruments
are used in large-diameter
conduits, such as utility stac%s, and in
other applications where non-uniform
fow (elocity profles e2ist.
Transit-time meters can also be
used to measure both (ery hot e.g.,
li3uid sulfur$ and (ery cold li3uid
nitrogen$ fuids, and also to detect
(ery low fows. &etted-transducer
designs for small pipes down to 4in.$
are called a2ial or co-a2ial designs
+igure )-5"$. These de(ices permit
transit-time measurement along a
path length signifcantly greater than
the diameter of the pipe, increasing