Refractory Concrete: Abstract of State-of-the-Art Report
Reported by ACI Committee 547 Refractory concretes are cur- rently used in a wide variety of industrial applications where py- reprocessing and/or thermal con- tainment is required. The service demands of these applications are becoming increasingly severe and this, combined with the constant demand for refractories with en- hanced service life and more ef- ficient means of installation, has resulted in an ever expanding re- fractory concrete technology. ACI Committee 547 has prepared this state-of-the-art report in order to 547R-5 meet the need for a better under- standing of this relatively new technology. The report presents back- ground information and per- spective on the history and cur- rent status of the technology. Composition and proportioning methods are discussed together with a detailed review of the con- stituent ingredients. Emphasis is placed on proper procedures for the installation, curing, drying, and firing. The physical and engi- neering properties of both normal weight and light weight refractory concretes are reported, as are state-of-the-art construction de- tails and repair/maintenance tech- niques. Also included is an in- depth review of a wide variety of applications together with the committees assessment of future needs and developments. Keywords: abrasion; accelerating agents; admixtures; aggregates; aluminate cement and concretes; anchorage (structural); ce- ment-aggregate reactions; chemical analy- sis; construction; corrosion: curing; drying; failure mechanisms; formwork (construc- tion); hydration; insulating concretes; kilns; lightweight concreetes; mechanical proper- ties; mix proportioning; packaged concrete; physical properties; placing; pumped con- crete; quality control; refractories; refrac- tory concretes; reinforcing materials: re- pairs; research; shotcrete; spalling; structural analysis; temperature; thermal properties; water; welded wire fabric. (Revised 1983) (Reapproved 1997) This abstract first appeared in Concrete International: Design & Construc- tion, V. 1, No. 5, May 1979, pp. 62-77. The full report is available as a separate publication in 8 1 /4 x 11 in., paper cover format, consisting of 224 pages. Contents listed on this page represent only tbe sections of the report covered in this abstract. Contents of summary Chapter 1 -Introduction, p. 547R-2 1.1 - Objective of report 1.2 - Scope of report 1.3 - Nomenclature 1.6 - Non-hydraulic setting refrac- tories Chapter 2 -Criteria for re- fractory concrete selection, p. 2.1 - Introduction 2.2 - Castables and field mixes 2.5 - Load bearing considerations 2.7 - Corrosion influences 2.10 - Abrasion and erosion resistance Chapter 3 -Constituent in- gredients, p. 547R-6 3.2 - Binders 3.3 - Aggregates 3.4 -Effects of extraneous materials 9.4 Chapter 4 -Composition and proportioning, p. 547R-7 4.1 - Introduction 4.3 - Field mixes 4.4 - Water content Chapter 5 -Installation, p. 547R-8 5.1 - Introduction 5.2 - Casting 5.3 - Shotcreting 5.4 - Pumping and extruding 5.5 - Pneumatic gun casting 5.8 - Finishing Chapter 6 -Curing, drying, firing, p. 547R-9 6.1 - Introduction 6.2 - Bond mechanisms 6.3 - Curing 6.4 - Drying 6.5 - Firing Copyright 0 1979, American Concrete Institute All rights reserved including rights of reproduc- tion and use in any form or by any means, in- cluding the making of copies by any photo pro- cess, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any knowl- edge or retrieval system or device, unless per- Chapter 7 -Properties of normal weight refractory concretes, p. 547R-10 7.2 7.1 - Introduction 7.4 - Maximum service temperature - Shrinkage and expansion 7.5 - Strength 7.6 - Thermal conductivity 7.10 - Specific heat Chapter 8 -Properties of lightweight refractory con- cretes, p. 547R-11 8.1 - Introduction 8.4 - Shrinkage and expansion 8.5 - Strength 8.6 - Thermal conductivity 8.10 - Specific heat Chapter 9 -Construction de- tails, p. 547R-12 9.1 - Introduction 9.2 - Support structure 9.3 - Forms - Anchors 9.5 - Reinforcement and metal embed- ment 9.6 - Joints Chapter 10 -Repair, p. 547R-13 10.1 - Introduction 10.2 - Failure mechanisms 10.3 - Surface preparation 10.4 - Anchoring and bonding 10.5 - Repair materials 10.6 - Repair techniques Chapter 11 -Applications, p. 547R-15 11.1 - Introduction Chapter 12 - New devel- opments and future use of re- fractory concrete, p. 547R-15 12.1 - Introduction 12.2 - New developments 12.3 - Research requirements mission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Discussion of this committee report may be sub- mitted in accordance with general requirements of the ACI Publication Policy to ACI Headquar- ters, P.O. Box 19150. Detroit, Michigan 48219. Closing date for submission of discussion is No- vember 1, 1979. Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - 547R-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE Chapter 1 -Introduction 1.1 Objective of report The objective of this report is to provide a source of information on the many facets of refractory con- crete technology. The report is intended as a unified and objective source of information to aid the engi- neer or consumer in categorizing and evaluating monolithic refractory concrete technology and the many materials and processes available today. It is not intended to be a specification or standard, and should not be quoted or used for that purpose. 1.2 Scope of report Refractory concrete is concrete suitable for use at temperatures up to about 3400 F (1870 C). It consi of a graded refractory aggregate bound by a suitable cementing medium. This report is concerned with refractory concrete in which the binding agent is a hydraulic cement, and does not consider concretes which use waterglass (sodium silicate), phosphoric acid, or phosphates as a principal cementing agent. It covers all facets of refractory concrete installation and use, including the properties of individual in- gredients and concretes, placing techniques, methods of curing and firing, repair procedures, construction details, and current and future applications. 1.3 Nomenclature The following definitions are used in this report: ACID REFRACTORIES - Refractories containing a substantial amount of silica that may react chem- ically with basic refractories, basic slags, or basic fluxes at high temperatures. APPARENT POROSITY (ASTM C20) - The rela- tionship of the volume of the open pores in a refrac- tory specimen to its exterior volume, expressed as a percentage. BASIC REFRACTORIES - Refractories whose ma- jor constituent is lime, magnesia, or both, and which may react chemically with acid refractories, acid slags, or acid fluxes at high temperatures. (Com- mercial use of this term also includes refractories made of chrome ore or combinations of chrome ore and dead burned magnesite). CALCIUM ALUMINATE CEMENT - The product obtained by pulverizing clinker which consists of hy- draulic calcium aluminates formed by fusing or sin- tering a suitably proportioned mixture of aluminous and calcareous materials. CASTABLE REFRACTORY - A proprietary pack- aged dry mixture of hydraulic cement and specially selected and proportioned refractory aggregates which, when mixed with water, will produce refrac- tory concrete or mortar. CERAMIC BOND - The high strength bond which is developed between materials, such as calcium aluminate cement and refractory aggregates, as a re- sult of thermochemical reactions which occur when the materials are subjected to elevated temperature. EXPLOSIVE SPALLING - A sudden spalling which occurs as the result of a build-up of steam pressure caused by too rapid heating on first firing. GROG - Burned refractory material, usually cal- cined clay or crushed brick bats. HEAT RESISTANT CONCRETE - Any concrete which will not disintegrate when exposed to con- stant or cyclical heating at any temperature below which a ceramic bond is formed. HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT - See calcium alumi- nate cement. NEUTRAL REFRACTORIES - Refractories that are resistant to chemical attack by both acid and ba- sic slags, refractories, or fluxes at high temper- atures. REFRACTORY AGGREGATE - Materials having refractory properties which form a refractory body when bound into a conglomerate mass by a matrix. REFRACTORY CONCRETE - Concrete which is suitable for use at high temperatures and contains hydraulic cement as the binding agent. SOFTENING TEMPERATURE - The temperature at which a refractory material begins to undergo permanent deformation under specified conditions. This term is more appropriately applied to glasses than to refractory concretes. THERMAL SHOCK - The exposure of a material or body to a rapid change in temperature which may have a deleterious effect. 1.6 Non-hydraulic setting re The following discussion, while not pertinent to the main theme of the report, will be of some interest and use to the reader. 1.6.1 Refractory brick - High quality brick, known as firebrick, with unique chemical and physical prop- erties is obtained by blending different types of clay and other ingredients and by varying both the method of processing and the burning temperatures. In addition to the many varieties of fireclay brick, high alumina, insulating, silica, fused aggregate, and basic firebrick have been developed. Refractory brick remains a major construction material for ap- plications in which heat containment and control is necessary and in many instances, is the only satisfac- tory solution to a specific problem. Brick has a number of disadvantages when com- pared to monolithic refractories. These dis- advantages include multiple joints, complicated an- choring, higher placement costs, more difficult repair procedures, the need to maintain expensive invento- ries of special or scarce items, a certain inflexibility in structural design, and higher fuel requirements during manufacture. 1.6.2 Plastics and ramming mixes - Plastic refrac- tories and ramming mixes are refractories which are tamped or rammed in place and are used for mon- olithic construction, for repair purposes, and for molding special shapes. These materials find exten- sive use in industry. They usually employ a clay, alu- mina, magnesite, chrome, silicon carbide, or graphite base, and are blended with a binder. Heat setting mixes are likely to contain fireclay or phosphoric acid as a binder. Air or cold-setting mixes generally contain fireclay and sodium silicate as the binder. Compared to ramming mixes, plastic refractories have higher moisture contents and therefore, higher plasticity. Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS --`,,,,````,``,``,`,,,``,`,``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- TABLE 2.1a- Characteristics of normal weight refractory concretes TABULAR A1 2 0 3 HIGH PURITY BINDER GENERAL HIGH EROSION/ HIGH PURPOSE STRENGTH ABRASION STRENGTH 3000E 2800F 2800 F GUN RESISTANT COARSE COARSE HIGH HIGH LOW IRON STRENGTH STRENGTH HIGH 2350 F 2600 F STR ENGTH 2350 2600 2600 B C c 2800 F HIGH STEEL MILL STANDARD STRENGTH 3400 3000 2800 - G E - 2800 B 2400 2500 C 8-11 8-12 10-12 (3) 10-12.5 10-13 15-21 14.0-15.5 PRODUCT DESCRIPTION Recommended Service Temperature max., Deg. F ASTM Class (C-401) Water Required for Mixinq, Percent by Weight Material Required (1) lbs. per cu. ft., lbs. per bag Method of Application _ (2) 11-14 3.5-11 14-16 1 6 0 - 16 5 140-145 129-133 129-133 C-T-S C_T_S_E C-T S 165 178 139 147 131 138 130 136 159 169 138 146 128 134 127 133 161 174 138 146 128 132 126 133 161 174 137 146 130 135 127 133 165 176 139 150 123 128 127 130 160 169 138 146 123 127 128 135 165 167 136 149 0.0 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.6 -0.l to -0.4 -0.2 to -0.6 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.6 -0.2 to -0.3 -0.2 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.2 to -0.6 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.3 -0.2 to -0.7 -0.3 to -0.7 -0.1 to -0.9 -0.4 to -1.3 -0.5 to -1.1 -0.8 to +1.3 -0.5 -0.7 to -1.4 -0.2 to +0.3 -0.5
to
+1.0 -0.8 to +0.2 to +0.8 -0.6 to -1.1 +0.1 to +0.7 125-130 120-124 126-130 137-142 118-120 C C C-T-S-E 125-131 108-114 C-E C-T-E C-T-S-E 126 133 120 125 120 122 120 123 C-T-S 135 143 129 134 129 134 127 135 0.2 to -0.7 0 2 to -0.6 0.2 to -0.6 0.1 to -0.6 131 133 144 146 124 131 126 129 122 124 124 129 138 140 121 122 124 128 140 141 120 121 133 138 121 123 134 136 112 121 132 144 108 117 130 133 108 133 130 133 108 114 115 124 132 111 114 128 138 -0.3 to -0.4 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.3 to -0.4 -0.1 1 to -0.6 -0.2 to -0.4 -0.2 to -0.5 -0.2 to -0.5 -0.4 to -0.8 +1.7 to +2.2 -1.2 to +0.3 +1.3 to +2.4 Bulk Density, 220 F Heated to I 1000 F temperature of: 1500 F then cooled 2000 F pcf 2550 F 2732 F 3000 F Total Linear Change % Heated 220 F to temp. of: then cooled 1000 F (Note: Linear change 1500 F figures are "TOTAL" 2000 F in all cases and include 2550 F percent of drying 2732 F shrinkage occurring 3000 F in conversion from wet "as cast" to "as dried" state) -0.1 to -0.5 -0.2 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.7 -0.1 to -0.9 -0.1 to -0.5 0.0 to -0.3 -0.2 to -0.4 -0.3 to -0.6 - -0.4 to -0.5 -0.4 to -0.6 0.0 to -0.3 -0.4 to -0.5 -0.3 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.5 to -0.7 -0.1 to +1.7 -0.1 to +0.5
3450 - 3870 2150 -- 3580 3075 - 5470 1800 229 - - - 29955- 3795 1775 2325 450 -- - 1590 2425 - 2845 1480 2225 050 -- - 1340 1500 - 2105 470 - - 2280 3735 - 6970 510 - 7910 810 - 6480 410 - 7110 620 - 5375 5.24 5.10 5.10 5.18 32.06 59.23 0.91 6.89 0.59 Cold Crushing Strength, 220 F psi 1000 F Heated to 1500 F temperature of: 2000 F then cooled 2550 F 2732 F 3000 F Thermal Conductivity 500 F Btu/in/hr-sq.ft.-Deq F 1000 F at Mean 1500 F Temperature of: 2000 F Chemical Analysis percent S10 2 A1 2 0 3 , T10 2 Fe 2 0 3 , Fe0 Ca0, Mg0 - 4.48 7.25 4.60 4.85 7.40 5.00 5.30 7.65 5.40 5.73 7.85 5.80 4.10 4.48 4.85 5.19 44.35 38.68 4.78 11.31 0.74 0.11 34.64 4.18 46.08 46.70 40.03 3.05 4.22 6.09 9.03 0.69 1.22 Trace 1.14 Alkalies Ignition Loss All measurements except thermal taken at room temperature. conductivity SI conversion factors Deg F = 1.8 C + 32 1 pcf = 16. 02 kg/m 3 1 lb = 0.4536 kg 1 psi = 0.006895 MPa 1 Btu-in./hr-sq ft - deg F C o p y r i g h t
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I H S --`,,,,````,``,``,`,,,``,`,``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 547R-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE TABLE 2.1b- Characteristics of lightweight insulating refractory concretes COMMERCIAL PRODUCT DESCRIPTION Recommended Service Temp. max., Deg. F ASTM Class (C 401) Water Required for Mixing, Percent by Weight Materials Required, lbs. per cu. ft. - - Method of Application* Bulk Density, lbs. per cu. ft., 220 F Heated to 1500 F Temp. of: 2000 F then cooled 2250 F 2550 F 2910 F Total Linear Change, Percent, 220 F Heated to 1500 F Temp. of: 2000 F then cooled 2250 F 2550 F 2910 F Modulus of Rupture, psi 220 F Heated to 1500 F Temp. of: 2000 F then cooled 2250 F 2550 F 2910 F Cold Crushing Strength, psi 220 F Heated to 1500 F Temp. of: 2000 F then cooled 2250 F 2550 F 2910 F Chemical Analysis, percent Si0 2 A1 2 0 3 , Ti0 2 Fe 2 0 3 , Fe0 CaO, MgO Alkalies Ignition Loss SO 3 Thermal Conductivity (k), Btu/Hr./Sq. Ft./F./In, At Mean Temp. of: 500 F 1000 F 1500 F 2000 F HIGH ALUMINA LOW IRON 3000 Q LIGHT- GENERAL WEIGHT PURPOSE 2250 F 2500 2250 - Q P&O 38-47 40-47 80-85 48-50 LIGHT- WEIGHT 1800 F 24-27.5 **1800 N 46-55 87-92 C-S-E 46-48 C-S-E 92-96 90-91 89-92 90-91 86-92 88-93 C - T - S - E C-T-S-E 86-90 51-53 80-83 47-48 80-84 48-49 80-82 47-49 - 48-54 47-54 46-52 -0.2 to -0.3 -0.4 to -0.7 -0.6 to -0.8 -0.4 to -0.6 -0.6 to +0.8 -0.2 to +0.2 -0.2 to -0.6 -0.3 to -0.4 -0.4 to -0.8 -0.3 to -0.9 -0.3 to -0.8 -0.3 to -1.1 -0.2 to -1.4 -0.4 to -1.4 -0.1 to -0.4 -1.7 to -2.0 -0.8 to -1.3 265-360 205-225 280-315 625-640 950-955 1755-1835 190-350 100-150 140-230 70-90 120-250 75-115 155-315 160-170 200-420 105-140 100-205 615-685 550-610 450-545 800-880 265-1415 3535-4100 560-1040 290-450 830-710 160-290 460-800 130-220 500-810 270-330 390-750 295-405 200-285 - I 36.52 40.08 37.38 43.17 54.63 38.13 34.79 17.68 1.38 5.31 6.63 3.11 4.56 13.53 17.68 31.34 1.11 1.66 1.88 2.05 1.90 1.20 1.45 2.40 2.88 2.58 1.66 3.19 2.86 1.98 3.50 3.14 2.31 3.82 3.42 2.63 1.40 0.87 1.71 1.15 2.01 1.43 - - VERMICULITE BASE VERY LIGHT- WEIGHT 1600 Special 176 24 _ C-T-E 21-25 20-25 30-70 20-80 *C-Casting; T-Troweling; S-Shotcretinq; E-Extruding. All measurements except thermal conductivity taken **2000 F (For back-up material) at room temperature. SI conversion factors DegF = 1.8 C + 32 1 pcf = 16.02 kg/m' 1 lb = 0.4536 kg 1 psi = 0.006895 MPa 1 Btu-in./hr-sq ft - deg F Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS --`,,,,````,``,``,`,,,``,`,``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- REFRACTORY CONCRETE 547R-5 Plastics are generally placed without use of forms. With the exception of some specialized tabular alu- mina castables, plastics have a somewhat higher ser- vice limit than castable refractories. Their main dis- advantages are greater shrinkage and crack development. Except for phosphate bonded mate- rials cured above 600 F (315 C), plastics generally have lower cold and hot strengths than refractory concretes. In addition, plastics tend to have a rela- tively low strength zone on the cool side of the lin- ing. Ramming mixes usually have higher density and less shrinkage than plastic refractories. With their low water content, they must be forced into place and require strong well-braced forms. Some of the dryer medium grind ramming mixes are suitable for gunning, and are used for patching and maintenance materials. 1.6.4 Gunning mixes other than refractory con- cretes 12,13 - As used in this section, the term gun- ning mixes does not refer to refractory concrete and should not be confused with gunned refractory materials which produce refractory concrete. Gun- ning mixes are mixtures of non-hydraulic setting in- gredients which are installed hot or cold, usually by the shotcrete method. Gunning mixes generally have low rebound loss, are predominately used for patching or resurfacing brick or other refractories, have a strong internal bond, and exhibit excellent adhesion or bond to the existing refractory lining. They find extensive use in basic oxygen, electric arc and open hearth furnaces, among other applications. Chapter 2 - Criteria for refractory concrete selection Refractory castables are plant packaged mixes composed of ingredients that are weighed, blended and usually bagged in convenient sizes for shipping and handling. They require only mixing with water on the job to produce refractory concrete. Field mixes are made from material components which are proportioned and mixed on the site just prior to the addition of water. 2.5 Load bearing considerations Most application designs of refractory concrete con- sider that there is a thermal gradient through the material with heat conducted from the hot face to the cold face. A cross section of the refractory will usually have a layer at the hot face that has a ce- ramic bond, an intermediate section with a weaker combination of ceramic and a partial hydraulic bond, and a cold face section that retains most of its hy- draulic bond. Refractory concrete linings in this type of situation are usually well anchored and self-sup- porting. Castables containing high proportions of coarse ag- gregates produce refractory concrete with good load bearing characteristics. Certain types of refractory concrete tend to have low strengths in the inter- mediate temperature zones [1500-2250 F (820-1230 C)] and should not be subjected to excessive mechanical abuse or dead load. Generally, lightweight concretes designed for insulating purposes should not be sub- jected to impact, heavy loads, abrasion, erosion or other physical abuse. Normally, both the strength and the resistance to destructive forces decline as the bulk density of the refractory concrete de- creases. There are a number of special refractory castables available which have better than average load-bear- ing capabilities and withstand abrasion much better than the standard types. or erosion 2.1 Introduction 2.7 Corrosion influences Refractory concrete is usually made with high alu- mina cement. It is not generally used as a structural material and its primary purpose is as a protective lining for steel, concrete or brick structures. It is Some of the destructive forces that refractory con- cretes withstand are abrasion, erosion, physical considered a consumable material requiring replace- abuse, high temperatures, thermal shock, hot and molten metals, clinker, slag, alkalies, mild acid or ment after an appropriate service life. acid fumes, expansion, contraction, carbon monoxide, and flame impingement. Refractory concretes are categorized as either nor- mal weight or lightweight. The former are also re- ferred to as heavy refractory concretes and the latter are often called insulating refractory con- cretes. Table 2.la shows the characteristics of a typical range of normal weight refractory concretes; Table 2.lb shows the characteristics of lightweight refractory concretes. 2.2 Castables and field mixes Refractory concretes are usually prepared at the job site from materials supplied to the user in either of two ways: (1) prepackaged so-called refractory cast- ables; (2) field mixes. High temperature in combination with a corrosive environment can have a serious deleterious effect on both the concrete and the backup steel structure. Alkalies can effect the service life of refractory Generally, the higher density, higher purity refrac- concretes. The furnace charge can give off both alka- lies (K 2 O) and the fuel sulfur compounds (SO 2) as va- tory concretes have better corrosion resistance than pors. These can penetrate into the pores of the re- fractory concrete and react; their reaction products the lower density, lower purity types. cool, solidify, and expand, sometimes causing the hot face of the refractory to peel or shear away. In certain applications, the refractory concrete is subjected to highly reducing conditions. Low-iron refractory concretes should be used for this type of application. 2.10 Abrasion and erosion resistance Abrasion and erosion begin with the wearing away of the weakest matrix constituent, binder, leaving the coarse or hard aggregate to eventually fall away. A hard aggregate, a high modulus of rupture, and high compressive strength at the hot face are neces- sary for good abrasion and erosion resistance in re- fractory concretes. Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - 547R-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTII CE Chapter 3 - Constituent ingredients precautions are taken to ensure a sound refractory 3.2 Binders concrete. Cyclic heating and cooling tends to disrupt portland cement concretes and adding a fine si- The binders principally used in refractory concretes are calcium aluminate cements. However, ASTM- type portland cements can be used in some refrac- tory applications up to an approximate maximum of 2000 F (1090 C) with selected aggregates, if special liceous material to react with the calcium hydroxide, formed during hydration, is helpful in alleviating the problem. Calcium aluminate (high alumina) cements are commercially available hydraulic binders. They are TABLE 3.3a- Maximum service temperature of selected aggregates mixed with calcium aluminate cements under optimum conditions Aggregate - - Remarks _ Maximum temperature Deg C Deg F Alumina, tabular Dolomitic limestone (gravel) Fireclay, expanded Fireclay brick, crushed Flint fireclay, calcined Kaolin, calcined Mullite Perlite Sand Slag, blast furnace (air cooled) Slag, blast furnace (granulated) Trap rock, diabase Refractory, abrasion resistant Abrasion and corrosion resistant Insulating, abrasion and corrosion resistant Abrasion and corrosion resistant Abrasion and corrosion resistant Insulating (Silica content less than 90 percent not recommended) Abrasion and corrosion resistant Abrasion resistant Insulating, abrasion and corrosion resistant (Basic Igneous Rock- Minimal Quartz) Abrasion and corrosion resistant 1870 500 1640 1600 1650 1650 3000 1650 3000 1340 2450 300 570 540 1200 1000 3400 930 1000 2190 1830 Vermiculite Insulating 1100 2010 TABLE 3.3b- Aggregate grading Maximum size aggregate (except for gun placement) Maximum size aggregate for normal gun placement Maximum size insulating crushed firebrick Maximum size expanded shales and clays Maximum size, with the above exceptions, should not be greater than 20-25 percent of the concrete minimum dimension. 1 l/z in. (3.81 cm) I/4 in.* (0.64 cm) 1 in. (2.54 cm) 12 in. (1.27 cm) Aggregate of V2 in. (1.27 cm) or larger size: Retained on No. 8 Sieve = 50 percent Passing No. 100 Sieve = 10-15 percent Aggregate of less than l/2 in. (1.27 cm) maximum size: Retained on No. 50 Sieve = 75 percent Passing No. 100 Sieve = 10-15 percent *In special cases larger sizes have been used successfully. Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - specifically designed for use in monolithic refractory concrete construction. They are generally classified under three basic categories: Low Purity, Inter- mediate Purity, and High Purity. This is a relative classification scheme and is based primarily on the total iron content of the cement. Binder selection is primarily based on the service temperature desired for the refractory concrete. Maximum service temperatures are extended with increasing Al 2 O 3 and decreasing iron contents. Lower iron content binders are also beneficial in re- ducing carbon monoxide (CO) disintegration of con- crete (Section 2.7). 3.3 Aggregates The maximum service temperatures of selected ag gregates mixed with appropriate calcium aluminate cements are listed in Table 3.3a. These maximum temperatures are based on optimum conditions of binder and aggregate. Thermal properties of aggre- gates, such as volume change (expansion, shrinkage or crystalline inversion) and decomposition, can af- fect these maximum temperatures, along with the chemical composition of both aggregate and binder and the reactivity between these mix constituents. Temperature stability of the aggregate determines the maximum service conditions below approx- imately 2400 F (1320 C). Therefore, any type of cal- cium aluminate cement can be used at these temper- atures. For conditions above 2400 F (1320 C), binder purity also becomes a design factor. Generally, the low purity binder can be used with proper aggre- gates up to 2700 F (1480 C), intermediate purity to 3000 F (1650 C) and high purity to 3400 F (1870 C). Aggregate gradation is an important consideration in designing refractory concrete. Table 3.3b provides suggested guidelines for nominal maximum size and grading of refractory aggregates. For refractory mix designs a 1:3 or 1:4 by bulk volume dry basis cement: aggregate mix is generally used to satisfy typical applications. In certain cases the ratio may change from as low as 1:2 to as high as 1:6, with t he latter being used for lightweight concretes. Within the range of normal usage, in- creasing the cement content will provide higher strength development. However, increased cement content may also result in increased shrinkage. A higher aggregate content will increase insulating or refractory properties, depending on the type of ag- gregate selected for the mix. Combinations of vari- ous aggregates can be made to secure the desirable properties of each. 3.3.1 Lightweight aggregates - Perlite, expanded shale, expanded fireclay, and bubble alumina are the more commonly used lightweight aggregate for com- mercial insulating concretes. 3.4 Effects of extraneous materials Extraneous materials commonly associated with portland cements, either as admixtures or as con- taminants from equipment or surrounding condi- tions, may behave differently when used with cal- cium aluminate cement mixes. Many castables contain proprietary additions which may be ad- versely affected by field admixtures. Chapter 4 - Composition and proportioning 4.1 Introduction In designing mixes, refractory concretes are not only defined by density but also by operating temper- ature. Refractory concretes fall into three subclasses based on service temperature ranges. The first sub class is ceramically-bonded concrete, defined as concrete in which the cement binder and the fine ag- gregate particles react thermochemically to form a bond. This bond is referred to as the ceramic bond and may occur at temperatures as low as 1650 F (900 C). The second subclass is heat resistant con- crete, defined as concrete in which the cement has dehydrated but has not formed a ceramic bond. The third category is concrete which still has some hy- draulic bond when heated but performs satisfactorily under cyclic conditions. 4.3 Field mixes 4.3.1 Ceramically bonded concrete - The ceramic bond can be formed at temperatures as low as 1650 F (900 C). To aid formation of the ceramic bond, concretes operating above this temperature should have 10-15 percent of the aggregate passing a No. 100 sieve. Most field insulating concretes are made with pre- soaked aggregate. Since the specified proportions are based on dry materials, the actual batch mixes may require correction. Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS --`,,,,````,``,``,`,,,``,`,``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 547R-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE 4.3.2 Heat resistant concrete - This concrete is gen- erally used in the range 930 F (500 C) to 1650 F (900 C). Many coarse aggregates are unsuitable for use as refractory aggregates because they contain quartz, which has a large volume change at 1065 F (575 C) . 4.4 Water content A majority of the aggregates used in refractory and heat resistant concretes have high water absorb- ency. For this reason specific water/cement ratios are generally not used in developing mix designs. In- stead, water requirements are arrived at by period- ically conducting a ball-in-hand test (ASTM C860). This test is illustrated in Fig. 4.4. The correct water content is that which will provide a placeable, rather than a pourable, mix. When using well-soaked aggre- gates, it may be necessary to add little or no water at the mixer. It is sometimes found that a mixture which appears fairly stiff when discharged from the mixer will yield excess water as the concrete is placed. Chapter 5 - Installation 5.1 Introduction Regardless of the quality of the refractory cement, aggregate, and/or castable, and regardless of the re- search devoted to the selection of correct materials for a specific application, maximum service life will not be obtained unless the refractory concrete is in- stalled properly. The most frequently used methods of installing re- fractory concretes are casting and shotcreting. 5.2 Casting 5.2.1 Mixing - Proper mixing of castables is of pri- mary importance. Care should be taken to avoid mixing previously hydrated material into fresh re- fractory concrete. Mixers, tools and transporting equipment used previously with portland or other type cement concretes must be cleaned prior to mix- Deg c 60 80 h 0 Cured 24h 0 Drled 230 F - 24h (110 C) 0 Dried, Fast Fired 2012 F (11 00 C) (ASTM 268-70) 0 1 I 1 I I I I I 1 32 68 104 140 176 Deg F 24h CURE Temperature >90% R. H. DEG F Fig. 5.2.3 - Flexural strength of tabular alumina, high purity cement castable (ASTM C268) ing. Remains of lime, plaster, or portland cement will induce flash set and will lower refractoriness. Generally, paddle mixers are used for small to me- dium size jobs involving calcium aluminate cement concretes. In a paddle mixer, normal weight refrac- tory concretes should be mixed for about 2 to 4 min. Refractory concretes of less than 60 lbs/cu ft (960 kg/m 3 ) density should be mixed no longer than nec- essary to insure thorough wetting. This precaution is necessary because the lightweight aggregate may break-up during the mixing action and reduce the ef- fectiveness of the concrete as a heat insulator. Re- fractory concretes in the 75 to 90 lb/cu ft (1200-1400 kg/m 3 ) range should be mixed for approximately 2 to 5 min. Because working time may be short, all castables should be cast immediately after mixing. 5.2.3 Mixing and curing temperature - Mixing and curing temperature can affect the type of hydrates formed in set concrete. A castable develops its hy- draulic bond because of chemical reactions between the calcium aluminate cement and water. To get the maximum benefits from these chemical reactions, it is preferable to form the stable C3AH6 during the initial curing period. The relative amount of C3AH6 formed versus metastable CAH10 and C2AH8 can be directly related to the temperature at which the chemical reactions take place. Recent work illustrates the significant impact of mixing and curing temperatures on strength proper- ties. Fig. 5.2.3 34 shows the flexural strength of a tabular alumina, high purity cement castable plotted as a function of mixing and curing temperatures. It can be seen that the strength developed after mix- ing and curing at 85 F (30 C) and drying at 230 F (110 C) is nearly twice that of the concrete mixed and cured at 60 F (15 C) and dried at 230 F. Explosive spalling of high purity cement concretes can occur when casting and curing temperatures be- low 70 F (21 C) are used. Thus, a refractory concrete containing a high purity cement should be cast or cured above 70 F (21 C). This spalling phenomenon is less likely to occur with low or intermediate purity cement binders. 5.2.4 Transporting - Other than shotcreting and pumping, the techniques for transporting refractory concretes are similar to those used for portland ce- ment concrete. Some calcium aluminate cement bind- ers have a shorter placing time available. 5.3 Shotcreting Shotcreting of refractory concrete is particularly ef- fective where, (1) forms are impractical, (2) access is difficult, (3) thin layers and/or variable thicknesses are required, or (4) normal casting techniques cannot be employed. 5.3.1 Equipment - There are two basic types of shotcrete methods: dry-mix and wet-mix. The dry- mix method conveys the aggregate and binder pneu- matically to the nozzle in an essentially dry state where water is added in a spray. The wet-mix method conveys the aggregate, binder and a pre- determined amount of water, either pneumatically or under pressure, to the nozzle where compressed air is used to increase the velocity of impact. The dry method, though it produces greater rebound, is the Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - REFRACTORY most suitable and recommended technique for shot- creting refractory concrete. An exception is the rec- + ommended use of a wet-mix gun for hot patching. 5.3.2 Installation - To ensure a uniform covering free of laminations and with minimum rebound, the nozzleman should move the nozzle in a small circular ) orbit and where possible, maintain the flow from a 3- 4 ft (0.9-1.2 m) distance at right angles to the receiv- ing surface. 35 5 The shotcrete should be left in its as- placed state. If for some reason scraping or finishing is required, the absolute minimum should be done so as to avoid breaking the bond or creating surface cracks. Shotcreting of refractory concretes can in- crease the in-place density and result in other changes in the physical properties. This effect is more pronounced in lower density castables, and must be taken into account when specifying thick- nesses and material quantities for insulating appli- cations. The user should be aware that certain as- pects of portland cement concrete shotcrete practice do not apply to refractory shotcrete. 5.4 Pumping and extruding Certain refractory concretes can be installed with positive displacement pumps in conjunction with rigid or flexible pipelines. The design of the mix is critical, and special attention must be given to the absorptive characteristics and sizing of the aggre- gate. Some applicators use the term extruding to de- scribe the conveying and placing of refractory con- crete at velocities that are very low or close to zero on exit from the pipeline. When extruding, mixing of the refractory castable and water can be done inter- nally or externally depending on type of extruding device. 5.5 Pneumatic gun casting Pneumatic gun casting, or gun casting, is a rela- tively new technique for casting concrete and is find- ing increased uses for refractory concrete. Con- ventional dry shotcrete equipment and procedures are utilized with the exception that an energy reduc- ing device is attached to the nozzle body in place of the standard shotcrete nozzle tip. 5.8 Finishing Surface finishing or rubbing of refractory concretes should be kept at a minimum. Use of a steel trowel should be avoided, and the final surface can be lightly screeded to grade but should not be worked in any manner. Chapter 6 - Curing, drying, firing 8,16,17,18 6.1 Introduction Refractory concrete should be properly cured for at least the first 24 hr. Following this curing it should be dried at 220 F (105 C), and then heated slowly un- til the combined water has been removed before heating at a more rapid rate. 6.2 Bond mechanisms Calcium aluminate cements have anhydrous mineral phases which react with water to form alumina gel CONCRETE 547R-9 CA > 95 F (35 C) I\ a) CA 2 Reaction Products of CA CA H 10 + A H 3 + H Reaction Products of CA 2 The cement chemistry abbreviations: C A = CaO = Al 2 O 3 H = H 2 O Fig. 6.2 - Hydration reaction products of calcium aluminates 195 and crystalline compounds which function as a binder for the concrete. 20,21 The hydration of these cements (Fig. 6.2) is exothermic. The rate of the chemical reaction is relatively fast. 22 For all practical purposes, calcium aluminate concretes will develop full strength within 24 hr of mixing. The total drying shrinkage of calcium aluminate cement concretes in air, is comparable to that of portland cement concrete. In order to provide for complete hydration, and to control drying shrinkage, special attention must be given to the curing of ref- ractory concretes. 6.3 Curing The temperature of hardening calcium cement rises rapidly. If the exposed surfaces are not kept damp, the cement on the surface may dry out before it can be properly hydrated. The application of curing wa- ter prevents the surface from becoming dry and fur- nishes water for hydration. In addition, the evapo- ration has a cooling effect which helps to dissipate the heat of hydration. Conversion of the high alumina cement hydrates, which occurs if the cement is allowed to develop ex- cessive heat, does not present the same problem in refractory concretes that it does in high alumina ce- ment concretes used for structural purposes. It has been shown that if refractory concrete is fully con- verted by allowing it to harden in hot water and then heated to 2500 F (1370 C), the fired strength is equal to that obtained for well cured concrete. When possible, however, refractory concrete should be Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - 547R-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE kept cool by appropriate curing under 210 F (99 C) for two reasons: l The entire refractory concrete structure does not usually reach the maximum service temperature, and the higher cold strengths obtained by good cur- ing may be useful in the cooler portions of the re- fractory. l If the temperature within the concrete reaches a high level during hardening, the thermal stresses produced during cooling may be sufficient to cause cracking. Curing should start as soon as the surface is firm. Under normal atmospheric temperatures, this will occur within 4 to 10 hr after mixing the concrete. The concrete should be kept moist for 24 hr by cov- ering with wet burlap, by fine spraying or by using a curing membrane. Alternate wetting and drying can be detrimental to the cure of the concrete. When using a curing membrane, the compound should contain a resin and not a wax base, and should be applied to the surface as soon as possible after placing and screeding. The reason for dis- couraging the use of wax is that a hot surface will melt the wax, causing it to be absorbed into the con- crete, breaking the membrane. 6.4 Drying The large amount of free water in the refractory concrete necessitates a drying period before expo- sure to operating temperatures. Otherwise, the for- mation of steam may lead to explosive spalling dur- ing firing. 6.5 Firing Following drying of the refractory concrete, the first heat-up should be at a reasonably slow rate. A typi- cal firing schedule, for a 9 in. (22.9 cm) thick lining, consists of applying a slow heat by gradually bring- ing the temperature up to 220 F (105 C), and holding for at least 6 hr. The temperature is then raised at a rate of 50-100 F (10-40 C) per hr up to 1000 F (540 C) and again held for at least 6 hr. The first hold is to allow remaining free water to evaporate, and the second hold is to eliminate the combined wa- ter without danger of spalling. Beyond 1900 F (540 C), the temperature of the re- fractory concrete can be raised more rapidly. Calcin- ing of the green concrete into a refractory structure will take place between 1600 F (820 C) and 2500 F (1370 C). Wall thickness and mix variations may re- quire somewhat different rates of heating, but the hold temperatures should remain at least 6 hr. If steam is observed during heat-up, the temper- ature should be held until steam is no longer visible. Cbapter 7 - Properties of Normal Weight Refractory Concretes 7.1 Introduction There are various physical properties and tests which are standard in the refractory industry and these are usually provided in the material specifica- tions. Table 2.la is an example of typical data for normal weight refractory concrete. 7.2 Maximum service temperature The recommended maximum service temperature will normally assume that the castable will be used in a clean, oxidizing atmosphere, such as is present when firing with natural gas. The maximum service temperature is usually determined as the point above which excessive shrinkage will take place. It is about 150-200 F (70-90 C) below the actual soft- ening point of the concrete. If a fuel has solid impurities, such as in coals or heavy fuel oils, or if the solids or dust in the process contact the refractory, the maximum permissible service temperature will usually be considerably re- duced. Solid impurities can react with the concrete and produce compounds of lower melting point which melt and run. This is generally referred to as slagging. The lower softening point thus represents a limit for the operating temperature. Slag forming reactions usually do not occur below about 2500 F (1320 C) except in the presence of alkalies where re- actions can occur in the 1900-2000 F (1040-1090 C) range. A reducing atmosphere can lower the melting point and hence the maximum operating temper- ature by 100-200 F (40-90 C) if sufficient quantities of iron compounds are present in the refractory. 3 7.4 Shrinkage and expansion In discussing shrinkage and expansion of a refrac- tory concrete, it is important to define the dis- tinction between the independent effects of per- manent shrinkage or expansion and reversible thermal expansion. Permanent change is determined by measuring a specimen at room temperature, heat- ing it to a specified temperature, cooling to room temperature, and remeasuring it. The difference be- tween the two measurements is the permanent change, which occurs during the first heating cycle. Subsequent heating to the same or lower temper- ature will have little or no additional effect on the permanent change. Heating to a higher temperature may cause some additional permanent change. Reversible thermal expansion of a specimen which has been previously stabilized against further per- manent change, is the dimensional change as a speci- men is heated. Upon cooling, the specimen contracts to its original size. At any given temperature, the net dimensional change of a refractory concrete is the sum of the re- versible expansion and the permanent shrinkage cor- responding to the highest temperature to which the castable has been heated. 7.4.1 Permanent shrinkage and expansion - The ini- tial heating of a refractory concrete usually causes shrinkage. At higher temperatures permanent ex- pansion can occur. This effect, which varies with the maximum temperature attained, must be considered with reversible thermal expansion when calculating the net expansion (or shrinkage) at service temper- ature. The ASTM rating of castables is based on no more than 1.5 percent permanent linear shrinkage occurring at prescribed temperatures (ASTM C64 and C401). Most normal weight refractory concretes will have less than 0.5 percent permanent linear shrinkage after firing at 2000 F (1090 C). Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - REFRACTORY CONCRETE 547-11 The permanent change appears as cracks after the first firing. These cracks will generally be about 2-3 ft (0.6-0.9 m) on centers, and may vary, depending on the concrete thickness and the anchor spacing. Usually, the width of the cracks at room temper- ature is partly dependent on the permanent shrink- age. Normally, the cracks will be tightly closed at operating temperatures. Such cracking, which may start during drying, is to be expected and will not adversely affect the service performance of the re- fractory. 7.4.2 Reversible thermal expansion - The reversible thermal expansion of most refractory concretes is approximately 3 x 10 -6 in./in./F (5 x 10 -6 cm/cm/CL However, the expansion coefficient may be as high as 4 x 10 -6 in./in./F (7 x 10 -6 cm/cm/C) for high alu- mina concretes and to 5 x 10 -6 in./in. /F (9 x 10 -6 cm/cm/C) for chrome castables. Fig. 7.4.2 shows typical length changes due to permanent shrinkage and reversible expansion. 7.5 Strength 7.5.1 Modulus of rupture - Modulus of rupture is measured by means of a flexure test and is consid- ered as a measure of tensile strength (ASTM C268). The extreme fiber tensile strength calculated from this test will be 50 to 100 percent higher than the tensile strength derived from a straight pull test. Typical modulus of rupture values are 300 to 1500 psi (2.07-10.4 MPa). Shotcreting can increase modu- lus of rupture values by up to 50 percent. Fig. 7.5 shows typical trends of modulus of rup- ture strength versus temperature. 7.5.2 Cold compressive strength (crushing) - The test is ordinarily run on 9 x 4 1 / 2 x 2 1 / 2 in. (22.9 x 11.4 x 6.4 cm) specimens 9 in. (22.9 cm) straights in brick terminology with pressure applied to the smallest. surface (ASTM C133). Failure in this test is gener- ally due to shear. Crushing strengths vary from 1000 to 8000 psi (6.9 to 55.2 MPa). Typically, compressive strengths are three to four times greater than modulus of rupture values. 7.6 Thermal conductivity For normal weight refractory concretes, thermal conductivity tends to vary with density. Typical val- ues (k factors) range from about 5 Btu-in./sq ft -hr-F (72 W -cm/m 2 -C) for 120 pcf (1920 kg/m 3 ) material to about 10 Btu-in./sq ft -hr -F (144 W-cm/m 2 -C) for 160 pcf (2560 kg/m 3 ) material. There is usually an in- crease in thermal conductivity with temperature. 7.10 Specific beat The specific heat of a refractory concrete increases with temperature from about 0.20 Btu/lb/F (837 J/ kg-C) at 100 F (40 C) to about 0.29 Btu/lb/F (1210 J/ kg-C) at 2500 F (1370 C). This can vary plus or minus 0.025 units, depending on the aggregate. Chapter 8 - Properties of lightweight refractory concretes 8.1 Introduction Refractory concretes are widely used as insulating materials. They have a wide range of densities (20 to Deg C 4;. 260 540 820 1090 _____ | | | | -0.2 INITIAL COOLING AND SUBSEQUENT CYCLING 00 500 1000 1500 2000 Temperature Deg F Fig. 7.4.2 - Net thermal expansion of a typical re- fractory concrete 100 pcf (320 to 1600 kg/m 3 ) and can be formulated to have high maximum service temperatures and rela- tively high strengths. This often allows the use of these materials as single component, exposed service linings. Table 2.lb shows physical property values for typ- ical lightweight refractory concretes. 8.4 Shrinkage and expansion The reversible thermal expansion of lightweight con- cretes will vary from 2.5 x 10 -6 to 3.5 x 1O - 6 in./in./F (4.5 x l0 -6 cm/cm/C) Because of compensating per- manent shrinkage, the thermal expansion of light- weight refractory concrete is normally insignificant and is usually ignored in the design of lightweight refractory concrete systems. 8.5 Strength Strengths of lightweight refractory concrete are measured by both a modulus of rupture and a crush- ing test. 8.5.1 Modulus of rupture - Typical values range from approximately 50 (0.3 MPa) to 400 psi (2.8 MPa). Deg C 100 260 540 820 1090 1370 -1 ---I----w 212 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Temperature Deg F Fig. 7.5 - Effect of temperature on modulus of rup- ture Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - 547R-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE TABLE 8.5.1 - Hot and cold modulus of rupture of a 2800F (1538C) lightweight refractory concrete containing expanded fireclay aggregate 230F (110C) 1 0 0 0 F (538C) 1500F (816C) 2000F (1093C) 2500F (1371C) 2700F (1482C) Modulus of rupture, psi (MPa) (Hot tested (Cold tested after at temperature) firing and cooling) -___----- 350 (2.4) 350 (2.4) 300 (2.1) N.D.* 250 (1.7) 250 (1.7) 210 (1.4) 225 (1.6) 240 (1.7) 470 (3.2) 90 (0.6) 800 (5.5) *N.D. = Not Determined Table 8.5.1 shows the difference between the cold and hot modulus of rupture for a typical 2800 F (1540 C) lightweight refractory concrete. 8.6.2 Cold compressive strength (crushing) - Cold crushing strengths vary from 200-500 psi (1.4-3.5 MPa) for lightweight refractory concretes with den- sities up to 50 pcf (800 kg/m 3 ). For materials having densities in the 75-100 pcf (1200-1600 kg/m 3 ) range, the cold crushing strength varies from 1000-2500 psi (6.9-17-3 MPa). 8.6 Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity is one of the most important physical properties of a lightweight refractory con- crete and is controlled primarily by the density of the concrete. For hydraulically bonded, alumina-si- lica concretes, a usable correlation exists between concrete density [after drying at 230 F (110 C)] and the thermal conductivity (k factor). Typically, the thermal conductivity for insulating concretes ranges from 1 to 4 Btu-in./sq ft-hr-F (0.1 to 0.6 W/M 2 -C). 8.10 Specific Heat The specific heat of a lightweight refractory con- crete is approximately the same as that of normal weight concrete. The range is from 0.2 Btu/lb/F (837 J/kg-Cl at 100 F (40 C) to approximately 0.3 Btu/lb/F (1255 J/kg-C) at 2500 F (1370 C). Chapter 9 - Construction details 8.1 Introduction Construction details are an important ingredient in the successful application of refractory concrete. Proper design details and careful implementation are essential, and parameters such as support structure integrity, forms, anchors, and construction joints have a major influence on the overall quality and performance of refractory concrete installations. 8.2 Support structure Normally, refractory concrete is permanently sup- ported by a back-up structure. The support material is usually bolted or welded steel which, prior to in- stallation of the refractory concrete, should be checked to ensure that there is no warpage and that all joints are structurally sound and tight. 8.3 Forms Both metal and wood forms are used for refractory concrete. 9.4 Anchors 41,44,45,46 An anchor is a device used to hold refractory con- crete in a stable position while counteracting the ef- fects of dead loads, thermal stressing and cycling, and mechanical vibration. Anchors and anchoring systems are not designed to function as reinforce- ment. Anchors are produced as alloy steel rods or cast- ings, and prefired refractory ceramic shapes. The re- quirements of a particular installation will determine the type and positioning of anchors. Typical factors to be considered are: unit size, wall thickness, num- ber of refractory concrete components, area of appli- cation, and service temperature. 9.4.1 Metal anchors - The most frequently used metal anchors are V-clips, studs, and castings. How- ever, in special applications, welded wire fabric, hex steel and chain link fencing are used. Generally, metal anchors are extended from the cold face for 2 / 3 to 3 / 4 of the lining thickness and are staggered to avoid formation of planes of weakness. Metal V-clips, stud anchors and castings are avail- able in carbon steel, Type 304 stainless alloy, Type 310 stainless alloy, and other suitable alloys. The choice of material depends on the temperature to which the anchors will be exposed. Carbon steel can be used for anchor temperatures of up to 1000 F (540 C). Type 304 stainless is suitable for anchor temperatures of up to 1800 F (980 C) and Type 310 stainless is adequate up to 2000 F (1095 C). Depend- ing on the grade of alloy, alloy steel castings can sustain a maximum temperature of between 1500 F (815 C) and 2000 F (1095 C). 9.4.2 Pre-fired refractory anchors (ceramic anchors) - The principal use of ceramic anchors is to anchor refractory plastic, rather than refractory concrete. However, ceramic anchors are used in areas where refractory concrete is subjected to high service tem- perature. In addition, they are sometimes used as a substitute for metal anchors where concrete thick- nesses are 9 in. (230 mm), or greater. Ceramic anchors usually are composed of refrac- tory aggregates, clays, and binders. They are me- Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - REFRACTORY CONCRETE 547R-13 chanically pressed into shapes which provide for at- tachment to either the wall or roof and are ribbed to aid in securing the refractory concrete. Ceramic an- chors are pre-fired at elevated temperature to pro- vide a strong, dense structure. Depending on the composition, service conditions, and other factors, ceramic anchors are available with maximum service temperature ratings of up to 3200 F (1760 C). Ceramic anchors are attached to structural wall or roof supports by bolts and/or metal support cast- ings. In order to minimize the tendency of the re- fractory concrete to sheet spall, the hot face of the ceramic anchor should extend to the hot face of the refractory concrete. 9.4.6.1 Thin single component linings. Plain metal chain link fencing is often used to anchor single com- ponent linings, less than 2 in. (50 mm) thick, com- posed of lightweight or medium weight refractory concrete and exposed to low to moderate mechanical stresses and/or service temperatures. 9.4.5.2 Single component linings up to 9 in. (230 mm) thick. Normally, single component linings 2 in. (50 mm) to 9 in. (230 mm) thick, composed entirely of lightweight, medium weight or normal weight re- fractory concrete, and exposed to moderate stresses and service temperatures use metal anchors. 9.4.5.3 Single component linings greater than 9 in. (230 mm) thick. Normal weight refractory concrete linings, greater than 9 in. (230 mm) thick, utilize ei- ther ceramic or metal anchors. The type of anchor chosen will depend on the operating parameters. 9.4.5.4 Roofs. Two types of anchor systems, internal and external, are used for single component roofs. The choice depends on roof thickness and on con- struction and design preferences. 9.4.5.5 Multicomponent linings. Multicomponent lin- ings of 9 in. (230 mm) or less in thickness which are subjected to moderate service temperatures and me- chanical stresses should employ metal anchors. Multicomponent linings of 9 in. (230 mm) or greater thickness, composed of a combination of lightweight or medium weight refractory concrete as back-up in conjunction with a normal weight refrac- tory concrete, can use a combination of ceramic and metal anchors. With multicomponent shotcrete linings, the back- up component is applied directly to the shell and provisions must be made either to protect the an- chor (metal or ceramic) from rebound build-up, or to clean the anchor after placing of the back-up layer. Rebound build-up can destroy the grip between the heavy weight refractory concrete and the ceramic anchor. 9.5 Reinforcement and metal embedment The use of steel as a reinforcement should be avoided. In general, the metal will cause cracking due to the differential expansion, caused by temper- ature or oxidation, between the metal and concrete. For the same reason heavy metal objects such as bolts, pipes, etc. should never be embedded in re- fractory concrete. 8.6 Joints 37,48 In cast installations, construction joints occur at the junction of walls and roofs or where large place- ments are broken into separate sections. Cold joints of this type will not bond and should be avoided where it is necessary to contain liquid or gases. It is often necessary to include a provision for ex- pansion. Expansion joints can be formed by inserting materials such as wood, cardboard, expanded poly- styrene or ceramic fiber in the appropriate location. Shotcrete installations require construction joints at transitions between materials, or when appli- cation must be curtailed due to shift changes or ma- terial supply. In these cases, the in situ refractory concrete should be trimmed back to produce a clean edge perpendicular to the shell. Expansion com- pensating materials are not generally inserted into this type of joint. If a joint edge is allowed to stand for a prolonged period of time (more than 4 hr), it should be thoroughly moistened before any new ma- terial is applied. Chapter 10 - Repair 10.1 Introduction Repair of refractory concrete should be considered only when economics dictate that cost and downtime do not justify complete replacement. Before under- taking a repair, an effort should be made to deter- mine the cause of the previous failure. If possible, the design and/or construction details should be modified to reduce the possibility of a recurrence of failure and to prolong service life between repairs. Hot repair techniques are valuable for minimizing downtime and for extending an operating run until a scheduled shutdown. Hot repairs are especially suit- able for temporary repairs of localized failures and hot spots. 10.2 Failure mechanisms Some of the phenomena that can cause failure are: (1) Thermal stress and thermal shock; (2) Exposure to excessive temperatures; (3) Mechanical loading; (4) Erosion and abrasion: (5) Corrosive environments; (6) Anchorage failures and (7) Operational problems or upsets. 10.3 Surface preparation When the installation to be repaired is made of mor- tar or concrete, it is important to prepare the sur- face of the old material so that a mechanical bond will be formed between it and the new refractory concrete. No significant chemical bond will be formed, and adhesion of the repair material must de- pend primarily on the mechanical bond. Preparation of the surface requires removal of all deteriorated or spalled materials and roughening of the exposed sound surface of the old concrete. In all cases, the chipping of old material must leave a flat base, and square shoulders approximately perpendicular to the hot face, completely around the perimeter of the re- pair section. If this is done properly, there is no need to chamfer the edges or provide fillets to walls and floors. Once initial removal of loose concrete has Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - 547R-14 been completed, the old refractory should be sounded with bars or hammers to make certain only sound material remains. Areas that were not chipped should be thoroughly sandblasted to remove any traces of soot, grease, oil or other substances that could interfere with the bond. Excess sand and loose debris must then be blown from the surface with compressed air. Par- ticular care must be taken to remove any debris from around the anchors. 10.4 Anchoring and bonding If possible, patches should be anchored with a min- imum of two anchors which should be solidly at- tached to the shell. In cases where this is impossible, anchors should be solidly embedded in the old re- fractory. Ceramic anchors should extend to the hot face of the new refractory concrete. Otherwise, sheet spalling may occur. If metal anchors are used, they should be brought as close as possible to the hot face. The distance will depend on the metal- lurgy of the anchors and the thermal conductivity of the concrete. Where anchors are not practical, or repairs are shallow, mechanical bonding will be aided by cutting chases or keyways in a waffle pattern across the en- tire surface of the repair section and by slightly un- dercutting the existing refractory. In certain limited applications, where other means are not available, the bond may be improved by pre- coating the surface to be repaired with a bonding agent. When repairing refractory concrete with a similar cast-in-place material pre-wetting is required, and use of a neat calcium aluminate cement slurry may improve bonding. 10.5 Repair materials A wide range of repair products is available for re- pairing refractory concrete. However, it is usually best to use a material similar to that being repaired. Refractory concrete is frequently used as a repair material and performs satisfactorily in many situa- tions. Among the other available repair materials are the following: 1. Air setting mortars; 2. Phosphate-bonded and clay-based heat-setting mortars; 3. Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concrete; (Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concrete will gener- ally exhibit superior resistance to cracking and abra- sion. However, the fibers will not perform well if the temperatures to which they are exposed induce oxi- dation. If the conditions are such that the fiber-rein- forced system is above the oxidizing, but below the melting temperature of the particular fibers being used, it is possible that they may still be utilized, de- pending on the temperature gradient through the concrete, the furnace atmosphere, the permeability of the concrete, the severity and frequency of tem- perature cycles, the exposure time at maximum tem- perature, and the mechanical loading.) 4. Plastic refractories and ramming mixes; and 5. Hot repair materials. Some of the repair mate- rials used for hot patching contain calcium aluminate cement as the principal binder, however, most do not. The latter utilize non-hydraulic and chemical binders (see Section 1.6.4). Since these materials are intended for temporary repairs, they may not have service life or properties equivalent to those in the original lining. While field mixes can be used for hot gunning, most applications use proprietary (prepackaged) ma- terials which are specially designed for specific con- ditions of installation. Some manufacturers have de- signed special spray or gunning equipment and maintenance programs to install their hot repair ma- terials on a planned basis. 10.6 Repair techniques 10.6.2 Refractory concrete - When a refractory con- crete is selected to effect repairs, the type of place- ment procedure must insure that the full thickness of the repair section is installed in as short a time as possible, preferably in a single lift. When refractory concrete is placed by the shot- crete method, certain precautions must be fol- lowed. 35 The area being repaired must be delineated in advance so that the concrete can be shot to the full section depth or thickness before any layer de- velops an initial set. It is important that the refractory concrete be cured properly during the 24-hr period following placement (see Section 6.3). After the concrete has been moist-cured for 24 hr, drying and firing can be initiated (see Sections 6.4 and 6.5). Speeding up the moist-curing, drying and firing can result in a marked reduction in the physical properties and life of the repair. 10.6.3 Plastic and ramming mixes - A refractory mortar coating may be used to improve bonding when repairing refractory concrete with a plastic or ramming mix. In order to achieve high density and prevent laminations, it is recommended that plastic refractories be installed by the pneumatic ramming method using a steel wedge-type head. The basic pattern of ramming should be to build up layers of plastic on top of the backing wall. The plastic is placed in strips and laid at right angles to the forms. It is important to angle the pneumatic rammer so that the strips are driven against the form, and side- ways against the previously installed material. The repaired area should be trimmed to a rough surface for more uniform drying. Moisture escape holes should be made by inserting a 1/ 8 in. (3 mm) diameter pointed rod, approx- imately two-thirds of the depth of the material, on approximately 6 in. (150 mm) centers. In order to prevent formation of an outer skin, which can seal in moisture, a short period of forced drying of air-set- ting plastic refractories is desirable. Excessive tem- perature or direct flame impingement, which will seal the surface and prevent escape of moisture, must be avoided. The following heat-curing procedure has been found to give good results with plastic and ramming mixes: Remove all free moisture at a temperature of not over 250 F (120 C). Following removal of free and absorbed moisture, raise the temperature at a rate of 75-100 F (42-56 C) /hr until the desired oper- Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - ating temperature is reached. If steam is observed during heat-up, hold the present temperature until it stops. Whenever possible, repairs using plastic mixes should be carried out immediately prior to heat-up. A properly burned-in plastic will exhibit less crack- ing than a plastic exposed to lengthy air drying. 10.6.4 Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concrete 10.6.4.1 Cast-in-place mixes. A problem with steel fi- bers is their tendency to ball-up. Clusters of fibers can be broken up by hand feeding or shaking of the sieve before addition to the concrete mix. In some cases, vibration will tighten up the fiber clusters and it is not a recommended method of fiber dispersal. The addition of steel fibers tends to reduce the workability of the mix. Normally, this can be over- come by internal or external vibration. Use of addi- tional water is not recommended since this will de- grade cured strength and increase the porosity. 10.6.4.2 Shotcrete mixes. Steel fiber reinforced re- fractory concretes can be shot into place by either the wet or dry process. Fiber lengths approaching the internal diameter of the material hose or nozzle can be shot successfully. Because rebound of the fi- bers can be dangerous, the nozzleman and support crew should wear protective clothing when dry shooting with steel fibers. 10.6.5 Hot repair procedures - Hot repair pro- cedures are based on standard shotcreting tech- nology. However, because of the high temperatures, certain differences are necessary. Compared to nor- mal shotcreting, the high temperatures require a specially designed nozzle and an excessive amount of water in the mix in order to insure proper delivery, impingement, compaction, and material retention. Hot shotcreting requires that the nozzleman and a helper stand outside the furnace and manually or mechanically manipulate an extended nozzle or lance within the furnace. Special ports or openings must be provided in the furnace for proper access. The length, size, and design of the nozzle depends on the furnace configuration, temperature, and type of application. In general, the best bonds are achieved when the vessel interior is a red or orange color (1500-1700 F (815-925 C)]. The refractory concrete repair must be allowed to heat-cure prior to placing the unit back in service. The length of time to accomplish this, al- though usually brief, will depend on the temperature at the time of repair, the type of material used for the repair, and the thickness of the installed mate- rial. Chapter 11- Applications 11.1 Introduction Refractory concretes are currently used in a wide variety of industrial applications where pyroprocess- ing or thermal containment is required. Because there are literally hundreds of refractory concretes available, it is impossible to discuss every composi- tion and its application. Accordingly, only the more important applications, where refractory concretes have been used successfully, are reviewed. Included in the review are the following industries: (a) Iron and steel (b)lNon-ferrous metal (c)lPetrochemical (d)lCeramic processing (e)lGlass (f) Steam power generation (g) Aerospace (h)lNuclear (i) Gas production (j) MHD power generation (k) Lightweight aggregate (l) Incinerator (m) Cement and lime Chapter 12 -New development and future use of refractory concrete 12.1 Introduction Traditionally, developments in the refractories in- dustry have been closely related to the process in- dustries, the primary customers for the product. In recent years, there have been marked changes in the production and use of refractories. A number of factors have contributed to these changes includ- ing: (a) development of new and improved industrial processes, (b) demand for higher temperatures and increased production rates associated with the above devel- opments, (c) improvement in the quality of refractory prod- ucts and increased use of different types of refrac- tories, especially the monolithic castables and, (d) increased technical knowledge of the service behavior of refractory materials. With these technological advancements, in- vestigations into the use of refractory concretes for special applications is increasing. Typical of these new and proposed applications are incinerators, coal gasification plants, chemical process plants, steel plants, and foundries. 12.2 New developments 12.2.1 Steel fibers 187,188,189,191 - The following poten- tial advantages are offered by the use of steel-fiber reinforcement in monolithic construction: (a) improved flexural strength at ambient and ele- vated temperatures, (b) improved thermal and mechanical stress resis- tance, (c) improved thermal shock resistance, (d) improved spall resistance, and (e) improved load-carrying ability. However, degradation of the steel fibers at high temperature can occur under service conditions and, therefore, limit the full potential of these materials. Note: See References 197 through 205. 12.2.2 Shotcrete - The use of shotcrete for new re- fractory construction and for repairs is a rapidly growing field and successful results have been achieved in many applications. 12.2.3 Precast shapes - Increasingly, precast shapes are being used for special conditions and this trend will continue. Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - 547R-16 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTI CE 12.3 Research requirements Unfortunately, selection and use of refractory con- cretes is still considered an art and, with a few ex- ceptions, the properties of refractory concretes are not utilized in rational design schemes. In many in- stances, the wrong properties are being measured or the available data are not being used correctly. Future research efforts should be directed to- wards obtaining a better understanding of the be- havior of refractory concretes under service condi- tions. Increased emphasis will be placed on elevated temperature properties and how they are influenced by such factors as proportioning, grading and compo sition. Areas of needed research include the following: (a) Dimensional stability (b) Chemical attack (c) Mechanical properties (d) Property measurements and tests (e) Process conditions (f) Rational design procedures References 1. ACI Committee 116, Cement and Concrete Terminol- ogy, SP-19, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1967, 146 pp. 2. Van Schoeck, Emily C., Editor, Ceramic Glossary, American Ceramic Society, Columbus, 1963. 3. Norton, F. H., Refractories, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1968, 782 pp. 5. Robson, T. D., High Alumina Cements and Concretes, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1962, 263 pp. 20. Chatterji, S., and Jeffry, J. W., Microstructure of Set High-Alumina Cement Pastes, Transactions, British Ceramic Society (London), V. 67, May 1968, pp. 171-183. 21. Midgley, H. G., The Mineralogy of Set High-Alu- mina Cement, Transactions, British Ceramic Society (Lon- don), 1966, pp. 161-187. 22. Wygant, J. F., Cementitious Bonding in Ceramic Fabrication, Ceramic Fabrication Processes, W. D. King ery, Editor, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1958, pp. 171-198. 34. Givan, G. V.; Hart, L. D.; Heilich, R. P.; and Mac- Zura, G., Curing and Firing High Purity Calcium Alumi- nate Bonded Tabular Alumina Castables, American Ce- ramic Society Bulletin, V. 54, No. 8, 1975, pp. 710-713. 35. Shotcreting, SP-14, American Concrete Institute, De- troit, 1966, 223 pp. 41. Wygant, J. F., and Crowley, M. S., Designing Mon- olithic Refractory Vessel Linings, American Ceramic So- ciety Bulletin, V. 3, No. 3, 1964, pp. 173-182. 44. Crowley, M. S., Failure Mechanism of Two-Com- ponent Lining for Flue-Gas Dust, American Ceramic So- ciety Bulletin, V. 47, No. 5, 1968, pp. 481-483. 45. Crowley, M. S., Metal Anchors for Refractory Con- cretes, American Ceramic Society Bulletin, V. 45, No. 7, 1966, pp. 650-652. 46. Vaughn, S. H., Jr., Guidelines for Selection of Mon- olithic Refractory Anchoring Systems, Iron and Steel En- gineer, May 1972, p. 64. 187. Lankard, D. R., and Sheets, H. D., Use of Steel Wire Fibers in Refractory Castables, American Ceramic Society Bulletin, V. 50, No. 5, 1971, pp. 497500. 188. Lankard, D. R.; Bundy, G. B.; and Sheets, H. D., Strengthening Refractory Concrete, Industrial Process Heating (London), V. 13, No. 3, Mar. 1973. pp. 34-47. 189. Lankard, D. R., Steel Fiber Reinforced Refractory Concrete, Refractory Concrete, SP-57, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1978, pp. 241-263. 191. Fowler, T. J., Lessons Learned from Refractory Concrete Failures, Refractory Concrete, SP-57, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1978, pp. 283-303. 195. Tseung, A. L. L., and Carruthers, T. G., Refrac- tory Concretes Based on Pure Calcium Aluminate Ce- ments, Transactions, British Ceramic Society (London), V. 62, 1963, pp. 305-321. 197. Peterson, J. R., and Vaughan, F. H., Metal Fiber Reinforced Refractory for Petroleum Refinery Applica- tions, Paper No. 51, Presented at Corrosion/80, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Pittsburgh, 1980. 198. Crowley, M. S., Steel Fiber in Refractory Applica- tions, Paper No. MC-81-5. National Petroleum Refiners Association Refinery and Petrochemical Maintenance Con- ference, Pittsburgh, 1981. 199. Venable, C. R., Jr., Refractory Requirements for Ammonia Plants, American Ceramic Society Bulletin, V. 48, No. 12, 1969, pp 1114-1117. 200. Farris, R. E., Refractory Concrete: Installation Problems and Their Identification, 18th Annual Sympo- sium on Refractories-Changes in Refractory Technol- ogy-In Place Forming, American Ceramic Society, St. Louis Section, The Engineers Club, Mar. 12, 1982. 201. MacZura, G.; Hart, L. D.; Heilich, R. P.; and Ko- panda, J. E., Refractory Cements, Ceramic Engineers and Science Proc.-Raw Materials for Refractories Con- ference, (4) 1-2, 1983, pp. 46-67. 202. Standard Recommended Practices for Determin- ing Consistency of Refractory Concretes, (ASTM C 860- 77), 1982 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 932-937. 203. Standard Recommended Practice for Preparing Refractory Concrete Specimens by Casting, (ASTM C 862- 77), 1982 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 940-946. 204. Standard Recommended Practice for Firing Re- fractory Concrete Specimens, (ASTM C 865-77) 1982 An- nual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 949-951. 205. Standard Practice for Preparing Refractory Con- crete Specimens by Cold Gunning, (ASTM C 903-79) 1982 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17, American So- ciety for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 978-979. The complete report was submitted to letter ballot of the com- mittee which consisted of 16 members; 16 members returned af- firmative ballots. The preceding report was a summary. The complete report will be available in May as a separate publication. Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - - I. Leon Glassgold Chairman Henry E. Anthonis Seymour A. Bortz William E. Boyd Khushi R. Chugh REFRACTORY CONCRETE ACI Committee 547 Refractory Concrete Timothy J. Fowler Editor Sidney Diamond William A. Drudy Joseph E. Kopanda Svein Kopfelt David R. Lankard Joseph Heneghan Secretary William S. Netter Richard C. Olson William C. Raisbeck Richard L. Shultz Copyright American Concrete Institute Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100 Not for Resale, 07/26/2007 04:42:01 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS - - ` , , , , ` ` ` ` , ` ` , ` ` , ` , , , ` ` , ` , ` ` , , - ` - ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` - - -