The History of Japan

http://www.elanguageschool.net/japanese/history
Table of Contents
Jomon Period
Yayoi Period
Kofun Period
Kofun Tombs
Asua Period
!eian Period
Kamaura Period
"aruomachi Period
A#uchi$"omoyama Period
%do Period
"eiji Period
&howa Period
Taisho Period
Ainu
!eisei Period
%mporers &utou and 'o$&hiraawa
%mperor 'o$Toba
(irst &ino$Japanese )ar
%mperor 'o$*aigo
The !auho +ulture
The !istory of Toyo
,nternational "ilitary Tribunal for the (ar %ast -,"T(%.
Japan in )orld )ar ,
Japan in )orld )ar ,,
Japanese American ,nternment
Japanese +anadian ,nternment
Japanese "ilitarism
Japanese "ythology
Kemmu /estoration
0aumatsu
Japan after )),,
Kumaso Tribe
Kuni no "iyatsuo
"asamune 1a#ai
The 1ccupation of Japan
1da 2obunaga
Post$1ccupation Japan
/usso$Japanese )ar
The Anti$+omintern Pact
The Atomic 0ombings of Japan
The 0oshin )ar -3454$3456.
The %mperor of Japan
The ,mmigration Act of 3678
The ,mperial !ouse of Japan
3
Japanese (armers in +alifornia
2anbou$cho Period
&engou Period
2anban Trade Period
The 2ational *iet of Japan
The &econd &ino$Japanese )ar
Tripartite Pact
Yasunari Kawabata
Jomon Period
The Jomon period of Japanese history is the time between 38999 0+ and 899 0+ and represents
the earliest history of Japan. The Jomon period is nown for its early pottery: population
e;pansion: and a shift from semi$nomadic life to rice paddy farming. The name Jomon: <cord$
patterened:= originally referred to decorati>e marings made on pottery with cord$wrapped
stics.
The Jomon period is typically di>ided into these different sub$periods:
,ncipient Jomon ? 38999 0+ to @A99 0+
,nitial Jomon ? @A99 0+ to 8999 0+
%arly Jomon ? 8999 0+ to B999 0+
"iddle Jomon ? B999 0+ to 7999 0+
Cate Jomon ? 7999 0+ to 3999 0+
(inal Jomon ? 3999 0+ to B99 0+
Incipient and Initial Jomon
*uring the ,ncipient Jomon period: the early Japanese culture began to stabili#e: resulting in the
first clear archaeological records in Japan. )hile the culture of the first Jomon period was mostly
hunter$gatherers: the nomadic societies slowly began creating >illages and becoming more
stationary. *uring this time: the Japanese began creating pottery and clay figures and statues.
,nitially: the culture of the ,ncipient Jomon shared much with the Jeulmun culture that thri>ed in
Korea around the same time: but the two cultures di>erged when rising ocean le>els in 33999 0+
isolated Japan from the rest of Asia.
Early Jomon
*uring the %arly Jomon period: sea le>els continued to rise: reaching heights a good two to three
meters or more than they are today. !owe>er: despite being cut off from the rest of Asian: the
early Japanese people thri>ed. Population increased significantly: as did the comple;ity of the
Japanese tools: art: and housing. Pottery found from the %arly Jomon period is much more
decorated than those from earlier years.
Middle Jomon
*uring the "iddle Jomon period: the population continued to e;pand at a rapid rate. This period:
as the %arly Jomon period: saw the seas continue to rise: and the o>erall temperature of Japan
was hotter than it is today. Arts continued to flourish: and e;ca>ations ha>e disco>ered highly
decorated pottery and other items that can be dated to the "iddle Jomon period. As the Japanese
7
culture continued to become more stationary: larger >illages appeared. ,n fact: the Jomon period
had a >ery highest population density when >iewed alongside other comparable foraging
societies.
Late Jomon
The time between 7999 0+ and 3999 0+: the Cate Jomon period: saw a significant drop in
temperature which resulted in the large population of the "iddle Jomon period declining
drastically. )hile a large number of artifacts can be found from both pre>ious and subseDuent
periods: few sites ha>e been found from the latter portion of the Cate Jomon period.
Final Jomon
The (inal Jomon period shows a large shift in the Japanese way of life. The most significant shift
came in the form of new technology brought to Japan by >isitors from the )est. )hile these
newcomers set up colonies and peacefully co$e;isted with the Japanese: their effect on Japanese
culture was just as dramatic as if they had in>aded.
The cornerstone of this new technology was rice$paddy farming. )hile the Japanese society
before the (inal Jomon period wasnEt as strictly hunter$gatherer as many societies at the time
were: they werenEt farmers by any means. !owe>er: society greatly shifted to farming during this
time: with many new >illages and towns appearing. 1ther new technology helped cement and
stabili#e Japanese settlements: including glass blowing: te;tile maing: and metalworing. "ore
structured go>ernment appeared: as did many of the traditional Japanese marriage customs.
&hinto was also introduced to Japan: bringing its rituals: beliefs: and myths to the (inal Jomon
society.
The Invention of Pottery
)hile pottery has been used by many ci>ili#ations: archaeological finds and radiocarbon dating
ha>e suggested that the Jomon people were the first in the world to use pottery and stone tools.
!owe>er: there is e>idence that also suggests that pottery was brought to Japan from Asia:
leading archaeologists on a hunt for the true origins of pottery. &tudies are still being conducted
on the (uui +a>e pottery -the earliest found pottery in Japan. and pottery found on mainland
Asia to determine which was created first.
"uch of the pottery found from this time period is decorated with Jomon: or patterns made from
rope. These patterns were made by wetting soil and wringing it into a rope. This rope was then
molded into shapes by hand. The pottery made during this time was generally used to store food
and other supplies: although clay figures ha>e also been disco>ered. *uring the latter years of the
Jomon period: the Japanese began decorating their clay >essels and pots with sophisticated
designed and symbols.
,t is this pottery that has lead archaeologists to determine many traits of the Jomon period. (ew
hunter$gatherer societies produce pottery since it was so easily breaable: leading e;perts to
deduce that the Jomon were at least somewhat sedentary. Archaeologists ha>e also disco>ered
stone tools: traps: fishing paraphernalia: and early bows and arrows. Agriculture: especially in the
later years: became more ad>anced: and by the end of the Jomon period: the Japanese were li>ing
in houses and eeping good$si#ed fields of crops.
Yayoi Period
B
The Yayoi period: the second period of Japanese history: too place between 899 0+ and B99
A*. 2amed after the Yayoi section of Toyo where the first artifacts from this period were
found: the Yayoi period is mainly characteri#ed by new and more ad>anced forms of pottery and
an increase in rice production. *uring this time: the Japanese e;panded to co>er the area between
Kyushu in the south and !onshu in the north.
'o>ernment continued to e>ol>e during the Yayoi period. &ocial classes became more and more
apparent: with chieftains at the top. Fillages became more permanent: and society as a whole
become more and more sedimentary. Pottery: now created on a wheel: was painted or gla#ed.
)hile the Jomon period saw high seas cut off Japan from the rest of Asia: during the Yayoi
period: Japan reestablished contact with both +hina and Korea. This led to the introduction of
bron#e and copper woring: new rice growing techniDues: ceramics: farming implements: iron
tools: wea>ing: domesticated swine: and new methods of pottery. (rom this new technology
came symbols of prestige: including swords: spears: mirrors: irrigation technology: and more.
The Yayoi period is especially noted for three bron#e creations: mirrors: swords: and the royal
seal stone. These three items reflect the three pieces of the imperial regalia of Japan that play a
large role in mythology: the sword Kusanagi: the mirror of the goddess Amaterasu: and the
legendary jewel. &ince the late 599s: these three items ha>e been used in the installation of each
successi>e emperor.
*uring the Yayoi period: the Japanese completed the transformation from hunter$gatherers into
an agricultural society. The population then e;panded e>en more than it had during the end of the
Jomon period. Part of this was attributed to the new rice farming techniDues and the increase in
food that came with them. Archaeological e>idence also shows that there was some immigration
from mainland Asia: leading to blending of different societies and thoughts in addition to
increasing the population.
Common traits with the Jomon period
)hile the Yayoi technology did change during the period: artifacts still show a >ery clear Jomon
influence thans to a merging of the two cultures. The Yayoi used the same ind of circular pit
houses: stone and bone tools: and the same way of maing lacDuer accessories that the Jomon
did. 1ne of the differences: howe>er: is that they integrated materials from +hina and Korea.
Yayoi Cltre
)hile the earliest e>idence of Yayoi culture was found on Kyushu: it e>entually spread across
most of Japan: including !onshu: where Yayoi and Jomon societies met and merged. Yayoi
society: howe>er: was much more comple; and sophisticated. Their pottery: for e;ample: was
made on a wheel instead of by hand as it was during the Jomon period. 1ther e;amples include
iron tools and weapons: bron#e mirrors and bells: cloth te;tiles: and more.
0ecause of their more sedimentary lifestyle: Yayoi farmers were able to create granaries for
storing e;tra grain. ,rrigation techniDues imported from +hina and Korea led to increased rice
production. (or the first time: e;cess and wealth were accumulated: which lead to e>en more
distinct social le>els and the collection of a tithe. +hiefs began trading with other >illages and
e>en Korea and +hina. /elationships similar to the >assal$lord relationships of feudal %urope
de>eloped around this time as well.
8
*uring the Yayoi period: chiefs were buried in sDuare mounds circled by ditches. 1ne of the
most famous e;amples of this design is the Tatetsui "ound Tomb in 1ayama. Another style
used during this time were sDuare mounds with four distinct corners. These tombs can mostly be
found in the coastal area nown as the &anEin region. These tombs are easily identified and
contrasted with the later Kofun burial style that gi>es its name to the Kofun period.
As far as physical traits go: the Yayoi were taller: had closer$set eyes: and narrower faces:
maing them closer in appearance to the modern Japanese than the Jomon. ,n fact: modern
Japanese are belie>ed to be descended from a mi; of immigrants and people from this period:
while the indigenous Ainu of 2orthern Japan are a more direct descendant of the Jomon without
outside influences.
The Chinese !iew of the Yayoi
,t was during the Yayoi period that +hina first began writing about the Japanese. )a: as the
+hinese of the time called Japan: was first mentioned in A@ A*. 1ne of the states of )a: called
2a or 2u: actually recei>ed a golden seal from the emperor of +hina: an act that was listed in the
0oo of Cater !an. The seal was later found in northern Kyushu during the 34
th
century.
)a: according to the +hinese: wasnEt a unified country as the eighth century Japanese semi$
historical Nihongi claims. ,nstead: the +hinese wor discusses the many different tribes and
communities that were scattered across Japan: each with its own chief and form of go>ernment.
This description is baced up by archaeologists who ha>e found e>idence of many different
tribal sirmishes. Fillages surrounded by moats or built on higher ground suggest defensi>e
building. ,n burial sites from the Yayoi period: arrow heads ha>e been found: suggesting a
society of warriors: plus headless seletons: the bones of dead enemies: appeared in gra>es from
the time period.
(ood$wise: the +hinese reported that the Yayoi people ate a >ariety of >egetables: raw fish: and
rice ate from wooden trays.
The +hinese records are also responsible for the mystery of the ingdom of Yamataiou: which
was supposedly ruled o>er by Gueen !imio. !owe>er: it is unclear where the location of this
ingdom was. Possible locations include Yoshinogari in &aga Prefecture or "aimui in 2ara:
where a recently e;ca>ated tomb may be the burial place of !imio.
"ofn Period
The Kofun period: named after the mound gra>es the upper class were buried in during the time:
was a period highlighted by close relations with Korea and an increase in decoration and design.
The Kofun tombs: for e;ample: included ceramics: iron and bron#e items: jewelry: and >ery
sophisticated clay sculptures. &ome histories and archaeologists combine the Kofun period with
the following Asua period to mae the Yamato period.
!owe>er: the Kofun and the Asua periods are maredly different: mainly culturally. *uring the
Kofun period: the culture was >ery animistic: which changed once 0uddhism was introduced to
Japan. The Yamato court: which ruled a good portion of Japan: is another defining mar of the
period. The multitude of tribes slowly merged into states around the beginning of the period: and
these city$states began >ying for control of Kyushu and !onshu.
Early "ofn
A
The early Kofun period is mared by the building of the eyhole$shaped ofun tombs. The first
was found in the "aimuu area. These tombs were on a much larger scale than the mounds
built during the Yayoi period: with some being nearly B99 meters long. The common structure of
a ofun tomb featured a wooden coffin at the bottom of a long shaft surrounded by walls of flat
stones. Then huge stones were placed on top as a roof. Cie %gyptian Pharaohs: the Kofun
aristocrats who were buried in the tombs were buried with bron#e mirrors: swords: jewels: and
other items. Today: the ,mperial !ousehold Agency has listed @89 ofun as tombs of imperial
family members: although this number is in dispute. 2either the public nor archaeological teams
are allowed into most of these ofun: although a team was permitted to enter the tomb of
%mpress Jingu in 7994.
Middle "ofn
The ofun tomb building spread through the middle of the period from Yamato Pro>ince to
Kawachi: which became the home of the huge tombs lie that of %mperor 2intou. 0y the fifth
century: ofun could be found in nearly e>ery region of Japan with the e;ception of th Tohou
region. The ofun style of tomb building must ha>e impressi>ed >isitors from the main land as
well: ofun tombs dating bac to the Kofun period ha>e been found in the &outhern part of
Korea.
The Yamato court is gi>ing credit for spreading the ofun style of burial. !owe>er: while the
court is anowledged as being a major power during the period: some archeologists simply feel
that the tombEs style spread was purely cultural and had nothing to do with the political system.
Korean scholars: in particular: deny that the tombs in &outher Korea were influenced by the
Japanese at all: although this point is hotly contested by most Japanese archeologists: who feel
that the e>idence is irrefutable. 2o matter the source: the tradition of creating eyhole shaped
ofun didnEt last much past the si;th century and the introduction of 0uddhism.
The Yamato
The Yamato court rose to power around 7A9 A* and ruled o>er the southern part of Japan. )hile
local go>ernments ruled in the fourth and fifth centuries in many areas: during the si;th century:
the Yamato clans dominated the entire southern area. +hinese and Korean records show that the
Yamato court was the only Japanese court to ha>e relations with mainland Asia: a history that
began in the late fourth century.
The Yamato court was composed of powerful clans headed by patriarchs. These patriarchs and
their immediate families formed the members of the Yamato aristocracy: and the Yamato ruling
family shifted into the ,mperial dynasty at the end of the period: beating out many other
reginonal patriarchs and families to become the dominant court in Japan. At the height of their
power: Yamato ruled o>er Kyushu and !onshu.
The court adapoted much from the +hinese: including their system of central go>ernment: an
imperial court: and the +hinese system of writing. ,n fact: the Yamato e>en entreated the +hinese
court to bestow royal titles on their leaders: although this did not happen. The Yamato also did
not establish a permanent capitalH instead: clan chieftains met in >arious locations as the court
dictated.
The Yamato court also had close ties to the Korean 'aya confederacy in southern Korea. This is
the same location as that of the Korean ofun tombs: showing just how close these two states
were. ,n fact: theories were e>en put forth that the 'aya confederacy was a colony of the Yamato
5
court: although these theories ha>e been rejected. 1n the other hand: the Taamatsu#ua Tomb
build se>eral centuries after the Kofun period reflects Korean tomb design and decoration.
The Yamato court e;panded o>er time to include areas between the &himane prefecture to the
east and the Kumamoto prefecture in the north. /ecords indicate the court aggressi>ely e;panded
at se>eral different periods: including one record that chronicles the battle against a ri>al tribe in
eastern !onshu. Prince Yamato Taeru is noted as one of the main figures in these battles.
The Yamato Clans
The Yamato +lans were fairly >aried: although all were loyal to the Yamato court. "any Yamato
patriarchs and chiefs claim to ha>e been descended from either the imperial family or one of the
tribal gods: while others were actually immigrants from +hina and Korea.
"uch of what we now about the Yamato clans comes from swords such as the ,nariyama sword.
This weapon lists all of the name of the bearerEs ancestors: including the son of %mperor Kogen.
KogenEs grandson became head of the Ka#urai clan: which had close ties and marriages with
members of the Yamato imperial family. The Ka#uari were later replaced with the 1tomo clan
at the end of the fifth century. !owe>er: when %mperor 0uretsu died with no heir: the thrown
and control of the Yamato e>entually went to the "ononobe and &oga clans.
The #$imi
The aristocracy during the Kofun period began to o>erlay the aristocratic social structure of the
pre>ious Yayoi period with military o>ertones. This lead to a more cohesi>e society o>erall: and
historians often remar on how the Kofun society is directly responsible for much of modern
Japanese culture. "any rulers during this time too on the title of 1imi: which means 'reat
King. The ,nariyama sword and the %ta (unayama sword bac up this claim. ,n fact: records on
the swords e>en go as far as to eDuate 1imi as <ruling of !ea>en and %arth.= Thus: religious
o>ertones also authority also pre>ailed in the Yamato court.
The Chinese and "orean Immi%rants in the "ofn Period
The +hinese immigrants in Japan actually held considerable influence in the Yamato court. ,n
fact: the court lists 35B distinct +hinese clans during the time. 1ne: the !ata clan: was often
employed to manufacture sil for the court of %mperor 2intou: and later members were named
to >arious positions in the finance ministry. Cater +hinese immigrants went on to introduce
aspects of the +hinese system of writing to the court: plus a descendent of +ao +ao: a famous
+hinese figure: would later play a ey role in the Taia /eform.
The Koreans began immigrating to Japan during the fourth century. 1ne of these immigrants:
according to the 2ihongi record: was a prince of &illa who mo>ed to Japan during the time of
%mperor &uinin. !e is later described as an ancestor of %mpress Jingu: the empress who
supposedly defeated the &illa. !owe>er: this e>ent is highly contested since some records ha>e
Jingu dying in 756 A*: well before the &illa princeEs immigration.
1ther Korean immigrants include members of the 0aeje royal family. 'eunchogo of 0aeje
send many gifts and scholars to %mperor 1jinEs court: and these scholars introduced many
important pieces of +hinese culture to the Japanese. Also: according to the +hinese historical
0oo of &ui: the 0aeje family reDuested aid from the Yamato court for >arious military
@
campaigns. *uring se>eral of these: princes and other royals were sent to the Yamato court as
hostages in e;change for solidiers.
These immigrants: +hinese and Korean both: were collecti>ely called Torai$Jin by the Yamato
and were highly respected: possibly due to many upper$class Yamato citi#ens ha>ing +hinese or
Korean ancestors. "any of these ad>ances brought to Japan by the Torai$Jin were >ery similar to
those of mainland Asia: including funeral rights. Kofun ha>e been found with clay rings: horses:
fans: fish: weapons: pillows: and human statues buried in them. "uch of the Yamato culture:
especially by the end of the Kofun period: in fact: was nearly identical to that of the southern
Korean peninsula.
Introdction of Horses
The Kofun period also mars the introduction of horses to Japan: the absence of which was noted
in >arious +hinese records. As recorded in the semi$historical 2ihonshoi: the ing of &illa: after
being defeated by %mpress Jingu: presented the horse to her as a gift. This led to the introduction
of mounted ca>alry and ad>anced military strategies.
End of the "ofn period
Around the middle of the si;th century: the Kofun period fades into the Asua period: an e>ent
that is mared by the introduction of 0uddhism to Japan. 1fficially brought to Japan in AB4 A*:
the Asua period would see Japan shift in a new direction: one more influenced by the reunified
+hina than Korea.
The "ofn Tombs
The Kofun period: named after the mound gra>es the upper class were buried in during the time:
was a period highlighted by close relations with Korea and an increase in decoration and design.
The Kofun tombs: for e;ample: included ceramics: iron and bron#e items: jewelry: and >ery
sophisticated clay sculptures. &ome histories and archaeologists combine the Kofun period with
the following Asua period to mae the Yamato period.
!owe>er: the Kofun and the Asua periods are maredly different: mainly culturally. *uring the
Kofun period: the culture was >ery animistic: which changed once 0uddhism was introduced to
Japan. The Yamato court: which ruled a good portion of Japan: is another defining mar of the
period. The multitude of tribes slowly merged into states around the beginning of the period: and
these city$states began >ying for control of Kyushu and !onshu.
Early "ofn
The early Kofun period is mared by the building of the eyhole$shaped ofun tombs. The first
was found in the "aimuu area. These tombs were on a much larger scale than the mounds
built during the Yayoi period: with some being nearly B99 meters long. The common structure of
a ofun tomb featured a wooden coffin at the bottom of a long shaft surrounded by walls of flat
stones. Then huge stones were placed on top as a roof. Cie %gyptian Pharaohs: the Kofun
aristocrats who were buried in the tombs were buried with bron#e mirrors: swords: jewels: and
other items. Today: the ,mperial !ousehold Agency has listed @89 ofun as tombs of imperial
family members: although this number is in dispute. 2either the public nor archaeological teams
are allowed into most of these ofun: although a team was permitted to enter the tomb of
%mpress Jingu in 7994.
4
Middle "ofn
The ofun tomb building spread through the middle of the period from Yamato Pro>ince to
Kawachi: which became the home of the huge tombs lie that of %mperor 2intou. 0y the fifth
century: ofun could be found in nearly e>ery region of Japan with the e;ception of th Tohou
region. The ofun style of tomb building must ha>e impressi>ed >isitors from the main land as
well: ofun tombs dating bac to the Kofun period ha>e been found in the &outhern part of
Korea.
The Yamato court is gi>ing credit for spreading the ofun style of burial. !owe>er: while the
court is anowledged as being a major power during the period: some archeologists simply feel
that the tombEs style spread was purely cultural and had nothing to do with the political system.
Korean scholars: in particular: deny that the tombs in &outher Korea were influenced by the
Japanese at all: although this point is hotly contested by most Japanese archeologists: who feel
that the e>idence is irrefutable. 2o matter the source: the tradition of creating eyhole shaped
ofun didnEt last much past the si;th century and the introduction of 0uddhism.
The Yamato
The Yamato court rose to power around 7A9 A* and ruled o>er the southern part of Japan. )hile
local go>ernments ruled in the fourth and fifth centuries in many areas: during the si;th century:
the Yamato clans dominated the entire southern area. +hinese and Korean records show that the
Yamato court was the only Japanese court to ha>e relations with mainland Asia: a history that
began in the late fourth century.
The Yamato court was composed of powerful clans headed by patriarchs. These patriarchs and
their immediate families formed the members of the Yamato aristocracy: and the Yamato ruling
family shifted into the ,mperial dynasty at the end of the period: beating out many other
reginonal patriarchs and families to become the dominant court in Japan. At the height of their
power: Yamato ruled o>er Kyushu and !onshu.
The court adapoted much from the +hinese: including their system of central go>ernment: an
imperial court: and the +hinese system of writing. ,n fact: the Yamato e>en entreated the +hinese
court to bestow royal titles on their leaders: although this did not happen. The Yamato also did
not establish a permanent capitalH instead: clan chieftains met in >arious locations as the court
dictated.
The Yamato court also had close ties to the Korean 'aya confederacy in southern Korea. This is
the same location as that of the Korean ofun tombs: showing just how close these two states
were. ,n fact: theories were e>en put forth that the 'aya confederacy was a colony of the Yamato
court: although these theories ha>e been rejected. 1n the other hand: the Taamatsu#ua Tomb
build se>eral centuries after the Kofun period reflects Korean tomb design and decoration.
The Yamato court e;panded o>er time to include areas between the &himane prefecture to the
east and the Kumamoto prefecture in the north. /ecords indicate the court aggressi>ely e;panded
at se>eral different periods: including one record that chronicles the battle against a ri>al tribe in
eastern !onshu. Prince Yamato Taeru is noted as one of the main figures in these battles.
The Yamato Clans
6
The Yamato +lans were fairly >aried: although all were loyal to the Yamato court. "any Yamato
patriarchs and chiefs claim to ha>e been descended from either the imperial family or one of the
tribal gods: while others were actually immigrants from +hina and Korea.
"uch of what we now about the Yamato clans comes from swords such as the ,nariyama sword.
This weapon lists all of the name of the bearerEs ancestors: including the son of %mperor Kogen.
KogenEs grandson became head of the Ka#urai clan: which had close ties and marriages with
members of the Yamato imperial family. The Ka#uari were later replaced with the 1tomo clan
at the end of the fifth century. !owe>er: when %mperor 0uretsu died with no heir: the thrown
and control of the Yamato e>entually went to the "ononobe and &oga clans.
The #$imi
The aristocracy during the Kofun period began to o>erlay the aristocratic social structure of the
pre>ious Yayoi period with military o>ertones. This lead to a more cohesi>e society o>erall: and
historians often remar on how the Kofun society is directly responsible for much of modern
Japanese culture. "any rulers during this time too on the title of 1imi: which means 'reat
King. The ,nariyama sword and the %ta (unayama sword bac up this claim. ,n fact: records on
the swords e>en go as far as to eDuate 1imi as <ruling of !ea>en and %arth.= Thus: religious
o>ertones also authority also pre>ailed in the Yamato court.
The Chinese and "orean Immi%rants in the "ofn Period
The +hinese immigrants in Japan actually held considerable influence in the Yamato court. ,n
fact: the court lists 35B distinct +hinese clans during the time. 1ne: the !ata clan: was often
employed to manufacture sil for the court of %mperor 2intou: and later members were named
to >arious positions in the finance ministry. Cater +hinese immigrants went on to introduce
aspects of the +hinese system of writing to the court: plus a descendent of +ao +ao: a famous
+hinese figure: would later play a ey role in the Taia /eform.
The Koreans began immigrating to Japan during the fourth century. 1ne of these immigrants:
according to the 2ihongi record: was a prince of &illa who mo>ed to Japan during the time of
%mperor &uinin. !e is later described as an ancestor of %mpress Jingu: the empress who
supposedly defeated the &illa. !owe>er: this e>ent is highly contested since some records ha>e
Jingu dying in 756 A*: well before the &illa princeEs immigration.
1ther Korean immigrants include members of the 0aeje royal family. 'eunchogo of 0aeje
send many gifts and scholars to %mperor 1jinEs court: and these scholars introduced many
important pieces of +hinese culture to the Japanese. Also: according to the +hinese historical
0oo of &ui: the 0aeje family reDuested aid from the Yamato court for >arious military
campaigns. *uring se>eral of these: princes and other royals were sent to the Yamato court as
hostages in e;change for solidiers.
These immigrants: +hinese and Korean both: were collecti>ely called Torai$Jin by the Yamato
and were highly respected: possibly due to many upper$class Yamato citi#ens ha>ing +hinese or
Korean ancestors. "any of these ad>ances brought to Japan by the Torai$Jin were >ery similar to
those of mainland Asia: including funeral rights. Kofun ha>e been found with clay rings: horses:
fans: fish: weapons: pillows: and human statues buried in them. "uch of the Yamato culture:
especially by the end of the Kofun period: in fact: was nearly identical to that of the southern
Korean peninsula.
39
Introdction of Horses
The Kofun period also mars the introduction of horses to Japan: the absence of which was noted
in >arious +hinese records. As recorded in the semi$historical 2ihonshoi: the ing of &illa: after
being defeated by %mpress Jingu: presented the horse to her as a gift. This led to the introduction
of mounted ca>alry and ad>anced military strategies.
End of the "ofn period
Around the middle of the si;th century: the Kofun period fades into the Asua period: an e>ent
that is mared by the introduction of 0uddhism to Japan. 1fficially brought to Japan in AB4 A*:
the Asua period would see Japan shift in a new direction: one more influenced by the reunified
+hina than Korea.
&s$a Period
Japan changed drastically when: in AA7: Korean immigrants brought the ideas of 0uddhism to
the country. Adopted by %mpress &uio and Prince$/egent &hotou: 0uddhism too fewer than
399 years to become wide$spread. )hile in many areas: a new religion tends to dominate and
erase the current religion: in Japan: 0uddhism and &hinto: the long$standing faith: peacefully co$
e;isted. To learn more about this new form of belief: %mpress &uio and the royal court in>ited
mons and others from Korea and +hina to mo>e to Japan and bring the >arious accoutrements
of 0uddhism with them. 0ecause of this and the support from the aristocracy: there are >ery few
items left from the Asua period that arenEt connected to 0uddhism in some way.
The name Asua was actually first used to describe the period of arts and architecture: and it later
came to mean the time period as a whole. &tarting in AA7: the natural ending time for the Asua
period came with the mo>ing of the imperial capital to !eijo Palace in 58A: the year before the
Taia /eform. &ome historians donEt end the Asua period until around @99: howe>er. Those that
choose this period often di>ide the Asua period into sub$periods: one before the Taia /eform
and one after.
0esides and because of the introduction of 0uddhism: the Asua period represents a significant
change in art: society: and politics. ,t was also during this time that the Japanese changed the
name of the country from )a: as the +hinese had named them: to 2ihon.
Cltral Inflences from the Mainland
)hile little architecture remains from pre>ious period: some structures from the Asua period
ha>e been found intact. "any of them: such as the buildings at !oryu$ji: reflect some designs
from +hina and other western countries. &ome of the pillars: for e;ample: are similar to those
found in ancient 'reece: and the traditional fi>e$story pagoda bears some resemblance to the
,ndian building nown as the &tupa. Artwor from this time shows some influence from +hina
and Korea as well.
The biggest cultural influence to come from +hina was: of course: 0uddhism: and many
sculptures were done in the +hinese style. The Tori &tyle: as it was called because of the amount
of wor done by Kuratsuuri Tori: a descendent of a +hinese immigrant: is the most prominent
style from the Asua period.
33
0aning was also introduced to Japan during the Asua period. "odeled after the +hinese fiscal
strategies: the first imperial treasury was established and more aggressi>e trade with Korea
began.
'eli%ion in Japan ( )ddhism and *hinto
)ith 0uddhism introduced to Japan by the Koreans in AB4: Japanese culture changed
dramatically. The &oga clan: the ruling family at the time: replaced many +onfucian rites and
models with 0uddhism ones. !owe>er: some Yamato court families: especially those who were
highly in>ol>ed in &hinto rituals and the military: were leery of the new religion.
Caws regarding tombs: especially the ofun: were put into place after the Taia /eform and the
(uneral &implification %dict. According to this %dict: the si#e and shape of a personEs ofun was
determined by their class: and >ery large ofun were banned altogether. 0ecause of this: the
ofun of important or belo>ed family members: although smaller than what they would ha>e
been during pre>ious periods: were elaborately decorated with 0uddhist and Taoist images. "ost
of these decorated ofun: howe>er: were found in regions far from the capitalH the imperial
family no longer used ofun because of the new 0uddhist beliefs: which put much less emphasis
on worldly goods.
Taoism also came to Japan during the Asua period: but it didnEt gain as much prominence as
0uddhism. !owe>er: Taoist beliefs appear in my places. The octagon$shaped tombs of the
imperial family: for instance: are based on Taoist beliefs: as was the term tenno: the title adapted
by the ruling Yamato emperors during the Asua time.
The Taoist: 0uddhist: and &hinto beliefs and rituals slowly began mi;ing as the three systems
and their followers found ways to peacefully coe;ist. As the Asua period mo>ed on: fewer
religious conflicts were seen: and e>entually: the three religions melded with the nati>e
mythology to create a >ery interesting and comple; belief system.
The Yamato Cort
%stablished in the late fifth century: the Yamato court continued to rule Japan during the Asua
period. The Yamato court was at its pinnacle during the Asua period: and the ruling family
founded the imperial dynasty early on. ,n fact: the Asua period is noted as being the first period
in which the emperor ruled uncontested. )ith most of their political ri>als defeated or
assimilated: the Yamato court continued to e;pand during this time while establishing tighter ties
with +hina and Korea.
0y A4@: the &oga clan had intermarried with the imperial family to the point that their chief:
&oga no Imao: was able to place his nephew on the throne. !e later illed his puppet emperor
and replaced him with %mpress &uio: the first empress of Japan. !owe>er: she: too: was simply
a figurehead: and the real power belonged to Imao and Prince /egent &hotou.
Prince /egent &hotou: howe>er: was far from a dictator. ,nstead: he is often regarded as one of
the greatest intellects of his time. !e was >ery well$read and followed both 0uddhist and
+onfucian principles. !e introduced +onfucian etiDuette to the court and introduced a se>enteen$
article constitution designed to bring about harmony in the go>ernment and Japan as a whole.
&hotou was also responsible for the building of many 0uddhist temples: creating a system of
trade routes: introducing the +hinese calendar to Japan: and ordering the eeping of a detailed set
37
of court records. Inder &hotou: si; different groups of students and priests >isited +hina to
study philosophy and literature.
The Tai$a 'eform
,n 58A: 7B years after &hotouEs death: disagreement o>er the line of succession led to a coup.
Prince 2aa no 1e and (ujiwara no Kamatari too control of the go>ernment from the &oga clan
and introduced the Taia /eforn. This coup would later become nown as the ,sshi ,ncident.
The Taii /eform was a list of administrati>e guidelines that established the ritsuryo system.
This system of patrimonial rule followed a >ery strict and elaborate legal code that dictated
reform in just about e>ery area of Japanese society.
(irst: land was redistributed: transferring the pri>ate lands of the clans to public: i.e.: court
control. +lan chieftains also lost their hereditary titles. (amilies could no longer pass land down
to their childrenH instead: it belonged to the state. Ta;es were placed on e>erything from
har>ested food to sil and te;tile products. These ta;es were used to fund the military and build
public buildings and roads.
Three minister positions: ad>isors to the emperor: were created at this time: "inister of the Ceft:
"inister of the /ight: and +hancellor of the /ealm. The empire was also split into pro>inces:
each of which was ruled by a court$appointed go>ernor. These pro>inces were then sub$di>ided
into districts and >illages: setting up a system that is still in use today.
2aa no 1e too the title of +rown Prince: while (ujiwara became a court aristocrat with
considerable influence. Cater: 2aa no 1e would assume the throne under the name %mperor
Tenji. %mperor Tenji was the first emperor to use the Japanese term for emperor that translates to
!ea>enly &o>ereign: a title that hea>ily emphasi#ed the imperial familyEs di>ine heritage.
)hile part of the reasoning behind this title was to discourage another coup: with TenjiEs death:
his brother and his son battled for the throne: with his brother: nown them as %mperor Temmu:
e>entually winning. Temmu continued the reforms Tenji began and solidified the imperial courtEs
power.
The 'itsryo *ystem
The Taia /eformEs ritsuryo system was implemented in se>eral stages. The first: the 1mi +ode:
was finished in 554. This was enhanced in 546 by the Asua Kiyomihara +ode: and was then
e>en further codified later by the Taiho +ode. 2early all of these codes remained in effect until
3454.
The most per>asi>e of these codes was the Taiho +ode: while created a judicial system based on
the +onfucian idea of light punishments rather than hea>y ones. The go>ernment also adapted a
central administration system based on the +hinese system: &hinto: and court rituals. A
department of state with eight ministries was also created: with ministries for ceremonies: the
imperial house: administration: ci>il affairs: justice: the military: peopleEs affairs: and the
treasury. The college office was also created and charged with training: although the aristocracy
still based much on class rather than on education. 1ne interesting thing to note is that the Taiho
+ode did not prohibit women from inheriting the throne: and in fact se>eral empresses ruled
Japan until @@9: when succession was limited to men only.
3B
Japan and "orea drin% the &s$a Period
,n addition to the many imported ideas and students sent to +hina and Korea: many emissaries
from these countries >isited Japan. ,n fact: Japan e>en sent its na>y to assist the 0aeje ingdom
in a battle. This military aid was perhaps because of the close ties between Prince &hotou and
the 0aeje: one of his tutors was from Korea.
,n 559: 0aeje fell to the &illa and TEang +hina: and many refugees fled to Japan. The imperial
court welcomed the royal family of 0aeje with open arms: and the emperor e>en bestowed the
family name Kudara no Koniishi -<ing of 0aeje=. upon them.
Japan and China drin% the &s$a Period
)hile the +hinese influence in Japan was arguably >ery great during the Asua period: relations
between the two countries werenEt always friendly. &hotou: in fact: pushed to put Japan on
eDual footing with the +hinese by writing letters addressing the +hinese emperor as an eDual.
The +hinese were greatly offended by this and ga>e the Japanese state no title: >iewing Japan as
a lesser country. !owe>er: while political relations were a bit strained: cultural and intellectual
relations flourished. Two of the nineteen writers of the Taiho +ode: in fact: were +hinese priests.
+ara Period
,t was during the 2ara period of Japanese history that 0uddhism saw the largest growth. "any
different temples were built: and 0uddhismEs influence spread across Japan. %mperor &homu:
who reigned from @76 to @86: was a huge proponent of 0uddhism. !e commissioned many
different wood: clay: and bron#e statues to fill the >arious temples. ,t was during the 2ara period
that the use bron#e 0uddha at Todai$ji temple was built. "ost of Japan was agricultural during
this period: and while 0uddhism was gaining in influence: many of the lower class >illagers were
&hinto.
The Capital at +ara
The 2ara period is so named because %mpress 'emmei: one of the few women rulers of Japan:
mo>ed the imperial capital to !eijo$yo: what is now nown as 2ara: during the start of her
reign in @39. The capital would remain at 2ara: with the e;ception of a brief fi>e$year mo>e:
until %mperor Kammu mo>ed the capital to 2agaoa$yo in @48.
'emmeiEs capital was modeled after +hangEan: the capital of Tang +hina. &he and her court
copied much of the +hinese court: including their system of writing: many of the 0uddhist
practices: and their fashion. 1ne of the practices adopted by 'emmei and followed by the
imperial household following her rule was to eep the capital city in the same place. 0efore: the
capital was mo>ed after the death of the ruler because it was belie>es that the place of death was
cursed. 'emmeiEs reforms: howe>er: permanently established the capital at 2ara for some time.
This permanent capital led to 2ara becoming JapanEs first urban city with a population of around
799:999.
"any new roads were built during this time: effecti>ely lining much of Japan. This allowed for
goods to be traded more easily and: in turn: for more ta;es to be collected. +oins were created:
although they werenEt used widely. !owe>er: most of these reforms only affected the area around
2ara. ,n the far$flung areas of Japan: shoen: or landed estates: became the norm. These shoen
38
were lie feudal lands: with local landholders controlling their estates and the >assals who
wored the lands.
)hile the capital was: physically speaing: stable: the imperial court was not. (ighting continued
between the large families: the imperial family members: and the top echelon of the 0uddhist
priesthood.
After the death of (ujiwara no (uhito: Prince 2agaya stepped in and too the throne. This lead to
(uhitoEs four sons to stage a coupe of their own: and in @76: they put their nephew: %mperor
&homu: on the throne and arrested 2agaya. %ight years later: after a horrible outbrea of
smallpo;: the four brothers were all dead and the (ujiwara familyEs influence: once great:
diminished. %mperor &homu: saddened at the death of his uncles: proceeded to mo>e his capital
four times between @89 and @8A: with the final mo>e bringing the go>ernment bac to 2ara.
Private Military Forces
*ue to the mo>ing of the capital and other e;penses: the late 2ara period saw the go>ernment in
midst of a financial crisis. ,n @67: the emperor did away with conscription of military personnel.
The district leaders were gi>ing the power to create their own pri>ate militias to handle local
crime. ,n an effort to reestablish central go>ernment: the capital would see one last mo>e during
the 2ara period: in @48: it was mo>ed ot 2agaoa$yo.
The +ara Period and China
The 2ara people lo>ed +hinese culture and incorporated as much of it as possible into Japanese
culture. %n>oys were sent to the Tang court e>ery twenty years: and many Japanese students and
priests studied in +hina. 1ne: Abe no 2aamaro: was actually appointed to a go>ernment post
after passing the +hinese ci>il e;am and would later be appointed 'o>ernor$'eneral in +hinese
Fietnam. The +hinese: on the other hand: ne>er sent official diplomats to the Japanese court:
although many +hinese did mae trips to Japan.
The +ara Period and "orea
Japan and the Korean ingdom of &illa were on good relations at the beginning of the 2ara
period. !owe>er: as the ingdom of 0alhae: located north of &illa: opened diplomatic relations
with Japan: &illa became somewhat less friendly. !owe>er: no open hostilities occurred between
the two.
Cltre in the +ara Period
*uring this period: the imperial court began putting more and more focus on eeping records and
writing down historical e>ents. &e>eral political wors such as the Nihon Shoki were written
during this time. "uch poetry was also written: including the Man yoshu: the first collection of
poetry. These wors were mainly written using +hinese characters.
0uddhism: introduced to Japan in the si;th century: truly flourished during the 2ara period.
%mperor &homu hea>ily promotoed the new religion and built the Todai$ji: or %astern 'reat
Temple: during his reign and ordered the construction of its huge 0uddha *ainichi statue. As
0uddha and the sun goddess were often seen as parallels: 0uddhism and &hinto slowly fell into a
comfortable co$e;istion.
3A
&homuEs daughter: %mpress Koen: brought more 0uddhist priests into the court. After her
retirement: she became Duite friendly with a 0uddhist healer. !er cousin: (ujiwara no 2aamaro:
was >ery displeased by this: but his rebellion posed no threat to Koen: and she retoo the throne
under the name %mpress &hotou. &he then ordered the creation of many different prayer charms
and prints: many of which are currently ept at the Todai$ji temple today. !owe>er: this hyper$
focusing on 0uddhism would lead to her successors remo>ing women from the line of
succession and 0uddhist priests from positions of political power. ,n addition to their own
artwor: the 2ara courts often important art and other items from +hina: Korea: ,ndia: and e>en
some middle$eastern countries.
The Heian Period
The !eian period officially began when the imperial capital mo>ed from 2ara to !eian$yo:
what is today Kyoto. %soteric and Tantric forms of 0uddhism were introduced to Japan by the
priests Kuai and &aicho: and with them came a larger pantheon of gods and goddesses. This: in
turn: led to new pieces of art. )hile %soteric 0uddhism was >ery popular for most of the !eian
period: it was o>ershadowed by Amida 0uddhism by the end of the period. This form of
0uddhism led to e>en more elegant artwor and architecture: most of which were inspired by the
concept of the pure land that Amida 0uddhism focused on. The !eian period is also nown for
being the period at which the +hinese influence was at its greatest. +onfucianism was especially
influential at the beginning of the period: although 0uddhism would later o>ertae it in
popularity.
Heian Politics
*uring this time: art: literature: and poetry ad>anced Duicly. The calligraphy and painting that
many associate with Japan became popular with the aristocracy and with the (ujiwara court. The
samurai class too root with the ruling class and began its rise to power. 0ecause of this: the
!eian period is nown as the beginning of feudal Japan. All of these ad>anced were the result of
the (ujiwara clan.
)hile the empire was outwardly ruled by the emperor: the real power was held by the (ujiwara
nobles. 0ecause the large clan needed protection: they began hea>ily recruiting soldiers. These
warriors began adapting specific rules and codes: e>entually solidifying into a warrior class.
&ome groups of these warriors: in fact: e>en tried to tae o>er the go>ernment: but they were not
yet powerful enough to succeed.
)ddhism #n the 'ise
As 0uddhism spread throughout Japan: two main esoteric sects de>eloped: the Tendai and the
&hingon. The Tendai came from +hina and based their teachings on the "ahayana 0uddhist
Cotus &utra. The &hingon: on the other side: began in Japan and associated itself more closely
with the Kuai school of thought found in ,ndia: Tibet: and +hina. %mperor Kammu: who ruled
from @B@ to 495: was greatly impressed with the Tendai sect: while the emperors who followed
him were patrons of the &hingon. Tendai: howe>er: became associated with the imperial court
because of the closeness of the new capital and the Tendai monastery at "ount !iei.
Literatre
)hile literacy was only common among the ruling class and the 0uddhist mons: literature itself
de>eloped greatly during the !eian period. 2ew literary genres: including the no>el and the
35
narrati>e monogatari: were established: mainly due to the introduction of the ana form of
writing. Kana became more and more widely used: although the +hinese style of writing was
still the official !eian court language.
Three major items were written during the !eian period. The no>el The Tale of Genji by
"urasai &hiibu: which is often considered the first no>el e>er written: was penned during this
time period. &ei &honagon: one of &hiibuEs contemporaries: wrote the nonfiction The Pillow
Book detailing her life at an attendant to the empress. Another major written piece was the lyrics
to the Japanese national anthem: which are still used today.
Economic 'ecession
*uring the !eian period: JapanEs economy weaened: and po>erty was >ery common. )hile the
aristocracy and its chosen few: referred to as the Yoibito: flourished: they were only around fi>e
thousand out of the fi>e million Japanese. 0y 3999: currency was no longer produced and began
>anishing for society. )ithout this form of e;change: Japan re>erted bac to a barter system.
/obbery was also on the rise since the police force had deteriorated from lac of funding.
The F,iwara Clan
2ow ruling from the imperial capital at Kyoto: the %mperor Kammu continued to run a strong
imperial go>ernment e>en though the Taia reforms were in decline. ,n fact: his lac of reform
actually strengthened the go>ernment and reduced political in$fighting. !owe>er: although there
was little fighting within the court: Kammu continued to wage battles against the people in
northern and eastern Japan. !e e;panded the empire during his reign and was the first to gi>e his
military the title of &eii Taishogun: which would later be shortened to shogun.
*espite his many conDuests: though: the empireEs hold o>er these far$flung territories was ne>er
>ery strong. To add to this tenuous hold: during the ninth and tenth centuries: the larger Japanese
families began ignoring the ta; system and the laws regarding land. 1ut of all these families: it
was the (ujiwara who emerged as the real power in the land: though the imperial family still
retained power on the surface.
After %mperor Kammu died: his heirs created two new offices to help administer the empire
under the Taia /eform: both of which were inspired by +hinese departments. These were the
%mperorEs Pri>ate 1ffice: which handled imperial edicts: and the "etropolitan Police 0oard:
which replaced the imperial guard. These two departments: howe>er: did not hold power for >ery
long and were soon dissol>ed some B9 years after they were created.
,n 4B4: with the final imperial mission to Tang: +hina: the Japanese began to turn away from
+hinese influence. This was because +hina was in decline: and Japan began losing respect for
them and their systems of go>ernment.
The ninth century saw the (ujiwara family gain prominence due to their intermarrying with the
imperial family. ,n fact: it was a (ujiwara member who was placed in charge of the %mperorEs
Pri>ate 1ffice. &essho: another (ujiwara member: became imperial regent for his grandson. As
the ninth century progressed: the imperial family tried to remo>e the (ujiwara from power: but
they were all unsucessful. !owe>er: %mperor *aigo: who ruled from 46@ to 6B9: bypassed the
(ujiwara family by ruling directly.
3@
!owe>er: the (ujiwara were far from powerless during *aigoEs reign. ,n fact: imperial control
began to wane during this time: lea>ing a >acuum that was filled by the (ujiwara and other
powerful families and religious groups. The !eian period saw these large shoen become legal
entities in their own rights while religious groups began seeing ta; breas and freedom from
go>ernment super>ision. The central go>ernment was effecti>ely remo>ed from actual
go>erning: returning Japan to the state it was in before the Taia /eform.
"ere decades after %mperor *aigo died: the (ujiwara controlled the imperial court. 0y 3999: the
family effecti>ely decided who was emperor and when their reign would end. 'o>ernment
offices had little power during this time: with most go>ernment business handled directly by the
(ujiwara family and its pri>ate offices. The idea of a unified Japan fell apart as the empire was
split into shoen controlled by the powerful aristocratic families.
!owe>er: while the go>ernment was more or less o>erthrown: the (ujiwara control of Japan was
not a time of chaos or terror. ,nstead: JapanEs culture and artistry grew and e;panded: especially
among the aristocracy. Poetry and literature e;panded at a large rate. +hinese anji: which had
been the main form of writing up until this time: was supplemented and: to an e;tent: replaced by
the ataana and hiragana system of writing. Fernacular literature Duicly became popular: as
did women writers. )hile only men were traditionally instructed in anji: women learned
ataana and hiragana: allowing them to write for the masses. Among these women were &ei
&honagon -<The Pillow 0oo=. and "urasai &hiibu -<The Tale of 'enji=..
'reat ad>ances in artwor also occurred during this time. )hile pre>ious artwor tended to
follow +hinese styles: the artwor of the (ujiwara time period broe away from this tradition and
focused more on original wors. Yamato$e: >ery colorful paintings: presented a >iew of court life
and told stories from religion and mythology. This style of art would last for centuries: e>en
influencing todayEs artists.
The Military Class
)hile the military had pre>iously been controlled by the throne: with the central go>ernmentEs
collapse: the larger families began building their own military forces once again. %>en religious
orders started recruiting soldiers to protect themsel>es. The soldiers of this time period slowly
became a new class of citi#en: a military elite who followed the concepts of bushi: better nown
as samurai. The three most powerful families who formed samurai armies were the Taira: the
"inamoto: and: not surprisingly: the (ujiwara.
These three families emerged as the leaders of the slowly fragmenting country. !owe>er: none
wanted to share power. (ood production declined: leading to battles for control of resources and
fertile ground. The (ujiwara: Taira: and "inamoto families could all claim imperial blood: and
all wanted control of Japan. Peace was shattered.
,n 3954: %mperor 'o$&anjo too the throne. 'o$&anjo was the first emperor since the ninth
century to not be born to a (ujiwara mother. &eeing what the lac of strong go>ernment was
doing to his country: 'o$&anjo dedicated his reign to returning the imperial court to power. !e
began issuing reforms that slowly leeched away the (ujiwaraEs influence. !e ordered that all
estate records be >alidated: and when they could not: the land: including some (ujiwara land:
was sei#ed by the court. Another office 'o$&anjo created was the 1ffice of the +loistered
%mperor: the office that many abdicated emperors would retire to so they could continue to ha>e
behind$the$scenes power.
34
The 1ffice of the +loistered %mperor also ser>ed another purpose. Inable to simply remo>e the
(ujiwara from power: 'o$&anjo needed a way of slowly remo>ing their influence without
outright deposing them. To do this: he allowed them to maintain their positions while slowly
transferring more and more power to the 1ffice of the +loistered %mperor. This loss of power
plus the rise of the "inamoto family: many of whom were gi>en positions once held by (ujiwara
members: lead the (ujiwara family to fall into internal sDuabbling. Thans to the 1ffice of the
+loistered %mperor: the imperial family regained much of its power: although this power was
now enforced through the military class instead of the ci>il authority as it once was.
*uring the middle of the twelfth century: howe>er: yet another power >acuum lead the (ujiwara
family and the retired emperor to battle against the imperial heir and the Taira and "inamoto
families. The (ujiwara decisi>ely lost: but the system of go>ernment radically changed. The
military class rose to power in the >acuum created by the steady stream of battlesJthe Taira and
"inamoto clans clashed a mere three years after defeating the (ujiwara. The Taira too control
of the go>ernment for the ne;t twenty years before they were phased out by the "inamoto
family.
The "ama$ra Period
The Kamaura period of Japanese history began in 334A when "inamoto no Yorimoto declared
himself the &hogun of Japan and mo>ed the capital to Kamaura: a small town on the %astern
side of Japan. The Kamaura period is noted for the many temples that were rebuilt or restored:
its renewed focus on realism and secular artwor: and its military leadership. ,t was also during
this time that Japan battled forces both e;terior and interior as the "ongols in>aded and the
country fell into ci>il war.
The *ho%nate
*uring the Kamaura period: Japan shifted from focusing on economics to military technology
and power. The go>ernment of Japan became e>en more lie medie>al %urope with lords holding
land and >assals pledging to ser>e them. These lords had absolute local power: although most: in
turn: had pledged themsel>es to higher lords or to the &hogun himself.
)hile the %mperor and the royal family still e;isted: most of the power was now in the hands of
"inamoto Yoritomo as shogun. !e continued to consolidate power in his own go>ernment: much
lie the (ujiwara did with their internal administration rather than use the ser>ants and ministers
already in place. The shogun began placing his own stewards in charge of >arious estates and
sections of land to e>en further consolidate his power. !owe>er: this was only partially
successful as many rejected the stewardsE power and fought against them: especially in the
northern (ujiwara area. )hile "inamoto controlled much of Japan: he ne>er fully controlled the
northern or western areas due to this resistance and the imperial family: who continued to e;ert
what power they could o>er Kyoto and the surrounding area.
After YoritomoEs death in 3366: his son "inamoto no Yoriie assumed the position of shogun: but
he soon lost control of much of the eastern pro>inces. 0y the thirteenth century: the shogunate
had fallen under control of the !ojo clan. The patriarch of the !ojo clan became regent for the
current shogun and held the real power: maing the shogun little more than a figurehead.
The relations between the imperial court in Kyoto and the shogunEs court in Kamaura continued
to grow: and in 3773: the Joyu )ar began between +loistered %mperor 'o$Toba and shogun
regent !ojo Yoshitoi. The !ojo clan handily defeated 'o$TobaEs forces: putting the imperial
36
court firmly under control of the !ojo family. This effecti>ely ga>e the shogunEs go>ernment full
control of Japan: although the imperial family retained its lands.
*uring the !ojo familyEs regency: se>eral ad>ances were made. The family created the +ouncil
of &tate: which ga>e the military lords judicial authority. They also established the first military
code of law: the 'oseibai &hiimou: which further mo>ed the go>ernment from the court$led
empire to a military society. These new codes and forms of law were not based on the +onfucian
principles lie those of the pre>ious regime. These laws were: howe>er: >ery clear and straight to
the point: listing ways of settling disputes: punishments for criminals: and inheritance laws. The
'oseibai &hiimou would continue to be enforced for the ne;t 5BA years.
)attles with the Mon%ols
*uring the !ojo rule: the court had little to do with either +hina or Korea -called 'oryeo then..
!owe>er: in 3754: the court recei>ed word that Kublai Khan: leader of the new "ongol
go>ernment in 0eijing: demanded tribute from Japan. The emperor responded by reminding the
"ongols of his di>ine origins and preparing defenses.
,n 37@8: the "ongols in>aded Japan with o>er 599 ships and 7B:999 troops. The samurai: who
were used to battling one on one: were at first unaccustomed to battling the ca>alry of the
"ongols. !owe>er: the mainland forces held off the in>asion until a typhoon swept in and
destroyed the in>aders. Kublai Khan recogni#ed that his military had been defeated by nature:
not the Japanese forces: and so in 3743 he sent a second force. The "ongols and Japanese forces
fought in northwestern Japan for se>en wees before another typhoon hit and once again sun
the "ongol ships. These two typhoons became nown as amia#e: a di>ine wind sent by
hea>en to protect Japan.
Although they were >ictorious: the battles against the "ongols drained much of the imperial
treasury: leading the shogun to issue new ta;es. This caused unrest among the lower classes: who
felt the brunt of the ta;. The military class was also unhappy with the shogun. 2one of them
recei>ed lands: titles: or any other type of reward for their ser>ice in repelling the in>asions.
)ddhism drin% the "ama$ra period
0uddhism flourished during much of the Kamaura age. Two new sects were established: the
Ken and the Jodo shu. The monasteries on "ount !iei gained much political power. These
monasteries mainly focused on studying their own teachings. the &hingon sect: on the other
hand: focused on esoteric rituals and was mainly supported by the Kyoto aristocracy. &e>eral
other sects: including the Ji: the &oto: and the /in#ai: were also founded during this period.
1lder sects lie the Tendai continued to flourish despite these newer ri>als. !owe>er: while they
stills sur>i>ed: the newer sects gained more followers: especially from the samurai and
go>ernment officials.
Civil -ar in Japan
To a>oid uphea>al: the !ojo clan ga>e more and more power to the more powerful clans. Then:
to help insure that the imperial family would be no threat: they recogni#ed two different
contenders to the throne and set up two imperial courts: one in the north and one in the south.
These two were to ordered to alternate holding the throne. )hile this wored for se>eral
79
successions: when %mperor 'o$*aigo of the southern court assumed the throne: he did so with
plans to o>erthrow the shogun. !e named his son heir to his throne instead of the northern court
candidate. ,n response: the shogun e;iled 'o$*aigo in 3BB3.
This e;ile lead to 'o$*aigoEs loyal forces mo>ing into open rebellion. The shogun Duicly
dispatched a constable: Ashiaga Taauji: to put down the forces. To his surprise: Taauji sided
with 'o$*aigo. To mae matters worse for the !ojo: 2itta Yoshisada: a powerful leader in
eastern Japan: started his own rebellion around the same time. )ith battles on two fronts: the
!ojo family found their forces spread too thin: and they were soon defeated.
The final part of the Kamaura period became nown as the Kemmu restoration. *uring this
time: %mperor 'o$*aigo began resorting power to the imperial family and reinstated many of
the +onfucian policies and practices. !owe>er: many of the forces who had fought with 'o$
*aigo were not interested in seeing the imperial family restored: only in defeating the !ojo and
the shogunate. 0y the year 3BBB: the Kamaura period came to an end as the shogunate was
destroyed and %mperor 'o$*aigo assumed the throne.
(ollowing the end of the Kamaura period: the northern court: aided by Taauji: turned against
the southern court and 'o$*aigo. +i>il war broe out once again. This battle: nown as the )ar
0etween the +ourts: began in 3BB5 and didnEt end until 3B67. %arly on: %mperor 'o$*aigo and
the imperial family lost Kyoto: and the northern court soon installed a new shogun.
Maromachi Period
The "uromachi Period is a timeline in Japanese history of appro;imately two hundred and fifty
years that ran from roughly 3BB5 to 3A@B. This period began when the Japanese go>ernment led
emperor 'o$*aigo failed to establish a dominant empire when imperial powers were restored.
The wealthy landowners belie>ed that they should ha>e a firm hand in the go>ernment and they
were upset by the emperorEs lac of consideration to them and some poor choices in ruling the
country.
This series of e>ents led to the emperorEs ruin as his empire fell and Japan was ruled by the first
"uromachi shogun: Ashiaga Taauji. )hile Taauji had once fought on behalf of the emperor:
he now challenged the imperial court and captured Kyoto in 3BB5 and officially declared himself
shogun two years later. !owe>er: this was not a complete >ictory as the emperor established a
secondary court in the south. (or appro;imately fifty years the 2orthern and &outhern courts
fought against each other.
The two battling sides e>entually came together when the &outhern court conceded to the
2orthern court in 3B67: officially reuniting Japan under one ruling empire. *uring the early
3899Es of the "uromachi period under the rule of Ashiaga Yoshimitsu the Japanese go>ernment
established contact with +hina: who was in the midst of the "ing *ynasty: and that relationship
was to last for close to fifty years. ,t was during this time that Japan and +hina participated in the
trading of items lie sulphur: swords: sil: and boos. 0ecause of this trade and the acceptance of
Ken 0uddhism: the arts were encouraged and e>en flourished. The burgeoning economy caused a
new ind of township and social classes to de>elop in Japan.
,n 385@ the 1nin )ar began. The 1nin war was a period of ci>il unrest in Japan in which many
different lords >ied for complete control of the country: but the central conflict was between
!osoawa Katsumoto and Yamana &L#en. 0y the fall of that year the northern section of Kyoto
was in complete ruin. Almost all of its citi#enry had fled: lea>ing the once proud city almost
73
entirely >acant e;cept for those who stayed on to fight and those who were too desperate to do
anything other than loot the remains of the Kyoto. %>en when !osoawa Katsumoto and Yamana
&L#en died fi>e years later: the fighting did not stop.
This conflict led to political disintegration within the imperial court. 0ecause of the land owners
who imposed feudal control on their property the reliance on the central go>ernment >anished.
This landowner control led to peasants rising up against their landlords and the particularly harsh
and unfa>orable conditions in which they wored and li>ed. The war touched nearly e>ery corner
of the country: and the go>ernment ruled by Ashiaga Yoshimasa did not tae an acti>e rule in
dispersing the fighting. ,t has e>en been said that Yoshimasa felt his time too important to spend
in the matters of war and would retreat into the confines of his temple to write and recite poetry.
The 1nin )ar lasted until 38@@: and afterward the go>ernment was left banrupt and the
countrymen were rebellious. Another clan: the !ataeyama: had fractioned into two separate
parts that had waged battles against each other until they were at a complete standstill with
neither side winning. ,n 384A in response to this conflict: there was a re>olt by some of the
peasants and samurai which led to the establishment of an indi>idual army nown as the ,i$
io. This armed uprising was far more organi#ed than a mere rebellion and the ,i$io
established themsel>es in se>eral communities throughout Japan and e>en managed to o>erthrow
some of the warlords to establish their own sort of go>ernment in the Kaga Pro>ince where they
managed to build their headDuarters along the Yodo /i>er.
The rule of the go>ernment by the Ashiaga Duietly crumbled as the !osoawa family >ied for
the behind the scenes control. This hollow go>ernment system set up Japan for a series of
conflicts and wars as >arious entities waged battles to put their fa>orite shogun in power so that
they could more easily pull the strings. *espite these constant conflicts: the !osoawa family
would stay in control until the mid 3A99Es: but by then it did not truly matter as the constant
warring that had been waged throughout Japan had caused Duite a toll to be taen on the people
and the country. &o much of the warlordsE control were weaened that the go>ernment turned to
a more military based control under 1da 2obunaga when he unified Japan by throwing o>er the
baufu in 3A@B.
)hile the ci>il wars did a lot to undermine the rule of the Ashiaga and cause major problems
amongst the citi#ens of the country: it did stimulate the economy because of all the transportation
reDuired to mo>e the supplies and armies across the country. &uch growth in the merchandising
sector led to impro>ements in the protection of the different trades. The influence of the )estern
culture at the end of the "uromachi period only helped to increase this establishment of trade.
This influ; of cultures began with the Portuguese in 3A8B: when the Japanese were first
introduced to )estern cultures ideals in religion and weapons. )hile many of the 0uddhists in
Japan opposed the idea of +hristianity coming into their country: some of the land owners
welcomed it because they wanted to establish a trade route with many of the foreign nations and
saw this influ; of +hristian missionaries as a way to go about doing this.
Cater: the &panish and *utch came in shortly after the end of the "uromachi period. This change
brought with it an entirely different outloo by the Japanese toward )estern culture and
go>ernment. And it would not be long before the growing popularity of churches and +hristian
con>erts would cause the rest of the country to become more unified against the new religion:
causing +hristian persecutions to begin barely thirty years after the end of the "uromachi
Period.
&.chi/Momoyama Period
77
The A#uchi$"omoyama Period is a period in Japanese history that followed the "uromachi
Period: or the <)arring &tates Period:= as it is often nown. This preceding period of Japanese
history was one of se>ere ci>il unrest and spotty wars that had wored together to tear the
country into fragmented city states ruled o>er by the >arious war lords in different regions. 1ne
of 1da 2obunagaEs goals when he too control of Kyoto in 3A54 was to unify Japan under one
solid go>ernment.
,n order to mae sure the people were more united behind his form of go>ernment: 2obunaga
began to reform the economic roots of the country as soon as he had the power to do so. !e
accomplished this by breaing up a lot of the larger conglomerates that had been running the
countryEs marets and the guilds behind them. Then: he wored to encourage e>eryone else to
get in>ol>ed in the maret by installing free marets that were called rauichi$rau#a. The
moti>ation behind this was the hope that if people were more in>ol>ed in the maret and more
freely able to earn money in this new established free trade they would feel better about their
go>ernment.
After his minor >ictory in Kyoto: 2obunaga continued to wor toward getting rid any opposition
that may ha>e stood in his way. (or fi>e years he wored to rid Japan of the hollow go>ernment
of Ashiaga Yoshimasa and he finally succeeded when his army finally dro>e Yoshimasa from
the capital. The other groups that considered themsel>es enemies of 2obunaga were the militant
0uddhist sects lie the ,o -or ,i.: which had established themsel>es as powerful leaders in
se>eral of the pro>idences. 2obunaga went at the sects full$force: but his conflict with the ,o
would go on for twel>e years until it finally ended in 3A49.
!is >ictory was short$li>ed as he was assassinated in 3A47 by general Aechi. There was a
general who fought for 2obunaga named Toyotomi !ideyoshi: who managed to Duicly defeat
Aechi and regain control. 1nce he had done this: !ideyoshi campaigned to ha>e 2obunagaEs
youngest son: &anpLshi: to be named heir so that he could become the co$guardian and retain his
power. This was an important maneu>er for !ideyoshi as he had been a commoner who had
wored his way through the rans. 0y completing these alliances and embedding himself in the
royal family: !ideyoshi ensured that he would remain in power in the newly established regime.
,n 3A48 after the 0attle of Komai and 2agaute: !ideyoshi dominated Kyoto and made sure
through this >ictory that the Duestion of succession was finally resol>ed and he became the ruler
for all empire that had been established under 2obunagaEs name.
To help eep this established central control !ideyoshi went through and tore down almost all of
the castles that had been erected during the ci>il turmoil that had ra>aged the country under the
pre>ious shogunateEs rule. !e followed this up by forcing all of the peasants: farmers: and
religious sects to relinDuish their weapons in a mo>e that was nown as the <&word !unt:=
which was put into effect in 3A44. 0y then forcing the samurai to be e;cluded from farming
acti>ities and secluding them in separate townships the go>ernment effecti>ely placed a clear
distinction on the social classes: which helped them maintain strict control.
Another measure that !ideyoshi adopted to try and unify the people was the lifting of toll booths
and unnecessary military strongholds so that people could more freely mo>e and trade
throughout the country. To encourage all classes of the society a plan was put into place that
fro#e class distinctions and eliminated the laws that declared that separate castes must li>e in
separate places. This allowed people of a lower class system to actually be able to wor toward a
dream of rising abo>e their current social situation and encouraged them to be more producti>e.
7B
0ecause of the growing concern o>er religious infiltration from the west: !ideyoshi e;pelled all
+hristian missionaries in 3A4@. )hile the (ransciscans and Jesuits were able to remain and enter
the country for Duite some time afterward: the hammer effecti>ely came down in 3A6@ as the
missionaries were harshly persecuted and twenty$si; (ranciscans were e;ecuted to ser>e as an
e;ample for any others who might consider con>erting religions. &ome people thought of these
acts of aggression as unnecessary: but !ideyoshi truly belie>ed that it was a crucial step in
maintaining control of his empire as +hristian missionaries in other parts of the world were
declaring war in the name of their god and coloni#ing the countries theyE>e taen o>er.
,n the later years of his rule: !ideyoshi established a system to try and eDuali#e the power of
go>ernment through the basis of different e;ecuti>e offices. &ome of these were the +ouncil of
(i>e %lders: the 0oard of !ouse Administrators: and the 0oard of "ediators: which were
designed to wor together to eep an appropriate balance in the go>ernment.
Part of the reason !ideyoshi wanted to maintain strict control with the people of Japan was that
!ideyoshi had a dream of conDuering +hina and getting in on some of the wealth of the "ing
*ynasty. To try and get a foothold into the illustrious country: !ideyshi in>aded Koreabecause of
their ties with the +hinese through an alliance. After the capture of &eoul the Japanese forces
were seen as liberators by many of the Korean commoners. The Korean go>ernment: howe>er:
Duicly appealed to the +hinese military for help. (or nearly si; years after his armies first
in>aded Korea in 3A67: !ideyoshi fought off the +hinese and Korean forces: refusing to gi>e
into the fact the his troops were outnumbered by an almost o>erwhelming show of force. The
final e>acuation of Korea forced !ideyoshiEs army out after peace tals with +hina reached a
stalemate. Indeterred by this defeat: !ideyoshi tried again but this time it was a far greater battle
as they met with more resistance by the Korean people. The campaign to infiltrate Korea
officially ended with !ideyoshiEs death.
0efore he died: !ideyoshi established a group of fi>e lords to rule o>er Japan until his son was
hold enough to do so. )hen "aeda Toshiie: one of the fi>e lords: died in 3A66 a battle for power
ensued that was nown as the 0attle of &eigahara. Tougawa ,eyasu: a partner for both
!ideyoshi and 2obunaga and one of the fi>e lords: became the leader of Japan after his >ictory
in this battle and established the %do baufu: which would last until 3454.
Edo Period
After the fall of the A#uchi$"omoyama period in 3599: the %do period was established by &eii
Taishogun: Tougawa ,eyasu. 1riginally Tougawa had been established as one of the fi>e lords
appointed by !ideyoshi to maintain control of Japan until his young son: !ideyori was capable
of ruling on his own. The death of one of the fi>e lords: "aeda Toshiie in 3A66 disrupted the
balance of power and when Yougawa was accussed by another lord of not respecting
!ideyoshiEs wishes the 0attle of &eigahara began in 3599. Tougawa emerged as the
undisputed >ictor and ultimate ruler of Japan and was named the &eii Taishogun by the emperor
of Japan. The %do period would continue for o>er two hundred and fifty years under the
leadership of the Tougawa shogunate.
After conDuering those who were loyal to !ideyoshi: ,eyasu was left in a position of supreme
power and unlimited wealth. !e relocated to the more strategically located city of %do: modern
day Tooyo: where he was better protected from his enemies. This was especially true for the
Toyotomi forces who were still a large threat: and e>en though he was officially considered a
retired shogun after 359A: ,eyasu wored until 353A to mae sure that they were eradicated. This
78
happened when the Tougawa army in>aded 1saa and destroyed the remains of the Toyotomi
were officially destroyed.
The %do period ushered in a sense of stability to Japan because it combined the feudal system of
go>ernment with a larger: more centrali#ed bureaucracy. !e also redistributing the land between
those daimyo whoEd supported him throughout the power struggle: gi>ing them more prominent
lands as a representation of their alliegance to him. !owe>er: in order to curb their wealth and
power: he also reDuired that e>ery daimyo spent e>ery other year in %do. 0y doing this it
instituted that the land owners had to spend a considerable amount of money and time away from
their domain and limited their power base at home.
After the final battle against the Toyotomi family there was an e;tended period of peace and
stability that allowed the samurai to worry about more than the constant war that had plagued
Japan during the "uromachi period. All of this free time was used to better educate themsel>es
in the arts: philosophy: and literature of the period.
Persecution against +hristianity remained in effect under the Yougawa family: thereby
constricting their ability to introduce western ideals to the Japanese people. To further pre>ent
too much outside influence on Japanese ideals the go>ernment formerly banned all foreign boos
and restricted the trade to +hina and the port of 2agasai. ,n 35BB all foreign tra>el was also
banned: effecti>ely cutting off and isolating the island of Japan. 1nce the country was cut off
from the other influences and not as dependant on outside commerce local economic conditions
flourished as trade and agriculture within Japan impro>ed. This stability and balance of the
maret helped to eep the stability of the country and in its own way aided in the continued
isolation of Japan.
!owe>er: the ban on literature outside of Japan was lifted eighty$one years later in 3@79. This
allowed for new schools to be built that combined elements of learning from an influ; of ideals
from +hina and parts of %urope: thus introducing a host of new ideals to Japan.
)hile class systems had all but been abolished during the reign of !ideyoshi: they were
reinstituted during the %do period. +iti#ens were reDuired to register in one of the four classes
and they were not allowed to change their class. The categories that citi#ens fell into were
samurai: peasants: artisans: and merchants. Anyone with a Duestionable or immoral profession
were not e>en considered in the class system and made up the unofficial fifth caste.
Iltimately this reinstitution of the class system would become a problem when the higher
raning samurai class found themsel>es financially dependant on the merchant class as their
power and wealth grew. %>entually some of the samurai were e>en forced to tae on production
and labor intensi>e jobs for the merchants to pay off their debts or e>en to merely earn a li>ing as
fortunes during this time steeply declined. A population e;plosion also led to more and more
people li>ing in e;treme po>erty or taing on tenant farmer positions. ,n 34B@ in 1saa the
peasants fought bac against the go>ernment and the merchants that they percei>ed to be
suppressing them. The rebellion was Duashed in a day: but the impact of what the peasants had
done had a lasting effect on the perception of the go>ernment and the crisis feeling that was
facing so many of its population.
Toward the end of the Tougawa regime the country began facing some problems despite how
stable they had been in the pre>ious years. As the go>ernment found itself facing a monetary
crunch they began imposing higher ta;es on the Japanese people. This: combined with a conflu;
of natural disasters and famine across the country: caused the farmers and peasants to riot. The
7A
go>ernment had been facing a steady decrease of morals and incompetence: and this led to e>en
further problems as the infrastructure of the Tougawa family began to decline.
Another problem that beset the Tougawa go>ernmentEs control was the increasing pressure for
Japan to change due to outside forces. /ussia: %urope: and the Inited &tates: would all
e>entually see to establish some form of trade agreement. !owe>er: the go>ernment held out on
offering opportunities for establishing international trading opportunities and ports until 34AB
when I& 2a>al commander "atthew Perry arri>ed in %do 0ay forcing the baufu to react to the
situation. ,n 34A8 the Treaty of Peace and Amity allowed for the Inited &tates to begin trading
with the Japanese and offered a promise of good and fair treatment to shipwreced Americans.
%>en so: the trading that was conducted was done only on a limited basis. (i>e years later
another act was forced on the go>ernment opening e>en more ports for trade with the Inited
&tates.
This second treaty with the Inited &tates caused some problems within the society as it granted
unrestricted or monitored trade at some ports while also allowing foreign peoples to only be
beholden to the laws of their own country: releasing them from the bonds of Japanese law. This
inconsistency caused some feelings of unrest within JapanEs citi#enry and opposition to the treaty
arose.
)hile there were anti$western feelings among the population: many people reali#ed the benefits
of western sciences and military ad>ancements. This led to a discrepancy in the country as
different groups >ied to ha>e their >iewpoints heard. ,n an attempt to eep up with western
weapons and defense: a na>al training academy was established in 2agasai in 34AA with *utch
instructors. The following year a military school that embraced western ideas was launched in
%do.
This desire to open Japan up to the rest of the world e>entually resulted in the Tougawa
go>ernmentEs demise due to political demand for the end of the shogunate rule. ,n 3454 the
imperial power of the %mperor "eiji was completely reinstated.
Mei,i Period
At the end of the Tougawa Period in 3454: a new period of Japanese history emerged and lasted
for almost forty fi>e years. This time was nown as the "eiji /estoration in which the emperor
and the capital were mo>ed from Kyoto to Toyo and major reforms in the go>ernment were
enacted. This was the beginning of JapanEs emergence onto the world scene and established them
as a world power. This enlightened period of Japanese history put an end to the two hundred and
si;ty fi>e years of shogunate rule.
)hereas the pre>ious go>ernment had been ruled by the baufu: the reigns of the go>ernment
were now transferred from this baufu system into a group of nobles and former samurai. The
outside pressures from )estern +i>ili#ation had caused the ultimate downfall of the shogunate
rule and they were still just as present in the new form of rule as they had been to the old one: so
the new go>ernment would also ha>e to find a way to deal with these problems.
1ne of the first things that the go>ernment did was to enact the (i>e +harter 1ath in 3454. This
document consisted of fi>e different positions and promised to help the ordinary citi#ens wor to
rise abo>e the classes and to help boost morale for all of the Japanese citi#ens and encourage
them to build new businesses and to try and build upon nowledge. The implications of this
meant that the baufu rule would officially be o>er.
75
,n order to mae sure that the Japanese had some trading abilities with the other countries: those
in power were forced to sign treaties with many of the )estern counties. These treaties were
largely uneDual in hea>y fa>or of the other countries: gi>ing them large legal and economic
ad>antages in Japan. &o: in an attempt to mae sure that the country caught up with these other
world powers: the "eiji %mpire found itself instituting widespread reforms.
!ardly any facet of the go>ernment was left untouched as they tried to reach out to the people
and create a more democratic state with more eDuality. This meant that the established social
classes: including the samurai: which had caused so many problems during the Tougawa regime
were e>entually broen down and discarded. The feudal lords were forced to relinDuish all of
their lands to the emperor. ,n 34@9 the emperor had reclaimed all of the lands and they were
broen down and restructured into territories. %>entually the go>ernment e>en decided to grant
religious freedoms to the people in 34@B.
+opying the (rench and 'erman systems of education: Japan also reformed its schools and
began to reDuire compulsory education for all children. !owe>er: as these reforms pushed the
traditional go>ernment toward a more and more liberal mo>ement a baclash resulted and
pushed them bac toward their conser>ati>e roots. The education system was e>entually used to
reinforce the importance of worshipping the emperor and then branched out to include the
indoctrination of the religious beliefs of &hinto and +onfucianism.
)hile +hristianity was legali#ed: it was not the state supported religion. The go>ernment
supported its religion of choice by opening up the 1ffice of &hinto )orship that was raned so
highly that it was e>en o>er the +ouncil of &tate. This also led to the reinforcement of the belief
in di>ine ancestry of the emperorEs blood line. 0y 34@@ the go>ernment controlled all &hinto
shrines: supported the &hinto teachers: and some of the &hinto sects were granted go>ernment
recognition.
To try and mae sure that they were doing as much as they could to catch up with the west in
e>ery economic sense possible Japanese scholars went to foreign countries to learn other
languages and study the latest scientific theories and ad>ances being made in the west. They also
in>ited more than three thousand outside e;perts to come into the country and teach many other
Japanese in subjects that could gi>e them a distinct ad>antage lie %nglish: engineering: science:
and other important educational tools. The Japanese were woring as diligently as they could to
assimilate themsel>es into )estern +ulture to mae up for the large disad>antage they had.
These were just some of the small maneu>ers that the Japanese go>ernment did that helped to
launch them into the worldEs sphere.
The go>ernment poured massi>e amounts of money into their military modeling their army and
na>al forces after the successful Prussia and 0rittan. They also put money into building up the
communications abilities and road networs in the hopes that these impro>ements would help to
mae the country a >iable world power. Another large in>estment that the go>ernment made was
in small family owned businesses. These changes made Japan the first industriali#ed Asian
nation as the "eiji go>ernment ushered in the beliefs of many of the western countries
concerning free trade and capitalism. The businesses that they had helped to support would in
turn raise the countryEs economic status up onto a competiti>e le>el while the older baners who
clutched at the constraints of traditionalism failed in this new en>ironment.
All of these go>ernmental in>estments may ha>e been what the country needed in order to get on
a le>el playing field with the other countries: but it too a hea>y toll on the financial stability of
the country. The financial crisis that was caused by this massi>e outflow of money caused the
7@
countryEs entire monetary system to be o>erwhelmed and this led to the creation of the 0an of
Japan.
,n 3446 the Japanese constitution was created and the *iet: or parliament: was established. The
document pro>ided for legislati>e branches: rans for nobles and other officials: public polling:
created a new ta; system: and limited go>ernment officials to four years in office. "uch in the
same manner of the 0ritish go>ernment: the parliament had specific powersH howe>er: the
emperor retained his so>ereignty as head of the armed forces and the ruling branches of the
go>ernment. 0ecause this go>ernment was so newly created there were dissents among the
political parties >ying for power. This led to a lot of powerful decisions that were being made by
the ruling powers that had a direct line to %mperor "eiji and he agreed with most of their
suggestions.
The rise of Japan on the world stage led to de>eloping disagreements between Korean: +hina:
and Japan. This led to the &ino$Japanese )ar in 3468. JapanEs newly de>eloped armed forces
were able to defeat +hina and gain Taiwan: but the countries of /ussian: (rance: and 'ermany
stepped in and demanded that Japan return all of the other territories that they had already
gained. This form of inter>ention caused Japan to tae a step bac and up the ante on their
military.
A separate war between /ussia and Japan de>eloped just ten years later and was nown as the
/usso$Japanese )ar. )ith JapanEs >ictory in this conflict: they were able to gain more territory
along with some much needed respect from the )estern countries. !owe>er: the success in this
war along with the anne;ation of Korea in 3639 bolstered Japanese peopleEs national pride and
confidence.
The "eiji Period ended abruptly in 3637 with his death: bringing with it an end to the prosperity
that had risen up during this time period. The changes in Japanese tradition and culture were so
great during <the enlightened period= that it caused a rapid uphea>al in JapanEs economic and
foreign policy and forced their presence on the world stage.
*howa Period
The &howa period corresponds to the point in Japanese history in which %mperor &howa:
!irohito too command of the go>ernment after his fatherEs death. The name of this period:
&howa: translates to mean the <period of enlightened peace.= !e promised people when he too
the throne that he would wor his hardest to achie>e peace because he understood its blessing
and also new the need for agreement among nations. %>entually !irohito would see this
promise of peace in Japan: but not before the country descended first into political and economic
chaos: war: and e>entually atomic bombings. The period is generally di>ided into three separate
parts: the military period: the foreign occupation: and the post$occupation.
The beginning of the military period was set up to tae effect by the preceding emperorEs rule. At
the end of the Taisho period in 3675 the go>ernment was not as stable as it had been at the end of
the preceding "eiji period despite the 367A bill that allowed all property owning men o>er
twenty fi>e the right to >ote. The weaness of %mperor Taisho combined with the relati>ely new
emergence of the *iet and the political party system had wored to mae the entrance of the
military regime a lot more reasonable than it might ha>e been at another time period.
1ne of the ways this was accomplished was through the passage of the Peace Preser>ation Caw
of 367A: which had been put through only ten days before the law that allowed men to >ote. This
74
act limited the amount of freedoms granted to indi>idual Japanese citi#ens by outlawing groups
who disagreed with the current system of go>ernment. The politicians in charge during this time
saw what the communist mo>ement was doing in other countries and were concerned that their
go>ernment could also be in danger from outside re>olutionary forces which sought to change
the state of their go>ernment.
&ince there was no legislature or documentation which clearly defined the difference between
public and pri>ate matters the go>ernment declared absolute loyalty in e>ery single aspect of the
society. ,t became that any suggestion or Duestion posed to the go>ernment or the political state
was seen as an outright attac on Japan itself. This belief was nown as Koutai: or national
body: and to Duestion it was to Duestion the absolute rule of the emperor. They e>en established a
special police force that would in>estigate any groups lie socialists: communists: and capitalists:
who might threaten this supreme ruling of the centrali#ed go>ernment.
This upwelling of ultra conser>ati>e national pride in Japan was the result of >ictory in foreign
conflicts and the status garnered by the success in )orld )ar ,. The nation was Duicly
industriali#ed and as more and more people mo>ed into the cities and out of the rural areas the
power of the feudal lords decreased as the emphasis was mo>ed to the emperor and loyalty for
him was tied directly to the state of Japan as a whole. This ser>ed to facilitate a feeling of Japan
against the other major western powers lie the Inited &tates: +hinese: 0ritish: and the *utch.
The country began to see that the only way to be on par with these other countries was a path to
war and ultimately to conDuest.
Japan was about to e;perience an economic collapse as the great depression hit the country and
forced sil and rice prices to sin and the number of e;ports were suddenly cut in half as the
demand from around the world dropped off because of the other countryEs economic hardships.
This caused the unemployment rates around the country to go up and as people grew restless and
agitated the social problems in the country were greatly increased. This combined with a
percei>ed lac of respect for Japan on the part of the other foreign leaders resulted in the
conser>ati>e groups rising to power.
)hen: in 36B9: Prime "inister !amaguchi 1sachi went to the Condon 2a>al +onference and
was denied the increase in Japanese 2a>al ship ratios in the Pacific he was assassinated by one
of these ultranationalists for his inability to get more done for the state. This prompted news
organi#ations lie the 2ew Yor Times to refer to Japan as being a <go>ernment by
assassination.= This military based go>ernment would then tae its stand when it in>aded
"anchuria in 36B3: setting up the e>ents that would e>entually led to the &econd &ino$Japanese
)ar.
The parliament was mainly compromised of military officials and when Japan recei>ed criticism
for its actions against +hina it withdrew from the Ceague of 2ations. 1fficials in small towns
and cities across Japan were urged by military leaders to indoctrinate people about the need for
strong nationalist ideals. This increasing need by e;tremists to build a strong national identity
would lead to the Cead of 0lood ,ncident. The incident was actually an assassination plot by the
e;tremists to try and eliminate a list of twenty indi>iduals that they percei>ed as a threat to the
ultimate sur>i>al of the state.
1f the twenty people on this list: the e;tremists only succeeded in illing two. !owe>er: the
social an;iety that was spared by these attempted assassination attempts. The group behind the
Ceague of 0lood ,ncident was led by a 0uddhist priest: ,noue: who en>isioned himself as the
leader of a mo>ement that would be lie a rebirth to Japan. As such: he wrote out the list of the
76
twenty indi>iduals targeted for assassination: hoping that their deaths would fully restore the
empirical power within the Japanese go>ernment. The trial of ,noue did more than just ser>e as a
tool to con>ict them: it ga>e them a way that they could tell public all of their plans and
concerns. *espite the deathly intent of their message: many people came to sympathi#e and e>en
agree with their ideals: contributing to the downfall of the established Japanese ruling system
that spread through the &howa reign in the 36B9s.
,n the mid 36B9Es Japan was placed under the rule of admirals. The rise of fundamental ultra$
nationalist beliefs made it nearly impossible for the country to remain under the rule of many of
the moderate policies of the go>ernment. ,n 36B5 o>er fifteen hundred members of the
conser>ati>e belief system marched on Toyo and began assassinating go>ernment officials in an
attempt to restore what they considered the true go>ernment of Japan. !irohito -&howa. stepped
forward and demanded an end to the illing: but not before many had already died.
&ince Japan was the only Asian country to effecti>ely industriali#e their country and become
large enough to compete on a world$wide le>el with many of the western powers: they belie>ed
that it was their mission to unite Asia against the western world. ,t was this belief that ultimately
led Japan into the conflict in +hina and the &econd )orld )ar.
!owe>er deeply the people of Japan may ha>e belie>ed in their countryEs supreme right to rule
o>er much of Asia: it was not enough to win the &econd )orld )ar. After the defeat Japan found
itself being occupied by foreign powers for the first time in its long history. The Inited &tates:
led by 'eneral *ouglas "acArthur: was in charge of the occupation of Japan. Inder the terms of
the surrender: Japan was forced to be disarmed: its emperor was also forced to resign from
politics completely and gi>en only a figurehead status. A trial was arranged and those accused of
war crimes were sentenced to death and e;ecuted: but the members of the royal family were
immune to these trials. ,n 36A7 Japan signed the Treaty of &an (rancisco with the Inited &tates:
maing them once again a completely independent nation.
After the war Japan wored to mae its name nown in a completely different way by turning to
industriali#ation and establishing the "inistry of ,nternational Trade and ,ndustry. The system set
up different economic policies and o>erturned many of its anti$monopoly laws and made the
Japanese maret be a>ailable only to companies within the country. They turned to their
economic powers to earn them the respect and influence that they had originally sought through
battle. Today Japan is second to the Inited &tates in the economy despite the recession of the
3669Es.
Taisho Period
)hen the end of the reign of %mperor "eiji: or the enlightened period: came to an end in 3637
the ne;t emperor too o>er. %mperor Yoshihito: who had been named heir apparent in 344@: was
the one hundred and twenty third emperor of Japan. )hen he was officially named to succeed his
father he promptly renamed himself %mperor Taisho: meaning the period of great righteousness.
*espite the hopeful name he had decided to gi>e himself upon taing o>er Taisho was
considered the wea emperor due to the fact that he had gotten meningitis shortly after being
born. This disease had left him in poor physical and mental health and he was often considered
unstable. To hide this fact from those outside the inner worings of the go>ernment: Taisho was
ept from the public >iew. This practice of hiding him continued e>en after he had taen o>er the
throne. An e;ample of public incidences that they were looing to a>oid happened during the
B9
opening ceremony of the *iet in 363B Taisho too the parchment his speech had been written on:
rolled it up: and looed through it lie a telescope.
TaishoEs weaness meant that the political power of the country Duicly mo>ed o>er from the
elder statesmen who had so successfully helped his father rule to the *iet and the parties that
ruled them. The de>elopment of the two party system that had been started under "eiji really
too hold during the Taisho period: lea>ing the emperor little more than a figurehead. ,n fact
Taisho was stripped of all his official duties as the ruling body of Japan and remained the
emperor in name only after !irohito was named Prince /egent in 3673.
The increasing globali#ation of the world economy meant that countries who usually did not
ha>e any contact with one another were becoming more and more in>ol>ed. The dissents and
disagreements between these cultures would build to a crescendo until they boiled o>er and
before long the globe found itself immersed in the first truly world$wide conflict. Japan: lie so
many other countries: did not escape <The 'reat )ar.=
The (irst )orld )ar officially broe out in 3638: and Japan joined the conflict on the side of the
Allied powers that were fighting against the 'erman forces that were in %astern Asia. Japan had
their own agenda as well for getting in>ol>ed in the war and they were eeping an eye out for the
opportunity to increase their presence inside of +hina. They made their mo>e in 363A when they
presented a list of <Twenty$1ne *emands= to +hina. Japan wanted +hina to gi>e them more
control o>er "anchuria and ,nner "ongolia so that they could e;pand their sphere of influence
farther into +hinaEs main land. Japan also wanted to be guaranteed part ownership in a major
mining center in +hina as well as prohibit +hina from leasing any of their coastal lands to
another country. !owe>er: the global condemnation of JapanEs restrictions on the +hinese forced
them to withdraw their list of demands.
Japan: not wanting to gi>e up on their conditions for +hina: instead relied on international
agreements with /ussia: (rance: 0rittan and the Inited &tates. These agreements ga>e Japan
recognition for the territorial gains they had achie>ed from the 'ermans in +hina and the Pacific.
This caused some anti$Japanese sentiments to be solidified into a political mo>ement in +hina.
*espite these riots and political pressure Japan was emerging as a major political player on the
scene. ,n 3673 Japan entered into the <(our Power Treaty on ,nsular Possessions= with the
Inited &tates: 0ritain: and (rance and agreed to another disarmament treat in 3677 which ga>e
the Japanese 2a>y more mobility in the Pacific 1cean. This freedom was gained through the
treatyEs reassurance that the Inited &tates and 0ritain would not wor to build any new military
bases between &ingapore and !awaii.
The war lasted for four years: ending in 3634: during which time Japan did its part in assisting
the Allies in different capacities. !owe>er: this assistance was greatly underappreciated at the
Paris Peace +onference of 3636 when Japan ased for an amendment of a <racial eDuality
clause= to be added to the Ceague of 2ations. +a>ing into racial discrimination standards that
had plagued much of %urope and the Inited &tates since the early eighteen hundreds: the
proposal was rejected. This rejection of eDuality from 0ritain and the Inited &tates after Japan
had pitched into the effort of the Allies to help defeat the 'ermans weighed hea>ily on the
deterioration of relations between the countries during the period between the two )orld )ars.
Another problem that Taisho era Japan faced was the legacy that the "eiji %mperor had left
behind for them. Yes the country had found itself propelled into the global spotlight because of
the large in>estments made by the "eiji go>ernment on the part of o>erseas in>estments and the
building of JapanEs defense programsH howe>er: this had left the country with depleted funds:
B3
e;hausted credit: and almost no reser>es to pay their debt bac. (or awhile they were able to turn
themsel>es around from a debtor to a creditor nation while aiding the +hinese go>ernment and
selling supplies to the allies during the (irst )orld )ar. !owe>er: this could not completely help
the country when the 'reat Kanto %arthDuae of 367B left them in critical financial straits. ,n
3678 the Inited &tates banned further immigration from Japanese people looing for a way out
by passing the %;clusion Act.
0ecause of these stresses: the military sei#ed almost complete control of the go>ernment o>er the
ne;t ten years. Anyone who stood up to them were Duicly mared as political enemies and were
assassinated and their positions replaced by 2a>y and Army officers: including the prime
minister. +ommunists were eDually segregated and persecuted in an attempt by the military$
based go>ernment to sDuash all opposition to their own style of rule. A>erage citi#ens were
e;posed to the go>ernmentEs constant indoctrination through the education and media outlets
while strict censorship ept dissenting opinions and ideas hidden from mass public consumption.
These were the problems that the go>ernment faced when %mperor !irohito too control after
TaishoEs death in 3678. These pressures combined to help create the >olatile feelings of Japan
going into the &econd &ino$Japanese )ar and e>entually )orld )ar ,,.
The &in / Indi%enos People of Japan
The Ainu is the name gi>en to the ethnic group of people indigenous to !oaido: &ahalin: and
the Kuril ,slands. The Ainu were the focus of se>eral programs by the "eiji go>ernment: which
did their best to assimilate the Ainu culture into mainstream Japan. These programs and the near
sla>ery enforced upon the Ainu by the fishing industry has marginali#ed and nearly destroyed the
Ainu culture. Today: many Ainu are unaware of the fact that they are Ainu: although lately:
museums and other organi#ations ha>e formed to protect and spread what is left of the Ainu
culture.
The word Ainu comes from the word for <human= in the !oaido dialect. &ome other names
the people ha>e gone by include %mishi: Ye#o: and %#o: words in other Japanese dialect which
translate to <human.= *ue to the derogatory slant with which the name has been used in the past:
some Ainu currently prefer to be called Itari: which means <comrade= in the Ainu language. ,n
most official documents and boos: both names are used.
#ri%in of the &in
"any belie>e the Ainu people migrated to !oaido during the Jomon periodH howe>er: their
true origins ha>e yet to be solidly determined. ,n fact: according to an Ainu legend: they
inhabited !oaido a hundred thousand years before the mainland Japanese came: although few
truly belie>e this legend. "ost belie>e the Ainu are Jomon who were pushed out of mainland
Japan by immigrants from Korea.
The first conclusi>e e>idence from the Ainu culture dates bac to around 3799 A*: much more
recent than the legend states. This e>idence points to an agricultural society that supported itself
with farming: fishing: and hunting. Artwor and current li>ing Ainu suggest these indigenous
people were fair sinned: at least compared to most Japanese. &ome belie>e they may e>en be
descended from +aucasians: although no *2A e>idence supports this theory.
The Ainu originally held land across the central and northern areas of Japan. Their northern$most
towns and >illages were on &ahalin: while the southern$most were in 2orthern !onshu. After
B7
being pushed out of !onshu: most Ainu li>ed on !oaido: which was not brought under
Japanese control until 3454.
&in History
As Korean immigrants and e>en Japanese mo>ed more and more northern: the Ainu found
themsel>es being pushed out of lands they had inhabited for years. !owe>er: rather than fight for
their land: the Ainu generally surrendered it peacefully. The few times they did attempt to fight
bac: such as the "enashi$Kunashir 0attle or &haushainEs /e>olt: they were soundly defeated.
)hile the Japanese pushed the Ainu out of !onshu: it was the /ussians who too the Kurile
,slands and &ahalin from them. )hen the &o>iet Inion declared war on Japan during )orld
)ar ,,: they Duicly too o>er these two areas. &ince /ussia regarded the Ainu as Japanese
subjects: they saw no problem in forcing them bac to their <mother= country. &ome managed to
later return to &ahalin: although the post )),, population was much smaller than it was before.
Although the Japanese had to trouble claming Ainu land on !onshu: they were unable to assert
their rule o>er !oaido until the "eiji period came to power in the mid$nineteenth century.
*uring this time: the "eiji began aggressi>ely attempting to assimilate the Ainu into Japanese
culture. They outlawed the AinuEs nati>e language: made them tae on traditional Japanese
names: mo>ed them to go>ernment$owned lands: and forced them to wor as farmers and
fishermen. The Ainu population rapidly decreased during this time due to disease: the oppressi>e
conditions they were forced to li>e under: and the lac of good medical care.
The &in in Modern Times
To further promote assimilation: the go>ernment declared the Ainu former aborigines in 3466.
They would retain this status until 366@: when the proclamation was repelled and the Ainu were
officially recogni#ed as an ethnic minority. !owe>er: it wouldnEt be until June of 7994 that the
Ainu would officially be declared an indigenous people. ,n a resolution appro>ed by the *iet and
supported by members of all parties: the go>ernment >oted to recogni#e the Ainu as indigenous
people with their own culture: religion: and language. The resolution also called for an end to
discrimination against the Ainu. )hile this resolution does bring an end to the historical
separation of the two people: some ha>e gone on record stating that it is too little: too late.
&in Cltre
The Ainu culture was maredly different from that of Japan. Ainu men stopped sha>ing after
reaching adulthood: lea>ing them with full facial hair. 0oth genders cut their hair to shoulder
length: and the top nots and hairstyles enjoyed by the samurai and court ladies ne>er appeared
in Ainu culture. Tattoos: howe>er: were Duite popular: and women often had ined lips and arms.
%arrings were worn by both men and women: and women were also fond of wearing beaded
neclaces nown as tamasay.
The Ainu clothing was traditionally made out of bar from the interior of the elm tree. 0oth men
and women wore short robes with straight slee>es that tied around the waist. )omen also usually
wore undergarments. (or winter clothing: the Ainu wore outfits and boots made from deersin.
Today: traditional Ainu costumes are in much demand: allowing the few who can mae them to
mae a large profit.
BB
Traditional Ainu food consisted of fish: fowl: bear: wolf: o;: and e>en badger and horse. They
supplemented their meal with a >ariety of >egetables and roots: and they ne>er ate it rawJmeat
was always roasted or boiled. Ainu men ate with chopsticsH women used wooden spoons.
Ainu >illages were made up of reed$thatched huts that featured a single room with a fire pit at the
center. 'enerally: huts had two doors and a window on the east side. There was no chimney. (or
public meetings: the >illage chiefEs house was used in place of a dedicated meeting hall. The
Ainu sat on mats on the floor: spread wooden plans at night to sleep on: and used animal sins
for blanets.
Ainu Canguage
The Ainu language was Duite different from Japanese in all waysJthe >ocabulary: synta;:
morphology: and phonology were all uniDue. ,n fact: most language scholars ha>e decided that
the two languages are not e>en related: nor in Ainu related to any other language.
There is no written form of the Ainu language. ,nstead: Ainu has been written using Japanese:
/ussian: and: more recently: the Catin alphabet. !owe>er: because it is difficult to represent the
sounds of Ainu using Japanese: especially in words with terminal consonants: the language has
degraded significantly.
)hile there are a number of Ainu dialects: many of which were not understood by other Ainu
outside of their spoen area: all Ainu understood Yuar. This was the dialect used in most Ainu
stories and myths. The Ainu: since they had no system of writing: passed down their histories
orally. *esignated storytellers would commit the >arious e>ents: stories: and myths to memories
and tell them at gatherings that could last anywhere from a few hours to days.
&in 0overnment
&ince the "eiji /estoration: the Ainu ha>e been a part of the Japanese go>ernment. !owe>er:
before they were integrated: they had their own system of laws. Three hereditary chiefs held
administrati>e power in each >illage: although they did not perform the role of judge. ,f a
member of the community committed a crime: citi#ens were called upon to ser>e as judges:
much lie the jury system that many countries use today. ,mprisonment and the death penalty
were non$e;istentH generally: criminals were beaten and then let go. "urderers: howe>er: were
punished by ha>ing their nose and ears cut off or the tendons in their feet cut.
)hile most >illages go>erned themsel>es and did not rely on other Ainu: there was an
o>erarching system of go>ernment. The Ainu were di>ided into three districts: ,shiari: &aru: and
Isu: with &aru ser>ing as the main seat of power. !owe>er: there was little interaction between
the three districts.
&in 'eli%ion
The traditional Ainu religion was animist: and Ainu belie>ed that e>erything had a amuy: or
spirit: inside it. %ach spirit fit into a rigid hierarchy: with grandmother earth at the top: followed
by the mountain: then the sea: followed by the rest of nature. !owe>er: there were no priests.
,nstead: the >illage chief was also in charge of religious ceremonies: including leading prayers
and offering willow branches: wooden sha>ing: and animal sacrifices to the amuy. The Ainu
prayed before each meal and ased the spirit of fire for help when ill. )hen they died: the Ainu
belie>ed their spirits would ascend to the land of the gods.
Heisei Period
B8
The !eisei Period is the current e;isting era in Japan and came into effect in 3646 the day after
%mperor !irohito -&howa. passed away from his battle with cancer: thereby ending the longest
era of reign under one emperor since the Taia period in 58A. Aihito: !irohitoEs son: is the
current ser>ing emperor of the country ha>ing succeeded his father: maing him the one hundred
and twenty fifth emperor of Japan. The name of !eisei was chosen for Aihito which: roughly
translated: means peace e>erywhere. This gi>en name will be used for Aihito by the citi#ens of
Japan who now refer to him as %mperor !eisei: although he is still commonly nown as
%mperor Aihito to the rest of the world.
The prosperity which had graced the later years of the &howa %ra was not to be as easily attained
during the !eisei %ra. This trouble began during year in which the !eisei Period began. )hile
on the surface it may ha>e seemed lie a wonderful thing: 3646 mared the beginning of one of
the largest economic eruptions in the entire history of Japan. The 0an of Japan used this
massi>e growth in the economic sector to eep the interest rates as low as possible: thereby
setting off a secondary growth in the in>estment maret and dro>e Toyo property >alues up
o>er si;ty percent inside of one year. &peculation began on the mared and also dro>e the prices
up e>erywhere: maing it nearly impossible for the a>erage Japanese citi#en to eep up with the
rapid economic e;pansion.
The bad side of the growing economy Duicly caught up with the burgeoning !eisei Period as it
was not destined that this Duicly sprouting economy could eep going at its remarable pace.
&o: the bubble on JapanEs economy burst only two short years later in 3663. This failure for the
maret to eep up its accelerated growth pattern was the result of what is commonly referred to
as a <bubble economy:= meaning that the maret was growing and trading at a >olume and pace
that it could not possibly eep up at a sustainable pace. The failure of this economy was the
result of many years of cumulati>e problems within the economic system which were not
addressed at the time when they first came up.
Japan had placed >ery tight policies encouraging the citi#ens of the country to sa>e their income
and this resulted in a surplus of money a>ailable to bans. 0ans: in turn ga>e this money bac
to the people in the form of loans and credit. This caused the yen to appreciate and opened up the
financial sector to massi>e speculation: dri>ing prices up accordingly. The years following the
crash of 3663 were spent trying to correct many of the bad loaning and credit practices that had
gotten Japan into so much trouble.
,n 3668 the Ciberal *emocratic Party reemerged after the /ecruit &candal of 3644 with the
election of the prime minister: Tomiichi "urayama. The /ecruit &candal occurred when the
chairman of the /ecruit corporation offered stocs before the company actually went public and
the politicians who too ad>antage of his offer made millions of yen from the company. The
scandal forced the resignation of many prominent members of the Japanese parliament to resign.
!owe>er: the ne;t year was to be a troubling one for the !eisei period as on January 3@th of
366A the country suffered through the 'reat !anshin %arthDuae. ,t happened in the !yogo
Prefecture and would tae the li>es of 5:8B8 people: most of them from the nearby city of Kobe.
,t has been estimated that the earthDuae caused nearly two hundred billion dollars in American
dollars. This economic distress was compounded by the fact that only about three percent of the
property had any form of earthDuae insurance: lea>ing many families homeless and destitute. ,n
order to honor the number of Japanese citi#ens who went to >olunteer their time and efforts on
that day the go>ernment later declared a day: 0osai: and a wee: 0orantia: of >olunteerism to run
concurrent with the anni>ersary of the earthDuae.
BA
Cater on "arch 79th 366A a cult: Aum &hinriyo: released sarin gas into the Toyo subway
system illed a do#en people and injured close to a thousand causing them to e;perience
symptoms including temporary blindness and other more se>ere injuries. The attac was meant
to target those trains which were ser>icing the Japanese go>ernment and targeted the trains
ser>icing the home of the go>ernment which ran through Kasumigasei and 2agatacho. This
forced the relati>ely new emperor: Aihito to deal with the most serious attac on Japanese soil
since the bombings at !iroshima and 2agasai in 368A. Trials were held and some of people
associated with the attac were sentenced to death for their actions: others ha>e either been
sentenced or are currently awaiting trial. The group was allowed by the *iet to retain its religious
stature and is now nown by Aleph. The group has tried to repent for this >iolent past by setting
up funds to compensate >ictims and their families.
!owe>er: !eiseiEs go>ernment was hea>ily critici#ed for failing to react strongly and properly to
the &arin gas attac. This criticism has prompted se>eral outside groups to tae a more acti>e
role in the go>ernment: and these inds of groups also nown as 2'1s or 2on$'o>ernmental
1rgani#ations. As of right now they continue to be a growing presence in JapanEs political sphere
and system of go>ernment.
Almost fifty fi>e years after the end of )orld )ar ,, the Japanese go>ernment found itself bac
on the military stage when in 7998 they deployed close to one thousand troops to help the Inited
&tates go>ernment in the reconstruction of ,raD.
)hile the stoc maret has since rebounded from its crash in 3646: Japan has also made a name
for itself in the technological de>elopment of the world. ,t is home to many new technological
in>entions and is perhaps most well nown for being the birthplace of the modern day >ideo
gaming mo>ement that seems to ha>e taen the world by storm.
)attlin% Emperors *to$ and 0o/*hira$awa
*uring Japanese history: many ha>e battled o>er the crown and for control of Japan. 1ften: those
in>ol>ed werenEt e>en in line for the throneH they were battling for the right to put their puppet
emperor in the palace and control Japan through him. There were times: howe>er when two
contenders for the throne had to battle it out. This was true with %mperor &utou and %mperor
'o$&hiraawa.
Emperor *to$
&utou was born in 3336 and reigned between 337B and 3387. !is actual rule was mared by
little of importanceJhe is considered neither a great emperor nor a horrible one. ,n 3387: he
retired from the throne: gi>ing his title to %mperor Konoe.
Emperor 0o/*hira$awa
'o$&hiraawa ascended the throne on 33AA and ruled only a short three years. !e abdicated in
33A4 and too on the role of cloistered emperor while his son %mperor 2ijo: ruled. *uring his
rule: he wored to shift power from the (ujiwara clan to the samurai: allowing the Taira clan to
sei#e power and e>entually create the Kamaura shogunate: gi>ing control of Japan to the
military class for the ne;t @99 years.
The Conflict
B5
)hen %mperor Toba: &utouEs predecessor: resigned from the throne: he did so with a plan.
&utouEs abdication and replacement with TobaEs brother: %mperor Konoe: followed this plan: as
did 'o$&hiraawa taing power after Konoe died. )ith the support of Toba and the (ujiwara
clan: 'o$&hiraawa was instructed to hold the throne until his son: 2ijo: was old enough to tae
the crown. This was all done with an eye towards pre>enting &utouEs son from sei#ing power.
!owe>er: a year after 'o$&hiraawa was crowned: Toba died. !is death resulted in the !ogen
/ebellion: a battle between &utou and 'o$&hiraawaEs forces. 'o$&hiraawa: howe>er: had the
support of the samurai class: including the powerful "inamoto and Taira clans. !e easily
defeated &utou: allowing his son to succeed him as Toba had wished. 'o$&hiraawa retired and
became the cloistered emperor: holding nearly as much power as he had when he was on the
throne.
&ftermath ( 0o/*hira$awa
!owe>er: his retirement was not as rela;ing as one would thing. 'o$&hiraawa then had to deal
with a war between his allies. ,n 33A6: the Taira and "inamoto clans went to war with each
other. The Taira won: but instead of woring with 'o$&hiraawa: his former supporters wanted
power for themsel>es. 'o$&hiraawa attempted to e;ile them: but he failed: and the Taira put a
puppet emperor on the throne.
!owe>er: 'o$&hiraawa refused to gi>e up. !e began tals with the "inamoto clan: asing them
to help him. !e declared the Taira enemies of the court: and in 3349: another rebellion began.
!owe>er: while his allies lost: 'o$&hiraawa regained his power as cloistered emperor when the
head of the Taira clan died the ne;t year. The "inamoto destroyed the Taira in 334A.
&ftermath ( *to$
After losing his throne: &utou found himself e;iled to &anui Pro>idence. /ather than attempt
to retae the throne: he dedicated himself to a monastic life. !e actually copied scriptures and
sent them as offerings to the court: although the court rejected them. This led to e>en more
animosity between them: and many legends say he became a ghost and haunted the court:
causing the emperors to lose power and the samurai class to tae o>er.
Civil Liberties &ct of 1233
The +i>il Ciberties Act of 3644 was signed into law on August 39th: 3644. ,t was a federal law
put into place by the Inited &tates in order to grant reparations to the Japanese$Americans who
were placed in internment camps during the &econd )orld )ar. The act was sponsored by
+ongressman 2orman "ineta: who was a *emocrat from +alifornia who had been put into an
internment camp as a child: and it ga>e e>ery sur>i>ing internee a lump sum agreement amount
of twenty thousand dollars. !owe>er: the most important accomplishment of the act was the fact
that it is considered to be the first official declaration which claimed that the go>ernmentEs
reaction to Duarantine Japanese$American citi#ens was not a legitimate necessity but rather was
the product of mass hysteria and uncheced racial prejudices.
This was the Inited &tatesE official >ersion of an apology for the internment camps. &hortly after
the bombing at Pearl !arbor the go>ernment made it to where those Japanese$Americans in the
Inited &tates and Catin America were rounded up and placed into speciali#ed camps that
segregated them from the rest of the population. At the time the go>ernment claimed that they
had pulled them away from the western coastal areas and placed them in their own separate
B@
camps because they were afraid that they would collaborate with the Japanese go>ernment to
plan an attac against the Inited &tates on the mainland. The acnowledgement that this practice
was wrongly done through this act was something that the Japanese$Americans had been waiting
for since the end of the war.
,n the original >ersion of the +i>il Ciberties Act of 3644 there were no reparations included for
those Japanese who were interred but were not already citi#ens of the Inited &tates or permanent
legal residents. "any Japanese were taen from their homes in places lie Peru and brought to
America to be put into an internment camp were not compensated with the monies from the act.
!owe>er: in 3665 a class action lawsuit was filed by +armen "ochi#ui: which granted an
addition fi>e thousand dollars per person who fit into this pre>iously uncompensated category be
released. The funds ran out before all of the people could recei>e the settlement and after the
money ran out in 3666 additional money was gi>en to the Attorney 'eneral to finish paying out
the claims.
The act also wored to pre>ent future e;amples of injustice based on racial discrimination or any
other >iolations of ci>il liberties. ,t also wored to mae sure that the Inited &tates would mae
certain that its statements of concern o>er human rights >iolations committed by other countries
were more sincere and credible so that the any possible future occurrences of this le>el of
discrimination would be less liely to happen.
Emperor 0o/Toba
%mperor 'o$Toba ruled as JapanEs 47nd emperor from 334B to 3364. !e was named after the
%mperor Toba: one of his predecessors. The <'o= portion of his name can be translated as
<second:= meaning his name can be read at Toba the second.
'o$Toba was the grandson of %mperor 'o$&hiraawa. After %mperor Antou fled instead of
abdicating: the cloistered %mperor 'o$&hiraawa ga>e the throne to AntouEs younger brother
'o$Toba. !owe>er: at the time: he was only three years old. )hile 'o$Toba was recogni#ed as
emperor: he was the first emperor to ascend the throne without holding the imperial regalia -the
sword: mirror: and jewel that are the symbols of the emperor.. Antou still had them: meaning
that 'o$Toba did not recei>e them in the traditional ritual.
)hen 'o$&hiraawa died in 3367: 'o$Toba more or less became powerless as the "inamoto
clan established their shogunate. )ith little political power or pressure: the young emperor spent
much of his time focusing on the arts: and he became a silled painter: writer: and musician.
The shogun commanded 'o$Toba to abdicate his throne in 3364. The teen had no choice: and he
ga>e up the throne to one of his young sons. !owe>er: he continued to reign as the cloistered
%mperor until 3773: o>erseeing three different emperors. *espite this: he ne>er really had any
true powerJthe shogun controlled the country.
As cloistered %mperor: one of 'o$TobaEs decrees that was actually allowed by the shogun was to
outlaw the Pure Cand 0uddhist sect. !e ordered them banished or e>en e;ecuted. The reasoning
for this is somewhat unclear: although it was supported by the Kyoto priesthood. Also: two of
'o$TobaEs ladies in waiting had secretly joined the sect: which may ha>e caused his anger
towards them.
)hen the shogun ga>e the throne to 'o$TobaEs three year old grandson in 3773: 'o$Toba
decided to rebel and reclaim the throne. This conflict: called the Joyu )ar: pitted 'o$Toba
B4
against the powerful Kamaura shogunate and the samurai class. 'o$Toba had the support of a
few samurai: but most sided with the shogun. 'o$Toba was easily defeated and e;iled. !e li>ed
out the rest of his lie on the 1i ,slands.
*uring his e;ile: 'o$Toba continued to write poetry and edit anthologies. !e completed se>eral
writing projects and continued to practice his arts.
0o/Toba4s Contribtions to the &rts
'o$Toba made many different contributions to the arts. 1ne of his most important literary words
was the &hin Koinshu: or The 2ew Anthology of Ancient and "odern )aa. This boo of
poetry is considered to be one of the three major anthologies of Japan. )hile 'o$Toba did not
write much of the boo himself: he did ser>e as its general editor. !e held many different writing
parties and competitions: brought bac many traditions related to writing: and ser>ed as a critic.
The emperor was also a huge sword collector. *uring his reign: he ga>e honorary titles to many
great swordsmiths and e>en learned the craft himself. 'o$Toba was acnowledged as a
respectable swordsmith: and he is credited with starting the golden age of swordsmithing in
Japan. 0ecause of this: boos on sword maing in Japan traditionally begin with a chapter on
'o$Toba.
First *ino/Japanese -ar
(or years Japan had been cut off from the rest of the world for much of its de>elopmentH
howe>er: with the arri>al of "atthew Perry in 34A8 that forced Japan to open its borders to trade.
,n the years immediately preceding this opening of JapanEs borders the country set about
transforming into a more industriali#ed society to try and eep up with the rest of the global
community. 1ne of the ways that they did this was to simultaneously send scholars out into the
rest of the world while at the same time bringing teachers to their country. They needed to mae
sure that they could manage to successfully integrate into western society.
1ne of the ways that Japan started to >isuali#e itself mo>ing into the global community was
through Korea. Japan wanted to find a way to end +hinaEs diplomatic protection o>er Korea and
anne; it so that Japan was the only military presence in the country. Another reason that Japan
was so intent about gaining some control in Korea is that as a de>eloping country they Duicly
come to understand that they do not ha>e enough natural resources on the islands and they need
the coal and iron deposits in Korea to continue their growth.
The seeds for the (irst &ino$Japanese )ar began with JapanEs Treaty of 'anghwa in 34@5: but
the war itself did not begin in earnest for nearly twenty years after that in 3468. There were Duite
a few tense moments and treaties between +hina and Japan during that time span: but when
Korea ass for assistance in putting down the Tongha /e>el Army. )hen +hina responds to the
reDuest with a little o>er two thousand soldiers Japan sees this as an affront and immediately
sends four thousand of their own troops to respond to the rebellion as well.
The Tongha /ebellion was Duashed within just a few days: but the Japanese go>ernment
demanded that the soldiers stay in Korea for as long as possible: and despite the resolution of the
rebel forces Japan mo>ed additional troops into Korea by the end of the month. 1nce the
Japanese were there in force they tried to place reform into the Korean political system: but it
was firmly rejected. This did not sit well with the Japanese go>ernment and they immediately
B6
began to mobili#e the ,mperial Japanese 2a>y in preparation for the upcoming conflict begins as
soon as peace tals between +hina and Japan fail.
1n July 7B: 3468: Japanese troops go into &eoul: sei#ing the Korean go>ernment. Ipon
accomplishing this: the conDuering Japanese set up a different go>ernment that abolished all of
the e;isting treaties between Korea and +hina and granted themsel>es the right to e;pel any
+hinese troops from Korea. This began the first true steps of the &ino$Japanese )ar as two days
later on July 7Ath: the Japanese ships Yoshino: 2aniwa: and Aitsushima: were patrolling off the
coast of Asan where much of the +hinese forces were and they encountered the +hinese >essels
Tsi$yuan and Kwang$yi. Ipon running into each other they became in>ol>ed in an hour long
battle where the Kwang$yi was destroyed.
2ow that Japan had taen o>er control of the go>ernment in Korea: they Duicly set about
ha>ing Japanese and Korean mi;ed troops march south from &eoul to the Asan 0ay where most
of the +hinese troops were stationed and on the 74th of July the two sides clashed in a battle that
lasted until the early morning hours of the 76th. (i>e hundred +hinese were illed in that battle
before they retreated to Pyongyang. This combined with the other longstanding tensions between
the two countries led to the declaration of official war on August 3st: 3468. This became nown
as the 0attle of &eonghwan.
After this declaration the remaining +hinese forces in Korea fled to join those troops who had
taen refuge in Pyongyang. &oldiers from +hina were also sent to the city and the appro;imately
fifteen thousand troops that were now in Pyongyang and they began to prepared the city for an
attac from the Japanese: which came on &eptember 3Ath. The ,mperial Japanese Army
descended on Pyongyang and attaced on different fronts. The +hinese were e>entually defeated
when the Japanese troops attaced from the cityEs rear: di>iding the attention on the fronts to a
point where they could no longer hold off the Japanese and some surrendered while the others
managed to escape to Iiju as the bul of the Japanese army entered Pyongyang less than twenty
four hours after the attac began with less than one hundred and fifty deaths to their troops while
the +hinese suffered close to two thousand deaths during the battle of Pyongyang.
After the sound defeat at Pyongyang: +hinese forces completely abandoned their positions in the
northern end of Korea and instead mo>ed near Jiuliancheng and e>entually "anchuria. 1n
1ctober 78th: the Japanese forces managed to erect a temporary floating bridge and cross the
Yalu /i>er during the night: and they launched an assault the ne;t day just east of Jiuliancheng at
!ushan. The +hinese troops Duicly retreated and the Japanese had control of Jiuliangcheng:
*andong: and (engcheng with only the loss of four soldiers with just one hundred and forty
injured. )ith this: the Japanese forces Duicly wored on their in>asion of "anchuria and were
marching toward "uden by *ecember.
*uring the beginning of 346A: Japan wored to sei#e the harbor of )eihaiwei when the +hinese
fleet retreated behind its fortifications. !owe>er: the fortifications did not hold up to the ground
troops that the Japanese forces had deployed and after a twenty three day battle combining these
land and na>al forces )eihaiwei fell to the Japanese on the 37th of (ebruary. (rom here: the
Japanese went on to tae o>er posts that go>erned the seas to 0eijing. The 0attle of Yingou:
also called the 0attle of 2ewchwang: was in fact the last major battle of the war and it began on
"arch 8th: 364A.
The battle began when the (irst and &econd Japanese Armies met outside of the Port of Yingou
in (ebruary. The port was e>entually captured after the Japanese progressed through it street by
street and the +hinese forces suffered from almost two thousand casualties during this conflict.
89
Two days later the Japanese progressed on the town of Yingou with almost no resistance:
maring the end of combat on the mainland during this war. Then: at the end of "arch: Japanese
troops also sei#ed the Pescadores ,slands near Taiwan and the negotiations for a ceasefire and a
surrender of the +hinese at &himonosei.
Emperor 0o/5ai%o
%mperor 'o$*aigo: the 65th emperor of Japan: li>ed from 3744 to 3BB6. There is some dispute
about when he reigned. Post$"eiji period histories list his reign as beginning on 3B34 and ending
in 3BB6: although account before the "eiji period ha>e him on the throne from 3B34 to only
3BB7: when the shogun too o>er. !e was considered a pretender to the throne from 3BB5 to
3BB6 in these accounts.
'o$*aigo became emperor at age B3 following the abdication of his predecessor. !owe>er:
during this time: the emperor was little more than a puppet on the throne: real power was held by
the Kamaura shogunate. *etermined to o>erthrow them: 'o$*aigo ascended the throne with
many plans. !owe>er: the shogun disco>ered his plans and acti>ely wored at stopping 'o$
*aigo.
*uring 3BB3: 'o$*aigo was betrayed by one of his confidants. *etermined not to fail again: he
hid the ,mperial regalia in one of his secluded castles and prepared his army. !owe>er: the
shogun too the castle and: with the three treasures in hands: ele>ated %mperor Kogon to the
throne. 'o$*aigo was e;iled to the 1i ,slands.
Two years later: he escaped from the islands and began raising an army once again. The shogun
sent Ashiaga Taauji to destroy 'o$*aigo: but instead of following his orders: Ashiaga
deserted and joined 'o$*aigoEs cause. At the same time: 2itta Yoshisada launched his own
rebellion from the %ast and succeeded in destroying the !ojo clan.
)ith no enemies left: 'o$*aigo retoo the throne from %mperor Kogon. The Kemmu
/estoration began at this time. 'o$*aigoEs goal was to restore the old ways of the imperial house
ruling o>er Japan and the practice of many +hinese ways. !owe>er: his allies had been focused
on destroying the shogun: not restoring the imperial house to its former glory. ,n 3BBA: Ashiaga
began disobeying the emperor. 'o$*aigoEs forces defeated him: but in 3BB5: he returned to
Kyoto with a new army. This army defeated 'o$*aigoEs forces: and the emperor fled.
Pretending to reconcile with Ashiaga: now the shogun: 'o$*aigo sent him the imperial regalia.
!owe>er: while Ashiaga used them in the rituals to place %mperor Komyo on the throne: they
were not the authentic treasures. Those: 'o$*aigo too with him to his new capital at Yoshino
and began rebuilding his army. &oon: the ci>il war between the 2orthern and &outhern imperial
courts began.
)hile 'o$*aigo fought to reclaim the throne for years: he e>entually died from an unnown
disease in 3BB6. !owe>er: his goal of restoring the imperial house to power and o>erthrowing
the shogun would e>entually be achie>ed with the "eiji /estoration.
Ha$ho Cltre
The Asua period was nown as the period that introduced 0uddhism to Japan. 0uddhist artwor
began appearing in Japan during this time: but its style changed noticeably after the Taia
83
/eform of 585. ,n fact: it changed so much that the Asua period can be di>ided into the pre$
Taia /eform style and the post$Taia /eform style: usually called !auho.
The !auho style and culture lasted from 585 until @39: when the capital of Japan was mo>ed to
2ara and the Asua period came to an end. 0uddhist artwor began showing more influence
from the &ui and Tang dynasties of +hina. 0efore the /eform: art and Japanese culture in general
was more influenced by the 2orthern )ei dynasty and by the Korean ingdom of 0aeje.
)hile the period is noted for a change in artwor style: itEs also noted for the ad>ent of poetry
and songs. The "anEyoshu: the earliest nown collection of Japanese poetry: was collected
during this time. The title literally translates to <+ollection of Ten Thousand Cea>es:= an
appropriate title since the poems collected were written between BA9 to @59 and include many
different authors. The boo is written in the manEyogana: one of the earliest and most difficult
Japanese systems of writing: and most of the collected poems were written during the Asua
period.
The "anEyoshu is considered to be one of the most important pieces of literature in Japan. ,t
includes poems by Princess 2uata: Kainomoto !itomaro: and 1tomo no Yaamochi: who is
also belie>ed to be the writer who collected the poems and laid them out in boo form. )hile
Yaamochi laid the boo out in twenty parts -the +hinese style at the time.: the boos are simply
a di>isionJthe poems arenEt arranged by topic: author: or any other system. The "anEyoshu
does not contain a preface or any introduction to the wor.
Another style that emerged during the !auho period was the poetry form nown as waa.
)aa: the Japanese word for song: was first used to distinguish Japanese poetry styles from the
styles brought bac from +hina and Korea. 1ne of the most popular forms of waa still in use
today is the tana: or a poem made up of a haiu and two additional lines of se>en syllables each.
The "anEyoshu includes o>er 8:999 tana along with 75A choa -longer poems.: four anshi
-poems from +hina.: 77 passages from +hinese wors: and a bussouseia: which is a 0uddhist
poem from 2ara.
The History of To$yo6 Japan
ToyoEs beginnings as one of the founding blocs of modern Japanese history started in the
se>enth century. The area that comprises modern day Toya was then nown as the "ushashi
Pro>ince. There is e>en a 0uddhist temple in Asausa which is supposed to ha>e been built in
58A a.d. !owe>er: it wasnEt until se>eral hundred years later during the Kamaura period that the
city of %do began to tae shape: and the town became e>en more solidified when construction
began for the building of %do +astle in 38A@. The power shift to %do came one hundred and
thirty$three years later when the Tougawa ,eyasu mo>ed to the castle.
,n 359B Tougawa became shogun: and the wor on the castle was finished thirty$four years later
in 35B@. !owe>er: the castleEs prominence was not to be as long$li>ed as its construction and the
'reat (ire of "eirei destroyed much of it a mere twenty years later in 35A@. &e>eral problems
continued to plague %do in the following years as "ount (uji erupted in 3@9@ and the 'reat %do
%arthDuae caused e>en more problems for the population in 34AA. The population was still
growing during this time: though: and it is belie>ed that the population of the city had grown to
more than one million by the beginning of the eighteen hundreds.
*uring the beginning of the "eiji /estoration in 3454: the %mperorEs power is restored as the
shogun ruling system is done away with. *uring this time %do is renamed by the %mperor "eiji
87
and officially becomes nown as Toyo: which means eastern capital. 1ne year later the emperor
mo>es into the ,mperial Palace in Toyo: but since this was done without any sense of legally
shifting the capital from Kyoto: there is some confusion about whether or not Toyo remains the
true capital of Japan or whether it is instead a co$capital with Kyoto.
Toyo was established first as a prefecture in 34@3: and included twenty$three wards. (ollowing
that a separate Toyo +ity was later founded and it was comprised of fifteen different wards. ,t
wasnEt until 368B that the two merged to formerly create the Toyo "etropolis. ,n 368A the city
was hea>ily damaged by the bombings from the Allied forces at the end of )orld )ar ,,. The
occupation began later that same year and by that time the population of the once great city had
been cut to half of what it was only fi>e years earlier.
)hen the occupation began under 'eneral *ouglas "acArthur the headDuarters for the
American forces were set up in Toyo ne;t to the ,mperial Palace. The presence of the Allied
forces in Toyo helped to concrete its position in importance during the occupation and the
Korean )ar. Today: Toyo is a culturally important part of Japanese history. ,t houses many
important buildings and historical sites that spea of its growing importance o>er the last thirteen
hundred years.
International Military Tribnal for the Far East 7IMTFE8
After )orld )ar ,,: the ,nternational "ilitary Tribunal for the (ar %ast -,"T(%. was established
as a type of war crimes tribunal and it began in "ay of 3685 and lasted until 2o>ember of 3684.
This was intended to be a place where the leaders of the %mpire of Japan could be tried for their
crimes during the time of war. ,t was >ery similar to the 2uremberg Trials which were taing
place in 'ermany around the same time. *uring the proceedings it was established that those
who were brought before the ,"T(% were to be charged with either one of three main crimes:
crimes against peace: war crimes: and crimes against humanity.
Those who were charged with crimes against peace faced a charge that in general referred to the
conspiracy that some Japanese officials had to start the war and to help bring about an end to
peace by doing so. *uring the proceedings only twenty$fi>e Japanese found themsel>es being
charged with crimes against peace. 1f these twenty$fi>e defendants: se>en were sentenced to
death: si;teen others sentenced to life in prison: and two others recei>ed sentences that were less
than twenty years.
!owe>er: it was mainly the war crimes and the crimes against humanity in which officials found
themsel>es being charged for se>eral atrocities that had occurred during the war such as the
2aning "assacre and the many allegations of abuse to prisoners of war. ,n all it has been said
that close to si; thousand people in the Japanese political and military system found themsel>es
facing the later two charges: and that the majority of those charges had stemmed from the abuse
of prisoners. 1f those that were tried under these offenses: nine hundred and eighty four were
sentenced to death: while three thousand four hundred and nineteen were sentenced to life in
prison. 1ne thousand and eighteen were acDuitted of the crimes they were charged with and two
hundred and se>enty$nine defendants were not sentenced at all.
There ha>e been much criticism of the ,"T(% trials: just as there were the 2uremberg Trails.
1ne of the most famous dissenting opinions was from a judge from ,ndia: /adhabinod Pal: who
wrote that as far as he was concerned there was ne>er any substantial proof that a grand
conspiracy by those who were in power to declare war on nations in an attempt to brutali#e the
fallen nations. !e also felt that while there were atrocities committed by those in the Japanese
8B
military in incidents lie 2aning: that these also seemed to be the act of indi>iduals in the army
and that the things that happened were ne>er declared to be go>ernment policy. To /adhabinod it
seemed as if the trials were just another way for the >ictors to see further re>enge: and he wrote
that as far as he new the act of waging aggressi>e war was not illegal when the Japanese began
their war in 36B@: and that it had not been made illegal at any point since that time.
Another criticism that has been placed on the ,"T(% trials was the fact that of all of those
people who were being charged with war crimes: one of the only e;emptions to the trials was the
%mperor !irohito and the imperial family. 'eneral *ouglas "acArthur: who o>ersaw the
occupation of Japan: had argued strongly against trying the imperial family and had been
recorded as saying as early as 368A before the trials e>en began that the imperial family would
not need to worry about lea>ing the throne. "any people today claim that he did this as an
attempt to try to e;onerate the imperial family. 1thers: howe>er: claim that 'eneral "acArthur
left the family alone as there would need to be some form of stability for the Japanese people in
order to reconstruct and heal properly. !e did not feel that remo>ing the royal family from office
and trying them for war crimes would help accomplish this goal.
)hate>er the reason behind this decision: %mperor !irohito remained ultimately blameless for
many of the acts of aggression for which his fellow cabinet members and political party
members were later tried. And much of his freedom of guilt was due to the e;traordinary
measures taen by 'eneral "acArthur and his staff to mae sure that the defendantsE stories all
matched and that the emperor and his family was left out of the details. &ome of the judges at the
trials were dismayed that this had happened and that the imperial family would remain intact:
citing the fact that the trials were meant to imprison those who had committed the greatest
atrocities during the war. !owe>er: since no one would come out and declare the emperor a part
of this larger conspiracy: he would continue to remain on the throne until his death.
Japan in -orld -ar I
)hile Japan is most well$nown for its position during the &econd )orld )ar: what is less
commonly nown is that its participation alongside the Allied forces during the (irst )orld )ar
set e>ents into motion that precipitated the countryEs >ie for power twenty short years later. Japan
played an important role in the (irst )orld )ar by protecting the &outh Pacific from 'ermanyEs
Kaiserliche "arine in the waters around +hina.
1riginally Japan became in>ol>ed at the reDuest of the 0ritish go>ernment: and they saw it as an
important step to increasing their control of +hinese lands. &o: they sent word to 'ermany to
cease their actions in the Pacific. )hen no response was gi>en to the reDuest: the Japanese
declared war on August 7Brd: 3638: and officially entered into )orld )ar 1ne. )ithin just a few
wees Japan had landed in +hina and taen bac the 'erman occupied lands in the &handong
Pro>ince and the 'erman colonies on the islands of "ariana: +aroline: and "arshall.
,n January of the ne;t year Japan presented +hinaEs President: Yuan &hiai: with Twenty$1ne
*emandsH howe>er: the president did not gi>e into the demands which would ha>e reduced the
country of +hina to a Japanese colony. *ue to the +hinese refusal and outside pressure from the
Inited &tates: Japan agreed to remo>e a group of demands that would ha>e forced the +hinese
go>ernment to allow Japanese officials into high raning ad>isory positions. The demands then
became nown as the Thirteen *emands and were accepted by both parties and the official treaty
was signed in "ay of 363A e>en though it did not guarantee Japan anything they did not already
ha>e in the occupied positions of +hina.
88
!owe>er: the treaty negotiations with 'ermany were at a standstill and Japan signed a pact with
/ussia where both of them pledged not to mae a separate peace treaty with 'ermany. The
/ussia treaty also guaranteed that the two countries would consult each other in the e>ent that
their interests in +hina should be threatened by an outside party. This solidified JapanEs hold on
parts of "ongolia and "anchuria.
Japan seemed to be operating in its own sphere inside of the war: but when 0rittan once again
ased for assistance from Japan they sent se>enteen ships to lead up a special bac up to the
0ritish 2a>y. The main purpose of this <&econd &pecial &Duadron= was to ser>e as an escort to
the 0ritish troops in the Pacific. Japan made some major contributions to the 0ritish during this
time: including rescuing o>er se>en thousand na>y men from sining ships. 0ecause of their
help: 0ritain acnowledged all of JapanEs territorial gains north of the eDuator: which only ser>ed
to increase the tension with the Inited &tates who were upset by JapanEs rising influence in the
Pacific and +hina.
!owe>er: JapanEs territorial gains were not the only ad>antages that they recei>ed from entering
the war. 0ecause supplies were low in the Inited &tates and 0ritain: JapanEs industry economy
recei>ed a boon when it began filling large orders to maintain the wartime needs of the Allies.
The by product of this increase in production was inflation and e>entually this led to dissent
among those in the Japanese countryside as rice riots broe out across Japan.
At the end of the war Japan was granted a seat on the Ceague of 2ations -the preliminary council
that would become the Inited 2ations.: and allowed a place among the Allies at the Fersailles
Peace +onference. ,n e;change for a relati>ely small role in the war: Japan was now seen as a
major player and global power.
!owe>er: when Japan ased for an amendment to the racial eDuality clause to the treaty they
were denied and this only helped to reinforce JapanEs belief that they were ne>er going to get
o>er the uneDual treaties that had first been forced upon them by "atthew Perry. This resentment
combined with the cut in industrial demand after the war and the increasing go>ernment
instability within the country ga>e into the complete domination of JapanEs military controlled
go>ernment. This: in turn: would lead to JapanEs Duest for more power and resources: which
preceded the &econd &ino$Japanese )ar and )orld )ar Two.
Japan in -orld -ar II
At the end of )orld )ar , the Japanese helped the Allies in eastern Asia. *espite their efforts in
assisting with the >ictory at the end of the war: the Ceague of 2ations refused to place a clause
that would ha>e mandated racial eDuality which Japan wanted to place into the co>enant. As if
this werenEt insult enough to the Japanese: the Inited &tates banned further immigration from the
proud country in 3678 with the %;clusion Act. Then: after the world plummeted to depression
after the stoc maret crash of 3676: Japan found itself in near$crisis mode.
&o: in the early nineteen thirties: Japan began a campaign of limited attacs and incidents in Asia
as they tried to acDuire more and more of the continentEs minerals and other important natural
resources in a campaign to increase their ,mperial domain. 1riginally this was their plan during
the &econd &ino$Japanese )ar: but this smaller: Asia orientated conflict e>entually branched off
into a global one. This occurred when JapanEs calculated snea attac on the na>al base at Pearl
!arbor catapulted the Inited &tates into the war in %urope and the Pacific: thereby officially
creating )orld )ar ,,. 1>er the years many people ha>e wondered why Japan would pro>oe
<the sleeping giant= and launch the entire globe into full blown war. The truth is that Japan didnEt
8A
intend for the attac in !awaii to lead to full blown war with the Inited &tates. ,n actuality it
was the >ery strategy that Japan adopted toward ha>ing a limited war engagement is the reason
that such a large scale fight broe out in the first place.
The Japanese ,mperial army decided to attac the small island base because they belie>ed that it
was necessary to neutrali#e the American forces at their stations in the Pacific in order to eep
the Inited &tates from being drawn into their war with +hina and causing it to become
something larger. This belief led to that infamous attac on Pearl !arbor on *ecember @th: 3683.
They held firm to the policy that the Inited &tates would retaliate to the surprise attac at Pearl
!arbor with a limited campaign: but would still largely remain outside of the scope of complete
world war. The reasoning behind this logic was the belief that the citi#ens of the Inited &tates
would remain di>ided o>er whether or not the country should go to war. ,nstead: the surprise
attac unified the country in a way that Japanese did not fully e;pect.
This complete declaration of war from the Inited &tates and the solidification of the Allies
-'reat 0ritain: /ussia: the Inited &tates: and e>en +hina to some e;tent. >ersus the A;is -,taly:
'ermany: and Japan. forced Japan to enter a more global conflict than they had originally
planned. This all out participation made sure that they could no longer conduct the war on their
own terms: instead they were now forced to deal with more conflict in the Pacific than they had
wanted. &o: instead of gi>ing them a broad range in which to continue their campaign against
+hina and the eastern bloc of /ussia: they were now forced to ha>e to battle against more
opposing troops than they had counted on.
,n the early months of 3687: it looed as if the Japanese were on the right trac: they Duicly
too &ingapore from the 0ritish: forcing them to surrender almost eighty thousand troops. At the
end of (ebruary the Allied forces attempted to mae a thorough stand at the 0attle of the Ja>a
&ea. Japan easily too power there too: causing the Allies to lose ten ships: thereby lessening the
Allied presence in the Pacific theater considerably. 0ecause the islands there had a wealthy
supply of oil and rubber that could considerably help the Japanese wage the ind of war they
wanted: they occupied the islands and decided to use those locations as a jumping point for their
forces.
,n order to be more fully prepared for the Japanese: the Inited &tates began to strengthen their
bases in Australia: Alasa: and ,ndia. This allowed them to be in a more retaliatory position in
case there were any further possible attacs from Japan. As a result of this strategy: the Allies
were able to better collaborate and launch attacs at the Japanese forces at different points in
their defensi>e line. )hen this change in the campaign of the Allies too hold: Japan Duicly
started to lose ground because they could not possibly hold down the defensi>e line at such a
wide range. Keeping their rans so wide caused the Japanese forces to grow weaer as the
assaults in the perimeter could not be defended by the large number of troops needed to eep the
Allies at bay.
The Japanese reali#ed what was happening and wored to retae se>eral of the islands so that
they could cut any communication ties that the Allies had established. *oing this would help to
pre>ent the opposing forced from being able to further hinder JapanEs effort in the Pacific.
!owe>er: e>en though they were able to tae bac Duite a few critical positions: they were ne>er
capable of regaining their hold on "idway ,sland. ,t was during this part of the campaign that
Japan lost se>eral of its best pilots and planes.
1nce the Allies were able to hold onto "idway: they managed to get the upper hand in the
Pacific: maing this island the turning point in the war for Japanese troops. ,n order to try and
85
regain some of their forces or at least to try and eep whate>er small ground they had gained: the
Japanese ga>e up their strategy of trying to hinder the communications of the Allies. ,nstead:
they mo>ed bac and regrouped around their defenses: trying to strengthen their holds and
tighten their perimeter.
The Allies fought bac: attempting to eep the Japanese from taing the southern &olomon
,slands: which would ha>e effecti>ely cut off all of the Allied forces supplies and communication
from Australia. ,n August of 3687 the Allies landed on the islands of Tulagi: 'a>utu:
Tamambogo: as well as 'uadalcanal and Duite easily too control on all of the islands. !owe>er:
tactical errors on the part of the Inited &tates caused the situation to grow worse when they
withdrew a large portion of their forces too early. At the 0attle of &a>o ,sland the Japanese forces
san four Allied cruisers.
This mo>e caused the Allies occupying 'uadalcanal to strengthen the remaining troops with
bacup forces. Planes circled o>erhead to ensure that Japanese bombers could not reach the
island. ,n an attempt to circum>ent the Allied forceEs defenses: the Japanese began using a
method nown as the Toyo %;press. This was a tactic in which the Japanese troops were
shuffled in at night with hardly any supplies or eDuipment. )hile this wored for a limited
amount of time: it was just a short while later that the Japanese began to use these established
forces as a base for a full on assault on the island. !owe>er: the Japanese did not count on the
completely resilient nature of the marines: who wored hard to repulse e>ery ad>ance.
Throughout &eptember: 1ctober: and much of 2o>ember: the Allied troops managed to hold their
control in 'uadalcanal against the Japanese forces: and on 2o>ember 3Ath they gained definiti>e
control of the area around 'uadalcanal. This >ictory allowed the Allied troops to bring in much
needed reinforcements and by (ebruary of 368B: they had forced a complete Japanese e>acuation
of the island. The battle for 'uadalcanal was one of the longest in the Pacific front and mared a
new beginning in the war for both the Allies and the Japanese.
The Allied forces followed this with another >ictory at the 0attle of the 0ismar &ea in "arch. ,n
April: they ad>anced from )au and by late June they had landed near 2assau 0ay. )hen the
Allies threatened Cae in &eptember: the Japanese forces abandoned their hold on &alamaua to
protect it. Cae fell soon after and the Allied forces shifted their outloo toward the capture of the
Phillipines: an important Japanese stronghold in the Pacific.
0y 3688: the Japanese position in +hina: which had originally been solidified during the &econd
&ino$Japan )ar: had begun to erode. +hina wored with the other Allied forces to remo>e the
Japanese troops from 0urma. ,t was not long after that JapanEs campaign in )orld )ar ,,
officially came to an end with the bombings at !iroshima and 2agasai. This tremendous show
of force prompted the ,mperial +onference -go#engaigi. to accept the terms that had been set
down by the Allies in the Potsdam *eclaration. 1n August 3Ath: 368A: %mperor !irohito
announced on a radio transmission nown as the ,mperial /escript on &urrender that he officially
surrendered to the Allied forces: made up of the Inited &tates: %ngland: /ussia: and +hina. %>en
so: it wasnEt until &eptember 7nd when the go>ernment signed the Japanese ,nstrument of
&urrender that )orld )ar ,, ended and the occupation of Japan formerly began.
Japanese &merican Internment
/acist in the Inited &tates attitudes toward Japanese immigrants had been pre>alent for a
number of years. This was especially true in +alifornia where most of those from Japan
immigrating into America li>ed and wored. There were se>eral law prior to )orld )ar ,, which
8@
both tried to pre>ent any further immigration as well as pre>enting any interracial marriages
between +aucasians and people of %ast Asian descent. ,t was in this already hostile en>ironment
that the seeds for internment sprang up the most rapidly after the attac on *ecember @th: 3683:
where the idea was e;tremely popular among many of the +aucasian farmers who resented the
Japanese mo>ing in on their lands.
*irectly after the bombing at Pearl !arbor close to more than one hundred and ten thousand
Japanese$Americans were forcibly remo>ed from their homes and placed into special areas
nown as <)ar /elocation +amps= or internment camps. The relocation was put into effect by
(ranlin *. /oose>elt through the issuance of %;ecuti>e 1rder 6955 on (ebruary 36th: 3687.
This ga>e the military commanders to declare special areas in their local regions to be set up as
<e;clusion #ones= which could then be declared unfit for certain persons. This declaration left
enough leeway for the local authorities to e>entually declare the entire Pacific +oast an e;cluded
area for e>eryone of Japanese. The only e;ception to this was those Japanese$Americans who
were already in the areas designated for the internment camps.
To help ensure that the Japanese Americans would comply with the new orders to mo>e into
camps: /oose>elt signed %;ecuti>e 1rder 696A on "arch 33th: 3687. This order established the
1ffice of the Alien Property +ustodian. This new office was gi>en all of the authority o>er any
and all monetary and property interests held by alien citi#ens. )hen this was complete the office
was allowed to free#e many of the Japanese assets and afflicted them with a hea>y financial
burden: thereby pre>enting them from mo>ing outside of the pre$set e;clusion #ones. Then: on
"ay Brd: 3687: just two months later: 'eneral *e)itt set forth +i>ilain %;clusion 1rder B85.
This mandated that e>eryone of Japanese ancestry: e>en citi#ens and those who were only
Japanese by 3/4th: report immediately to centers where they would be collected and mo>ed to
more stable housing in the relocation centers.
,n !awaii: where the bombing at Pearl !arbor had taen place: most of the island maintained a
high Japanese population: roughly one third of the islandsE total population of 3A9:999. This was
in fact so high that they could not effecti>ely eep all of the Japanese on the island in an
internment camp. ,nstead: the go>ernment of !awaii: who was only a I.&. territory at the time:
elected to impose martial law on all of its population. This effecti>ely reduced the ris of
espionage and cut the off any reasonable e;cuse there may ha>e been to intern the Japanese
citi#ens on the island.
The camps were constructed Duicly and most of them were established on 2ati>e American
reser>ations with the go>ernment agreeing to compensate the tribes for the use of land. The
homes in which those interred li>ed were constructed to meet international standards: but little
more. "any times the Japanese also had to share their camps with 'erman and ,talian Americans
who had also been interred. The military styled barracs in which they li>ed were co>ered with
tar paper and contained no plumbing or cooing facilities. 1ften the bathrooms were not
pro>ided >ery much pri>acy and cots were used for beds. ,f a +alifornia resident was unlucy
enough to get mo>ed into the internment camp in )yoming and didnEt now to pac for the
long: cold winters: then there may ha>e been >ery little comfort or warmth for them.
The situation was e>en worse for those Japanese who were brought into the country from
"e;ico and &outh America. There were a little o>er twenty$two hundred people of Japanese
ancestry that were forcibly taen from different countries by the I.&. &tate and Justice
*epartments and held at special *epartment of Justice -*1J. camps. 1f these: close to eighty$
two percent were from the country of Peru. After the war was o>er and internment had ended
fourteen hundred of the original twenty$two hundred were not allowed to return to their home
84
and close to one thousand of the Japanese who had been brought in from Peru were forcibly
deported bac to Japan. The go>ernment declared that the Japanese were being deported because
they had entered the country without passports or >isas. Three hundred of the deportees fought
the go>ernment and won when the +ourt of Appeals o>erturned the ruling and found that since
the Catin American Japanese had been brought to the country in a manner that was >ery similar
to idnapping by the Inited &tatesE go>ernment they were not reDuired to ha>e their passports or
>isas in order to stay.
!owe>er: many of the interred Japanese Americans faced hardships as well after their release
from the camps. After the internment order was completely rescinded on January 7nd: 368A.
%>en though this was before the official end of the rule: it occurred after a ruling the month
before by the &upreme +ourt found that detaining people who were loyal was unconstitutional:
many of the internees were released without much assistance to help them rebuild. "ost of the
camps remained opened for those Japanese Americans that now found themsel>es homeless: but
for the most part those who left were gi>en just twenty fi>e dollars and a train ride bac to their
original homes.
1ne of the largest problems facing those who returned home was the large loss of property.
There were strict regulations on what a family could bring into the camps and many of the items
left behind were either stolen or destroyed. This e>en happened to those things which had been
placed in go>ernment storage for safe$eeping. ,f the family that had been interred were farmers
and hadnEt been able to mae arrangements for the land: theyEd been forced to sell e>erything in
just a matter of days at a steep loss. ,f the family were non$citi#ens: then they had no right to
claim to the land anyway under +aliforniaEs Alien Cand Caws. 0ecause these farmers were
generally tenant farmers: many of them lost their farming rights to land they had wored on for
years.
The +ongress passed the <American Japanese +laims Act= on July 7nd: 3684: to help the farmers
who were most affected by the internment get some form of compensation for the losses of their
property and income. !owe>er: this act was largely ineffectual as internees were reDuired to
pro>ide detailed ta; records and proof that the claims being sent in were >alid. The ,/& had
already destroyed most of the interneesE records for the year preceding encampment: and most of
the personal paperwor had been lost by people when they were placed in the camps. &ince there
was no way for many to establish the >alidity of their claims: only one Duarter of the close to one
hundred and fifty million dollarsE worth of claims were e>er appro>ed.
/eparations did come for many of the internees years later after +ongress created the
+ommission on )artime /elocation and ,nternment of +i>ilians committee to address the matter
in 3649. Three years later in 364B: the commission reported that they belie>ed the internment
was racially moti>ated rather than an urgent need of military necessity. This led /epresentati>e
2orman "ineta: who had been an internee in )yoming: and &enator Alan &impson: to author the
+i>il Ciberties Act of 3644: which granted each sur>i>ing internee twenty thousand dollars. The
reparations included e>eryone who had been interred: including those whoEd already been
reimbursed by the 3684 act and those who had chosen to return to Japan after the war. )hile the
act of paying those Japanese Americans began in 3644: the final disbursement in the program
was not rendered until 3666.
"any people compare the imprisonment of those Japanese Americans on their own home soil to
the concentration camps of the Jewish !olocaust that occurred in 2a#i 'ermany. %>en though
the internment camps were officially named )ar /elocation +enters by the )ar /elocation
Authority -)/A.: the fact that those found inside of these centers were still held there against
86
their will maes the terminology behind relocation center a moot point. 0ecause the camps were
often referred to as concentration camps by President /oose>elt: !arry &. Truman: and *wight
*. %isenhower: the term cannot be considered irrele>ant to the plight of the Japanese Americans
who were housed there. The marer that introduces >isitors to the "an#anar camp calls it both a
relocation center and a concentration camp.
,t cannot be denied that many of the Japanese that were housed in these centers during the war
suffered great humiliation: sadness: and loss. The fact that the go>ernment was Duic to declare
so many people disloyal to the go>ernment without and basis other than their ancestry and race:
is something that will remain a stain on the Inited &tatesE consciousness.
Japanese Canadian Internment
)hen many people thin of the internment of Japanese citi#ens: they assume that it is only
something that happened in the Inited &tates: but they would be mistaen on this point. ,n fact:
the +anadian go>ernment issued a similar internment proclamation which ended up housing
twenty two thousand Japanese +anadians at the time of )orld )ar ,,. Inlie the American
internment process which happened rather rapidly: the one issued by the +anadian go>ernment
happened through a series of escalating laws. The main cause for concern among the go>ernment
was for those Japanese +anadians which were woring in the boating industry and had access to
the Pacific 1cean where it might be easy for one of them to communicate with the Japanese
2a>y.
The worries about spies infiltrating the Japanese boating industry and gi>ing o>er information on
the +anadian 2a>y were deemed unwarranted by both the /oyal +anadian "ounted Police and
the military: but the public continued to push the leaders in go>ernment until they were forced to
act. The first thing that happened was that many worers of Japanese descent were fired from
large companies lie the +anadian Pacific /ailway as many Japanese fishing boats were
confined to the ports. This pre>ented many Japanese families li>ing in +anada from earning
wages to support their families.
0y 3687 an area of land one hundred miles wide ne;t to the Pacific +oast was declared as a
protected #one and Japanese men who were between eighteen and forty fi>e were remo>ed from
this area. The go>ernment too them to lands that had been set aside in the interior of the
country. "any of those who were now being interned had been >eterans of the +anadian
%;peditionary (orce and had ser>ed the country during )orld )ar ,: many of them recei>ing
accommodations for their bra>ery. And: e>en though most of the Japanese who li>ed in +anada
were natural born citi#ens: the go>ernment threatened to deport them to Japan if they do not go
to the relocation centers. This would ha>e forced people who had ne>er e>en li>ed in Japan to
mae the choice of going to a land they didnEt now or going to a prison lie setting in their own
country. This power was granted by the )ar "easures Act on (ebruary 78th: 3687: which
granted the go>ernment the power to mo>e all people of Japanese origin.
0ecause of the restrictions on many Japanese in the country: the confiscation of their homes and
property: and the anti$Japanese sentiment that had caused many of them to lose their jobs: the
people were faced with the fact that they could not support themsel>es outside of the camps.
Their ids were not e>en legally allowed to attend schools outside of the camps and it has been
said that there was no schooling pro>ided by the go>ernment for the children in the camps. This
meant that the only education many of the young e>acuees recei>ed was from their parents and
siblings. %>entually the churches and the go>ernment arranged for classes to be held for those
children who were of school age for elementary through high school. ,n fact: the camps in
A9
+anada were often worse than those found inside the Inited &tates as it is estimated that the
+anadian go>ernment only used a small percentage of the amount of money to feed: cloth: and
house their detainees. The /ed +ross is e>en said to ha>e deferred shipments of food to the
camps because of the poor conditions.
To mae matters worse: the Japanese who had entrusted their belongings to the go>ernment
would lose most of their possessions in auctions held without their permission while they were
being held at the interment camp. The money did not go to the Japanese: but rather was used to
pay off fees and claimed for storage charges. After the war ended: the Japanese were gi>en the
choice of deportation to Japan or forced remo>al to an area east of the /ocy "ountains. This
law was argued in front of the +anadian &upreme +ourt which ruled in a fi>e to two decision that
the law was >alid and that the go>ernment could force a citi#en to be deported from their own
country. ,t was partially repelled in 368@ and Japanese +anadians did not ha>e to go to Japan: but
four thousand had already left the country. ,t wasnEt until 3686 that Japanese citi#ens were once
again gi>en the freedom to li>e anywhere in +anada they wanted. The go>ernment also ga>e
compensations for lost land -only property damages: not ci>il rights damages. to appro;imately
fifteen hundred Japanese +anadians.
!owe>er: this compensation would be challenged later on as the politics and actions of the
go>ernment were put up against a spotlight following the re>elation of certain go>ernment
documents in the 36@9Es which established that the interment was due to a strong anti$Japanese
sentiment rather than a legitimate military action based on intelligence about threats. ,n 364B: the
2ational Association of Japanese +anadians -2AJ+. began a campaign to ha>e the go>ernment
issue them a formal apology and to address the issues of lost wages: property: and ci>il rights
>iolations of those citi#ens which had been forced into interment or relocation camps during
)orld )ar ,,. The losses were e>aluated by Price )aterhouse and through the records of the
+ustodians of Aliens -the organi#ation responsible for much of the auctioning off of property and
possessions of the interned Japanese. it was determined that the loss for those interned citi#ens
amounted to appro;imately four hundred and forty three million dollars by the monetary
standards of 3645.
,n &eptember: 3644: coinciding with the time that /eagan was offering the initial compensation
to interned Japanese AmericansH the Prime "inister issued an official apology to Japanese
+anadians and initiated the beginning of a compensation plan that would gi>e twenty one
thousand dollars to each sur>i>ing detainees and grant citi#enship to those who had been forcibly
deported to Japan. Twenty four million dollars was gi>en out as well: half to the 2AJ+ to help
the Japanese community and half to establish a group to help end racism: the +anadian /ace
/elations (oundation.
Japanese Militarism
The idea of an all$powerful military that would hold court in the political and social realm of
e>eryday life was an ideology in the Japanese %mpire. ,n this form of thought it could be said
that the strength of the military would eDual the strength of the nation as a whole and all of the
normal citi#ens under that nationEs military umbrella. The idea of a military$based nation rose to
prominence during the "eiji /estoration when the country was desperately searching for an
identity to stabili#e itself in the e>er$changing society Japan found itself thrust into during the
end of seclusion.
Part of the reason for this lean toward the military was that most of the officials in power during
the "eiji /estoration were either former samurai or were descended from samurai warriors. This
A3
left >ery little >ariety in the thought of how a go>ernment should wor within the confines of the
political sphere of the era. &o: when the western world began to encroach onto JapanEs traditional
one the country turned to building a strong military to defend itself against the larger
industriali#ed nations.
)hen internal strife also began to arise in Japan as a result of the "eiji /estorationEs problematic
economic and political stances then the strength of the military also pro>ed useful in putting
down these uprisings. This strength was only increased with the demand of military ser>ice from
men in 34@B when the idea was introduced by Yamagata Aritomo. ,t was also imperati>e to the
sur>i>al of the go>ernment that those who ser>ed did so with unDuestioning loyalty to the
%mperor. To doubt the wisdom and infallibility of the %mperor was to turn oneEs bac on the
motherland herself.
The mi;ing of the political and military sides of JapanEs go>ernment led some to the belief that
JapanEs domestic problems would not be resol>ed unless Japan was able to e;pand its borders
outside of the island. This military mindset and the introduction of e;pansionism would
e>entually lead Japan into a >ictory o>er +hina in the (irst &ino$Japanese )ar. Another reason
for the aggressi>e military >iews was that Japan needed to o>ertae some countries on the
mainland lie Korea and Taiwan in order to secure their natural resources since Japan had little
of its own to produce and sustain such a large military. ,t was belie>ed by many Japanese leaders
that through >ictory and their proof of strength they would earn the right to re>erse the uneDual
treaties that had been laden on them by the western powers.
)ith the ,mperial Japanese Army and 2a>al forces so deeply entrenched in the go>ernment it
was impossible for any emerging ci>ilian run go>ernment to do anything without the permission
of the Army or 2a>y. ,n fact: it was reDuired that the head of the Army and 2a>y be filled by
someone who was on acti>e duty and the Prime "inister had to be able to fill all of the cabinet
positions or he could not retain the office. This meant that the Prime "inister had to stay on the
good side of the Army and 2a>y or these entities could completely disrupt the cabinet and deny
installing any other officers until the Prime "inister resigned. This little maneu>er helped ensure
that the Japanese go>ernment would remain completely beholden to the military units.
Japanese Mytholo%y
There are many different stories: cultures: and religions that ha>e come to form the basis for
JapanEs mythology system as it is today. As with most cultures: the early Japanese sought for a
way to e;plain why they were around and what their purpose on the earth was. Japanese
mythology was a way of doing this that combined the Duestions that most people as with the
often unrealistic answers that are often born of myths. Among these myths are the answers for
almost e>ery Duestion that could ha>e been posed about the founding of Japan as a country: not
to mention the godly originations of the imperial family.
According to the beginnings of Japanese mythology: the gods brought forth the first two deities
and ga>e to them the tas of building the land. These were the male god: ,#anagi: and the female
god ,#anami. The two new deities were gi>en a weapon nown as a halberd that was decorated
with jewels and called the Amanonuhou. They too the Amanonuhou and used a special bridge
that was built to allow them to return to hea>en. This bridge was nown as the (loating 0ridge of
!ea>en or Amenouihasi. 1nce they were on the bridge: they stood on it in order to stir up the
sea with Amanonuhou. The water from the halberd dripped off the tip and where it landed in the
ocean it created 1nogoro. This island is where ,#anagi and ,#anami li>ed when they made their
way bac from the bridge.
A7
Ipon returning to the island the pair built a special column nown as Amenomihashira.
&urrounding this was their palace: and when the two decided that it was time to mate they
performed an elaborate ritual of circling the column oppositely. Ipon meeting they mated and
produced !iruo and Awashima. These children were not considered to be gods: and they were
sent out to the ocean. !iruo: or <leech child:= was said to be born without bones because
,#anamiEs -the female deity. raised the first greeting in the mating ritual. &ince he could not stand
and could barely sur>i>e: he was sent out in a boat before he turned three. %>entually: because of
the care of those who found him: !iruo grew his bones and became one of the &e>en 'ods of
(ortune. !e is belie>ed to be the protector of fishermen: woring men: the bringer of good luc:
and he e>en guards the health of young children.
,#anagi and ,#anami preformed the mating ritual again after consulting with the gods: and this
time ,#anagi initiated the greeting. (rom this the eight islands of Japan -or the 1yashima. were
born. These islands were: Awaji: ,yo: Tsuusi: ,i: Tsusuima: &ado: and Yamato. Cater on ,yo
would become nown as &hiou: Tsuushi would become nown as Kyushu: and Yamato
would become nown as !onshu.
&i; more islands would be born from the couple: as well as a long list of deities: before ,#anami
died gi>ing birth to the incarnation of fire -Kagututi.. ,n his rage at this ,#anagi illed Kagututi
and from that murder many: many other gods were created. After this was done: ,#anagi found
that he still mourned for his mate and went on a journey into <the shadowy land of the dead= or
Yomi in order to find his belo>ed ,#anami. ,t has been said that ,#anagi found little difference in
Yomi and the regular world e;cept that there was ne>er any light. The e>erlasting darness that
e;isted in Yomi helped to hide ,#anami: and it too a long time since he was not able to see her
in the dar.
,#anami told him that she could not return with him because sheEd already eaten from the
underworld and therefore had to remain its prisoner fore>er. )hen ,#anagi pleaded for her return:
she finally agreed: but only after she could tae a nap and not be bothered. After much time
passed and he had not heard from her: ,#anagi lit the comb from his headdress on fire and in the
light saw that ,#anamiEs flesh had been replaced with decay and maggots. !e fled from Yomi and
while ,#anami ga>e chase: she ultimately could not stop him from reaching the e;it and
barricading her inside with a roc. ,#anami was so enraged that she told ,#anagi if he did not
return to her she could tae the li>es of one thousand li>ing people each day: to which a bold
,#anagi replied that he would ha>e to gi>e life to 3:A99 a day to eep her at bay. This began the
cycle of life and death.
Ipon his return to earth: ,#anagi went to bathe in the waters and cleanse himself of what he had
witnessed in Yomi. )hen he washed his face new gods were born. The sun goddess: or
Amaterasu: came forth from his left eye while the moon: or Tsuuyomi: was born of his left.
(inally their brother &usanoo: or ruler of the sea: was born from his nose. ,#anagi was so pleased
that he split is domain with them offering Amaterasu the hea>ens: Tsuuyomi the night: and
&usanoo the seas. These three went on to ha>e many disagreements and battles which formed
much of the world as the Japanese saw it.
!owe>er: it is also important to note that the ,mperial family is also said to ha>e descended from
a battle which occurred between Amaterasu and her brother: &usanoo. &usanoo had been
banished to Yomi: but before he went he saw Amaterasu and challenged her to a contest to see
who was a greater deity. To win one of them had to produce the most noble and di>ine children.
Amaterasu was able to create three women using &usanooEs sword: but he was able to bring forth
fi>e men from her ornamental chain. 2either god would acDuiesce to the other. This
AB
disagreement led to fighting between the two gods which clima;ed when &usanoo threw a dead
pony that had been intended as a sacrifice to the sun goddess into AmaterasuEs hall: illing one of
her attendants. (or a time there was darness as Amaterasu hid in a ca>e until she was coa;ed
out by the naed dance of I#ume.
(rom this contest 1sihomimi was born out of AmaterasuEs chain: and that began the godly
bloodline from which %mperor Jimmu would ultimately descend. !e is belie>ed to ha>e been the
first emperor of Japan: although the e;act timing of when his throne was established is of
Duestionable debate as he is said to ha>e died twice. The first time in @33 0+: and the second
was one hundred and twenty si; years later in A4A 0+. !owe>er: the traditional beliefs of the
now firmly established line of emperors ha>e used JimmuEs birthright as a means to claim their
right to ascend to the throne.
These are just a few of the many stories which comprise the o>erall >iew of Japanese mythology
as there were many more deities born from ,#anagi and ,#anami which were used to represent
many of the aspects of Japanese social customs and oddities that they obser>ed in nature. They
are stories that culturally bound the newly formed Japan: and which continue to li>e on in many
of todayEs modern customs. &ometimes the mythology may >ary depending on which te;t it
comes from or what influence was e;erted o>er it at the time it was penned: but the impact that
these culturally rele>ant stories had on the country are undeniable.
"emm 'estoration
The Kemmu /estoration: which too place between 3BBB and 3BB5: is the term generally used
for the three years of transition between the end of the Kamaura shogunate and the beginning of
the Ashiaga shogunate. *uring this time: %mperor 'o$*aigo attempted to reassert imperial
control after o>erthrowing the shogun.
Lead p to the 'estoration
The Kamaura shogunate held total power in Japan for Duite some time: but after the lengthy and
costly battles to repel the "ongol in>asions of 37@8 and 3743: both the shogunate and the power
!ojo family who baced it faced financial difficulties. The shogunate had promised to pay
pro>incial leaders and troops in e;change for fighting the "ongols: 0ut they simply did not ha>e
the resources to do this.
Things were made more complicated in 3B34. )hen the Kamaura too power: one of the first
things they set in motion was to allow two different imperial lines: nown as the &outhern +ourt
and the 2orthern +ourt: to alternate emperors. This wored for some time and weaened the
imperial court: gi>ing the Kamaura more power. !owe>er: when 'o$*aigo too the throne in
3B34: he had no plans to relinDuish power to the 2orthern +ourt. !e made this nown along with
his plans to bring down the Kamaura shogunate: e>en going so far as to naming his son his heir
and successor.
,n 3BB3: 'o$*aigo was o>erthrown by shogunate forces and e;iled. !owe>er: his supporters
continued to wor in Japan. This lead the Kamaura to send Ashiaga Taauji to end 'o$*aigoEs
rebellion. !owe>er: instead of destroying his forces: Ashiaga instead offered his ser>ices to 'o$
*aigo. &hortly thereafter: 2itta Yoshisada launched his own rebellion against the Kamaura
shogunate. )ith wars on two fronts: the !ojo family found their forces too few and their
resources too depleted to defeat the rebels: and the Kamaura shogunate fell.
A8
The 'estoration and its *hortcomin%s
'o$*aigo immediately began woring to restore power to the imperial family. !e reintroduced
the +onfucian principles that had pre>ailed at court before the military control of the shogun.
!owe>er: while 'o$*aigo had many lofty goals: he soon reali#ed his court simply laced the
e;perience and the power to put his plans into action. !is new ci>ilian go>ernment often clashed
with the military: the dominate social class of the time. 0ecause of his distrust of the military:
'o$*aigo refused to appoint a new shogun: e>en when pressed on the matter.
E9ile from "yoto
,n 3BB5: after yet another clash with the military o>er the position of shogun: 'o$*aigo was
forced from Kyoto. !e mo>ed his court to Yoshino in the south: but there was little doubt that his
power was gone. The Taauji family too power and installed a new shogun: beginning the
"uromachi shogunate. They set about eliminating as many of 'o$*aigoEs allies as possible and
installed a new emperor from the 2orthern +ourt in Kyoto: an emperor completely under their
control.
'o$*aigo had failed to reali#e that many of his allies in the rebellion were not fighting to install
him as emperor but were fighting to end the Kamaura rule. This important fact left him with
few supporters once he was in power: and he soon found himself facing the 2orthern +ourt and
the new shogunate in a ci>il war that would last nearly 59 years.
Le%acy
'o$*aigoEs restoration: while a failure during its time: did help re>i>e the +onfucian ideas and
court practices for a short time. These ideas would later resurface during the "eiji /estoration:
which finally mared the end of the shogunate and fully restored the imperial household as the
rulers of Japan.
)a$mats or the End of *eclsion
The end of the %do Period was a troubling time for many Japanese citi#ens. The main reason for
this was not because the Tougawa shogunate was coming to an end: but rather because it was a
time period nown as the end of seclusion. This end to the isolationist policy occurred during the
transition years from 34AB to 345@. &ince there was such chaos happening in the go>ernment that
many groups attempted to sei#e power for themsel>es. The two most well$nown groups >ying
for power during this period were the e;isting shogunate and the nationalist patriots or ishin
shishi.
&ome of the reasons for the problems occurring within the go>ernment were due not only to the
ongoing power struggle but also the animosity of the outside feudal lords and the growing
bitterness toward the western world: which had been forced upon the secluded Japanese by the
arri>al of "atthew +. Perry. Perry arri>ed near %do: Japan in 36AB after lea>ing from Firginia a
year earlier. According to Japanese customs: Perry was supposed to doc at the port in 2agasai
where he would be limited to dealing with the only port in Japan that allowed trade with
foreigners.
!owe>er: Perry demanded that he be allowed to present a letter from the Inited &tatesE President
at the time: "illard (illmore: at an area outside of this foreign port. )hen the Japanese did not
want to let him through: Perry threatened force and the Japanese military were not prepared to
AA
tae on the ad>anced technology in PerryEs gun ships so they allowed him to deli>er his letter.
The letter demanded certain demands be met by the Japanese so that America could enter into a
better arrangement with the Japanese go>ernment. Perry left the demands and returned a full year
later to sign the Treaty of Peace and Amity in "arch of 36A8: which left the prohibition on trade
in place but opened up three new ports for American ships seeing safe harbor in Japan.
This was only the beginning of the dealings with the treaty and in 36A4 further changes were
made that not only guaranteed safe harbor but also granted se>eral other pro>isions: including
<the most fa>oured nation= clause which stated that any differing pro>isions granted to other
countries must also be granted to the Inited &tates under the terms of that treaty. This treaty
started off a domino effect and within just a few months the *utch: /ussia: and (rance: had also
signed treaties with the Japanese.
The conflu; of foreign treaties and influence from other parties effecti>ely caused enough of a
political turmoil that the country was forced by those with outside interests to change. The
sudden trade and marets a>ailable in Japan introduced the country to an upsurge of economic
instabilities. This was a mae or brea period for many businesses and unemployment rates
increased dramatically as many small businesses were pushed under by the tide of
entrepreneurism. This period of infusion from foreign parties ended the age of seclusion and
brought about the beginning of the "eiji Period.
Japan after -orld -ar II
)ith the atomic bombings of !iroshima and 2agasai on August 5th: 368A: Japan found itself
surrendering to the Allied powers a little o>er a wee later and formerly putting an end to the
&econd )orld )ar. This was just the beginning of an entirely new section of history for Japan as
it would be the first time in the unified countryEs long history that they were under the
occupation of foreign forces. The islands of Japan were put directly under the rule of 'eneral
*ouglas "acArthur: the &upreme +ommander of the Allied Powers.
&hortly after "acArthur arri>ed the formal surrender was taen when the Japanese officials
signed the Japanese instrument of &urrender on &eptember 7nd. )ith this accomplished: the
Inited &tates -along with a few other Allied forces. were set up throughout the country in order
to super>ise the reconstruction. 1ne of the first things that was successfully accomplished was
the set up of a system in which food could be easily distributed to those citi#ens who now found
themsel>es without the means of getting food regularly and were star>ing because of it. ,t was an
important step in pulling the country together e>en though the distribution networ cost the
Inited &tates a great amount of money e>ery day.
"acArthur had his wor cut out for him and began almost immediately with meeting !irohito.
)hen the trials began to tae place there were calls by some for the emperor and his family to be
tried as war criminals "acArthur denied these claims and felt that remo>ing such a status
symbol would plunge the country into absolute ruin. !is decision would pro>e to be >ery
instrumental in uniting the Japanese people behind him.
Japan also put a clause into their constitution which banned Japan from ha>ing any sort of armed
military forces. (or awhile this clause was a >iable one which ensured that Japan would not
again become a war machine. The problem that arose from Japan being unarmed is that it left
them >ulnerable to the communist <threat= as it was percei>ed by the American go>ernment.
%>entually Japan buled its army bac up and through the years it has slowly regained its
military status and is now the fourth largest army in the world.
A5
Another part of the reconstruction too place when Japan made a new +onstitution in which they
ga>e their citi#ens rights. )omen were granted the right to >ote: the nobility were officially
remo>ed from politics and instead permanently relegated to the status symbol of the country.
This deduction of the emperor to a figurehead only meant that he could no longer be in>ol>ed in
politics. ,t also abolished a formal state endorsed religion and other religions lie +hristianity
were openly practiced.
,n the two years directly proceeding the war close to half a million American troops had been
stationed in Japan. The occupation was too much of a strain and the number of troops needed to
maintain such an operation was dwindling and the reduction of the troops meant that they
werenEt as combat effecti>e as they should ha>e been. This led to the Korean conflict in which
2orth Korea in>aded &outh Korea. This forced the Inited &tates to pull troops out of JapanEs
occupation in order to fight the 2orth Koreans bac to the border. The &an (rancisco Peace
Treaty was signed on 36A3: officially ending the Allied occupation and allowing Japan to once
again become a completely so>ereign nation. Troops remain in Japan until this day but they are
not there as occupying forces.
The war and occupation may ha>e cut off JapanEs ability to mae itself nown for its military
capabilities: but that did not stop the country from trying to branch out and mae its name nown
in other sectors. They began to wor on becoming a more industriali#ed nation by establishing
the "inistry of ,nternational Trade and ,ndustry. They managed to abolish their anti$monopoly
laws and pri>ati#ed their maret so that foreign in>estors were not allowed to participate directly
in their maret.
The country ased people to sa>e up their money and this influ; of yen into the baning system
allowed the bans to loan out more money than they originally were able to and businesses
sprang up across the country. The realty maret also rose in Japan to such large le>els so Duicly
that the maret became an economic bubble which e>entually burst in the late 3649Es. This led to
a deep economic recession for the country throughout much of the nineties: but it bounced bac
and it today among one of the strongest economies in the world.
,n 3646 %mperor !irohito died: lea>ing his son as the heir to the throne: this mared a change in
the period from the &howa regime to the !eisei: which remains in effect today.
"maso Tribe
The Kumaso were a group of Japanese people who li>ed in southern Kyushu from the beginning
of recorded Japanese history until some time in the 2ara period. Kumaso means bear people: and
many belie>e that the name comes from the KumasoEs physical features. )hile they didnEt
actually resemble bears: they were most liely larger people: and tales of their physical features
spread and grew among other Japanese. %>idence points to them speaing the Austronesian
language.
)hen the Yamato court of the 2ara period began e;panding their ingdom to the south: they
encountered the Kumaso. %mperor Keio and his son: Prince Yamatotaeru: launched military
missions against the Kumaso and either destroyed their >illages or: if they surrendered:
assimilated them into Japanese culture.
Today: some people belie>e that there are Kumaso li>ing in rural areas of Kyushu: but there is no
definite e>idence to bac up this belief. !owe>er: the name of the Kumamoto Prefecture is
named after the Kumaso: so e>en if none are left today: their name and legacy remains.
A@
"ni no Miyats$o
The uni no miyatsuo ser>ed as important go>ernment officials at the Yamato +ourt: with the
position most liely being created during the reign of %mperor &eimu. "any were in charge of
>arious pro>inces and had much power. The uni no miyatsuo replaced the agatanushi: or
pro>incial chiefs: in many areas. This networ of uni no miyatsuo created an administrati>e
web across the country that allowed the Yamato court unprecedented power.
The position was appointed by the court: and many uni no miyatsuo were members of the
Yamato family or its allies. At se>eral points during the period: there were o>er 399 uni no
miyatsuo on record. ,n addition to their go>ernment duties: uni no miyatsuo could be called
upon to lead military forces: o>ersee religious rituals: present gifts and duty to the court: and
entertain court representati>es when they were in the area.
The Taiu reforms reduced the power of the uni no miyatsuo and re>oed their power to rule
pro>inces. )hile the post remained long after the reforms: the uni no miyatsuo e>entually
shifted from a political post to a religious and spiritual one. 0y the ninth century: the position had
declined to more or less simply the title: and e>en that soon >anished.
Masamne #$a.a$i
"asamune 1a#ai is one of: if not the: greatest swordsmith in Japan. ,n fact: "asamune is
nearly legendary in Japan: partly because little is nown about his life. !is birth date and date of
death are unnown. "ost of his wor was done in the 3Bth and 38th century: and most agree that
he li>ed in the &agami Pro>ince. "asamune is nown for creating the tachi swords and the tanto
daggers. Today: top swordsmiths who are recogni#ed for creating e;ceptional swords are
awarded the "asamune Pri#e.
"asamune learned the art of swordsmithing from &hintogo Kunimitsu: and he often made blades
with a straight temper line. !is swords are characteri#ed by clear grey lines -called chiei. and
lines that loo lie lightning stries -insuji..
Masamne4s *tyle
"asamuneEs swords are reputed for both their e;ceptional Duality and ama#ing beauty. The
Duality of steel during "asamuneEs period was often >ery impure: maing his high$Duality
weapons e>en more impressi>e. "asamune is credited with perfecting the process of nie: which
in>ol>ed embedding martensitic crystals in pearlite.
"asamuneEs swords are generally simply referred to as a "asamune or "asamune blade. 1ften:
the name of the family or indi>idual is made a part of the swordEs name: such as in the case of
the !onjo "asamune: the sword that ser>ed as a symbol of the Tougawa shogunate. This
sword: one of the most well$nown "asamunes: was passed down from shogun to shogun during
the Tougawa reign.
)hile there are a >ariety of blades belie>ed to be the wor of "asamune still in e;istence today:
few are signed. These rare blades date to the Kamaura and 2anbou$cho periods: gi>ing
scholars a rough idea of when "asamune li>ed.
A4
"asamune blades are often mentioned in the Kyoho "eibutsu +ho: a list of the top swords in
Japan that was created by the !onEami family during the Kyoho era. This list is made up of three
boos: and there are 53 different "asamune blades listed in the >olumes: the most blades by any
single swordsmith.
Masamne and Mramasa
"asamuneEs swords are often compared to the blades made by "uramasa: another of JapanEs
greatest swordsmiths. &ome consider the two contemporaries: although this is not historically
accurate. "uramasa did most of his wor around 3A99: much too late to ha>e e>er met: much
less wored with: "asamune. The two often appear in legends together. ,n fact: one legend casts
"uramasa in the role of an apprentice who challenges his master: "asamune: to a contest to see
who could mae the greatest sword. "asamune is generally shown to be inder: wiser: and more
noble than "uramasa in these stories: although there is nothing to indicate that "uramasa
deser>ed the ignoble: sometimes e>en e>il: role in which he is often placed.
"asamuneEs &tudents
,n addition to creating swords of ama#ing Duality: "asamune trained a number of different
swordsmiths. (ifteen of these are nown: with ten of them being part of the juttetsu: or Ten 'reat
&tudents of "asamune. They include +hogi: Kanemitsu: &hi#u &aburo Kaneuji: Kinju:
Kunishige: Kunitsugu: &aemon#aburo: &aei 2orishigi: 'o Yoshihiro: and 2aotsuna. "asamune
trained a number of other students: including &adamune: who was possibly either his son or
adopted son.
Famos *words
1ne of the most famous "asamune blades: as mentioned abo>e: is the !onjo "asamune. This
sword became the symbol of the Tougawa shogunate and is widely regarded as one of the finest
Japanese swords to e>er be made. ,n 36B6: it was declared a national treasure.
The swordEs name comes from 'eneral !onjo &higenaga: who won the sword in a battle. !e
too it from Imanosue: who actually split &higenagaEs helm with the blade. !owe>er:
&higenaga sur>i>ed and: after illing Imanosue: too the sword as a pri#e. !e ept it until: low
on money: he sold it to Toyotomi !idetsugu: nephew of Toyotomi !ideyoshi. !e passed the
blade on to his uncle: who would later pass it down to future shoguns: including Tougawa
,eyasu: Tougawa Yorinobu: and Tougawa ,etsuna. ,etsuna was the last of the Toogawa
shoguns: so the blade remained in his family. ,t was passed down through the line until )orld
)ar ,,: when Tougawa ,emasa ga>e the sword to a police station along with fourteen others.
These swords were then passed on to members of the @th +a>alry in 3685. After that: the swords
went missing: and the location of the !onjo "asamune is still unnown today.
The (udo "asamune is one of the few "asamune actually signed by the swordsmith. ,t was
purchased by Toyotomi !idetsugu in 3593 and passed down through the 1wari Tougawa. ,t is a
tanto sword with groo>es on one side and a dragon engra>ed on the part of the blade. ,t also
features an engra>ing of the 0uddha deity (udo "yo$o: the source of the swordEs name.
There are three different tanto blades referred to as the !ocho "asamune. The three are Duite
unusual: ha>ing wide bodies. ,n fact: they resemble itchen ni>es more than daggers. 1ne of
these blades is currently displayed at the Tougawa Art "useum.
A6
1da 2obunaga came into possession of the Kotegiri "asamune early in his career. !e actually
had the sword shortened a bit before he used it in battle. The sword e>entually became property
of the "aeda clan. The clan ga>e the sword to %mperor "eiji as a gift in 3447.
(ew "asamune blades can be found outside of JapanH howe>er: after )orld )ar ,,: the
go>ernment of Japan offered a "asamune to President !arry Truman as a show of solidarity and
peace between the two countries. This sword is currently on display at the Truman Presidential
Cibrary.
#ccpation of Japan
At the end of the &econd )orld )ar Japan found itself being occupied for the first time in the
history of unified Japan by the Allied Powers: mainly the Inited &tates. 1riginally JapanEs
occupation was supposed to be split up more between the three major Allied powers: but
apparent distrust of the &o>iet Inion led to the Inited &tates taing a more controlling role of
the islands while the &o>iet Inion was contained to 2orth Korea and the Kuril ,slands. President
Truman insisted that the &o>iet InionEs e;pansion in the east be contained.
The Japan that was seen directly after the end of the war was a far different >ersion than the
country who had appeared so strong only months before. +haos was a part of the li>es of
e>eryday Japanese citi#ens as many of the major cities were in ruin because of the air raids.
These aerial bombings had left many people homeless and star>ing in the streets as they could no
longer import the bul of their food from Korea: Taiwan: and +hina. This was just the beginning:
those Japanese that had been li>ing in JapanEs territories and the soldiers that had been fighting
abroad were returning home straining the resources e>en further as fi>e million Japanese found
their way bac to the islands.
'eneral *ouglas "acArthur led the occupation: and e>en though he was meant to be a
leadership figure mainly while he allowed the major decisions to be run through an ad>isory
council he did e>erything himself. 1ne of the first things on "acArthurEs agenda was setting up
a food distribution center so that those star>ing after the collapse of the nationEs food system
would be able to get the bare necessities. There may ha>e been pre>entati>e measures taen by
the Inited &tates: but that did not mean that there were millions of Japanese who stayed on the
>erge of star>ation for years after the war ended. This is perhaps why e>en though this food
networ cost the Inited &tates one million dollars a day: "acArthur ept it in place.
After the war Japan adopted a new constitution which was appro>ed under the Allied super>ision
and contained a special article which denounced war and declared that Japan would be barred
from eeping any armed forces. )hile this article was meant to mae sure that Japan would
ne>er be able to become a military based go>ernment and trying to assert its power againH
howe>er: this clause was e>entually changed during the communist uprising in Asia. The Inited
&tates wanted to ensure that Japan could defend itself against the growing communist mo>ement
so Japan established &elf$*efense (orces.
The disarmament of JapanEs military was not the only thing that the Inited &tates sought to
dismantle after the war. The rapid industriali#ation of Japan also posed a threat to the Allied
powers: so it was recommended that the countryEs industries be disarmed to the standards of
where it had been before the war to where it had been in the early 36B9Es. A land reform program
was also put into effect to cut out the landlordsE control. The go>ernment bought close to si;
million acres of land and then sold them to the pheasant farmers who had been woring the land
at e;tremely reasonable prices. This meant that in 36A9 the land distribution system had been
59
completely changed as close to three million pheasants found themsel>es as new land owners.
The landlords that had been one of the main sources of influence and power in Japan for years
now found the basis of their power system gone.
Although Japan already had a type of parliament system nown as the *iet: the emperor still had
ultimate control o>er the go>ernment. *uring the occupation the constitution was restructured to
guarantee a more democratic way of life for regular citi#ens and guaranteed ci>il liberties:
allowed women to >ote: abolished the establishment of a state religion: and officially remo>ed
the emperor from the political sphere. These changes ser>ed to model the Japanese +onstitution
more closely to that of the 0ritish parliament and monarchy.
1ne of the biggest things that occurred as a result of JapanEs loss during )orld )ar ,, was the
,nternational "ilitary Tribunal for the (ar %ast. These trials were held in ,chigaya and they were
designed to try those Japanese who had committed atrocious acts of hostility during the war.
!owe>er: "acArthur used his role as the leader of the occupation to insist that the royal family
be e;empt from the war crimes trials. *ue to his actions members of the imperial family and
Init @B3 were considered to be e;empt from the trials despite a large outcry for them to be held
accountable for their actions during wartime.
1ne of the ways that "acArthur was able to successfully eep the family out of the trials was to
ensure that anyone who was to gi>e testimony at the trial did so in a way that would not
implicate the %mperor or his family. The prosecution in charge of the indictments went along
with this plan and wored to mae sure that they wored double fold as a way to try the
criminals and defend the ,mperial family. This was done not only to protect the family: but also
to help the country retain some form of stability and culture from its pre>ious stature.
The occupation lasted from the first day of the official surrender on August 38th: 368A until the
&an (rancisco Peace Treaty was put into effect on April 74th: 36A7. !owe>er the occupation was
still in effect for ,wo Jima until 3654 and 1inawa until 36@7. &ome troops remain in Japan still
today: but since they are there at the reDuest of the Japanese go>ernment they are not seen as part
of an occupation.
#da +obna%a
1da 2obunaga is one of JapanEs most well$nown historical people. 0orn in June of 3AB8:
2obunaga was a major player during the &engou period. As a daimyo: he held lands in the
1wari pro>ince and beyond. At the time of his death in 3A47: he had conDuered o>er a third of
the daimyo at the time.
Family
2obunaga was the first legitimate son born to 1da 2obuhide and Tsuchida 'o#en. 2ubuhide was
a minor warlord in the 1da clan and in 1wari pro>ince: although he was not one of the major
players in the area. (ollowing 2obunaga: the couple had three other sons and two daughters.
2obunaga used or defeated his family as needed in his Duest for power. !e had one political
marriage to 2ohime: daughter of &aito *osan: but the two had no children. ,nstead: 2obunagaEs
heirs were born to his concubines Kitsuno and Cady &aa. Kitsuno ga>e birth to 2obutada:
2obunagaEs eldest son. 2obutada and his son: !idenobu: would e>entually succeed 2obunaga as
ruler of the 1da clan.
Early Years
53
2obunaga became ruler of 2agoya +astle at age two. Known for bi#arre: strange beha>ior -he
was nicnamed The (ool of 1wari.: 2obunaga spent his teen years playing and plotting with
many of the local children: no matter what their social ran. This didnEt help his image in a
society where social hierarchy ruled.
2obunaga became Duite enamored with firearms: especially the Tanegashima firearms. After his
father died in 3AA3: 2obunaga became outraged. !e disrupted the funeral rites: alienating many
of his fatherEs friends. These friends allied with 2obunagaEs brother 2obuyui: di>iding the 1da
clan. Ceadership of the clan: howe>er: passed to neither brother but to the shugo: or go>ernor: of
1wari: &hiba Yoshimune. 2obuhideEs brother 1da 2obutomo challenged Yoshimune for control:
and when 2obutomo learned that Yoshimune had allied himself with 2obunaga: 2obutomo
illed him.
Cosing YoshimuneEs considerable support: 2obunaga went to his fatherEs younger brother
2obumitsu for aid. The two joined forces and illed 2obutomo and set up their own base of
power in his castle at Kiyosu. Ising YoshimuneEs sone Yoshiane as his pawn: 2obunaga allied
with the ,magawa clan and the Kira clan. This stopped their raids against 1wari and bought
2obunaga some considerable power.
Military Mi%ht
2obunaga first tested his military might against &aito Yoshitatsu: rebellious son of &aito *osan.
!owe>er: the campaign failed when Yoshitatsu illed his father and too o>er the "ino pro>ince.
2obuyui saw this as his chance to tae bac 1wari and: se>eral months later: launched a
rebellion against 2obunaga. !owe>er: his forces were soundly defeated and 2obuyui was
sentenced to death. 0efore he could e;ecute his brother: 2obunagaEs mother pleaded for his
release. 2obunaga ga>e in and spared 2obuyui after he swore loyalty to 2obunaga. A year
later: though: 2obunaga learned that his brother was once again plotting against him. (aing an
illness: 2obunaga went to >isit his brother and: after being recei>ed at his home: he illed
2obuyui.
0y the year 3AA6: there were few left ali>e to threaten 2obunagaEs control of the 1wari
Pro>ince. !e began maing alliances with as many other daimyo as possible: although he did
ha>e to e;ile &hiba Yoshiane when the young go>ernor began maing plans with the &hiba clan
allies behind 2obunagaEs bac.
)attle at #$eha.ama
,magawa Yoshimoto: the >ery ambitious daimyo of the &uruga Pro>ince: began leading a force
of o>er 7A:999 soldiers towards Kyoto in 3A59. They were soon joined by the "atsudaira clan:
e>en further increasing the armyEs numbers. Their feeble e;cuse of <aiding= the Ashiaga
shogunate fooled no one: least of all 2obunaga. !e gathered a small force of 3:499 men to
defend his borders: a force that many new had little chance of winning.
Although his ad>isors and generals did e>erything they could to con>ince 2obunaga to
surrender: he refused: nowing that his life would be forfeit. Knowing that the rumored number
of 89:999 soldiers under Yoshimoto was most liely faed information: 2obunaga sent scouts out
to disco>er the actual si#e of the army. These scouts found YoshimotoEs men resting in the
*engau$ha#ama gorge near the >illage of 1eha#ama. Ising his nowledge of the terrain to his
ad>antage: 2obunaga set up se>eral fae army camps using flags and straw troops to mae his
own army seem larger.
57
2obunaga sent most of his actual troops around behind YoshimotoEs forces. )ith the aid of an
une;pected thunderstorm: 2obunagaEs forces attaced the enemy in the gorge: using the element
of surprise to ill Yoshimoto and defeat his men. 0y 3A53: 2obunaga has forged a treaty with the
"atsudaira clan that ceased all hostility between the two.
Campai%n in Mino
,n 3A53: &aito Yoshitatsu died and was succeeded by his son Tatsuoi. &eeing a weaness in
Tatsuoi that he hadnEt seen in the pre>ious two &aito rulers: 2obunaga mo>ed his base of
operations to Komai +astle and began laying the groundwor for his campaign in "ino
Pro>ince. !e con>inced many of the &aito retainers to turn their bacs on the new: weaer ruler
of "ino. !e also made an alliance with the 1mi Pro>ince to increase his military si#e by
marrying his sister: 1ichi: to a daimyo from 1mi in 3A58. ,n 3A5@: he launched a full$scale
military in>asion of the pro>ince: taing ,nabayama +astle and e;iling Tatsuoi.
&ssistin% Yoshia$i in 'eta$in% the *ho%nate
/enaming the captured castle to 'ifu: 2obunaga too up residency there and re>ealed to his
ad>isors that he planned for nothing less than control of all Japan. !e was aided in this goal by
Ashiaga Yoshiai: whose brother the shogun had recently been murdered. )anting re>enge
against the conspirators and their new shogun: Ashiaga Yoshihide: Yoshiai ased 2obunaga to
help him reclaim the throne. 2obunaga agreed: but first had to deal with the /oau clan in
southern 1mi. Inder the leadership of /oau Yoshiata: the clan denied YoshiaiEs clam to
the throne and was prepared to go to war against 2obunaga. !owe>er: 2obunaga acted first and
too the /oau castles and much of their territory: rendering them more or less powerless.
2obunagaEs forces Duicly too Kyoto and e;iled the "iyoshi clan from the city and installed
Yoshiai as the shogun. !owe>er: 2obunaga refused a court post and instead spent his time
restricting the powers of the shogun: maing it clear he wanted to use Yoshiai as his own puppet
ruler. Yoshiai: howe>er: found this plan unacceptable and began forming alliances to oust
2obunaga.
)attle &%ainst the &.ai/&sa$ra Forces
1ne of his main allies was the Asaura clan. The 1da clan: historically: had been a subordinate
to the Asauras: and they were unhappy at being o>ershadowed by 2obunaga. Things between
the two came to a head when: shortly after the Asaura clan had allied with Yoshiai: 2obunaga
launched an attac against them. !is sister 1ichiEs husband: A#ai 2agamasa: betrayed 2obunaga
and sided with the Asaura clan due to the A#ai$Asaura treaty. This force was then joined by a
group of ,o rebels. The war between the two forces was Duite fierce: but thans to the help of
Tougawa ,eyasu and his forces: 2obunaga defeated YoshiaiEs allies at the 0attle of Anegawa.
,n 3A@3: 2obunaga battled against the 0uddhists when they refused to obey him. The warrior
mons of the Tendai school of 0uddhism: allies of the A##i and Asaura: too particular pleasure
in disobeying 2obunagaEs laws. ,n retaliation: 2obunaga destroyed their monastery on "t. !iei
and illed o>er B:999.
Consolidation of Power
,n 3A@7: Taeda &hingen: who had been somewhat friendly with the 1da clan: became
YoshiaiEs ne;t ally in his plot to o>erthrow 2obunaga. !e began marching towards Kyoto:
5B
cutting through Tougawa ,eyasuEs territory on the way. ,eyasu reDuested help from 2obunaga:
who was currently dealing with attacs on his western territories. 2obunaga sent a small force to
help ,eyasu: but it wasnEt enough: and he was defeated in 3A@B. &hingen: howe>er: died of illness
shortly after this >ictory: and his forces were left demorali#ed. 2obunaga used this opportunity to
e;pose YoshiaiEs hand in the war and e;ile him: ending the Ashiaga shogunate.
(ollowing this: 2obunaga destroyed both the A#ai and Asaura clans: successfully ending their
hostility. ,n 3A@8: 2obunaga defeated 2agashimaEs forces: lea>ing only the Taeda clan and its
leader: Taeda Katsuyori: as his only possible ri>al. 2obunaga ended that possibility at the 0attle
of 2agashino. !e then sent military forces to Tamba Pri>ince and laid siege to both ,shiyama
!ongan$ji 1saa. and the "ori clan. !owe>er: the "ori broe his na>al blocade in 3A@@:
forcing 2obunaga to send his ally !ashiba !ideyoshi to deal with them.
(ighting these battles on se>eral fronts weaed 2obunagaEs forces. Iesugi Kenshin: one of the
greatest generals of the time: too ad>antage of this and soundly defeated 2obunaga at the 0attle
of Tedorigawa. !e then began planning his ad>ance on Kyoto with the intent of defeating all of
2obunagaEs forces.
,n response: 2obunaga halted his ad>ances into %tchu: Kaga: and 2oto Pro>inces and reinforced
his army at Kyoto. Cuc was once again on 2obunagaEs side: howe>er: as Kenshin suddenly
died: lea>ing behind se>eral possible successors. These successors began fighting among
themsel>es: lea>ing 2obunaga free to continue his campaigns.
,n 3A49: ,shiyama !ongan$ji surrendered: and in 3A47: 2obunagaEs forces obliterated the Taeda
clan. )ith two more enemies out of the way: 2obunaga set his sights on the %chigo Pro>ince.
)etrayal at Honno/,i and 5eath
)hile 2obunaga appeared to be well on his way to his goal of conDuering all of Japan: he first
had to deal with the "ori clan. !e sent !ashiba !ideyoshi to the 0itchu Pro>ince in 3A47. !is
forces besieged the "ori clan at Taamatsu +astle. (orces under the command of "ori Terumoto
reinforced the castleEs own defenses: but neither side could claim >ictory. !ashiba reDuested
more troops from 2obunaga.
There are >arious theories as to why !ashiba reDuested more forces since historical documents
show that he stood to win in a prolonged conflict. !owe>er: no matter what the reason:
2obunaga sent aid to !ashiba in the form of Aechi "itsuhide. 1rdering "itshuide to
Taamatsu +astle: 2obunaga himself began tra>eling to the +hugou area. &topping at !onno$ji
temple in Kyoto: 2obunaga sent many of his ser>ants and bodyguards ahead: feeling completely
safe in the middle of his territory.
!owe>er: "itsuhide had secretly laid his own plans: and he laid siege to !onno$ji. 2obunaga
was forced into battle and: with such a small force: lost Duicly. !e committed seppuu: ending
his ambitious plot to conDuer the entire country. )hile "itsuhide had his own plans of ruling
Japan: he was illed by 2obunagaEs faithful general Toyotomi !ideyoshi less than two wees
after his betrayal at the 0attle of Yama#ai. !ideyoshi then began consolidating power under his
own banner and: e>entually: was named 2obunagaEs successor.
Le%acy
58
2obunagaEs legacy li>ed on in both !ideyoshi and Tougawa ,eyasu: both of whom ruled a
unified Japan by building on what 2obunaga left behind. 0oth had ser>ed with 2obunaga for
Duite some time and agreed with many of his political and social >iews. !ideyoshi had Duicly
risen through the rans from a peasant to general: and he put into law many rules and codes
related to the samurai caste. ,eyasu: on the other hand: had grown up with 2obunaga as one of
the 1da clanEs hostages. Although the two clans had often battled: once ,eyasu controlled his
clan: he allied with the 1da and became one of 2obunagaEs most powerful allies.
Innovations and !ision
2obunaga wored hard to moderni#e his armed forces: and it was his military inno>ations that
won him many battles. !e arms his forces with guns and pies: and his na>y was outfitted with
ironclad >essels. !e ga>e out promotions and court positions based on sill and ability rather
than family name or position: a mo>e which both moti>ated his men to succeed and made him
the target of some of the powerful aristocratic families. ,eyasu would later mae this system the
standard when he ruled as shogun.
2obunaga was also a >ery shrewd businessman and wored to transition the economy from
agriculture to manufacturing. !e created a road system to lin many of his major cities and
castles together. "onopolies were abolished: and many pri>ileged guilds and other groups were
made open to the public. !e also implemented a number of ta; reforms and e;emptions aimed at
increasing commerce. 2obunagaEs ad>ances didnEt end in Japan: he e;panded foreign trade:
sending goods to +hina: Korea: the Philippines: ,ndonesia and e>en %urope.
Post/#ccpation Japan
The Allied occupation that occurred after the &econd )orld )ar officially ended in 36A7. The
changes that had been put into effect during this time helped to not only stabili#e Japan: but also
helped them to become a >ery stable part of the global community. )hen Japan found that it was
released from the occupation it may ha>e regained its so>ereignty as a nation: but it had lost
almost all of its territories lie Korea and Taiwan. These territories had been important to Japan
because they were able to import food and resources that were often scarce on the island.
!owe>er: during the occupation 'eneral *ouglas "acArthur had set up a food distribution
networ to help lessen the problems from these losses.
)hile JapanEs military had been disarmed during the early years after the end of the war: the
Treaty of &an (rancisco which ended the occupation ga>e Japan the right to establish defensi>e
troops. This was because the Inited &tates did not want to lea>e Japan in a >ulnerable position
so close to the communist uprising in Asia. The main reason the Inited &tates had agreed to such
an early end to the occupation was that the troops were stretched too thin between the conflict in
Korea and elsewhere as /ussia and +hina baced newly forming communist countries.
The political system was undergoing the normal process of shuffling and reorgani#ation after
such a major change: and the party systemEs fragmentation e>entually led to the formation of a
new party. This party: the Ciberal *emocratic Party: was formed in 36AA by the consolidation of
the Ciberal Party and the Japan *emocratic Party. !owe>er: there were other parties on the
scene: not the least of which was Komeito and the Japan &ocialist Party. The Ciberal *emocratic
Party -C*!. was mainly founded by the educated and the elite: and it was more focused on
rehabilitation and establishment of the country as a >iable global partner again. The Komeito:
howe>er: wanted a more traditional system and attracted a lot of laborers and rural farmers.
)hile Komeito may ha>e been the fa>ored party of the lower class: the C*! remained in power
5A
for nearly forty years until 366B.
The go>ernment had established the "inistry of ,nternational Trade and ,ndustry -",T,. in 3686:
and it became one of the most powerful agencies in the newly reorgani#ed Japanese go>ernment.
,t ran much of the industrial policies of Japan: and it e>en helped fund research and it remained
in power until it was taen o>er by the newly formed "inistry of %conomy: Trade: and ,ndustry
-"%T,. in 7993. The ",T, and other similar institutions strengthened JapanEs economy by
encouraging Japanese industries de>elopment o>erseas and restricting foreign businessesE actions
within the country so as not to discourage local businesses.
After the occupation of Japan ended: the culture continued to go through a an era of
)esterni#ation as soldiers from the Inited &tates were still >ery present in Japan: and their
influence on the culture became apparent as more and more of the mo>ies: music: and
entertainment in general grew in popularity in Japan. !owe>er: the soldiers also too something
bac with them as they returned home and the rest of the world then e;perienced the monster
mo>ies: cartoons: and comic boos: from the Japanese culture. As demand for these items grew
Japan found itself e;porting a good deal of its entertainment industry.
,n more recent years Japan has become well$nown for its e;port of cars and technology as well.
+ompanies lie Toyota: !onda: 2intendo: &ony: and &anyo: ha>e caused the economy of Japan
to e;pand into a global power to be recogni#ed. As Japan continues to grow and change it is sure
that they will continue to be influential in the course of the global community.
'sso/Japanese -ar
The /usso$Japanese )ar began on (ebruary 4th: 3698: in "anchuria: and lasted a little o>er a
year and a half ending on &eptember Ath: 369A. !owe>er: the conflict between /ussia and Japan
actually started in 346A at the end of the (irst &ino$Japanese )ar. At the end of the &ino$
Japanese )ar Japan was granted so>ereignty o>er Korea: Taiwan: Pescadores: and Port Arthur
when +hina signed the Treaty of &himonosei. /ussia: who was slightly worried about JapanEs
sudden rise to defeat the much larger +hina: petitioned 'ermany and (rance to help con>ince
Japan to release its claim to Port Arthur. Japan complied after it had recei>ed a monetary
reimbursement.
2ot too long afterward: a fleet of /ussian ships arri>ed in Port Arthur. 0y 3464 +hina and /ussia
entered into an agreement whereby /ussia as granted a lease on Port Arthur and Talienwan.
)ithin a >ery short period of time /ussia had placed a large number of troops in Port Arthur to
occupy the area: and then within a year the /ussians starting building a railroad that went from
!arbin to the port. Then: the /ussians turned to Korea and began to build railroads near the Yalu
and Tumen ri>ers. This increasing infringement caused the Japanese a lot of stress and worry.
0ecause of the increasing presence of the /ussians and after the &ino$Japanese )ar: a group
nown as the &ociety of /ight and !armonious (ists decided to tae a stand against foreign
influence. The rebellion too place from 2o>ember of 3466 to &eptember of 3693. *uring this
time both /ussia and Japan were part of the international force which was sent in to help the
+hinese Duash the rebellion. The /ussians set up troops in "anchuria: and e>en though the
conflict ended in 3693: by 369B: the /ussians had still not left the area. ,n fact: e>en as they
promised other nations that it would lea>e they continued to bul up the troops that they had
stationed there.
55
0elie>ing that Japan was not strong enough to force out /ussian troops through military power
alone: statesman: ,to !irobumi began negotiations that would offer /ussia control o>er
"anchuria while allowing Japan to maintain control o>er northern Korea. The bac up to this
plan: though: was the fact that in 3697 Japan had signed the Anglo$Japanese Alliance with
0ritain which guaranteed them 0ritish support if /ussia were to ally itself with any other
countries. This allegiance ga>e Japan the bacing it needed to go forth with forceful negotiations.
Japan wrote up an official proposal on January 3Bth: 3698 whereby Japan would agree that the
sphere of "anchuria was outside its realm of control if /ussia would follow suit and declare that
it had no interest in Korea. )hen no reply had been recei>ed from /ussia by (ebruary 5th: Japan
cut off all diplomatic relations with /ussia and declared war two days later. ,mmediately after
releasing the declaration of war the Japanese ,mperial 2a>y attaced the /ussian fleet before the
/ussian Tsar had e>en recei>ed word that the country was at war. /ussia returned JapanEs
declaration eight days later.
&ince /ussia had managed to build up its na>y at Port Arthur into an established base: the first
thing that Japan sought to do was to neutrali#e the /ussians before they could mobili#e and
launch a major attac. 1n (ebruary 4th under the co>er of night Admiral !eihachiro Togo began
to war by first launching a surprise torpedo attac on the ships stationed at Port Arthur. And
continued the conflict by attempting to completely blocade the /ussian forces in the port. The
long 0attle of Port Arthur immediately followed these actions and would continue for se>eral
months because of indecisi>e actions on the parts of both sides. The Japanese used this long
standing battle as co>er for their troops to mo>e into Korea: occupying first &eoul and then the
rest of Korea.
0y the end of "ay Japanese forces were ready to cross the Yalu /i>er and begin an attac on
"achuria: which was still occupied by /ussian troops at the time. At Yalu /i>er the types of
battles that were ranged >aried greatly because the two sides had far different strategies for
fighting a land battle. The Japanese fa>ored a march that went through and tried to rapid gain as
much ground as possible while the /ussians tried to merely hold bac the forces while they
waited for bacups to arri>e >ia the Trans$&iberian railroad. The Japanese were subject to hea>y
casualties as they continued to march against /ussian troops that were hea>ily protected by
trenches and who were far more intent on defending their position instead of ad>ancing.
After si; months of conflict at Port Arthur: the Japanese decided to begin the siege of the port on
August 39th: 3698. ,t all ignited when the /ussians tried to end the blocade by going to
Fladi>osto: but they were stopped by Admiral Togo and what preceded this confrontation was
nown as 0attle of the Yellow &ea. Admiral Togo was worried about the possibility that /ussia
would get wind of the battle if some of the ships were allowed to lea>e and get more ships down
to the port. Japan could not ha>e possibly held off any more ships had /ussia sent in e;tras. The
ships continued to engage in fire: neither side willing to bac down until the /ussian ship
Tsesare>ich: was hit on the bridge and the fleet commander: Admiral Fitgeft: was illed. ,t was
then that /ussia e;tracted its ships and headed bac to port. This left Japan with the distinct
ad>antage as the /ussian fleet was again Duarantined in the port and the Japanese had a>ailable
ships to meet any reinforcements that /ussia might send.
The Japanese continued to bombard Port Arthur and e>entually san all of the in>ol>ed /ussian
battleships and continued to fire onto the land until the /ussians had retreated to "uden at the
end of August. After a long siege the commanding officer of the /ussian troops ga>e up the port
to the Japanese in January of 369A. The /ussians ships that were on their way to reinforce the
5@
Port Arthur ships: but they did not reach the (ar %ast until "ay of 369A: after the port had
already fallen.
After the fall of Port Arthur the Japanese and the /ussians found themsel>es camped out on
opposing front lines just south "uden opposite each other during an especially se>er winter in
"anchuria. After a failed attempt by the /ussians to brea through Japanese lines on January
7Ath: the Japanese made the decision to stop the /ussian army in "anchuria before any more
reinforcements could arri>e. 1n (ebruary 79th the 0attle of "uden began and the Japanese
Duicly began to surround the /ussian forces. The /ussians Duicly reali#ed that they the
Japanese were trapping them and they retreated to the northern side of "uden on "arch 39th
after three wees of fighting.
As the /ussian fleet that arri>ed to bac up the e;isting forces at Port Arthur learned of the news
of the portEs fall they turned instead to the only other port that they had in the area: Fladi>osto.
!owe>er: Admiral Togo anticipated this mo>e and Duicly mo>ed to ha>e all of the ships in the
fleet repaired in order to intercept them. The Japanese were able to position their ships so that
they intercepted the /ussians on "ay 7@th in the Tsushima &traits. The /ussian fleet lost a lot of
ships and more than fi>e thousand soldiers while the Japanese only lost a little o>er one hundred
men. Three /ussian ships managed to mae it to Fladi>osto while the Japanese na>y managed
to eep them at bay until the /ussians were forced to wor for peace so that they could focus on
taing car of the re>olution that was occurring in /ussia.
President Theodore /oose>elt mediated the peace tals between &ergius )itte from /ussia and
0aron Komura for the Japanese. These peace tals resulted in the Treaty of Portsmouth being
signed on &eptember Ath 369A. The result of this treaty was that /ussia recogni#ed JapanEs
control o>er Korea and they agreed to lea>e "anchuria. They also agreed to gi>e o>er their lease
rights to Port Arthur and half of &ahalin ,sland to Japan: both of which it would regain forty$
se>en years later at the end of the &econd )orld )ar with the treaty of &an (rancisco.
The &nti/Comintern Pact
The Anti$+omintern Pact was a formal allegiance between 2a#i 'ermany and the Japanese
%mpire: and was signed on 2o>ember 7Ath: 36B5. The main point of the alliance was set up to be
against the +ommunist ,nternational -+omintern. presence: but more closely related to the &o>iet
Inion. The agreement would also be entered into by other states later on. 1n the surface the
basis for this agreement was that if either Japan or 'ermany were attaced by the &o>iet Inion
that the two countries would align to help safeguard their interests. ,t was also agreed that neither
country would go into a treaty with the &o>iet Inion against the other.
The fact that the agreement was based against the +omintern: rather than just the &o>iet Inion:
was a strategic maneu>er on the part of the countries. They did not want to trigger a full
confrontation with the &o>iet Inion so they based their aggression on an outside force. !owe>er:
this is odd because directly in the pact it refers to prohibition of political treaties between the two
countries and the &o>iet Inion directly. Also: the +omintern held its last )orld +ongress in
36BA: so by the time the pact was signed the organi#ation was already not as acti>e as it had been
-it was officially dissol>ed by 368B.. "any thin that the agreement was a way for Japan and
'ermany to solidify their mutual interests against +ommunist /ussia without waging a direct
war. ,t was also apparent that !itler wanted to mae a statement about his go>ernmentEs anti$
+ommunist stance.
54
,n 36B@: ,taly joined the pact and as such the basis for the A;is powers were already solidified
against a common enemy. This pact held until 'ermany entered into an agreement with the
&o>iet Inion in 36B6 nown as the "oloto>$/ibbentrop Pact. This strained the growing
relationship between the three counties which would not be fully reconciled until the formation
of the A;is powers a year later in 3689.
The agreement with the &o>iet Inion was called off a year after that when 'ermany officially
in>aded the country with an outright declaration of war in 3683. The Anti$+omintern Pact was
then re>ised adding in additional countries. These countries were:
3. 'ermany
7. Japan
B. ,taly
8. 0ulgaria
A. +hina
5. +roatia
@. *enmar
4. !ungary
6. "anchuuo
39. /omania
33. &lo>aia
37. &pain
The pact was supposed to endure for another fi>e years: but the end of the war brought about the
end of the official pact. The original Anti$+omintern Pact was important because it was one of
the precipitating agreements which led to the official formation of the A;is powers in 3689.
The &tomic )ombin%s of Japan
At the end of the &econd )orld )ar Inited &tates President !arry &. Truman was desperate for
the war to come to a close. ,t was in this >ein that after more than si; months of intense bombing
during which the %mpire of Japan refused to surrender: that he ordered to use of nuclear weapons
on !iroshima and 2agasai. As of today: these are the only atomic weapons to e>er ha>e been
used on a populace. "any people do not reali#e that the two attacs were actually three days
apart. !iroshima was bombed first: and the blast is reported to ha>e illed more than one
hundred and forty thousand people. The bomb in 2agasai claimed eighty thousand li>es. "ost
of them died on the day of the bombing: but many others died later due to intense burns:
radiation e;posure: and other bombing related injuries.
!iroshima was chosen because of its significance at the time as a minor industrial and military
#one. ,t has also been said that another reason it was gi>en such high priority as a bombing site
was that it was without any prisoner of war camps: so there was little chance of collateral
damage to I.&. troops who might be in Japanese custody. At the time of the bombing: it is
estimated that !iroshimaEs population was around two hundred and fifty$fi>e thousand.
1n August 5th: 368A: the crew of the %nola 'ay departed from an island roughly si; hours away
from the blast site. The atomic bomb nicnamed <Cittle 0oy= was released at eight fifteen in the
morning: and it detonated o>er &hima &urgical +linic with a blast unlie anything the world had
e>er seen. The thirteen iloton eDui>alent of T2T decimated the city in mere moments with a
path of complete destruction going out from the radius for close to a mile. The fires that sprang
up as a result of the intense heat stretched out from the nucleus with a radius of more than four
56
additional miles. (rom this it has been estimated that o>er ninety percent of !iroshima was either
significantly damaged or completely destroyed on that day. ,t is belie>ed that some of the
sur>i>ors from this blast may ha>e ended up in 2agasai where they were immediately bombed
again.
After the bombing: Truman declared that if Japan did not surrender to the Allies that they would
continue to rain <ruin from the air the lies of which has ne>er been seen on this earth.=
!owe>er: %mperor !irohito and the Japanese go>ernment decided not to react to the declaration.
1riginally the plan had been to drop the second bomb on Koura on August 33th: but due to the
predicted onset of bad weather conditions the date was mo>ed up to August 6th. 1n the day of
the bombing: the crew flew to KouraH howe>er: a large cloud co>er ept them from being able
to secure a >isual target for the bombing. At the last minute as the planes were running low on
fuel: 2agasai was chosen for a bomb site instead.
2agasai was most liely chosen as a secondary bomb site because it was an incredibly large and
important sea port in the south of Japan. ,t was considered to be important during wartime
because it could produce both ships and other military related materials through the breadth of
industrial acti>ity which was capsulated inside the city. ,t e;perienced >ery little of the larger
scale bombing raids that had occupied so much of Japan during the end of the war. )hile the
bombing on 2agasai was not officially designated until the last minutes of that mission: e>ents
had taen place which somewhat helped to reduce the number of ci>ilian casualties. This was
because the Inited &tates had dropped a number of high impact bombs on the city beginning at
the first of August. &ince the city had not nown of an attac before: this concerned them and
caused them to tae many of the children: sic: and elderly: to be e>acuated to more rural areas.
&ince this occurred just nine days before the atomic blast: many of them were still out of the city
area.
1n August 6th: 368A: the atomic bomb nicnamed <(at "an= was released o>er 2agasai. At
33:93 a.m. the clouds broe o>er 2agasai: allowing them to release the bomb at the last minute.
,t detonated appro;imately fifteen hundred feet abo>e the ground near the "itsubishi &teel plant:
more than two miles from the planned drop point. This bomb contained e>en more firepower
than <Cittle 0oy= had and detonated with a force eDual to twenty one ilotons of T2T. 1fficial
documents ha>e shown that the go>ernment of the Inited &tates was prepared to continue
dropping nuclear bombs o>er Japan until they either surrendered or an in>asion had begun in
full.
The display of atomic weaponry by the Inited &tates combined with the recent declaration of
war on the Japanese by the so>iets: forced them to surrender shortly thereafter. 1n August 38th:
%mperor !irohito addressed the nation of Japan and surrendered. 1ccupation of Japan began
shortly thereafter led by 'eneral *ouglas "acArthur.
,n an attempt to understand the power of the atomic bombs that had been released on Japan:
President Truman set up the Atomic 0omb +asualty +ommission -A0++.. The purpose of this
commission was to establish what ind of long$term effects the radiation from the blasts had on
the sur>i>ors in !iroshima and 2agasai. !owe>er the A0++ later came under fire as some
people claimed that they did not offer medical treatment to some people in order to get better
results on their studies of radiation poisoning and its affects. ,n 36@A the responsibilities that had
been established by the A0++ were formerly taen o>er by the /adiation %ffects /esearch
(oundation.
@9
The people who sur>i>ed the atomic bombings on !iroshima and 2agasai e>entually became
nown as the hibausha: or <e;plosion$affected people.= ,t was through these peopleEs suffering
that the country of Japan began to see the dangers of nuclear weaponry and since then ha>e
called for an abolishment of the weapons e>er since. There are currently close to two hundred
and fifty thousand hibausha who are formerly recogni#ed by the Japanese go>ernment still
li>ing: and it is estimated that one percent of these still suffer from illnesses caused by the
radiation from the bombings. "emorials in both !iroshima and 2agasai hold the names of the
>ictims of the blast and are updated each year on the anni>ersary of the bombings with the names
of those hibausha who ha>e passed away during the preceding year.
,n the years after the bombings it has been found that there were some unintended casualties
from the blasts. These include prisoners of war: Korean and +hinese worers: students from
other countries: and o>er three thousand Japanese$American citi#ens who had returned home.
(or many years after the bombs: the Koreans who suffered from illnesses could not get their
medical e;penses co>ered because they had been denied recognition as hibausha: or bombing
>ictims: e>en though it has been estimated that nearly thirty percent of all illed in !iroshima
was of Korean descent. ,n recent years many of these issues ha>e been addressed through
lawsuits and most of the Korean sur>i>ors are recei>ing the benefits and treatment they need.
The decision to drop the atomic bomb is one that still comes under fire from groups who belie>e
that it was an unnecessary display of force on an already weaened country. &ome ha>e e>en
gone so far as to call it state sponsored terrorism. )hile it is not an issue that is liely to be
resol>ed any time soon: many ha>e speculated that if Truman had nown about the long$term
health affects and utter de>astation of the bomb that he may not ha>e been so Duic to use it. ,t is
through the e;amples of !iroshima and 2agasai in which many ha>e seen the de>astating
effects of this type of weapon and >owed ne>er to allow its use again.
The )oshin -ar 713:3/13:28
The 0oshin war was fought in Japan and lasted for one year: 3454$3456. ,t is considered a ci>il
war as the fighting mainly too place between the Tougawa &hogunate and forces within the
country who wanted to return to a more ,mperial ruling court. ,t originated because there were
many who had been upset about the treaty with +ommodore Perry in 34A8 which had opened up
trading with the west. The main causes for concern were o>er the uneDual terms of the treaty to
which the shogunate had agreed: thus putting Japan in a bad position globally.
)hen an alliance that had been formed between court officials and some members of the
southern samurai approached %mperor "eiji with their proposal he abolished the two hundred
and fifty year old shogunate. This caused Tougawa Yoshinobu: the ruling shogunate: to attempt
to sei#e Kyoto: thus beginning the 0oshin )ar.
,n fact: the sentiment against the shogunateEs handling of the uneDual treaties began with "eijiEs
father: %mperor KLmei. KLmei agreed with much of the public outcry against the shogunate and
felt that the treaties were humiliating to the country beginning openly in 345B when he issued an
order to <e;pel barbarians.= The shogunate: led by &hogun ,emochi: did not enforce the order:
but it caused many people to become openly hostile with the ruling order and foreigners. The
shogunate did not manage to regain control o>er the ne;t year as more and more of the feudal
lords -daimyo. began to ignore any orders which were issued by the shogunate.
)ith an outright re>olt on the hori#on: both ,emochi and KLmei died in 3455 and were
succeeded by &hogun Yoshinobu and %mperor "eiji. 1n 2o>ember 6th: 345@: "eiji issued an
@3
order to ill Yoshinobu. This caused Yoshinobu to resign as leader of the shogunate and to pledge
his allegiance to imperial orders issued by "eiji. Technically: this ended the shogunate as there
was no leader to replace himH howe>er: the Tougawa family ept many of its e;ecuti>e powers
and this caused a lot of strain between the family and the ,mperial +ourt. 1n January Brd: 3454:
%mperor "eiji declared that his title had been restored to full power and ended any
go>ernmental collaboration with the Tougawa family. An order was issued for the confiscation
of YoshinobuEs lands.
1n January 3@th: Yoshinobu called for the order to be rescinded: but when this demand was not
met he began to mobili#e his forces for a full out attac on Kyoto. "uch of his distress was
caused by the burning of the family castle in %do. The pro>idences of southern Japan: led by
&atsuma and +hLshL: had been supporting the reinstatement of ,mperial power during this time.
&o: when the Tougawa family retaliated against the end of the shogunate they did so by
attacing the forces of &atsuma and +hLshL just outside of Kyoto.
The battle was an early display of the moderni#ed forces of the ,mperial supporters >ersus the
samurai forces employed by the shogunate. %>en though &atsuma and +hLshLEs forces were
outnumbered nearly three to one the battle was going in their fa>or. The ,mperial court
recogni#ed these forces as the new army. &eeing this as an ad>antage: the daimyos of Yodo and
Tsu pledged their support to the emperor as well. Yoshinobu felt that this was a betrayal and he
withdrew his troops to %do.
This may ha>e been considered a win for imperial forces: but another battle between the two
na>al forces was fought on January 74th. This battle was considered to be a small one: but the
>ictory was in fa>or of the shogunate: thereby pro>ing that they did ha>e some standing in the
war as a >iable opponent.
*uring this time contempt for foreigners continued to rise and many of them were attaced: and
some were e>en illed. The 0ritish ambassador: !arry Pares: was attaced in the streets in
Kyoto on "arch 7Brd. This came only fifteen days after ele>en (rench sailors were attaced and
illed by samurai. The tensions in the country were beginning to boil o>er as forces began to
align either against the ,mperial court or against the shogunate and the foreigners it was belie>ed
they supported.
)hate>er foothold in the war that the Tougawa family had established with the military win
was Duicly >anishing as it appeared that the ,mperial forces were gaining momentum.
Yoshinobu was gi>en a plan from the (rench ambassador -CMon /oches. which detailed a way in
which they could pre>ent the ,mperial ArmyEs ad>ance on %do by stopping them at 1dawara.
!owe>er: Yoshinobu denied the plan and elected to not tae /oches ad>ice. This caused the
ambassador to resign his post. Then: in "arch foreign nations signed an agreement to remain
neutral during the conflict and to not pro>ide supplies or ammunition to either side.
,n "ay %do was surrounded and YoshinuboEs Army "inister Katsu Kaishu surrendered his
troops. The na>y: led by %nomoto Taeai: would not gi>e o>er all of its ships: lea>ing the
,mperial 2a>y only four and lea>ing with eight others as well as two thousand &hogun na>al
members. This was because while most Japanese had accepted YoshinuboEs surrender and now
supported %mperor "eijiEs absolute rule: there were some northern pro>idences which remained
loyal to the shogunate and continued to fight on as rebels. These northern daimyo formed an
allegiance against ,mperial rule and combined managed to ha>e fifty thousand troops. ,mperial
Prince: Kitashiraawa Yoshihisa: had gone north with the shogunate supporters and was named
head of this 2orthern +oalition. The shogunate followers felt that they needed a member of the
@7
,mperial family around which to solidify their efforts: and after the rebels had gained >ictory
they intended to replace "eiji with Yoshihisa and rename him %mperor Tobu.
Taeai brought in the remainder of the &hogunEs na>al fleet to &endai harbor to join up with the
northern coalition. )hile there were a lot of troops: their fighting methods had already pro>en to
be no match for the >astly more moderni#ed ,mperial forces. Things did not loo good for the
rebels until 2agaoaEs daimyo managed to get two 'atling guns and two thousand (rench rifles.
0ecause of this 2agaoa managed to put up a fight when the ,mperial forces came to his castle in
"ay: causing substantial losses on the ,mperial side. *espite the forces and his recently attained
weaponry: he lost the battle on "ay 36th. The 0attle of Ai#u began in early 1ctober and the
coalition of the rebels crumbled on the 37th.
,mperial forces continued to march north: threatening the na>al installment in &endai. 0ecause of
this Taeai too the ships to !oaidL in 1ctober. !e managed to get two additional >essels as
well as one thousand more men who were remaining shogunate troops in the area. %>en on
1ctober 75th: when %do was renamed Toyo and the official start of the "eiji period is said to
begin: troops in Ai#u ept fighting until 2o>ember 5th: when they finally conceded after the
battle had lasted more than a month.
The rebel forces with Taeai were not ready to surrender yet and those that had fled to
!oaidL established a new go>ernment on *ecember 7Ath that was intended to be a separate
island go>ernment on !aaidL nown as the /epublic of %#o. The republic was modeled after
the Inited &tateEs go>ernment and was the only one e>er in JapanEs history. They immediately
elected Taeai president. The newly formed republic ased for international recognition or help:
but was denied. That winter was spent fortifying the forces around the peninsula. The troops had
many (rench ad>isors and each of the four brigades was commanded by a (rench officer. %ach
of these brigades was then split into two pairs -eight total. which were presided o>er by Japanese
commanders.
)hen the ,mperial na>y came into the harbor of "iyaho on "arch 79th: 3456: the %#o forces
had planned to surprise them and tae their battleship: Kotetsu: by force. The na>y Duicly
dispatched of the attac by using a 'atling gun on the samurai which boarded the ship. &ince the
,mperial forces had already co>ered much of mainland Japan: they sent se>en thousand troops to
%#o to Duell the rebellion once and for all. The ,mperial forces mo>ed through !aodate 0ay and
Duicly won the first engagement: lea>ing eight hundred men at 'oryoau. The war was o>er
when %nomoto Taeai surrendered to the ,mperial forces on "ay 34th. After Taeai accepted
"eijiEs rule The %#o /epublic officially came to an end on June 7@th: 3456.
The (rench escaped to an awaiting (rench ship and abandoned the rebels to the ,mperial troops.
They e>entually made it bac to (rance. !owe>er: the ,mperial go>ernment wanted them to be
punished for their actions. "uch of the popular support in (rance was toward the rebellion: so
those who had been ad>isors to The %#o /epublic werenEt punished at all.
The end of the 0oshin )ar brought about significant change in Japan. The country was united
behind si;teen year old %mperor "eiji and his residence was officially transferred from Kyoto to
Toyo -%do.. The power of the daimyo was terminated and the lands were broen up into
prefectures which were ruled o>er by go>ernors who had been appointed by "eiji. The samurai
class was also effecti>ely abolished: lea>ing many of the families that had ruled Japan for
centuries to change positions and some e>en ended up impo>erished.
@B
After the war was o>er the emperor did not eep up with his threat of e;pelling the barbarians:
but instead seemed to embrace moderni#ation and technological ad>ances that came to the
country through many of the foreign interests. This stance in foreign powers was just the
beginning as the "eiji /estoration would become nown as a major re>olution in Japan which
accomplished major reno>ations to the country both politically and economically. ,t also became
the dri>ing force behind the rapid moderni#ation of the country. The 0oshin )ar is often >iewed
by many as the clash of the old style of life in Japan >ersus the new more modern methodology
behind both the fighting forces and the political restoration: the timeless struggle of the new
>ersus the old. ,n all itEs estimated that about thirty fi>e hundred troops died during the battle.
The Emperor of Japan
Today the emperor of Japan is the only remaining emperor in e;istence. The countryEs imperial
bloodline has been on the throne since the earliest nown ruler in e;istence: %mperor Jimmu.
The rise of the emperor to the throne is not completely understood at this time: although
mythology in Japan claims that Jimmy ascended the throne because he was a direct descendant
of the gods. ,n fact: the %nglish translation for the emperorEs name is <hea>enly so>ereign.=
)hile there ha>e ob>iously been a number of emperors on the +hrysanthemum Throne: the
degree of power which they were allowed to e;ercise during their reign has >aried considerably
o>er the years.
(or e;ample: e>en though the emperor has always been considered the so>ereign leader of Japan:
o>er the years there ha>e been si; families without imperial blood to rule the country through the
emperors. These range from the &oga family: which ruled form AB9$58A to the Tougawa family:
which ruled from 359B$345@: maing the emperors of the time little more than puppets.
&ometimes this was due to the shogunate rule which encompassed Japan from 3367 ? 345@: in
which the authority was gi>en to the ruling families through proclamation of the emperor: e>en
though those sitting on the throne could only e;ercise >ery limited power. ,t seemed as if the
emperors of Japan for those years were considered to be e;tremely god$lie and were greatly
re>ered: but held >ery little political power. And: unlie many monarchies of %urope: the
emperors of Japan often abdicated their title rather than ser>e it out until their death. &ince the
emperor was considered godly and not really a political figure that controlled the go>ernment:
their main tass while in office were to repeat certain rituals each day to ensure JapanEs
prosperity. After a few years of this: it was granted that the reigning emperor could retire if there
was a suitable heir to tae the throne.
There was a change in the last two hundred and fifty years against this type of puppet
go>ernment with the rebellion of %mperor Komei against the shogunate rule. The main cause for
his displeasure with the shogunate was because they did not succeed in repelling "atthew Perry
and his ships. The emperor belie>ed that these outsiders were barbarians who would be the end
of Japan. %>entually the emperorEs forces won out: and the resulting years were nown as the
"eiji /estoration period as it was a time of restoring the imperial power of the emperor. )hile
there was much ci>il unrest and fighting during this time: it would shape a lot of Japanese culture
up through the &econd )orld )ar.
,t is also traditional in Japan to rename the emperor after his death in order to honor him. This is
because Japanese tradition declares that it is disrespectful to address a person of noble birth
-mainly the emperor. by their gi>en name. (or e;ample: while he was ali>e the pre>ious emperor
was nown as %mperor !irohito. !owe>er: after his death in 3646 he became nown as %mperor
&hLwa: and is commonly addressed as such by the Japanese people.
@8
Today it is illegal for a woman to assume the throne: although nine pre>ious empresses ha>e
ruled Japan: they are considered by many conser>ati>e political figures as nothing more than
placeholders for the ne;t a>ailable male child of the imperial bloodline to be capable of
assuming the throne. This measure was originally put into the "eiji /estoration and was again
adopted by the 368@ +onstitution of Japan. !owe>er: in recent years there was debate o>er
whether or not this should be changed as before Prince !isahito was born 7995: there was no
legitimate male heir to the throne. The problem with changing the law is that if they were to
write that the emperor would be chosen among the first born: then reigning %mperor Aihito
would ha>e to abdicate the throne since he has two older sisters and is therefore not the official
first born. A special panel was commissioned in 799A to study the issue and they declared that
women should be allowed to ascend to the throne. !owe>er: the debate continues as the prime
minister decided to let the proposal to alter the ,mperial !ousehold Caw go>erning such matters
die off in 799@. ,t is uncertain as to whether or not this debate will be resumed in recent years.
)hate>er the outcome of the status of female empresses in the future: it is certain that the
imperial bloodline of the Japanese emperors has sur>i>ed a great many years: and it will
undoubtedly continue to do so. %>en though the position is once again that of a figurehead: it is
still held in >ery high regard by many Japanese people.
The Immi%ration &ct of 12;<
,n the early days of Japanese$American immigration there were a lot of problems with racial
discrimination and after a lot of pressure on those in go>ernment positions the ,mmigration Act
of 3678: also nown as the Johnson$/eed Act: effecti>ely ended any and all immigration from
Japan. This bill became a federal law that restricted the amount of immigration from any certain
country by a percentage that went from the listed nationality numbers in the 3469 census and it
completely disallowed any immigration from Asians.
This bill in combination with the pree;isting ,mmigration Act of 363@ was the standard for all
immigrations until the ,mmigration and 2ationality Act of 36A7 was passed. A particular stab to
the Japanese who already li>ed in the Inited &tates was present in the bill with the pro>ision that
banned any person who would ha>e been considered ineligible to become a citi#en from any
attempt at establishing themsel>es as immigrants. The Act of 3678 also specifically banned any
further arri>al of people from the countries of Japan: +hina: Caos: Thailand: Korea: Fietnam: and
se>eral other countries in Asia.
&urprisingly the bill was highly fa>ored by both the !ouse of /epresentati>es and the &enate and
passed with only a few dissenting >otes. 1ne of the large reasons for such an e;treme outloo on
immigration and race originated from a mo>ement nown as eugenics: or racial hygiene theory.
This was a theory that was greatly propagated by the lawyer and writier "adison 'rant which
stated that it was a go>ernmentEs responsibility to chose the best specimens to be allowed to raise
children.. The idea was that each generation would succeed the one before it in intelligence:
morality: and physical prowess. 1ne of the ways many politicians who subscribed to this theory
dealt with the genetic impro>ement of a race through the e;clusion of other possibilities. This is
where the idea of enacting an immigration ban came into play.
The Imperial Hose of Japan
The ,mperial !ouse of Japan: are members of the reigning emperorEs e;tended family who are
gi>en duties when he taes the throne. ,n historical conte;t this could ha>e meant that the family
@A
had a larger role in go>ernment dealings: but since the emperor is now only a figurehead and
symbol of unity in the country: this is no longer as rele>ant. The royal family is considered
especially important because JapanEs monarchy is one of the oldest continuous marchy systems
still in e;istence. The family has been ruling since %mperor Jimmu too power on (ebruary 33th:
559 0+: and has continued through the rule of one hundred and twenty fi>e others in the family.
0esides the %mperor: there are at least ele>en other members of the imperial family according to
the 368@ ,mperial !ousehold Caw. There are currently twenty$three members to the imperial
family. Those included in the imperial family are limited just to the male descendants of the
%mperor: effecti>ely e;cluding all females in the royal family who choose to marry outside of
the family. 0efore the "eiji /estoration: howe>er: there were at least eight female %mpresses
who succeeded to the +hrysanthemum Throne and reigned Japan. )hen the *iet enacted the law
of 368@: they chose to eep this e;clusion of potential female monarchs in place.
!owe>er: it is thought that this law could be amended to include female heirs to the throne. This
was especially rele>ant considering that until &eptember 7995 no male heir had been born into
the family since 365A. )hile it did turn out that the family produced a male heir: it was still
recommended by a specially con>ened panel appointed by the Prime "inister in 799A that this
law be amended to allow females who were born into the royal family the ability to ascend the
throne.
The Importance of Japanese Farmers in California
After the attac on Pearl !arbor on *ecember @th: 3683: the go>ernment issued an order for
Japanese American citi#ens to be sent to internment camps. This was especially enforced on the
Pacific +oast as many people were worried that someone who was still loyal to the emperor
would help them coordinate an attac on the Inited &tateEs mainland. !owe>er: prejudices that
had long been simmering against Japanese Americans certainly helped the course of action
which was ultimately decided on.
&ome of the strongest sentiment against the Japanese was found among the farmers in +alifornia.
*uring JapanEs tumultuous "eiji /estoration in which many aspects of the go>ernment and daily
life were completely reno>ated: many of the Japanese farmers had immigrated to states lie
+alifornia to build a future for themsel>es in America. They brought with them an ama#ing
nowledge of irrigation techniDues and Duicly culti>ated acres and acres of land to fruition.
There was a strong sense of resentment against their success from those farmers whose families
had been woring that land for years. "any +alifornia farmers hoped that they could eliminate a
great portion of their competition and gain their lands at a fraction of the price. The largest
supporter base for the relocation effort were the farmers: and as Austin %. Anson: managing
secretary of the &alinas Fegetable 'rower$&hipper Association e>en admitted to the &aturday
%>ening Post in 3687: it was for selfish reasons. !owe>er: things did not wor out as they had
planned as many young men and boys who would ha>e wored on the field were being called
into ser>ice through the draft. The farmers then found themsel>es lacing the worers needed to
fill the >oid.
)hen the call for e>acuation was gi>en: the go>ernment was warned that it would create an
e;tremely large labor shortage in the farming sector. At the time it was estimated that Japanese
farmers were responsible for producing nearly forty million dollars of crops annually. At the time
that was an astronomical loss and disruption in the economy. According to The +alifornia (arm
0ureau at the time the Japanese produced nearly one hundred percent of the tomatoes: peppers:
strawberries: celery and that were grown in the state. )hen internment began in earnest in 3687:
@5
it was estimated by 2obumitsu Taahashi of the Japanese American +iti#ens Ceague
-agricultural coordinator. that the Japanese farmers would loss about one hundred million dollars
worth of their in>estments.
"any of those farms were e>entually piced up by refugees from the dustbowl. %>en so: of the
two hundred thousand acres that had been left behind by Japanese farmers: only appro;imately
fifty thousand of those acreages had been piced up by new owners after that initial year of
internment. ,n fact: in mid 3687 the )artime +i>il +ontrol Administration announced that nearly
a Duarter of all the acres that had been left behind by those Japanese Americans who had been
forced to e>acuate would be lost without the needed amount of replacement farmers. This was
the first time that signs began to emerge that this large loss would actually hurt the war effort in
the long run.
As the war continued and it did not loo lie the go>ernment would e>er find enough people to
culti>ate the land that had been left behind by the Japanese Americans. ,n an effort to find more
worers school breas were scheduled around har>esting season and it was during this same time
that many migratory worers from "e;ico and &outh America began to mo>e into +alifornia
when they heard about the possibility of wor. The remo>al of the Japanese Americans from the
farming worforce during this time is often seen as the main thing responsible for the large
influ; of immigrants from "e;ico. The go>ernment: sensing the growing problem e>en allowed
the release of a select group of internees nown as 2iei: to be temporarily let out in order to
har>est the beet crops. ,t is belie>ed that if this hadnEt been done: the industry could >ery well
ha>e failed.
&ome Japanese Americans did manage to hang onto their property through the indness of their
neighbors: but this was the minority. &ome of the farmers had to sell their land a >ery large loss
while others were forced to let it sit in ruin. A large portion of these farmers operated the land on
a tenant basis: so they essentially lost e>erything they had put into the land as it was gi>en bac
to the owners to be leased out again. The farming industry losses were one of the main dri>ing
forces behind the desire for many Japanese Americans to get compensation from the go>ernment.
*espite what may ha>e happened during the internment: there is no doubt that the Japanese
American farmers made a huge impact on the industry in +alifornia as their uniDue irrigation
methods were so ad>anced that they were able to turn marginal lands into something that ga>e a
good crop yield e>ery year. ,n fact: those farmers who were detained during the war in dry areas
in Ari#ona and +alifornia were e>en able to culti>ate and irrigate the lands of the camps while
they were there. These lands ser>e as a testament to the ama#ing ability of the Japanese
American farmers as those farming lands are still producti>e some se>enty years later.
The Japanese +anbo$/Cho Period
The sub$period of time after the Kamaura Period and before the "uromachi Period truly began
is called the 2anbou$cho period: or <&outh and 2orth courts= period. The period began in 3BB5
and ended in 3B67 and is traditionally considered a sub$period of the "uromachi time.
The main e>ent of the 2anbou$cho period is the battle between the 2orthern and &outhern court
o>er the throne that began after %mperor 'o$*aigo o>erthrew the Kamaura shogunate: sei#ed
the imperial throne: and was then himself o>erthrown and forced into the south. The 2orthern
+ourt: headed by Ashiaga Taauji and its puppet emperor: was based out of Kyoto: while 'o$
*aigo held his &outhern court at Yoshino. The two battled for A9 years until the 2orthern court
@@
emerged >ictorious in 3B67. Today: howe>er: many >iew the &outhern court as the true legitimate
heirs to the throne because they held the three pieces of the Japanese imperial regalia.
0o/5ai%o4s 'le
'o$*aigo and his allies o>erthrew the Kamaura shogunate in 3BBB: and as the newly installed
emperor: 'o$*aigo began a now of sweeping reforms. !e desired to restore power to the throne:
but many of his allies: especially those in the military class: pressed him to name a new shogun.
This pressure: combined with the lac of e;perience 'o$*aigoEs administration had in actually
running a country: ga>e the 2orthern court the opening they needed. Just three years after
ascending the +hrysanthemum throne in Kyoto: 'o$*aigo was forced out and retreated to
Yoshino: the seat of power for the &outhern court. The Taauji clan sei#ed power in Kyoto:
placed their own emperor on the throne: and established the "uromachi shogunate.
Two Imperial Corts
'o$*aigo: howe>er: was not defeated. !e immediately declared his court at Yoshino was the true
imperial court. This began a period of almost 59 years of hostility between the two courts. )hile
open warfare did not e;ist for this entire time: there were many small clashes.
,n the 2orthern court: the shogunate set about reclaiming power. 0y 3B54: the emperor was once
again merely a mouthpiece for the Taauji clan. The shogun would put fi>e different puppet
emperors on the throne during the 2anbou$cho period: none of which held any true power. ,n
the &outhern court: after 'o$*aigoEs death: three of his successors would carry on his fight:
%mperor 'o$"uraimi -ruled 3BB6$3B54.: %mperor +hoei -ruled 3B54$3B4B.: and %mperor
'o$Kameyama -ruled 3B4B$3B67..
Cltre 5rin% +anbo$/Cho Period
)hile the 2anbou$+ho period mars the beginning of the cultural trends and changes seen in
the "uromachi period: there are a few differences. "ost of the 2anbou$+ho writing is focused
on chronicling the >arious wars and e>ents that occurred during the time. !owe>er: the sub$
period also mared a time in which culture spread across social classes. +ommoners began
writing renga: or lined poetry: something only the aristocracy had enjoyed before. Tea: which
had traditionally only been used for medication: became a popular be>erage. (lamboyant:
colorful outfits and dresses because Duite popular as well. 1>erall: the people of Japan began
integrating entertainment into their li>es during the 2anbou$+ho period and the "uromachi
period in general.
*en%o$ Period
The &engou period: or )arring &tates time: too place between the 3Ath and 3@th centuries. The
&engou period is traditionally nown as the second sub$period of the "uromachi period:
occurring after the 2anbou$cho period. ,t ended with the unification of Japan thans to three
rulers: 2obunaga: !ideyoshi: and ,eyasu.
(ollowing %mperor 'o$*aigoEs e;ile from Kyoto and the 59 years of ci>il war that followed: the
Ashiaga shogunate wored to establish itself as the one and only power in Japan. They ept the
go>ernment structure the Kamaura shogunate had established: but they attempted to merge it
with the Joei +ode the !ojo clan had created in 37B7. The result was a shogun structure that
@4
included many social and economic codes and regulations. "any of the daimyo of the time were
not pleased with these re>i>al of these codes.
The &engou period mared a time of increased economic de>elopment. Trade with +hina
increased: and more and more Japanese began using money for trade. Agriculture increased as
well: but so did debt and ta;es. %arthDuaes and famine hit farmers and the lower class
particularly hard: and the shogunate found itself faces se>eral uprisings. 2one of these forces
were particularly well trained or armed: howe>er: and were easily put down.
#nin -ar
,n 385@: the 1nin )ar broe out. The war was between the !osoawa family -the eastern army.
and the Yamana forces: which was made up of armies from the western part of Japan. The two
clashed in Kyoto for 33 years: with some battles erupting in the outer pro>inces as well. The war
was: on the surface: a battle o>er the successor of the shogun: although economic hardships and
other issues fueled the fighting.
-ea$enin% of the *ho%nate
The 1nin )ar left the shogunate weaer than it had been before: and many daimyo too this
opportunity to increase their power. "any clans: including the Taeda and ,magawa: too much
of the power the shogunate lost. ,t was during this time that the practice of geoujo began.
'eoujo: <the underling conDuers the o>erlord:= was the practice of subordinates o>erthrowing
those they wored for and sei#ing power for themsel>es. "any of these underlings were much
more capable than their masters and had: in fact: been running much of administration behind the
scenes. 1ne notable e;ample of geoujo is the sei#ing of power by the 1da clan from the &hiba.
The 1da would later be nown throughout Japan when 1da 2obunaga began his Duest for
power.
,n addition to powerful clans and other political organi#ations maing grabs for power: se>eral
religious increased their power during the &engou period. These groups often wored with
disillusioned farmers in o>erthrowing daimyo and other corrupt rulers. &ome of these religious
groups held power for decades: maintaining their independence from the daimyo and: in some
cases: e>en the shogun.
& =nified Japan &t Last
)ith two courts: uphea>al: shogunates rising and falling: Japan hadnEt nown true stability in
3A9 years. !owe>er: the 1da clan was about to change that. After his clan too power from the
&hiba: 1da 2obunaga began his rise to power. !e united much of Japan before being betrayed in
3A47 by one of his own. !owe>er: one of 2obunagaEs trusted ad>isors and generals: Toyotomi
!ideyoshi: piced up where 2obunaga left off and soon unified much of the country.
!ideyoshi died in 3A64: and Japan once again faced ci>il war. !owe>er: !ideyoshi set in motion
plans to pre>ent this before his death. 0ecause his son: !ideyori: was too young to go>ern:
!ideyoshi appointed the fi>e most powerful indi>iduals in Japan to ser>e as a council of regents.
!owe>er: when one of these regents died: the other four began sDuabbling amount themsel>es:
and the 0attle of &eigahara broe out. This battle: the last major battle of the &engou period:
resulted in >ictory for ,eyasu: one of the remaining regents and a former ally of 2obunaga.
,eyasuEs >ictory established the final shogunate that would rule Japan until the "eiji /estoration.
@6
The +anban Trade Period
The 2anban Trade period is a span of years that begins with the landing of the first %uropean
>isitors to Japan in 3A8B and lasts until 3583: when the &aou &eclusion %dicts were passed and
nearly all non$Japanese were pushed out of Japan.
The period is named after the sino$Japanese word that was used for people from &outh and
&outh$%ast Asia. The +hinese used this word to designate <barbarians= or non$+hinese who li>ed
south of +hina. ,n Japan: howe>er: the word was used as the name for %uropeans: especially
those from Portugal: &pain: and %ngland -it was sometimes used for the *utch: although they
were usually referred to as Komo because of their red hair.. 2anban: with its implication of
barbarian: was termed the best word to use to describe these indi>iduals because the Japanese
found them to be >ery unsophisticated and crude.
The Comin% of the Eropeans
)hen the first Portuguese landed in Japan in 3A8B: the Japanese were dismissi>e of these new
>isitors. "any felt the %uropeans were simply too crude to ha>e anything to offer the court.
!owe>er: after more contact with these foreigners: the Japanese Duicly latched on to se>eral
new forms of technology and cultural practices. These included the arDuebus: %uropean$style
ships: +hristianity: new forms of art: and new languages. &oon: foreigners from %urope were
welcomed with open arms: and some were e>en gi>en ran and titles from the Japanese court.
%uropean records from the time show that the %uropeans thought Duite highly of Japan. The
country was noticed as ha>ing many precious metals and ore. Trade records show that Japan
e;ported much copper and sil>er to the %uropeans during the 2anban Trade period. "any
scholars also noted the sophistication of JapanEs society and the fact that Japan was more
populous and urbani#ed than most %uropean countries. Their 0uddhist centers of learning were
much larger than any %uropean uni>ersity at the time: and the Duality of crafts and metalsmithing
was much higher as well. The Japanese weapons were sharper: their paper maing techniDues
better: and the samurai were highly regarded for their military sills.
Trade )etween Japan and Port%al
&oon after the Portuguese established contact with Japan: trade between the two countries began.
The Japanese court was especially pleased to learn that the Portuguese traded with +hina and
had: in fact: many +hinese goods on their ships. The Japanese and +hinese had not openly traded
for some time because the %mperor of +hina cut off all contact due to Japanese pirate raids. The
Portuguese saw the opportunity to ser>e as middle men in trade between the two Asian countries:
something Japan immediately agreed to.
The Portuguese sent large carracs: their largest trading >essels: to do business with Japan and
+hina. !owe>er: the Portuguese court strictly regulated who was allowed to do business with the
Asian companies. They generally offered trade with Japan to the captain who bid the highest:
effecti>ely gi>ing the throne a large cut of all profit done in +hina and Japan.
,ronically: it was +hinese smugglers and pirates who slowed down Portuguese trade with Japan
and +hina. They captured upwards of ten ships a year: and finally: the Portuguese were simply
losing too much money and ships to really continue trading as aggressi>ely as they had.
!owe>er: the final nail in the coffin actually came from the Japanese themsel>es when: in 35B4:
49
the court prohibited trade with Portugal because foreign priests were sneaing into the country
on the trading ships.
Trade with the 5tch
,n 3599: the first *utch e;plorers landed in Japan. Their numbers included )illiam Adams: an
%nglishman: who would later be gi>en the title of samurai by the court and gi>en a small section
of land. (i>e years later: ,eyasu: the reigning shogun: in>ited the *utch to open trade with the
Japanese. !owe>er: Fictor &princel: who was in charge of all *utch trade at the time: refused:
citing Portuguese trade opposition. ,n 3596: howe>er: JacDues &pec; and his two ships doced in
Japan and reDuested trading pri>ileges: thus opening trade between the two.
The *utch na>y began attacing Portuguese and &panish trade >essels in the Pacific ocean at this
time in an attempt to weaen their ri>als. This plan e>entually paid off when: in 35B4: the *utch
became the only %uropeans permitted to trade with the Japanese. They would maintain this status
for nearly two centuries.
Trade with !ietnam
Trading with Fietnam was also established during the 2anban Trade period: although little is
nown about when it actually began. ,n fact: itEs uncertain which of the two countries actually
opened trade negotiations or if the +hinese acted as intermediaries between the two. !owe>er:
according to Fietnamese records: the first official contact between the two countries was in 3A4A.
This contact actually came in the form of a battle. A Fietnam sDuad destroyed two Japanese
ships: mistaing them for a )estern pirate. A few more cases of mistaen identity occurred o>er
the ne;t few decades until: in 3593: Cord 2guyen !oang officially apologi#ed to the Tougawa
shogun and began relations between the two countries.
The Japanese found that the Fietnamese still had trade pri>ileges with +hina. The court began
using them: much as they did the Portuguese: as middle men for acDuiring +hinese sil and other
materials that they were no longer able to purchase outright. "any &outhern Fietnamese cities
became Duite prosperous due to the fact that they were used as trade cities during the 2anban
Trade period.
The friendship between Fietnam and Japan grew Duicly: with the 2guyen Cord and the shogun
e;changing many letters and gifts. ,n 3598: in fact: Cord 2guyen e>en adopted a Japanese
merchant: and shortly thereafter: intermarriage between the two: especially between high raning
aristocrats and traders: became somewhat common. Trade mo>ed from the sea ports to inner
Fietnam and beyond. !owe>er: trade in the 1uter /egion of Fietnam was not as freDuent.
The mi;ing between the two cultures came easily to both: and many Japanese who did freDuent
business with Fietnam adopted some Fietnamese customs and >ice >ersa. "any also donated
money and assisted with the repairing of 0uddhist pagodas in Fietnam.
!owe>er: trade and relationships between Fietnam and Japan came to an end in 35BA with the
promulgation of saou: JapanEs closed$door policy. "erchants were no longer allowed to go
abroad: and the contact with Fietnam was ended. !owe>er: because *utch traders were still
allowed in Japan: tenuous contact continued. The Japanese were still able to get some goods
from Fietnam: although problems between the *utch and the Fietnamese courts did not allow for
as much trade as the Japanese would ha>e lied.
43
The To$%awa *ho%nate4s Trade Policies
1nce Tougawa ,eyasu sei#ed power in 3599: he and his successors wored to establish trade
with many countries until 35BA and the seclusion policies. *uring this time: howe>er: piracy
ruled the open seas: and many smugglers brought banned goods or: in some cases: priests and
other sub>ersi>es: into Japan. To stop this: the shogunate established the shuinsen policy: first
with Fietnam and then with other countries. All official Japanese traders were gi>en a letter
bearing the red seal of the Tougawa shogunate. This letter was to be presented when the ship
doced in Fietnam. Any ship not presenting this seal was to be considered an unlawful merchant
who did not ha>e the authority to trade with any other country. 1f course: the shogunate
distributed this seal only to supporti>e allies and powerful noble families.
)annin% of Trade
,n 35BB: the Tougawa shogunate officially banned all Japanese traders from trading abroad.
!owe>er: this did not end JapanEs trade with other countries. The *utch and e>en some +hinese
were still permitted to doc in 2agasai and trade with the Japanese court since the saou
policy of isolation wasnEt as strictly applied to trade as it was to other acti>ities. As the centuries
turned: trade between %urope and Japan declined e>en more: especially once %uropean traders
reali#ed there was more profit to be made in ,ndia.
The Japanese go>ernment also felt the threat of +hristianity and its missionaries was greater than
anything trade brought the country. As of 35A9: with the e;ception of traders in 2agasai:
foreigners and +hristian con>erts were openly persecuted and often put to death. Carge ships
were prohibited: and most of the military had put aside guns for swords once again. This mared
the beginning of the %do period: the time period nown for its isolation and seclusion. %do
would last until 34A8: the year contact with America would began when +ommodore "atthew
Perry arri>ed with his fleet.
+ew Technolo%y and Cltre
The Japanese recei>ed more than just trade goods from the Portuguese: *utch: Fietnamese: and
other trading partners. They also traded for se>eral new pieces of technology. 1ne of these was
the gun. )hen the Portuguese landed on the island of Tanegashima: one of the first things they
showed the inhabitants was the arDuebus: a type of gun. )hile the concept of gunpowder and
guns was nothing new to Japan -they already had this technology from their contact with +hina.:
the fact that the arDuebus was so light and incorporated a matchloc firing mechanism was new
to them. These guns were also much easier to aim than the +hinese guns and cannons. 1da
2obunaga was especially impressed with the arDuebus: and his army used these guns to win
many different >ictories.
,t too Japanese metalsmiths less than a year to figure out how to create their own arDuebus
guns: and within A9 years: the Japanese military was outfitted with rifles and guns that were
>astly superior to anything in %urope. 0oth !ideyoshi and ,eyasu made use of guns in their
battles to unify Japan: and guns were also hea>ily used in the Japanese in>asion of Korea.
*hips
The Japanese also found the style and technology used in )estern$style ships of interest. 0y
35B8: they had launched a series of ships referred to as /ed seal ships. Their name comes from
the red seal the shogunate ga>e to authori#ed traders. These ships used the sDuare: )estern$style
47
sails: rudders: and aft designs. "any elements from the %uropean galleons were incorporated
into Japanese >essels: and soon Japanese ships began appearing in %uropean waters. &ome ships
were e>en completely %uropean in design.
Imported 'eli%ion and its Threat
The other major import: and the one that the Japanese go>ernment found the most threatening:
was +atholicism. ,n 3A86: (rancis Na>ier: a Jesuit: arri>ed in Japan and began aggressi>ely
con>erting people on the island of Kyushu. This did not sit well with the shogunate: and in 3A4@:
!ideyoshi ordered all +hristian missionaries and priests e;iled from Japan. !owe>er: >ery few
followed this edict -records show that three out of the hundred or so priests left Japan..
)hile !ideyoshi was concerned about the effect this new religion would ha>e on his rule: he was
also worried about the fact that nearly A99:999 Japanese had been sold into sla>ery to the
+hristian *yamo. "any of these sla>es were women: something !ideyoshi greatly disappro>ed
of.
,n 3A6@: &panish >essel shipwreced off the cost of Japan. Among the sur>i>ors were a number
of (ranciscans. The Jesuits: seeing a ri>al order arri>e in the country: too steps to eliminate
them. )hile !ideyoshi was ob>iously no friend to them: the Jesuits con>inced him that the
(ranciscans and their followers were a larger threat: and !ideyoshi had twenty$si; of them
-including a number of Japanese followers. crucified later that year. )hile the Jesuits thought
they were now safe from persecution: they had no idea that !ideyoshi had the (ranciscans illed
for other reasons: namely the fact that he wanted to sei#e the cargo of their shipwreced >essel.
After the crucifi;ions: he ordered the destruction of almost a hundred churches. *espite this: by
the end of the 35th century: in fact: there were almost 799:999 +atholics in Japan.
!ideyoshi had greatly weaened the Jesuits in Japan: but it was his successor: ,eyasu: who would
push the Jesuits and other +hristians underground in 3538. +atholicism was greatly repressed
during this time and the time following ,eyasuEs death. Almost 7:999 +hristians were illed: and
despite se>eral rebellions and battles: the go>ernment easily repressed the religion and sent its
followers into hiding.
The +ational 5iet of Japan
"uch lie other legislators in the world today: JapanEs 2ational *iet is composed of two houses:
the !ouse of /epresentati>es: considered the lower house e>en though it is more powerful: and
the !ouse of +ouncillors: which is considered the upper house. "embers of the houses are >oted
into office: and the diet relies on a parallel >oting system. This is a method where >oters
participate in two different elections using separate means and the results of one election do not
typically impact those done in another. This system was used in /ussia for years and it is
intended to mae sure that there is eDual representation among the parties that is determined by a
certain percentage of the >ote. The seats to be filled during an election are split into two separate
collections and the two sides are then elected into offices by a different method. Then: >oters not
only cast a >ote for an indi>idual: but also for a party.
The !ouse of /epresentati>es if comprised of four hundred and eighty members. Three hundred
of these are elected as indi>iduals while one hundred and eighty of the seats are filled based on
party preference system of >otes. This demonstrates how the seats in the *iet are split up
between the >oting methods and how that ser>es to help eep some form of eDuilibrium between
smaller parties who might not otherwise be able to guarantee many seats in the legislature at all
4B
with the larger parties who now need to rely on the smaller ones to be able to cooperate within
the sphere of the functioning go>ernment body.
The *iet in Japan first too place during the %mperor "eijiEs reign in 3446: and was generally
nown as the ,mperial *iet. !owe>er: in 368@: during the Japanese occupation by Allied forces:
the current model of the *iet was adopted in the new postwar constitution and is considered the
highest acting le>el of power. The *iet under these terms is responsible for maing all of the
laws as well as drafting new constitutional amendments: ratifying treaties: appro>ing the yearly
budget: and conducting in>estigations. The Prime "inister is also put into power by a resolution
of the *iet.
,f the *iet decides that they go>ernment is corrupt or needs to be replaced: then a motion of no
confidence passed by at least fifty members of the !ouse of /epresentati>es can dissol>e the
go>ernment. This means that all go>ernment officials including the Prime "inister and other
cabinet officials will be forced to appear before the *iet. The *iet also has supreme power o>er
judges and can impeach them if they find that the judge has been beha>ing irregularly or if they
are con>icted of a criminal offense.
,n the ,mperial *iet the %mproer was the ultimate deciding factor of the go>ernment and had the
right to enact laws on his own. !owe>er: while the %mperor still signs the laws into effect: he
cannot refuse to sign and therefore the entire act is just a formality. The !ouse of /epresentati>es
has more power in the go>ernment: though. ,f a bill cannot be agreed upon by either the !ouse
of /epresentati>es or the !ouse of +ouncillors: then the decision of the /epresentati>es is
declared to be the ultimate decision of the *iet. The same is true for the decision of the Prime
"inister.
The *econd *ino/Japanese -ar
"any people remember the cause of the %uropean conflict during )orld )ar ,,: but few of them
remember how the Asian conflict had also started during that same time. Inlie what most
people assume: Japan and 'ermany did not team up in the sense that most people thin. The two
go>ernments were both super powers who were interested in complete world domination. ,t
would be contrary to e>erything that their go>ernments belie>ed in to align himself with
someone merely based on a power struggle: which is why the pact between 'ermany and /ussia
was broen in a >ery short period of time.
The reason for JapanEs alliance with 'ermany and !itler was because at the same time he was
declaring war on )estern %urope: Japan was participating in its own conflict in southeastern
Asia where it was in a long: embroiled war with +hina. )hile 'ermany had originally supported
+hina in the conflict: they withdrew their support in 36B4: basically lea>ing the way for Japan to
continue to war and in a sense gi>ing Japan a form of permission to do so.
The battles between +hina and Japan had been going on for years as the two countries had been
ha>ing se>eral different problems and minor conflicts since 36B3. 0ut it wasnEt until 36B@ that
they found themsel>es completely engulfed by full$blown war. This would become nown as the
&econd &ino$Japanese )ar: and it was fought before and during the time when the allies entered
the &econd )orld )ar.
The &econd$&ino Japanese )ar was a result of a long$standing feud between the two
go>ernments. Japan wanted to try and rule +hina so that it would ha>e access to its large supply
of land and minerals. ,n the early nineteen thirties Japan found itself almost entirely under
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military control and this go>ernment began a campaign of limited attacs and incidents in Asia
as they tried to acDuire more and more of the continentEs natural resources in a campaign to
increase their ,mperial domain. The fighting really started in 36B3 in "uden: but due to JapanEs
desire to not ha>e outside countries drawn into the conflict the battles were called <incidents.=
0ecause of the escalation of these incidents: Japan wanted to eep its citi#ens feeling
comfortable about the impending war: so in propaganda films and posters: it was often referred
to as the <holy war.= The go>ernment used outlets in media and education to push its agenda
through indoctrination and censorship. This insistence that war with +hina was the right thing to
do led to a group being formed that would ser>e to Duash any doubt: The Ceague of *iet
"embers 0elie>ing the 1bjecti>es of the !oly )ar. The purpose of this group was to mae sure
that anyone who spoe out about the merits of the war was censured.
The (irst &ino$Japanese )ar occurred in 3468 between Japan and the Ging *ynasty and it ended
with Japan controlling Korea. !owe>er: this would also e>entually lead to the second war with
+hina as Japan shipped materials and people across "anchuria. ,t wasnEt long before they
wanted to control the shipping route as well as the natural resources in this country. After the
attac in "uden: fighting continued on until the Ceague of 2ations -the early >ersion of the
modern day I.2..: stepped in and demanded that the incidents stop. ,n response to what Japan
percei>ed as unfair criticisms of their war with +hina: they withdrew from the Ceague of 2ations
in 36BB.
&ince Japan had already gained control of "anchuria: they set up a hollow go>ernment of which
+hinaEs %mperor Pu$Yi was the leader: but this was really only an empty title as he had no real
power in that portion of the country. !owe>er: in 36B@: large scale fighting broe out between
the two countries when the Japanese were attaced outside of Peing at the "arco Polo 0ridge.
1nce the full war between the two countries had been declared: Japan reached out and Duicly
captured the coastal cities of &hanghai: 2anjing: and &han;i and se>eral of the major industrial
ports. +hina was forced to draw its troops to the interior and protect itself.
This war was not pretty by any means of the imagination and se>eral huge tactical errors on the
part of the +hinese led to ci>ilian li>es that were lost to the Japanese soldiers. There is an
estimate that nearly three hundred thousand men: women: and children died in an incident nown
as the 2aning massacre. This >iolence against the +hinese lasted for si; wees: from *ecember
of 36B4 until (ebruary 36B4 and is sometimes e>en referred to as the /ape of 2aning become
of the war crimes that many of the Japanese soldiers are accused of committing including arson:
robber: e;ecutions: and rape.
The war continued on as the Japanese pushed into the interior of +hinaEs mainland. !owe>er: it
wasnEt long before Japan reali#ed that the wea infrastructure of +hinaEs roadways made it
nearly impossible to conDuer the entire country. ,n order to more easily facilitate their mo>ement
through the country the Japanese military would continue to use the strategy of setting up false
go>ernments that were truly loyal to JapanEs interests. The crimes committed by the Japanese:
though: made it e;tremely difficult for these go>ernments to be self$sustaining as a great deal of
guerrilla fighting amongst +hinaEs citi#enry ept the conDuered pro>idences in a state of constant
flu;. *espite all of these efforts on the part of the Japanese military: it was just a year the two
later that the countries found themsel>es in a deadloc until after the bombing at Pearl !arbor in
3683 when the Allies entered the war.
)hile Japan did not win the war against +hina: the &econd &ino$Japanese war did ha>e
conseDuences that Japan could not ha>e foreseen at the time the war was started. %>en though
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Japan had already been bombed by the Allied forces and had conceded to loss in the &econd
)orld )ar: the war it had waged against +hina had left the go>ernment there significantly
weaened. (or years +hina had become fragmented and many of its citi#ens had become
se>erely repressed by the warlord$lie regime. This left the countryEs go>ernment wide open to a
hostile tae o>er: and in 3686 imperialist +hina was conDuered by the communists led by "ao.
Tripartite Pact
The Tripartite Pact is also nown as the A;is Pact or Three Power Pact because it was the pact
that officially formed the A;is Powers of Japan: 2a#i 'ermany: and ,taly: as the three countries
entered into a military alliance with a stance of opposing the Allied Powers. ,t was signed in
0erlin on &eptember 7@th: 3689. The pact is belie>ed by many to be a warning to countries lie
the Inited &tates to remain neutral or they would be forced to fight the war on multiple fronts.
,n the Tripartite Pact it officially recogni#es the fact that 'ermany and ,taly were seeing to
impose a new form of order in %urope while Japan sought to do the same in %astern Asia. And:
as such it guaranteed that each of these countries recogni#ed the so>ereignty of the others during
their efforts to attain the land to which they feel they are entitled. ,t is stated in the pact that the
ultimate objecti>e of the three countries is to see out to establish this new order through
imposed world peace. ,t was to remain in effect for ten years.
1>er the years the main focus of the pact has been on the three main signatoriesH howe>er: there
were other countries who signed their names to the Tripartite Pact. These countries entered into
the agreement for differing reasons. These countries include !ungary: /omania: &lo>aia:
0ulgaria: and Yugosla>ia. "any times these fi>e countries joined with 'ermany out of a sense of
resentment and necessity. 'ermany needed to pass through their countries in order to launch
attacs on other entities and it was apparent to many of these go>ernments that they could either
allow the 2a#is passage or they could face a possible in>asion themsel>es.
The &o>iet Inion was also interested in joining the Tripartite Pact and sent word to !itler that
they wanted some of the wording to be changed. The re>isions reached 'ermany in 2o>ember of
3689: but !itler ignored the offering as he had already decided to in>ade the &o>iet Inion. The
pact remained in effect until the end of the war with Japan being the last hold out until their
surrender.
Yasnari "awabata
0orn on June 38th: 3466: Yasunari Kawabata became the first Japanese author to be awarded the
2obel Pri#e for Citerature in 3654. Although later in life his stories garnered him international
fame: Yasunari had a hard childhood as at only two years old he was orphaned and was thereafter
raised by his grandparents until his grandfather died in 3638. !e li>ed with his motherEs family
for a brief time afterward: but e>entually mo>ed into a boarding house.
,n 363@: he too the e;ams to get into Toyo ,mperial Ini>ersity and in 3679 he entered the
program to study %nglish: howe>er he changed his major sometime during his stint at the college
to Japanese literature. *uring his studies: Yasunari wored at his craft and by the time he
graduated four years later he had already been published in a literary maga#ine of some repute:
the 0ungei &hunju. !e also became a reporter for "ainichi &himbun.
As Japan became a more military based country and entered )orld )ar ,, Yasunari did not
engage in the militaristic e;citement that enamored so many of his colleges. After the end of the
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war he felt that Japan had become so decimated he would spend the rest of his career writing
elegies for the postwar state in which the country found itself.
&hortly after he graduated Yasunari teamed up with a few young and idealistic writers and began
0ungei Jidai: a new style of literary maga#ine. Cie many of the mo>ements during this time
across the globe the journal was a way for artists to crate just for the enjoyment of art. The idea
behind their writing was to embrace a new way of looing at literature altogether and to mae it
more of something that people e;perienced rather than just something people read.
1ne of the first stories that wored to get Yasunari noticed was published in 3675: and was called
<The *ancing 'irl of ,#u.= The praise for the story was mainly gi>en because e>en though it was
an erotic story about the meeting of two young lo>ers: it managed to tae a theme that is often
o>erused and turn it into something with a hint of sadness and e>en a sense of despondency that
turned the entire episode into something that transcended a normal lo>e story.
Throughout the twenties Yasunari continued to e;plore different themes and writing styles as he
wored to find his >oice as a writer. ,n some of his writings during that period he returned to a
more traditional sense of literature: while in others he wored to embrace the >ery difficult way
of writing through stream$of$consciousness -a way of writing that sees to capture an
indi>idualEs actual thought process as an e>ent is taing place..
,n 36BA: Yasunari began publishing installments of a serial no>el named &now +ountry. These
installments would continue through 368@: and the boo would later become one of his most
well$nown wors. ,n the eyes of many critics this formerly established him as a premier
Japanese writer. Yasunari continued to earn e>en more success after the war with the publication
of se>eral more no>els. !owe>er: the boo that he thought was an e;ample of his finest wor
was released in 36A3: The "aster of 'o.
)hen Yasunari was gi>en the 2obel Pri#e in 3654: the committee listed three of his wors that
they considered most impressi>e: &now +ountry -36B@$368@.: Thousand +ranes -3686$36A7.:
and The 1ld +apital -3657.. The boos e;plore the ideals of lo>e contrasted with the starness of
reality: and within them are themes that see to reach out to most readers and show them of the
yearning in the hearts of people for what they cannot attain and how this ties into the human
e;istence as a whole.
Yasunari died in 36@7 of an apparent suicide by gas. &ome consider his death accidental: but
there were factors which could ha>e led to the suicide. ,ncluded in these are YasunariEs recent
disco>ery that he had ParinsonEs disease and the 36@9 suicide death of his close friend Yuio
"ishima. 1ne of the main reasons for many to doubt his suicide moti>es was that he had left
behind no note: but according to many of his friends he was depressed and had e>en been nown
to remar that he hoped the plane would crash when he went on trips.
)hate>er the reasons behind his death: it is clear that the writings of Yasunari affected many
who read them. !is ability to blend together the clash of the old and the new along with
reminding people that with great joy often came moments of bitterness were magnificent.
&ymbolically speaing: his ability to write of an entire cultureEs search for an identity and a past
that they could no longer cling to in the changing world of the post$modern era are traits that still
resonate in his writings.
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