Chapter 1 Basic Networking

Chapter 1 Basic Networking:

Data communication is the transfer of data from one device to another via some
form of transmission medium.
A data communications system must transmit data to the correct destination in an
accurate and timely manner.
The five components that make up a data communications system are the
message, sender, receiver, medium, and protocol.
Tet, num!ers, images, audio, and video are different forms of information.
Data flow !etween two devices can occur in one of three ways" simple, half#
duple, or full#duple.
A network is a set of communication devices connected !y media links.
$n a point#to#point connection, two and only two devices are connected !y a
dedicated link. $n a multipoint connection, three or more devices share a link.
Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network. Devices may
!e arranged in a mesh, star, !us, or ring topology.
A network can !e categori%ed as a local area network &'AN(, a metropolitan#area
network &)AN(, or a wide area network &*AN(.
A 'AN is a data communication system within a !uilding, plant, or campus, or
!etween near!y !uildings.
A )AN is a data communication system covering an area the si%e of a town or
city.
A *AN is a data communication system spanning states, countries, or the whole
world.
An internet is a network of networks.
The $nternet is a collection of many separate networks.
TC+,$+ is the protocol suite for the $nternet.
There are local, regional, national, and international $nternet service providers
&$-+s(.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. the key elements of
a protocol are synta, semantics, and timing.
-tandards are necessary to ensure that products from different manufacturers can
work together as epected.
The $-/, $T0#T, AN-$, $111, and 1$A are some of the organi%ations involved in
standards creation.
2orums are special#interest groups that 3uickly evaluate and standardi%e new
technologies.
A 4e3uest for Comment &42C( is an idea or concept that is a precursor to an
$nternet standard.
$nformation Technology for B.-c. $T -emester 5 +age 6
Chapter 1 Basic Networking
Network Models
The five#layer model provides guidelines for the development of universally
compati!le networking protocols.
The physical, data link, and network layers are the network support layers.
The application layer is the user support layer.
The transport layer links the network support layers and the user support layer.
The physical layer coordinates the functions re3uired to transmit a !it stream over
a physical medium.
The data link layer is responsi!le for delivering data units from one station to the
net without errors.
The network layer is responsi!le for the source#to#destination delivery of a packet
across multiple network links.
The transport layer is responsi!le for the process#to#process delivery of the entire
message.
The application layer ena!les the users to access the network.
Signals
Data must !e transformed into electromagnetic signals prior to transmission
across a network.
Data and signals can !e either analog or digital.
A signal is periodic if it consists of a continuously repeating pattern.
1ach sine wave can !e characteri%ed !y its amplitude, fre3uency, and phase.
2re3uency and period are inverses of each other.
A time#domain graph plots amplitude as a function of time.
A fre3uency#domain graph plots each sine wave7s peak amplitude against its
fre3uency.
By using 2ourier analysis, any composite signal can !e represented as a
com!ination of simple sine waves.
The spectrum of a signal consists of the sine waves that make up the signal.
The !andwidth of a signal is the range of fre3uencies the signal occupies.
Bandwidth is determined !y finding the difference !etween the highest and lowest
fre3uency components.
Bit rate &num!er of !its per second( and !it interval &duration of 1 !it( are terms
used to descri!e digital signals.
A digital signal is a composite signal with an infinite !andwidth.
Bit rate and !andwidth are proportional to each other.
The Ny3uist formula determines the theoretical data rate for a noiseless channel.
$nformation Technology for B.-c. $T -emester 5 +age 8
Chapter 1 Basic Networking
The -hannon capacity determines the theoretical maimum data rate for a noisy
channel.
Attenuation, distortion, and noise can impair a signal.
Attenuation is the loss of a signal7s energy due to the resistance of the medium.
The deci!el measures the relative strength of two signals or a signal at two
different points.
Distortion is the alteration of a signal due to the differing propagation speeds of
each of the fre3uencies that make up a signal.
Noise is the eternal energy that corrupts a signal.
*e can evaluate transmission media !y throughput, propagation speed, and
propagation time.
The wavelength of a fre3uency is defined as the propagation speed divided !y the
fre3uency.
Encoding and Modulation
'ine coding is the process of converting !inary data to a digital signal.
The num!er of different values allowed in a signal is the signal level. The num!er
of sym!ols that represent data is the data level.
Bit rate is a function of the pulse rate and data level.
'ine coding methods must eliminate the dc component and provide a means of
synchroni%ation !etween the sender and the receiver.
'ine coding methods can !e classified as unipolar, polar, or !ipolar.
N49, 49, )anchester, and differential )anchester encoding are the most popular
polar encoding methods.
A)$ is a popular !ipolar encoding method.
Block coding can improve the performance of line coding through redundancy
and error correction.
Block coding involves grouping the !its, su!stitution, and line coding.
8B,:B, ;B,1<B, and ;B,=T are common !lock coding methods.
Analog#to#digital conversion relies on +C) &pulse code modulation(.
+C) involves sampling, 3uanti%ing, and line coding.
The Ny3uist theorem says that the sampling rate must !e at least twice the
highest#fre3uency component in the original signal.
Digital transmission can !e either parallel or serial in mode.
$n parallel transmission, a group of !its is sent simultaneously, with each !it on a
separate line.
$n serial transmission, there is only one line and the !its are sent se3uentially.
-erial transmission can !e either synchronous or asynchronous.
$n asynchronous serial transmission, each !yte &group of ; !its( is framed with a
start !it and a stop !it. There may !e a varia!le#length gap !etween each !yte.
$nformation Technology for B.-c. $T -emester 5 +age :
Chapter 1 Basic Networking
$n synchronous serial transmission, !its are sent in a continuous stream without
start and stop !its and without gaps !etween !ytes. 4egrouping the !its into
meaningful !ytes is the responsi!ility of the receiver.
Analog Transmission
Digital#to#analog modulation can !e accomplished using the following"
>Amplitude shift keying &A-?(@the amplitude of the carrier signal varies.
>2re3uency shift keying &2-?(@the fre3uency of the carrier signal varies.
>+hase shift keying &+-?(@the phase of the carrier signal varies.
>Auadrature amplitude modulation &AA)(@!oth the phase and amplitude
of the carrier signal vary.
AA) ena!les a higher data transmission rate than other digital#to#analog
methods.
Baud rate and !it rate are not synonymous. Bit rate is the num!er of !its
transmitted per second. Baud rate is the num!er of signal units transmitted per
second. /ne signal unit can represent one or more !its.
The minimum re3uired !andwidth for A-? and +-? is the !aud rate.
The minimum re3uired !andwidth &B*( for 2-? modulation is B* Bf c1 .f c< C
N !aud , where f c1 is the fre3uency representing a 1 !it, f c< is the fre3uency
representing a < !it, and N !aud is the !aud rate.
A regular telephone line uses fre3uencies !etween =<< and 6<<< D% for data
communication.
A-? modulation is especially suscepti!le to noise.
Because it uses two carrier fre3uencies, 2-? modulation re3uires more !andwidth
than A-? and +-?.
+-? and AA) modulation have two advantages over A-?"
>They are not as suscepti!le to noise.
>1ach signal change can represent more than one !it.
Trellis coding is a techni3ue that uses redundancy to provide a lower error rate.
The :=? modems are asymmetric. they download at a rate of := ?!ps and upload
at 66.= ?!ps.
Analog#to#analog modulation can !e implemented !y using the following"
Amplitude modulation &A)(
2re3uency modulation &2)(
+hase modulation &+)(
$n A) radio, the !andwidth of the modulated signal must !e twice the !andwidth
of the modulating signal.
$n 2) radio, the !andwidth of the modulated signal must !e 1< times the
!andwidth of the modulating signal.
$nformation Technology for B.-c. $T -emester 5 +age =
Chapter 1 Basic Networking
Multiplexing
)ultipleing is the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link.
2re3uency#division multipleing &2D)( and wave#division multipleing &*D)(
are techni3ues for analog signals, while time#division multipleing &TD)( is for
digital signals.
$n 2D), each signal modulates a different carrier fre3uency. The modulated
carriers are com!ined to form a new signal that is then sent across the link.
$n 2D), multipleers modulate and com!ine signals while demultipleers
decompose and demodulate.
$n 2D), guard !ands keep the modulated signals from overlapping and
interfering with one another.
Telephone companies use 2D) to com!ine voice channels into successively
larger groups for more efficient transmission.
*ave#division multipleing is similar in concept to 2D). The signals !eing
multipleed, however, are light waves.
$n TD), digital signals from n devices are interleaved with one another, forming
a frame of data &!its, !ytes, or any other data unit(.
2raming !its allow the TD) multipleer to synchroni%e properly.
Digital signal &D-( is a hierarchy of TD) signals.
T lines &T#1 to T#8( are the implementation of D- services. A T#1 line consists of
E8 voice channels.
T lines are used in North America. The 1uropean standard defines a variation
called 1 lines.
$nverse multipleing splits a data stream from one high#speed line onto multiple
lower#speed lines.
Transmission Media
Transmission media lie !elow the physical layer.
A guided medium provides a physical conduit from one device to another.
Twisted#pair ca!le, coaial ca!le, and optical fi!er are the most popular types of
guided media.
Twisted#pair ca!le consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together.
Twisting allows each wire to have approimately the same noise environment.
Twisted#pair ca!le is used in telephone lines for voice and data communications.
$nformation Technology for B.-c. $T -emester 5 +age F
Chapter 1 Basic Networking
Coaial ca!le has the following layers &starting from the center(" a metallic rod#
shaped inner conductor, an insulator covering the rod, a metallic outer conductor
&shield(, an insulator covering the shield, and a plastic cover.
Coaial ca!le can carry signals of higher fre3uency ranges than twisted#pair
ca!le.
Coaial ca!le is used in ca!le T5 networks and traditional 1thernet 'ANs.
2i!er#optic ca!les are composed of a glass or plastic inner core surrounded !y
cladding, all encased in an outside Gacket.
2i!er#optic ca!les carry data signals in the form of light. The signal is propagated
along the inner core !y reflection.
2i!er#optic transmission is !ecoming increasingly popular due to its noise
resistance, low attenuation, and high#!andwith capa!ilities.
-ignal propagation in optical fi!ers can !e multimode &multiple !eams from a
light source( or single#mode &essentially one !eam from a light source(.
$n multimode step#inde propagation, the core density is constant and the light
!eam changes direction suddenly at the interface !etween the core and the
cladding.
$n multimode graded#inde propagation, the core density decreases with distance
from the center. This causes a curving of the light !eams.
2i!er#optic ca!le is used in !ack!one networks, ca!le T5 networks, and 2ast
1thernet networks.
0nguided media &usually air( transport electromagnetic waves without the use of
a physical conductor.
*ireless data is transmitted through ground propagation, sky propagation, and
line#of#sight propagation.
*ireless data can !e classifed as radio waves, microwaves, or infrared waves.
4adio waves are omnidirectional. The radio wave !and is under government
regulation.
)icrowaves are unidirectional. propagation is line of sight. )icrowaves are used
for cellular phone, satellite, and wireless 'AN communications.
The para!olic dish antenna and the horn antenna are used for transmission and
reception of microwaves.
$nfrared waves are used for short#range communications such as those !etween a
+C and a peripheral device.
Error Detection and Correction Access Method
1rrors can !e categori%ed as a single#!it error or a !urst error. A single#!it error
has one !it error per data unit. A !urst error has two or more !it errors per data
unit.
4edundancy is the concept of sending etra !its for use in error detection.
$nformation Technology for B.-c. $T -emester 5 +age ;
Chapter 1 Basic Networking
Three common redundancy methods are parity check, cyclic redundancy check
&C4C(, and checksum.
An etra !it &parity !it( is added to the data unit in the parity check.
The parity check can detect only an odd num!er of errors. it cannot detect an even
num!er of errors.
$n the two#dimensional parity check, a redundant data unit follows n data units.
C4C, a powerful redundancy checking techni3ue, appends a se3uence of
redundant !its derived from !inary division to the data unit.
The divisor in the C4C generator is often represented as an alge!raic poly#
nomial.
1rrors are corrected through retransmission and !y forward error correction.
The Damming code is an error correction method using redundant !its. The
num!er of !its is a function of the length of the data !its.
$n the Damming code, for a data unit of m !its, use the formula E r HB m Cr C1 to
determine r, the num!er of redundant !its needed.
By rearranging the order of !it transmission of the data units, the Damming code
can correct !urst errors.
Data ink Controls and !rotocols
2low control is the regulation of the sender7s data rate so that the receiver !uffer
does not !ecome overwhelmed.
1rror control is !oth error detection and error correction.
$n -top#and#*ait A4A, the sender sends a frame and waits for an
acknowledgment from the receiver !efore sending the net frame.
$n Io#Back#N A4A, multiple frames can !e in transit at the same time. $f there is
an error, retransmission !egins with the last unacknowledged frame even if
su!se3uent frames have arrived correctly. Duplicate frames are discarded.
$n -elective 4epeat A4A, multiple frames can !e in transit at the same time. $f
there is an error, only the unacknowledged frame is retransmitted.
2low control mechanisms with sliding windows have control varia!les at !oth
sender and receiver sites.
+iggy!acking couples an acknowledgment with a data frame.
The !andwidth#delay product is a measure of the num!er of !its a system can
have in transit.
DD'C is a protocol that implements A4A mechanisms. $t supports
communication over point#to#point or multipoint links.
DD'C stations communicate in normal response mode &N4)( or asynchronous
!alanced mode &AB)(.
DD'C protocol defines three types of frames" the information frame &$#frame(,
the supervisory frame &-#frame(, and the unnum!ered frame &0#frame(.
$nformation Technology for B.-c. $T -emester 5 +age J
Chapter 1 Basic Networking
DD'C handle data transparency !y adding a < whenever there are five
consecutive 1s following a <. This is called !it stuffing.
$nformation Technology for B.-c. $T -emester 5 +age 1<