Unconventional Propulsion Technologies

B.Tech in aerospace
Indian Institute of Aeronautical Engineering and Information Technology
INTRODUCTION
ropulsion is defined as force causing mo!ement. Vehicle propulsion refers to the act of mo!ing an
artificial carrier of people or goods o!er any distance. The po"er plant used to dri!e the !ehicles
can !ary "idely. Originally# humans or animals "ould ha!e pro!ided the means of propulsion# later
$eing supplemented $y "ind po"er %e.g. sailing ship&. 'ince the Industrial Re!olution# mechanical
propulsion has $een possi$le# initially using steam engines. (ore recently# most !ehicles use some
form of internal)com$ustion engine# "ith !arious energy sources to po"er them.
It is $roadly categori*ed as
Vehicle propulsion
Air propulsion
Ground propulsion
Marine propulsion
Spacecraft propulsion
In the follo"ing paper I ha!e concentrated o!er uncon!entional methods that can $e used for air
propulsion and space propulsion.
Table of contents
Introduction
Air propulsion
Wankel engine
Diesel engine
Precooled et engines
Air breathing nuclear engine
Spacecraft propulsion
!he"ical rockets
#$brid rocket
%i&uid propellant
Monopropellant
'ipropellant
Tripropellant
(lectric thrusters
(lectrostatic
o !olloid thruster
o Ion thruster
(lectro"agnetic
o Pulsed inductive thruster
o Magnetoplas"ad$na"ic thruster
o (lectrodeless plas"a thruster
o VASIM)
(lectrother"al
o Pulsed plas"a thruster *
o #elicon double+la$er thruster *
o Arcet rocket
,ther
o Mag'ea"
o )esistoet rocket *
o #igh+po-er electric propulsion *
o Mass driver
.uclear propulsion
!losed s$ste"
o .uclear electric rocket *
o .uclear ther"al rocket
,pen s$ste"
o .uclear pulse propulsion
o /usion rocket
o /ission+frag"ent rocket
o .uclear photonic rocket
Miscellaneous
Solar sail
'ea"+po-ered propulsion
Solar ther"al rocket
Tether propulsion
Gravit$ assist
#$pothetical "ethods
AI)!)A/T
Air propulsion is the act of mo!ing an o$+ect through the air. The most common and no"
con!entional types are propeller# +et engine# tur$oprop# ram+et# roc,et propulsion# and#
e-perimentally# scram+et# pulse +et# and pulse detonation engine. Animals such as $irds and insects
o$tain propulsion $y flapping their "ings. The uncon!entional methods for air propulsion are.
Wankel engine
The promising design for aircraft use "as the /an,el rotary engine. The /an,el engine is a$out
one half the "eight and si*e of a traditional four stro,e cycle piston engine of e0ual po"er output#
and much lo"er in comple-ity. In an aircraft application# the po"er to "eight ratio is !ery
important# ma,ing the /an,el engine a good choice. Because the engine is typically constructed
"ith aluminum housing and a steel rotor# and aluminum e-pands more than steel "hen heated#
unli,e a piston engine# a /an,el engine "ill not sei*e "hen o!erheated. This is an important safety
factor for aeronautical use. Considera$le de!elopment of these designs started after /orld /ar II#
$ut at the time the aircraft industry fa!ored the use of tur$ine engines. It "as $elie!ed
that tur$o+et or tur$oprop engines could po"er all aircraft# from the largest to smallest designs. The
/an,el engine did not find many applications in aircraft. /an,el engines are $ecoming
increasingly popular in home$uilt e-perimental aircraft# due to a num$er of factors. (ost are (a*da
12A and 13B engines# remo!ed from automo$iles and con!erted to a!iation use. This is a !ery cost)
effecti!e alternati!e to certified aircraft engines# pro!iding engines ranging from 144 to
344 horsepo"er %224 ,/& at a fraction of the cost of traditional engines. These con!ersions first
too, place in the early 1564s# and "ith hundreds or e!en thousands of these engines mounted on
aircraft# as of 14 Decem$er 2447 the National Transportation 'afety Board has only se!en reports of
incidents in!ol!ing aircraft "ith (a*da engines# and none of these is of a failure due to design or
manufacturing fla"s. During the same time frame# they ha!e reports of se!eral thousand reports of
$ro,en cran,shafts and connecting rods# failed pistons and incidents caused $y other components
"hich are not found in the /an,el engines.
Diesel engine
The diesel engine is another engine design that has $een e-amined for a!iation use. In general diesel
engines are more relia$le and much $etter suited to running for long periods of time at medium
po"er settings8this is "hy they are "idely used in truc,s for instance. 'e!eral attempts to produce
diesel aircraft engines "ere made in the 1534s $ut# at the time# the alloys "ere not up to the tas, of
handling the much higher compression ratios used in these designs. They generally had poor po"er)
to)"eight ratios and "ere uncommon for that reason $ut# for e-ample# the Clerget 19: diesel radial
engine %1535& has the same po"er to "eight as a gasoline radial. Impro!ements in diesel technology
in automo$iles %leading to much $etter po"er)"eight ratios&# the diesel;s much $etter fuel efficiency
%particularly compared to the old gasoline designs currently $eing used in light aircraft& and the high
relati!e ta-ation of A<=A' compared to >et A1 in Europe ha!e all seen a re!i!al of interest in the
concept. Competing ne" diesel engines may $ring fuel efficiency and lead)free emissions to small
aircraft# representing the $iggest change in light aircraft engines in decades. /il,sch Airmoti!e
$uild 2 stro,e diesel engine %same po"er to "eight as a gasoline engine& for e-perimental aircraft.
/A( 144 %144 hp&# /A( 124 %124 hp& and /A( 174 %174 hp&.
Precooled et engines
:or !ery high supersonic?lo" hypersonic flight speeds inserting a cooling system into the air duct of
a hydrogen +et engine permits greater fuel in+ection at high speed and o$!iates the need for the duct
to $e made of refractory or acti!ely cooled materials. This greatly impro!es the thrust?"eight ratio
of the engine at high speed. It is thought that this design of engine could permit sufficient
performance for antipodal flight at (ach @# or e!en permit a single stage to or$it !ehicle to $e
practical.
Air breathing nuclear engine
Nuclear)po"ered air)cushion !ehicles using light"eight nuclear po"erplants such as those $eing
in!estigated for nuclear aircraft may $e a$le to achie!e transoceanic cargo cost rates per metric ton)
,ilometer %ton)n mi& compara$le to rail transport rates independent of the distance tra!eled. Cargo
rates for 6924 ,ilometers %9444 n mi& %typical of transatlantic routes& are e-pected to $e less than
one)half those for similar fossil).fueled air) cushion !ehicles. :or 11 134),ilometer %7444)n mi&
nonstop distances# the rates are e-pected to $e less than one)si-th as much.The technical pro$lems
associated "ith pro!iding containment of fission products in the "orst concei!a$le accidents are
much easier to sol!e for nuclear air)cushion !ehicles than for nuclear aircraft. This is $ecause %1&
the operating speed is much lo"er# %2& the operation is at *ero altitude# and %3& the operation is o!er
"ater.
There are no fundamental technical reasons "hy su$sonic nuclear aircraft cannot $e made to fly
successfully pro!iding the aircraft is large enough. The "eight of a completely shielded nuclear
aircraft reactor !aries a$out as the s0uare root of the reactor po"er. Aence# the larger the aircraft the
less is the "eight fraction of the nuclear po"er system. Aircraft of 4.9@ million ,ilograms %1 million
l$& or greater are re0uired to ma,e the payload fraction greater than 1@ percent of the gross "eight.
SPA!(!)A/T
'pacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. There are
many different methods. Each method has dra"$ac,s and ad!antages# and spacecraft propulsion is
an acti!e area of research. Ao"e!er# most spacecraft today are propelled $y forcing a gas from the
$ac,?rear of the !ehicle at !ery high speed through a supersonic de Ba!al no**le. This sort
of engine is called a roc,etengine.
All current spacecraft use chemical roc,ets %$ipropellant or solid)fuel& for launch# though some
%such as the egasus roc,et and 'pace'hipOne& ha!e used air)$reathing engines on their first stage.
(ost satellites ha!e simple relia$le chemical thrusters %often monopropellant roc,ets& or resisto+et
roc,ets for or$ital station),eeping and some use momentum "heels for attitude control. 'o!iet $loc
satellites ha!e used electric propulsion for decades# and ne"er /estern geo)or$iting spacecraft are
starting to use them for north)south station,eeping. Interplanetary !ehicles mostly use chemical
roc,ets as "ell# although a fe" ha!e used ion thrusters and Aall effect thrusters %t"o different types
of electric propulsion& to great success.the spacecraft propulsion is classified as.
1. Chemical roc,ets
2. Electric thrusters
3. Nuclear propulsion
9. (iscellaneous
!he"ical rockets
Propulsion b$ "eans of che"ical reactions happening due to the properties of propellant is
ter"ed as che"ical propulsion0 )ockets utili1ing such propulsion are called che"ical rocklets
#$brid rocket
A hy$rid roc,et is a roc,et "ith a roc,et motor "hich uses propellants in t"o different states of
matter ) one solid and the other either gas or li0uid. The Ay$rid roc,et concept can $e traced $ac, at
least 6@ years. Ay$rid roc,ets e-hi$it ad!antages o!er $oth li0uid roc,ets and solid
roc,ets especially in terms of simplicity# safety# and cost. Because it is nearly impossi$le for the fuel
and o-idi*er to $e mi-ed intimately %$eing different states of matter&# hy$rid roc,ets tend to fail
more $enignly than li0uids or solids. Bi,e li0uid roc,ets and unli,e solid roc,ets they can $e shut
do"n easily and are simply throttle)a$le. The theoretical specific impulse % Isp& performance of
hy$rids is generally higher than solids and roughly e0ui!alent to hydrocar$on)$ased li0uids. Isp as
high as 944s has $een measured in a hy$rid roc,et using metali*ed fuels.
C3D
Ay$rid systems are
slightly more comple- than solids# $ut the significant ha*ards of manufacturing# shipping and
handling solids offset the system simplicity ad!antages.
'asic concepts
In its simplest form a hy$rid roc,et consists of a pressure !essel %tan,& containing the
li0uidpropellant# the com$ustion cham$er containing the solid propellant# and a !al!e isolating the
t"o. /hen thrust is desired# a suita$le ignition source is introduced in the com$ustion cham$er and
the !al!e is opened. The li0uid propellant %or gas& flo"s into the com$ustion cham$er "here it is
!apori*ed and then reacted "ith the solid propellant. Com$ustion occurs in a $oundary layer
diffusion flame ad+acent to the surface of the solid propellant. =enerally the li0uid propellant is
the o-idi*er and the solid propellant is the fuel $ecause solid o-idi*ers are pro$lematic and lo"er
performing than li0uid o-idi*ers. :urthermore# using a solid fuel such as ATB or paraffin allo"s
for the incorporation of high)energy fuel additi!es such as aluminium# lithium# or metal hydrides.
Common o-idi*ers include gaseous or li0uid o-ygen or nitrous o-ide. Common fuels
include polymers such as polyethylene# cross)lin,ed ru$$er such as ATB or li0uefying fuels such
as paraffin
Advantages of h$brid rockets
Ay$rid roc,et motors e-hi$it some o$!ious as "ell as some su$tle ad!antages o!er li0uid)fuel
roc,ets and solid roc,ets. A $rief summary of some of these is gi!en $elo".
Advantages co"pared -ith bipropellant li&uid rockets
(echanically simpler ) re0uires only a single li0uid propellant resulting in less plum$ing#
fe"er !al!es# and simpler operations.
Denser fuels ) fuels in the solid phase generally ha!e higher density than those in the li0uid
phase
(etal additi!es ) reacti!e metals such as aluminum# magnesium# lithium or $eryllium can $e
easily included in the fuel grain increasing specific impulse% Isp&
Advantages co"pared -ith solid rockets
Aigher theoretical Isp o$taina$le
Bess e-plosion ha*ard ) ropellant grain more tolerant of processing errors such as crac,s
(ore controlla$le ) 'tart?stop?restart and throttling are all achie!a$le "ith appropriate
o-idi*er control
'afe and non)to-ic o-idi*ers such as li0uid o-ygen and nitrous o-ide can $e used
Can $e transported to site in a $enign form and loaded "ith o-idi*er remotely immediately
$efore launch# impro!ing safety.
DISADVA.TAG(S ,/ #2')ID ),!3(TS
Ay$rid roc,ets also e-hi$it some disad!antages "hen compared "ith li0uid and solid roc,ets. These
include.
O-idi*er)to)fuel ratio shift %EO?: shiftE& ) "ith a constant o-idi*er flo")rate# the ratio of fuel
production rate to o-idi*er flo" rate "ill change as a grain regresses. This leads to off)pea,
operation from a chemical performance point of !ie".
Bo" regression)rate %rate at "hich the solid phase recedes& fuels often dri!e multi)port fuel
grains. (ulti)port fuel grains ha!e poor !olumetric efficiency and# often# structural deficiencies.
Aigh regression)rate li0uefying fuels de!eloped in the late 1554s offer a potential solution to
this pro$lem.
:or a "ell)designed hy$rid# O?: shift has a !ery small impact on performance $ecause Isp is
insensiti!e to O?: near the pea,.
In general# much less de!elopment "or, has $een performed "ith hy$rids than li0uids or solids and
it is li,ely that some of these disad!antages could $e rectified through further in!estment in research
and de!elopment.
%i&uid propellant
A li0uid)propellant roc,et or a li0uid roc,et is a roc,et "ith an engine that
uses propellants in li0uid form. Bi0uids are desira$le $ecause their reasona$ly high density allo"s
the !olume of the propellant tan,s to $e relati!ely lo"# and it is possi$le to use light"eight pumps to
pump the propellant from the tan,s into the engines# "hich means that the propellants can $e ,ept
under lo" pressure. This permits the use of lo" mass propellant tan,s# permitting a high mass
ratio for the roc,et. Bi0uid roc,ets ha!e $een $uilt as monopropellant roc,ets using a single type of
propellant# $ipropellant roc,ets using t"o types of propellant# or more e-otic Tripropellant
roc,ets using three types of propellant. Bipropellant li0uid roc,ets generally use one li0uid fuel and
one li0uid o-idi*er# such as li0uid hydrogen or a hydrocar$on fuel such as R)1# and li0uid o-ygen.
This e-ample also sho"s that li0uid)propellant roc,ets sometimes use cryogenic roc,et engines#
"here fuel or o-idi*er are gases li0uefied at !ery lo" temperatures.
Bi0uid propellants are also sometimes used in hy$rid roc,ets# in "hich they are com$ined "ith a
solid or gaseous propellant.
Advantages of li&uid propellant
Bi0uid systems usually ha!e the ad!antage of higher specific impulse %energy content&.
Tan,age efficiency. Unli,e gases# a typical li0uid propellant has a density similar to "ater#
appro-imately 4.6)1.9g?cmF %e-cept li0uid hydrogen "hich has a much lo"er density&# "hile
re0uiring only relati!ely modest pressure to pre!ent !apourisation. This com$ination of density
and lo" pressure permits !ery light"eight tan,ageG appro-imately 1H of the contents for dense
propellants and around 14H for li0uid hydrogen %due to its lo" density and the mass of the
re0uired insulation&.
:or in+ection into the com$ustion cham$er the propellant pressure needs to $e greater than the
cham$er pressure at the in+ectorsG this can $e achie!ed "ith a pump. 'uita$le pumps usually
use tur$opumps due to their high po"er and light"eight# although reciprocating pumps ha!e
$een employed in the past. Tur$opumps are usually e-tremely light"eight and can gi!e
e-cellent performanceG "ith an on)Earth "eight "ell under 1H of the thrust. Indeed#
o!erall roc,et engine thrust to "eight ratios including a tur$opump ha!e $een as high as 133.1
"ith the 'o!iet NI)33 roc,et engine.
Alternati!ely# a hea!y tan, can $e used# and the pump foregoneG $ut the delta)! that the stage
can achie!e is often much lo"er due to the e-tra mass of the tan,age reducing performanceG $ut
for high altitude or !acuum use the tan,age mass can $e accepta$le.
Bi0uid propellant roc,ets can $e throttled in realtime# and ha!e good control of mi-ture
ratioG they can also $e shut do"n# and# "ith a suita$le ignition system or self)igniting propellant#
restarted.
A li0uid roc,et engine %BRE& can $e tested prior to use# "hereas for a solid roc,et motor a
rigorous 0uality management must $e applied during manufacturing to insure high relia$ility.
C@D
A BRE can $e reused for se!eral flights# li,e in the 'pace 'huttle.
Disadvantages of li&uid propulsion
Because the propellant is a !ery large proportion of the mass of the !ehicle# the center of
mass shifts significantly rear"ard as the propellant is usedG one "ill typically lose control of the
!ehicle if its center mass gets too close to the center of drag.
/hen operated "ithin an atmosphere# pressuri*ation of the typically !ery thin)"alled
propellant tan,s must guarantee positi!e gauge pressure at all times to a!oid catastrophic
collapse of the tan,.
Bi0uid propellants are su$+ect to slosh# "hich has fre0uently led to loss of control of the
!ehicle. This can $e controlled "ith slosh $affles in the tan,s as "ell as +udicious control la"s in
the guidance system.
Bi0uid propellants often need ullage motors in *ero)gra!ity or during staging to a!oid
suc,ing gas into engines at start up. They are also su$+ect to !orte-ing "ithin the tan,#
particularly to"ards the end of the $urn# "hich can also result in gas $eing suc,ed into the
engine or pump.
Bi0uid propellants can lea,# especially hydrogen# possi$ly leading to the formation of an
e-plosi!e mi-ture.
Tur$opumps to pump li0uid propellants are comple- to design# and can suffer serious failure
modes# such as o!erspeeding if they run dry or shedding fragments at high speed if metal
particles from the manufacturing process enter the pump.
Cryogenic propellants# such as li0uid o-ygen# free*es atmospheric "ater !apour into !ery
hard crystals. This can damage or $loc, seals and !al!es and can cause lea,s and other failures.
A!oiding this pro$lem often re0uires lengthy chilldo"n procedures "hich attempt to remo!e as
much of the !apour from the system as possi$le. Ice can also form on the outside of the tan,#
and later fall and damage the !ehicle. E-ternal foam insulation can cause issues as sho"n $y
the 'pace 'huttle Colum$ia disaster. Non)cryogenic propellants do not cause such pro$lems.
Non)stora$le li0uid roc,ets re0uire considera$le preparation immediately $efore launch.
This ma,es them less practical than solid roc,etsfor most "eapon systems.
o !r$ogenic
A cryogenic roc,et engine is a roc,et engine that uses a cryogenic fuel or o-idi*er# that is# its fuel or
o-idi*er %or $oth& are gases li0uefied and stored at !ery lo" temperatures.
C1D
Nota$ly# these engines
"ere one of the main factors of the ultimate success in reaching the (oon $y the 'aturn < roc,et.
C1D
During /orld /ar II# "hen po"erful roc,et engines "ere first considered $y the =erman# American
and 'o!iet engineers independently# all disco!ered that roc,et engines need high mass flo" rate of
$oth o-idi*er and fuel to generate a sufficient thrust. At that time o-ygen and lo" molecular "eight
hydrocar$ons "ere used as o-idi*er and fuel pair. At room temperature and pressure# $oth are in
gaseous state. Aypothetically# if propellants had $een stored as pressuri*ed gases# the si*e and mass
of fuel tan,s themsel!es "ould se!erely decrease roc,et efficiency. Therefore# to get the re0uired
mass flo" rate# the only option "as to cool the propellants do"n to cryogenic temperatures %$elo"
J1@4 KC# J23L K:&# con!erting them to li0uid form. Aence# all cryogenic roc,et engines are also# $y
definition# either li0uid)propellant roc,et engines or hy$rid roc,et engines.
C2D
<arious cryogenic fuel)o-idi*er com$inations ha!e $een tried# $ut the com$ination of li0uid
hydrogen %BA2& fuel and the li0uid o-ygen %BOM& o-idi*er is one of the most "idely used.
C1DC3D
Both
components are easily and cheaply a!aila$le# and "hen $urned ha!e one of the
highest entropy releases $y com$ustion#
C9D
producingspecific impulse up to 9@4 s %effecti!e e-haust
!elocity 9.9 ,m?s&.
!onstruction
The ma+or components of a cryogenic roc,et engine are the com$ustion cham$er%thrust
cham$er&# pyrotechnic igniter# fuel in+ector# fuel cryopumps# o-idi*er cryopumps# gas tur$ine# cryo
!al!es# regulators# the fuel tan,s# and roc,et engine no**le. In terms of feeding propellants to
com$ustion cham$er# cryogenic roc,et engines %or# generally# all li0uid)propellant engines& "or, in
either an e-pander cycle# a gas)generator cycle# a staged com$ustion cycle# or the simplest pressure)
fed cycle.
The cryopumps are al"ays tur$opumps po"ered $y a flo" of fuel through gas tur$ines. Boo,ing at
this aspect# engines can $e differentiated into a main flo" or a $ypass flo" configuration. In the
main flo" design# all the pumped fuel is fed through the gas tur$ines# and in the end in+ected to the
com$ustion cham$er. In the $ypass configuration# the fuel flo" is splitG the main part goes directly
to the com$ustion cham$er to generate thrust# "hile only a small amount of the fuel goes to the
tur$ine.
o #$pergolic
A roc,et propellant com$ination used in a roc,et engine is called hypergolic "hen the propellants
spontaneously ignite "hen they come into contact. 'trictly spea,ing it is the com$ination that is
hypergolic# $ut in less precise usage the indi!idual propellants are also referred to as hypergolic.
Ccitation neededD
The t"o propellant components usually consist of a fuel and an o-idi*er. Although
hypergolic propellants tend to $e difficult to handle $ecause of their
e-treme to-icity and?or corrosi!eness# a hypergolic engine is relati!ely easy to ignite relia$ly.
In common usage# the terms EhypergolE or Ehypergolic propellantE are often used to mean the most
common such propellant com$ination#hydra*ine plus dinitrogen tetro-ide# or their relati!es.
Advantages
Aypergolic roc,ets do not need an ignition system# so they tend to $e inherently simple and relia$le.
/hile the larger hypergolic engines used in some launch !ehicles use tur$opumps# most hypergolic
engines are pressure fed. A gas# usually helium# is fed to the propellant tan,s under pressure through
a series of chec, and safety !al!es. In turn# the propellants flo" through control !al!es into the
com$ustion cham$er. They ignite instantly on contact# "ithout any ris, that a mi-ture of unreacted
propellants might $uild up and ignite in a potentially catastrophic hard start.
The most common hypergolic fuels# hydra*ine# monomethylhydra*ine and unsymmetrical
dimethylhydra*ine# and o-idi*er# nitrogen tetro-ide# are all li0uid at ordinary temperatures and
pressures. Thus they are sometimes referred to as stora$le li0uid propellants. They are suita$le for
use in spacecraft missions lasting for years. In contrast# li0uid hydrogen and li0uid o-ygen are
$oth cryogens "hose practical use is limited to space launch !ehicles "here they need $e stored for
only a short time.
Because hypergolic roc,ets do not need an ignition system# they can $e fired any num$er of times
$y simply opening and closing the propellant !al!es until the propellants are e-hausted. This ma,es
them uni0uely suited for spacecraft maneu!ering. They are also "ell suited# though not uni0uely so#
as upper stages of space launchers such as the Delta II and Ariane @ that must perform more than
one $urn. Restarta$le cryogenic %o-ygen?hydrogen& roc,et engines do e-ist# nota$ly the RB)14 on
the Centaur and the >)2 on the 'aturn <.
Use in I!'Ms
The earliest $allistic missiles# such as the 'o!iet R)6 that launched 'putni, 1 and the
U' Atlas and Titan)1# used ,erosene and li0uid o-ygen. The difficulties of storing a cryogen li,e
li0uid o-ygen in a missile that had to $e ,ept launch ready for months or years at a time led to a
s"itch to hypergolic propellants in the U' Titan II and in most 'o!iet ICB(s such as the R)37.
But the difficulties of such corrosi!e and to-ic materials# including lea,s and e-plosions in Titan)II
silos# led to their near uni!ersal replacement "ith solid)fuel $oosters# first in /estern su$marine)
launched $allistic missiles and then in land)$ased U' and 'o!iet ICB(s
!o""on h$pergolic co"bination
Aero*ine @4 %a hydra*ine and unsymmetrical dimethylhydra*ine %UD(A& mi-& N nitrogen
tetro-ide ) "idely used in historical American roc,ets# including the Titan 2G all engines in
the Apollo Bunar (oduleG and the 'er!ice ropulsion 'ystem in the Apollo 'er!ice (odule
Unsymmetrical dimethylhydra*ine %UD(A& N nitrogen tetro-ide ) fre0uently used $y the
Russians# such as in the roton roc,et and supplied $y them to :rance for the Ariane 1 first and
second stages %replaced "ith UA 2@&G I'RO 'B< second stage
Ccitation neededD
UA 2@ N nitrogen tetro-ide ) large engines. Ariane 1 through Ariane 9 first and second
stages
Ccitation neededD
(onomethylhydra*ine %((A& N nitrogen tetro-ide ) smaller engines and reaction control
thrusters.
Ccitation neededD
Apollo Command (odulereaction control systemG 'pace 'huttle O(' and
RC'G
C3D
Ariane @ E'G
C9D
Draco thrusters used in 'paceM :alcon 5 second
stage andDragon spacecraft
'ipropellant
o Staged co"bustion c$cle
The staged com$ustion cycle# also called topping cycle or pre)$urner cycle# is a
thermodynamic cycle of $ipropellant roc,et engines. 'ome of the propellant is $urned in a pre)
$urner and the resulting hot gas is used to po"er the engine;s tur$ines and pumps. The e-hausted
gas is then in+ected into the main com$ustion cham$er# along "ith the rest of the propellant# and
com$ustion is completed.
The ad!antage of the staged com$ustion cycle is that all of the engine cycles; gases and heat go
through the com$ustion cham$er# and o!erall efficiency essentially suffers no pumping losses at all.
Thus this com$ustion cycle is often called ;closed cycle; since the cycle is closed as all propellant
products go through the cham$erG as opposed to open cycle "hich dumps the tur$opump dri!ing
gases# representing a fe" percent of loss.
Another !ery significant ad!antage that staged com$ustion gi!es is an a$undance of po"er "hich
permits !ery high cham$er pressures. <ery high cham$er pressures mean high e-pansion ratio
no**les can $e used# "hilst still gi!ing am$ient pressures at ta,eoff. These no**les gi!e far $etter
efficiencies at lo" altitude.
The disad!antages of this cycle are harsh tur$ine conditions# that more e-otic plum$ing is re0uired
to carry the hot gases# and that a !ery complicated feed$ac, and control design is necessary. In
particular# running the full o-idi*er stream through $oth a pre)com$ustor and main)com$ustor
cham$er %Eo-idi*er)richE staged com$ustion& produces e-tremely corrosi!e gases. Thus most
staged)com$ustion engines are fuel)rich# as in the top schematic.
'taged com$ustion engines are the most difficult types of roc,et engines to design. A simplified
!ersion is called the gas)generator cycle.
:ull flo" staged com$ustion %::'CC& is a !ariation on the staged com$ustion cycle "here all of the
fuel and all of the o-idi*er pass through their respecti!e po"er tur$ines. A small amount of fuel and
o-idi*er is s"apped and com$usted to supply po"er for the tur$ines.
The tur$ines run cooler in this design since more mass passes through them# leading to a longer
engine life and higher relia$ility. The design can pro!ide higher cham$er pressures and therefore
greater efficiency. An intropropellant tur$ine seal is also eliminated. :ull gasification of components
leads to faster chemical reactions in the com$ustion cham$er and# as compared to the partial staged
com$ustion cycle# it results in an increase ofspecific impulse up to 14)24 seconds %e.g. RD)
264 O RD)4299&.A current !ersion under de!elopment is the integrated po"erhead demonstrator.
This scheme "as applied in the Russian e-perimental RD)264 engine in the late 1574s# "hich "as
designed for se!eral 'o!iet lunar roc,ets.
o (4pander c$cle
The e-pander cycle is a po"er cycle of a $ipropellant roc,et engine meant to impro!e the efficiency
of fuel deli!ery.
In an e-pander cycle# the fuel is heated $efore it is com$usted# usually "ith "aste heat from the
main com$ustion cham$er. As the li0uid fuel passes through coolant passages in the "alls of the
com$ustion cham$er# it undergoes a phase change into a gaseous state. The fuel in the gaseous state
e-pands through a tur$ine using the pressure differential from the supply pressure to the am$ient
e-haust pressure to initiate tur$opump rotation. This can pro!ide a $ootstrap starting capa$ility as is
used on the ratt O /hitney RB14 engine. This $ootstrap po"er is used to dri!e tur$ines that dri!e
the fuel and o-idi*er pumps increasing the propellant pressures and flo"s to the roc,et engine thrust
cham$er. After lea!ing the tur$ine%s&# the fuel is then in+ected "ith the o-idi*er into the com$ustion
cham$er and $urned to produce thrust for the !ehicle.
Because of the necessary phase change# the e-pander cycle is thrust limited $y the s0uare)cu$e rule.
As the si*e of a $ell)shaped no**le increases "ith increasing thrust# the no**le surface area %from
"hich heat can $e e-tracted to e-pand the fuel& increases as the s0uare of the radius. Ao"e!er# the
!olume of fuel that must $e heated increases as the cu$e of the radius. Thus there e-ists a ma-imum
engine si*e of appro-imately 344 ,N of thrust $eyond "hich there is no longer enough no**le area
to heat enough fuel to dri!e the tur$ines and hence the fuel pumps. Aigher thrust le!els can $e
achie!ed using a $ypass e-pander cycle "here a portion of the fuel $ypasses the tur$ine and or
thrust cham$er cooling passages and goes directly to the main cham$er in+ector. Aerospi,e engines
do not suffer from the same limitations $ecause the linear shape of the engine is not su$+ect to the
s0uare)cu$e la". As the "idth of the engine increases# $oth the !olume of fuel to $e heated and the
a!aila$le thermal energy increase linearly# allo"ing ar$itrarily "ide engines to $e constructed. All
e-pander cycle engines need to use a cryogenic fuel such as hydrogen# methane# or propane that
easily reach their $oiling points.
'ome e-pander cycle engine may use a gas generator of some ,ind to start the tur$ine and run the
engine until the heat input from the thrust cham$er and no**le s,irt increases as the cham$er
pressure $uilds up.
In an open cycle# or E$leedE e-pander cycle# only some of the fuel is heated to dri!e the tur$ines#
"hich is then !ented to atmosphere to increase tur$ine efficiency. /hile this increases po"er
output# the dumped fuel leads to a decrease in propellant efficiency %lo"er engine specific impulse&.
A closed cycle e-pander engine sends the tur$ine e-haust to the com$ustion cham$er

Advantages
The e-pander cycle has a num$er of ad!antages o!er other designs.
%o- te"perature. The ad!antage is that after they ha!e turned gaseous# the fuels are
usually near room temperature# and do !ery little or no damage to the tur$ine# allo"ing the
engine to $e reusa$le. In contrast =as)generator or 'taged com$ustion engines operate their
tur$ines at high temperature.
Tolerance. During the de!elopment of the RB14 engineers "ere "orried that insulation
foam mounted on the inside of the tan, might $rea, off and damage the engine. They tested this
$y putting loose foam in a fuel tan, and running it through the engine. The RB14 che"ed it up
"ithout pro$lems or noticea$le degradation in performance. Con!entional gas)generators are in
practice miniature roc,et engines# "ith all the comple-ity that implies. Bloc,ing e!en a small
part of a gas generator can lead to a hot spot# "hich can cause !iolent loss of the engine. Using
the engine $ell as a ;gas generator; also ma,es it !ery tolerant of fuel contamination $ecause of
the "ider fuel flo" channels used.
Inherent safet$. Because a $ell)type e-pander)cycle engine is thrust limited# it can easily $e
designed to "ithstand its ma-imum thrust conditions. In other engine types# a stuc, fuel !al!e or
similar pro$lem can lead to engine thrust spiraling out of control due to unintended feed$ac,
systems. Other engine types re0uire comple- mechanical or electronic controllers to ensure this
does not happen. E-pander cycles are $y design incapa$le of malfunctioning that "ay.
'ome e-amples of an e-pander cycle engine are the ratt O /hitney RB14 and RB74
C1D
and
the <inci engine for the future Ariane @ (E
o Gas+generator c$cle
The gas generator cycle is a po"er cycle of a $ipropellant roc,et engine. 'ome of the propellant is
$urned in a gas)generator and the resulting hot gas is used to po"er the engine;s pumps. The gas is
then e-hausted. Because something is Ethro"n a"ayE this type of engine is also ,no"n as open
cycle.
There are se!eral ad!antages to the gas generator cycle o!er its counterpart# the staged com$ustion
cycle. The gas generator tur$ine does not need to deal "ith the counter pressure of in+ecting the
e-haust into the com$ustion cham$er. This allo"s the tur$ine to produce more po"er and increase
the pressure of the fuel and com$ustion cham$er# thus increasing specific impulse or efficiencyG this
also reduces "ear on the tur$ine# increasing its relia$ility# reducing its production cost and
increasing its operational life)span %particularly ad!antageous for reusa$le roc,ets&.
The main disad!antage is lost efficiency due to discarded propellant# though this efficiency loss can
$e out"eighed in production engines $y the higher cham$er pressure;s increase in net efficiency.
E!en so a gas generator cycle tends to ha!e lo"er specific impulse than a staged com$ustion cycle.
As in most cryogenic roc,et engines# some of the fuel in a gas)generator cycle is used to cool the
no**le and com$ustion cham$er. Current construction materials cannot stand e-treme temperatures
of roc,et com$ustion processes $y themsel!es. Cooling permits the use of roc,et engines for
relati!ely longer periods of time "ith todayPs material technology. /ithout roc,et com$ustion
cham$er and no**le cooling# the engine "ould fail catastrophically.
E-amples of gas)generator engines are the (erlin roc,et engine# the <ulcain engine of'necma
(oteurs used on the E'A Ariane @ roc,et# and the more recent >)2M engine to $e used on the Ares
I and Ares < roc,ets as part of NA'A;s Constellation rogram
o Pressure+fed c$cle
The pressure)fed cycle is a class of roc,et engine designs. A separate gas supply# usually helium#
pressuri*es the propellant tan,s to force fuel and o-idi*er to the com$ustion cham$er. To maintain
ade0uate flo"# the tan, pressures must e-ceed the com$ustion cham$er pressure.
ressure fed engines ha!e simple plum$ing and lac, comple- and often unrelia$le tur$opumps. A
typical startup procedure $egins "ith opening a !al!e# often a one)shot pyrotechnic de!ice# to allo"
the pressuri*ing gas to flo" through chec, !al!es into the propellant tan,s. Then the propellant
!al!es in the engine itself are opened. If the fuel and o-idi*er are hypergolic# they $urn on contactG
non)hypergolic fuels re0uire an igniter. (ultiple $urns can $e conducted $y merely opening and
closing the propellant !al!es as needed. They can $e operated electrically# or $y gas pressure
controlled $y smaller electrically operated !al!es.
Care must $e ta,en# especially during long $urns# to a!oid e-cessi!e cooling of the pressuri*ing gas
due to adia$atic e-pansion. Cold helium "on;t li0uify# $ut it could free*e a propellant# decrease tan,
pressures# or damage components not designed for lo" temperatures. The Apollo Bunar
(odule descent propulsion system "as unusual in storing its helium in a supercritical $ut !ery cold
state. It "as "armed as it "as "ithdra"n through a heat e-changer from the am$ient temperature
fuel.
'pacecraft attitude control and or$ital maneu!ering thrusters are almost uni!ersally pressure)fed
designs. E-amples include the Reaction Control %RC'& and Or$ital (aneu!ering %O('& engines of
the 'pace 'huttle or$iterG the RC' and 'er!ice ropulsion 'ystem %''& engines on the Apollo
Command?'er!ice (oduleG and the RC'# ascent and descent engines on the Apollo Bunar (odule.
'ome upper launcher stages also use pressure)fed engines. These include the A>)14 second stage of
the Delta II launch !ehicle# the Agenaand the Iestrel engine of the :alcon)1 $y 'pace)M.
The 1574s 'ea Dragon concept for a $ig dum$ $ooster "ould ha!e used pressure)fed engines.
ressure)fed engines ha!e practical limits on propellant pressure# "hich in turn limits com$ustion
cham$er pressure. Aigh pressure propellant tan,s re0uire thic,er "alls and stronger alloys "hich
ma,e the !ehicle tan,s hea!ier. There$y reducing performance and payload capacity. The lo"er
stages of launch !ehicles often use solid fuel and pump)fed li0uid fuel engines instead# "here high
pressure ratio no**les are considered desira$le.
Tripropellant
A tripropellant roc,et is a roc,et that uses three propellants# as opposed to the more
common $ipropellant roc,et or monopropellant roc,etdesigns# "hich use t"o or one fuels#
respecti!ely. Tripropellant roc,ets appear to offer fairly impressi!e gains for single stage to
or$it designs# although to date no tripropellant roc,et design has $een de!eloped to the point of
testing that "ould pro!e the concept.
There are t"o principally different ,inds of tripropellant roc,ets. One is a roc,et engine "hich
mi-es three separate streams of propellants. :or e-ample# a mi-ture of lithium# hydrogen# and
fluorine produced a specific impulse of @97 secondsG the highest e!er of any chemical roc,et motor.
The other ,ind of tripropellant roc,et is one that uses one o-idi*er $ut t"o fuels# s"itching $et"een
the t"o in mid)flight. In this "ay the motor can com$ine the high thrust)to)mass of a dense fuel
li,e ,erosene early in flight "ith the high specific impulse of a lighter fuel li,e li0uid
hydrogen %BA2& later in flight. The result is a single engine pro!iding some of the $enefits
of staging.
(lectric thruster
An electrically po"ered spacecraft propulsion system is any of a num$er of forms of electric
motors "hich spacecraft can employ to gain mechanical energy in outer space. (ost of these ,inds
of spacecraft propulsion "or, $y electrically po"ering propellant to high speed# $ut electrodynamic
tethers "or, $y interacting "ith a planet;s magnetosphere.
Electric thrusters typically offer much higher specific impulse# ho"e!er# due to practical po"er
source constraints thrust is "ea,er compared to chemical thrusters $y se!eral orders of
magnitude. Russian satellites ha!e used electric propulsion for decades# and ne"er /estern geo)
or$iting spacecraft are starting to use them for north)south station,eeping.
(lectrostatic
If the acceleration is caused mainly $y the Coulom$ :orce %i.e application of a static electric field in
the direction of the acceleration& the de!ice is considered electrostatic.
o !olloid thruster
A colloid thruster is a type of thruster "hich uses electrostatic acceleration of charged li0uid
droplets for propulsion. It is closely related to electrospray ioni*ationand other hydrodynamic
spraying processes. In a colloid thruster charged li0uid droplets are produced $y
an electrospray process and then accelerated $y a static electric field. The li0uid used for this
application tends to $e a lo" !olatility ionic li0uid. Bi,e other ion thrusters its $enefits include high
efficiency# thrust density# and specific impulseG ho"e!er it has !ery lo" total thrust# on the order
of microne"tons. Its primary utility is in !ery efficient fine control or efficient primary acceleration
of small spacecraft o!er long periods of time
o Ion thruster
An ion thruster is a form of electric propulsion used for spacecraft propulsion that creates thrust $y
accelerating ions. Ion thrusters are categori*ed $y ho" they accelerate the ions# using either
electrostatic or electromagnetic force. Electrostatic ion thrusters use the Coulom$ force and
accelerate the ions in the direction of the electric field. Electromagnetic ion thrusters use
the Borent* force to accelerate the ions. The term Eion thrusterE $y itself usually denotes the
electrostatic or gridded ion thrusters.
The thrust created in ion thrusters is !ery small compared to con!entional chemical roc,ets# $ut a
!ery high specific impulse# or propellant efficiency# is o$tained. This high propellant efficiency is
achie!ed through the !ery frugal propellant consumption of the ion thruster propulsion system.
They do# ho"e!er# use a large amount of po"er. =i!en the practical "eight of suita$le po"er
sources# the accelerations gi!en $y these types of thrusters is of the order of one thousandth
of standard gra!ity.
Due to their relati!ely high po"er needs# gi!en the specific po"er of po"er supplies# and the
re0uirement of an en!ironment !oid of other ioni*ed particles# ion thrust propulsion is currently
only practical $eyond planetary atmosphere %in space&.
Ion thrusters use $eams of ions %electrically charged atoms or molecules& to create thrust in
accordance "ith momentum conser!ation. The method of accelerating the ions !aries# $ut all
designs ta,e ad!antage of the charge?mass ratio of the ions. This ratio means that relati!ely small
potential differences can create !ery high e-haust !elocities. This reduces the amount of reaction
mass or fuel re0uired# $ut increases the amount of specific po"er re0uired compared to chemical
roc,ets. Ion thrusters are therefore a$le to achie!e e-tremely high specific impulses. The dra"$ac,
of the lo" thrust is lo" spacecraft acceleration $ecause the mass of current electric po"er units is
directly correlated "ith the amount of po"er gi!en. This lo" thrust ma,es ion thrusters unsuited for
launching spacecraft into or$it# $ut they are ideal for in)space propulsion applications.
<arious ion thrusters ha!e $een designed and they all generally fit under t"o categories. The
thrusters are categori*ed as either electrostaticor electromagnetic. The main difference is ho" the
ions are accelerated.
Electrostatic ion thrusters use the Coulom$ force and are categori*ed as accelerating the ions
in the direction of the electric field.
Electromagnetic ion thrusters use the Borent* force to accelerate the ions
1. (lectrostatic ion thruster
ropellant atoms are in+ected into the discharge cham$er and get ioni*ed $y electron $om$ardment
forming a plasma. There are se!eral "ays of producing the energetic electrons for the discharge. %1&
The electrons are emitted from a hollo" cathode and are accelerated on their "ay to the anode
%Iaufman type ion thruster&. %2& The electrons can $e accelerated $y the oscillating electric field
induced $y an alternating magnetic field of a coil# "hich results in a self)sustaining discharge and
omits any cathode %radiofre0uency ion thruster&. %3& (icro"a!e heating
The positi!ely charged ions mo!e to"ards the e-traction system %2 or 3 multi)aperture grids& of the
cham$er due to diffusion. Once ions enter the plasma sheath at a grid hole they "ill $e accelerated
$y the potential difference $et"een the first %screen& and the second %accelerator& grid of the
e-traction system. The ions are ion)optically focused $y the rather large electric field to pass
through the e-traction holes. The final ion energy is determined $y the potential of the plasma %the
plasma potential is a fe" !olts larger than the screen grid !oltage&.
The negati!e !oltage of the accelerator grid pre!ents electrons of the $eam plasma outside the
thruster from streaming $ac, to the discharge plasma. Electron $ac,streaming occurs if the potential
"ithin the grid is not sufficiently negati!e# this can mar, the end)of)life of the ion thruster. By
increasing the negati!e !oltage electron $ac,streaming can $e a!oided.
The e-pelled ions propel the spacecraft in the opposite direction according to Ne"ton;s 3rd la".
Electrons are emitted from a separate cathode placed near the ion $eam# called the neutrali*er#
to"ards the ion $eam to ensure that e0ual amounts of positi!e and negati!e charge are e+ected.
Neutrali*ing is needed to pre!ent the spacecraft from gaining a net negati!e charge.
2. #all effect thruster
In spacecraft propulsion# a Aall thruster is a type of ion thruster in "hich the propellant is
accelerated $y an electric field. Aall thrusters trap electrons in a magnetic field and then use the
electrons to ioni*e propellant# efficiently accelerate the ions to produce thrust# and neutrali*e the
ions in the plume. Aall thrusters are sometimes referred to as Aall Effect Thrusters or Aall Current
Thrusters. Aall thrusters operate on a !ariety of propellants# the most common $eing -enon. Other
propellants of interest include ,rypton# argon# $ismuth# magnesium# and *inc.
Aall thrusters are a$le to accelerate their e-haust to speeds $et"een 14QL4 ,m?s %1444)L444
sspecific impulse&# "ith most models operating $et"een 1@Q34 ,m?s %1@44)3444 s specific
impulse&. The thrust produced $y a Aall thruster !aries depending on the po"er le!el. De!ices
operating at 1.3@ ,/ produce a$out L3 mN of thrust. Aigh po"er models ha!e demonstrated up to 3
N in the la$oratory. o"er le!els up to 144 ,/ ha!e $een demonstrated $y -enon Aall thrusters.
Aall effect thrusters accelerate ions "ith the use of an electric potential maintained $et"een a
cylindrical anode and a negati!ely charged plasma "hich forms the cathode. The $ul, of the
propellant %typically -enon gas& is introduced near the anode# "here it $ecomes ioni*ed# and the
ions are attracted to"ards the cathode# they accelerate to"ards and through it# pic,ing up electrons
as they lea!e to neutrali*e the $eam and lea!e the thruster at high !elocity.
The anode is at one end of a cylindrical tu$e# and in the center is a spi,e "hich is "ound to produce
a radial magnetic field $et"een it and the surrounding tu$e. The ions are largely unaffected $y the
magnetic field# since they are too massi!e. Ao"e!er# the electrons produced near the end of the
spi,e to create the cathode are far more affected and are trapped $y the magnetic field# and held in
place $y their attraction to the anode. 'ome of the electrons spiral do"n to"ards the anode#
circulating around the spi,e in a Aall current. /hen they reach the anode they impact the uncharged
propellant and cause it to $e ioni*ed# $efore finally reaching the anode and closing the circuit.
3. /ield ("ission (lectric Propulsion
:ield Emission Electric ropulsion %:EE& is an ad!anced electrostatic propulsion concept# a form
of ion thruster# that uses li0uid metal%usually either caesium or indium& as a propellant. A :EE
de!ice consists of an emitter and an accelerator electrode. A potential difference of the order of 14
,< is applied $et"een the t"o# "hich generates a strong electric field at the tip of the metal surface.
The interplay of electric force and surface tension generates surface insta$ilities "hich gi!e rise
to Taylor cones on the li0uid surface. At sufficiently high !alues of the applied field# ions are
e-tracted from the cone tip $y field e!aporation or similar mechanisms# "hich then are accelerated
to high !elocities %typically 144 ,m?s or more&. A separate electron source is re0uired to ,eep the
spacecraft electrically neutral.
Due to its !ery lo" thrust %in the microne"ton to milline"ton range&# :EEs are primarily used for
microradian# microne"ton attitude controlon spacecraft# such as in the E'A?NA'A BI'A
athfinder scientific spacecraft.
(lectro"agnetic
o Pulsed inductive thruster
ulsed inducti!e thrusters %or ITs& are a form of ion thruster# used in spacecraft propulsion. A IT
uses perpendicular electric andmagnetic fields to accelerate a propellant. A no**le releases a puff of
gas %usually ammonia or argon& "hich spreads across a flat induction coil of "ire a$out 1 meter
across. A $an, of capacitors releases a pulse of electric current lasting 14 microseconds into the
coil# generating a radial magnetic field. This induces a circular electrical field in the gas# ioni*ing it
and causing the ions to re!ol!e in the opposite direction as the original pulse of current. Because
their motion is perpendicular to the magnetic field# the ions are accelerated out into space.
Unli,e an electrostatic ion thruster# IT re0uires no electrodes %"hich are suscepti$le to erosion&
and its po"er can $e scaled up simply $y increasing the num$er of pulses per second. A 1)
mega"att system "ould pulse 244 times per second
o Magnetoplas"ad$na"ic thruster
The (agnetoplasmadynamic %(D& thruster %(DT& is a form of electrically po"ered spacecraft
propulsion "hich uses the Borent* force %a force resulting from the interaction $et"een a magnetic
field and an electric current& to generate thrust. It is sometimes referred to as Borent* :orce
Accelerator %B:A& or %mostly in >apan& (D arc+et.
=enerally# a gaseous fuel is ioni*ed and fed into an acceleration cham$er# "here the magnetic and
electrical fields are created using a po"er source. The particles are then propelled $y the Borent*
force resulting from the interaction $et"een the current flo"ing through the plasma and the
magnetic field %"hich is either e-ternally applied# or induced $y the current& out through the
e-haust cham$er. Unli,e chemical propulsion# there is no com$ustion of fuel. As "ith other electric
propulsion !ariations# $oth specific impulse and thrust increase "ith po"er input# "hile thrust per
"att drops.
There are t"o main types of (D thrusters# applied)field and self)field. Applied)field thrusters ha!e
magnetic rings surrounding the e-haust cham$er to produce the magnetic field# "hile self)field
thrusters ha!e a cathode e-tending through the middle of the cham$er. Applied fields are necessary
at lo"er po"er le!els# "here self)field configurations are too "ea,. <arious propellants such
as -enon# neon# argon# hydra*ine# and lithium ha!e $een used# "ith lithium generally $eing the $est
performer.
Advantages
In theory# (D thrusters could produce e-tremely high specific impulses %Isp& "ith an e-haust
!elocity of up to and $eyond 114#444 m?s# triple the !alue of current -enon)$ased ion thrusters# and
a$out 24 times $etter than li0uid roc,ets. (D technology also has the potential for thrust le!els of
up to 244 ne"tons %N& %9@ l$f&# $y far the highest for any form of electric propulsion# and nearly as
high as many interplanetary chemical roc,ets. This "ould allo" use of electric propulsion on
missions "hich re0uire 0uic, delta)! maneu!ers %such as capturing into or$it around another
planet&# $ut "ith many times greater fuel efficiency.
ro$lems "ith (DT
(D thruster technology has $een e-plored academically# $ut commercial interest has $een lo" due
to se!eral remaining pro$lems. One $ig pro$lem is that po"er re0uirements on the order of
hundreds of ,ilo"atts are re0uired for optimum performance. Current interplanetary spacecraft
po"er systems %such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators %RT=s&& and solar arrays are
incapa$le of producing that much po"er. NA'A;s ro+ect rometheus reactor "as e-pected to
generate po"er in the hundreds of ,ilo"atts range $ut "as discontinued in 244@.
Other pro$lem "ith (D technology has $een the degradation of cathodes due to e!aporation
dri!en $y high current densities %in e-cess of 144 amps?cmR2&. The use of lithium and $arium
propellant mi-tures and multi)channel hollo" cathodes has $een sho"n in the la$oratory to $e a
promising solution for the cathode erosion pro$lem
o (lectrodeless plas"a thruster
Electrodeless plasma thrusters ha!e t"o uni0ue features. the remo!al of the anode and cathode
electrodes and the a$ility to throttle the engine. The remo!al of the electrodes ta,es a"ay the factor
of erosion "hich limits lifetime on other ion engines. Neutral gas is first ioni*ed $y electromagnetic
"a!es and then transferred to another cham$er "here it is accelerated $y an oscillating electric and
magnetic field# also ,no"n as the ponderomoti!e force. This separation of the ioni*ation and
acceleration stage gi!e the engine the a$ility to throttle the speed of propellant flo"# "hich then
changes the thrust magnitude and specific impulse !alues.
,perating principle
1. ropellant is in+ected at the upstream side of the thruster $ody. In cases "here the propellant
used is not gaseous %e.g. al,ali metals& at the local temperature# the propellant must $e
!apori*ed.
2. =aseous propellant is ioni*ed $y one of the follo"ing methods.
$om$arding the propellant "ith electrons emitted $y a hot cathode or $y
an electron gun.
a steady state electrical discharge $et"een t"o electrodes.
applying an alternating electric field either !ia a capaciti!e discharge or
an inducti!e discharge or e!en a helicon discharge.
electromagnetic "a!es of !arious fre0uency from radio fre0uency up
to gamma rays# "hich is especially useful for solid propellant in "hich case the
propellant can $e simultaneously !apori*ed and ioni*ed $y a laser impulse.
3. As the ioni*ation stage is su$+ected to a steady magnetic field# the ioni*ation process can
le!erage this situation $y using one of the numerous resonances e-isting in magneti*ed
plasma# such as ion cyclotron resonance %ICR& # electron cyclotron resonance %ECR&
orlo"er hy$rid oscillation# to produce a high density cold plasma.
9. The cold and dense plasma# produced $y the ioni*ation stage# then drifts to"ard the
acceleration stage $y diffusion across a region of higher magnetic field intensity.
@. In the acceleration stage the propellant plasma is accelerated $y magneti*ed ponderomoti!e
force in an area "here $oth non)uniform static magnetic fields and non)uniform high)
fre0uency electromagnetic fields are applied simultaneously.
Advantages
ropulsion systems $ased on electrodeless plasma thrusters seem ideally suited for or$it raising for
large geostationary satellites# and "ould also $e a$le to perform or$ital station,eeping# hence
ena$ling important propellant mass sa!ings. The a$ility of this technology to pro!ide large thrust
density also allo"s faster missions to the outer planets.
Applications
ropulsion systems $ased on electrodeless plasma thrusters seem ideally suited for or$it raising for
large geostationary satellites# and "ould also $e a$le to perform or$ital station,eeping# hence
ena$ling important propellant mass sa!ings. The a$ility of this technology to pro!ide large thrust
density also allo"s faster missions to the outer planets.
o VASIM)
The <aria$le 'pecific Impulse (agnetoplasma Roc,et %<A'I(R& is an electro)magnetic thruster
for spacecraft propulsion. It uses radio "a!es to ioni*e and heat apropellant and magnetic fields to
accelerate the resulting plasma to generate thrust. It is one of se!eral types of spacecraft electric
propulsion systems.
The method of heating plasma used in <A'I(R "as originally de!eloped as a result of research
into nuclear fusion. <A'I(R is intended to $ridge the gap $et"een high)thrust# lo")specific
impulse propulsion systems and lo")thrust# high)specific impulse systems. <A'I(R is capa$le of
functioning in either mode. Costa Rican scientist and former astronaut :ran,lin Chang)Dia* created
the <A'I(R concept and has $een "or,ing on its de!elopment since 1566.
Design and operation
The <aria$le 'pecific Impulse (agnetoplasma Roc,et# sometimes referred to as the Electro)thermal
lasma Thruster or Electro)thermal (agnetoplasma Roc,et# uses radio "a!esto ioni*e and heat
propellant and magnetic fields# accelerating the resulting plasma "hich generates thrust. This type
of engine is electrodeless and as such $elongs to the same electric propulsion family %"hile
differing in the method of plasma acceleration& as the electrodeless plasma thruster# the micro"a!e
arc+et# or the pulsed inducti!e thruster class. It can also $e seen as an electrodeless !ersion of
an arc+et# a$le to reach higher propellant temperature $y limiting the heat flu- from the plasma to
the structure. Neither type of engine has any electrodes. The main ad!antage of such designs is
elimination of pro$lems "ith electrode erosion that cause ri!al designs of ion thrusters "hich use
electrodes to ha!e a short life e-pectancy. :urthermore# since e!ery part of a <A'I(R engine
is magnetically shielded and does not come into direct contact "ith plasma# the potential dura$ility
of this engine design is greater than other ion?plasma engine designs.
The engine design encompasses three parts. turning gas into plasma !ia helicon R: antennasG
energi*ing plasma !ia further R: heating in an ion cyclotron resonance fre0uency %ICR:& $oosterG
and using electromagnets to create a magnetic no**le to con!ert the plasma;s $uilt)up thermal
energy into ,inetic force. By !arying the amount of energy dedicated to R: heating and the amount
of propellant deli!ered for plasma generation <A'I(R is capa$le of either generating lo")thrust#
high)specific impulse e-haust or relati!ely high)thrust# lo")specific impulse e-haust
Benefits and dra"$ac,s of design
In contrast "ith usual cyclotron resonance heating processes# in <A'I(R# ions are immediately
e+ected through the magnetic no**le $efore they ha!e time to achie!e thermali*ed distri$ution.
Based on no!el theoretical "or, in 2449 $y Arefie! and Brei*man of UT)Austin# !irtually all of the
energy in the ion cyclotron "a!e is uniformly transferred to ioni*ed plasma in a single)pass
cyclotron a$sorption process. This allo"s for ions to lea!e the magnetic no**le "ith a !ery narro"
energy distri$ution and for significantly simplified and compact magnet arrangement in the engine.
C3D
<A'I(R does not use electrodes and magnetically shields plasma from all the hard"are parts# thus
eliminating electrode erosion# a ma+or source of "ear and tear in ion engines. Compared to
traditional roc,et engines "ith !ery comple- plum$ing# high performance !al!es# actuators and
tur$opumps# <A'I(R eliminates practically all mo!ing parts from its design %apart from minor
ones li,e gas !al!es&# ma-imi*ing its long term dura$ility.
Ao"e!er# some ne" pro$lems emerge li,e interaction "ith strong magnetic fields and thermal
management. The relati!ely large po"er at "hich <A'I(R operates generates a lot of "aste heat
"hich needs to $e channeled a"ay "ithout creating thermal o!erload and undue thermal stress on
materials used. o"erful superconducting electromagnets# employed to contain hot plasma#
generate tesla)range magnetic fields.
C9D
They can present pro$lems "ith other on $oard de!ices and
also can ad!ersely interact "ith Earth magnetosphere. To counter this latter effect the <:)244 "ill
consist of t"o 144 ,/ thruster units pac,aged together "ith the magnetic field of each thruster
oriented in opposite directions in order to ma,e a *ero)tor0ue magnetic 0uadrapole.
(lectrother"al
o Pulsed plas"a thruster
ulsed plasma thrusters are a method of spacecraft propulsion also ,no"n as lasma >et Engines in
general. They use an arc of electric current ad+acent to a solid propellant# to produce a 0uic, and
repeata$le $urst of impulse. Ts are e-cellent for attitude control# and for main propulsion on
particularly small spacecraft "ith a surplus of electricity %those in the hundred),ilogram or less
category&. Ao"e!er they are also one of the least efficient electric propulsion systems# "ith a thrust
efficiency of less than 14H. At present they are deployed in space !ehicles and pro$es as space does
not offer any frictional force "hen compared to that on earth. The e-tremely 0uic, and repetiti!e
thrust accelerates the space pro$e continuously. Thus it e!entually reaches and goes $eyond the
speeds of con!entional propulsion systems. The electrical energy re0uired to operate the arc
mechanism is a$undantly a!aila$le $y harnessing the solar energy !ia self ad+usting solar panels on
the pro$e.
Ts ha!e much higher e-haust !elocity than chemical propulsion engines. According to
the Tsiol,o!s,y e0uation this results in proportionally higher final !elocity of propelled craft. The
principle of operation is the electromagnetic acceleration of propellant !ia the Borent* force to
!elocities of the order of tens of ,m?s ) "hich is much higher than the thermal !elocity of chemical
engines. Chemical propulsion engines# "ith their limited rate of chemical reaction e-haust !elocity
%"hich is in the range of 2)9.@ ,m?s&# $ecome e-ponentially ineffecti!e %see Tsiol,o!s,y e0uation&
to achie!e high interplanetary speeds %in the 24)64 ,m?s range# "ithin the 'olar 'ystem&.
ulsed plasma thrusters "ere the first electric thrusters to $e deployed in space# used for attitude
control on the 'o!iet pro$es Sond 2# from par,ing at Earth or$it to (ars on No!em$er 34# 1579#
and Sond 3 in 157@. The acti!e gases used in the 'o!iet plasma propulsion engines
"ere argon and helium. 'o!iet engineers su$se0uently returned to the use of high)pressure nitrogen
+ets.
ulsed plasma thrusters "ere flo"n in No!em$er# 2444 as a flight e-periment on the Earth
O$ser!ing)1 spacecraft. The thrusters successfully demonstrated the a$ility to perform roll control
on the spacecraft and also demonstrated that the electromagnetic interference from the pulsed
plasma did not affect other spacecraft systems. These e-periments used Teflon as the propellant.
o #elicon double+la$er thruster
A Aelicon Dou$le Bayer thruster %ADBT& is a type of plasma thruster# "hich e+ects high
!elocity ioni*ed gas to pro!ide thrust to a spacecraft. In this thruster design# gas is in+ected into a
tu$ular cham$er %the source tu$e& "ith one open end. Radio fre0uency AC po"er %at 13.@7 (A* in
the prototype design& is coupled into a specially shaped antenna "rapped around the cham$er.
The electromagnetic "a!e emitted $y the antenna causes the gas to $rea, do"n and form a plasma.
The antenna then e-cites a helicon "a!e in the plasma# "hich further heats the plasma. The de!ice
has a roughly constant magnetic field in the source tu$e %supplied $y 'olenoids in the prototype&#
$ut the magnetic field di!erges and rapidly decreases in magnitude a"ay from the source region#
and might $e thought of as a ,ind of magnetic no**le. In operation# there is a sharp $oundary
$et"een the high density plasma inside the source region# and the lo" density plasma in the
e-haust# "hich is associated "ith a sharp change in electrical potential. The plasma properties
change rapidly across this $oundary# "hich is ,no"n as a current)free electric dou$le layer. The
electrical potential is much higher inside the source region than in the e-haust# and this ser!es $oth
to confine most of the electrons# and to accelerate the ions a"ay from the source region. Enough
electrons escape the source region to ensure that the plasma in the e-haust is neutral o!erall.
The Aelicon Dou$le Bayer Thruster has t"o main ad!antages o!er most other ion thruster designsG
first# it creates an accelerating electric field "ithout inserting unrelia$le components li,e high
!oltage grids into the plasma %the only plasma facing component is the ro$ust plasma !essel&.
'econdly# a neutrali*er isn;t needed# since there are e0ual num$ers of electrons and %singly)charged&
positi!e ions emitted. Ao"e!er# as of April 2445 the thrust produced $y a ADBT has yet to $e
measured.
o Arcet
Arc+ets are a form of electric propulsion for spacecraft# "here$y an electrical discharge %arc& is
created in a flo" of propellant %typicallyhydra*ine or ammonia&. This imparts additional energy to
the propellant# so that one can e-tract more "or, out of each ,ilogram of propellant# at the e-pense
of increased po"er consumption and %usually& higher cost. Also# the thrust le!els a!aila$le from
typically used arc+et engines are !ery lo" compared "ith chemical engines./hen the energy is
a!aila$le# arc+ets are "ell suited to station ,eeping in or$it and can replace monopropellant
roc,ets.In =ermany# researchers at the Uni!ersity of 'tuttgart;s Institute of 'pace A!iation 'ystems
ha!e $een loo,ing into these challenges for years and ha!e de!eloped !arious hydrogen)po"ered
arc+et engines capa$le of po"er outputs from 1 to 144 ,/. The heated hydrogen reaches e-it speeds
of +ust under 14 miles per second %17 ,m?s&. In 2445# an arc+et)propelled test satellite $y the name
of Baden)/Trttem$erg 1 %B/1& is scheduled to go to the moon.
,ther
o Magbea"
(agBeam is the name gi!en to an ion propulsion system for space tra!el initially proposed $y
rofessor Ro$ert /inglee of the Earth and 'pace 'ciences Department at the Uni!ersity of
/ashington for the Octo$er 2449 meeting of the NIAC.
C1D
(agBeam is different from a
traditional electrostatic ion thruster in se!eral "ays# the primary one $eing that instead of the fuel
and propulsion system $eing part of the payload craft# they are instead located on a platform held
in or$it
Propulsion s$ste"
(agBeam propulsion uses a helicon plasma source to produce a plasma $eam. A helicon dri!e
consists of a 0uart* tu$e "rapped in a radio antenna# into "hich a gas such as argon or -enon is
in+ected. R: currents pass through the antenna creating a rapid !ariation of the electric field#
ioni*ing the gas. The ioni*ed gas is accelerated $y a magnetic field to produce thrust. The helicon
dri!e produces a tight $eam of ions as the magnetic field that accelerates them continuously
e-pands "ith the plasma $eam ,eeping them focused. This ion $eam is used to push a payload
"hich is e0uipped "ith a small amount of gas for propellant such as argon or -enon# a po"er source
and a set of electromagnets to produce a mini)magnetosphere magnetic sail. The gas propellant is
e+ected into the plasma $eam $eing directed at the craft "hich heats and ioni*es it.
The electromagnets repel this ioni*ed gas imparting thrust upon the payload. This results in an
acceleration of around 1 ms
)2
# much faster than traditional ion propulsion systems. This amount of
acceleration "ould ma,e it possi$le to ma,e a trip to (ars in as little as @4 days# reaching speeds as
high as 24 ,m?s. The deceleration is accomplished $y ha!ing another platform at the other end of
the +ourney directing a plasma $eam at the payload. By eliminating the mass of the propulsion
system from the payload the (agBeam system allo"s for much faster acceleration and higher top
speeds than con!entional propulsion systems mounted on the payload. One pro$lem "ith the system
is a sufficiently energy dense po"er)source# "ith a massi!e $attery $an, $eing proposed for an
Earth)(ars (ag)Beam facility massing some 3#444 tons.
The system proposed $y /inglee "ould allo" a round)trip from Earth to (ars in 54 days# "ith 11
days stop)o!er at (ars.
A similar system for use of a particle $eam to push a mini)magnetosphere magnetic sail "as
proposed $y =eoffrey A. Bandis in 2441 as a possi$le propulsion system for interstellar tra!el.
C3D
o )esistoet rocket
A resisto+et is a method of 'pacecraft propulsion that pro!ides thrust $y heating a %typically non)
reacti!e& fluid. Aeating is usually achie!ed $y sending electricity through a resistor consisting of a
hot incandescent filament# "ith the e-panded gas e-pelled through a con!entional no**le
D
Resisto+et ha!e $een flo"n in space# and do "ell in situations "here energy is much more plentiful
than mass# and "here propulsion efficiency needs to $e reasona$ly high $ut lo")thrust is
accepta$le.
o #igh po-er electric propulsion
The AiE thruster differs from earlier ion thrusters $ecause the -enonions are produced using a
com$ination of micro"a!e and magneticfields. The ioni*ation is achie!ed through a process
called Electron Cyclotron Resonance %ECR&. In ECR# the small num$er of free electrons present in
the neutral gas gyrate around the static magnetic field lines. The in+ected micro"a!es; fre0uency is
set to match this gyrofre0uency and a resonance is esta$lished. Energy is transferred from the right)
hand polari*ed portion of the micro"a!e to the electrons. This energy is then transferred to the $ul,
gas?plasma !ia the rare ) yet important ) collisions $et"een electrons and neutrals. During these
collisions# electrons can $e ,noc,ed free from the neutrals# forming ion)electron pairs. The process
is a highly efficient means of creating a plasma in lo" density gases. re!iously the electrons
re0uired "ere pro!ided $y a hollo" cathode.
o Mass driver
A "ass driver or electro"agnetic catapult is a proposed method of non)roc,et space launch
"hich "ould use a linear motor to accelerate and catapult payloads up to high speeds. All e-isting
and contemplated mass dri!ers use coils of "ire energi*ed $y electricity to ma,e electromagnets.
'e0uential firing of a ro" of electromagnets accelerates the payload along a path. After lea!ing the
path# the payload continues to mo!e due to momentum.
A mass dri!er is essentially a coilgun that magnetically accelerates a pac,age consisting of a
magnetisa$le holder containing a payload. Once the payload has $een accelerated# the t"o separate#
and the holder is slo"ed and recycled for another payload.
(ass dri!ers can $e used to propel spacecraft in t"o different "ays. A large# ground)$ased mass
dri!er could $e used to launch spacecraft a"ay from the Earth or another planet. A spacecraft could
ha!e a mass dri!er on $oard# flinging large pieces of material into space to propel itself. A hy$rid
design is also possi$le %see coilgun# railgun# or helical railgun&. (iniaturi*ed mass dri!ers can also
$e used as "eapons in a similar manner as classic firearms or cannon using chemical com$ustion.
.uclear propulsion
!losed s$ste"
o .uclear electric rocket
In a nuclear electric roc,et# nuclear thermal energy is changed into electrical energy that is used to
po"er one of the electrical propulsiontechnologies. Technically the po"erplant is nuclear# not the
propulsion system# $ut the terminology is standard. A num$er of heat)to)electricity schemes ha!e
$een proposed.
One of the more practical schemes is a !ariant of a pe$$le $ed reactor. It "ould use a high mass)
flo" nitrogen coolant near normal atmospheric pressures. This "ould ta,e ad!antage of highly
de!eloped con!entional gas tur$ine technologies. The fuel for this reactor "ould $e highly enriched#
and encapsulated in lo")$oron graphite $alls pro$a$ly @)14 cm in diameter. The graphite ser!es to
slo"# or moderate# theneutrons.
This style of reactor can $e designed to $e inherently safe. As it heats# the graphite e-pands#
separating the fuel and reducing the reactor;s criticality. This property can simplify the operating
controls to a single !al!e throttling the tur$ine. /hen closed# the reactor heats# $ut produces less
po"er. /hen open# the reactor cools# $ut $ecomes more critical and produces more po"er.
The graphite encapsulation simplifies refueling and "aste handling. =raphite is mechanically
strong# and resists high temperatures. This reduces the ris, of an unplanned release of radioacti!es.
'ince this style of reactor produces high po"er "ithout hea!y castings to contain high pressures# it
is "ell suited to spacecraft
The ,ey elements to NE# as they are $eing pursued today are.
1. A compact reactor core
2. A gas tur$ine or stirling engine used as an electric generator
3. A compact heat re+ection system such as heat pipes
9. A po"er conditioning and distri$ution system
@. A high po"er propulsion system $ased on plasma propellants.
The 'A:E)944 is the current $est of tech for items 1)3. Item 9 is common to all spacecraft. 'ome
e-amples of thrusters that might $e suita$le for this are <A'I(R# D'9= and ulsed inducti!e
thruster. IT and <A'I(R are uni0ue in their a$ility to trade $et"een po"er usage# specific
impulse %a measure of efficiency# see specific impulse& and thrust in)flight. IT has the additional
ad!antage of not needing the po"er conditioning system $et"een itself and the electric generators
o .uclear ther"al rocket
In a nuclear thermal roc,et a "or,ing fluid# usually li0uid hydrogen# is heated to a high temperature
in a nuclear reactor# and then e-pands through a roc,et no**le to create thrust. The nuclear reactor;s
energy replaces the chemical energy of the reacti!e chemicals in a chemical roc,et engine. Due to
the higher energy density of the nuclear fuel compared to chemical fuels# a$out 14
6
times# the
resulting propellant efficiency %effecti!e e-haust !elocity& of the engine is at least t"ice as good as
chemical engines. The o!erall gross lift)off mass of a nuclear roc,et is a$out half that of a chemical
roc,et# and hence "hen used as an upper stage it roughly dou$les or triples the payload carried to
or$it.
1.)adioisotope
The radioisotope roc,et is a type of roc,et engine that uses the heat generated $y the decay
of radioacti!e elements to heat a "or,ing fluid# "hich is then e-hausted through a roc,et no**le to
produce thrust. They are similar in nature to the nuclear thermal roc,ets such asNER<A# $ut are
considera$ly simpler and often ha!e no mo!ing parts.
The $asic idea is a de!elopment of e-isting radioisotope thermoelectric generator# or RT=# systems#
in "hich the heat generated $y decaying nuclear fuel is used to generate po"er. In the roc,et
application the generator is remo!ed# and the "or,ing fluid is instead used to produce thrust
directly. Temperatures of a$out 1@44 to 2444KC are possi$le in this system# allo"ing for specific
impulses of a$out 644 to L44 seconds %6 to L ,NUs?,g&# a$out dou$le that of the $est chemical
engines such as the BA2)BOM ''(E.
2.Salt+-ater
A nuclear salt)"ater roc,et %or N'/R& is a proposed type of nuclear thermal roc,et designed
$y Ro$ert Su$rin that "ould $e fueled $y "ater $earing dissol!ed salts of lutonium orU
23@
. These
"ould $e stored in tan,s that "ould pre!ent a critical mass from forming $y some com$ination of
geometry or neutron a$sorption %for e-ample. long tu$es made out of $oronin an array "ith
considera$le spacing $et"een tu$es&. Thrust "ould $e generated $y nuclear fission reactions from
the nuclear salts heating the "ater and $eing e-pelled through a no**le. The "ater "ould ser!e as
$oth a neutron moderator and propellant.
In a con!entional chemical roc,et# chemical reactions of
the fuel and o-idi*er %e.g. O-ygen and Ierosene& heat the $yproducts of the chemical reaction
%e.g. CO2 and A2O& to high temperatures as they are forced through a roc,et no**le. The fast
mo!ing molecules in the e-haust focused in one direction create thrust. In a nuclear thermal
roc,et %or NTR& a nuclear fission reactor "ould ser!e as a source of heat "hich "ould $e
transferred to a propellant that is then e-hausted through a roc,et no**le. The propellant in this case
can $e any material "ith suita$le properties# it need not react during the operation of the roc,et# it is
simply a source of mass to $e heated up and e-hausted out of the roc,et at high speeds. In an
N'/R the nuclear salt)"ater "ould $e made to flo" through a reaction cham$er and out an e-haust
no**le in such a "ay and at such speeds that the pea, neutron flu- in the fission reaction "ould
occur outside of the !ehicle. This has se!eral ad!antages relati!e to con!entional NTR designs.
Because the pea, neutron flu- and fission reaction rates "ould occur outside of the !ehicle# these
acti!ities could $e much more !igorous than they could $e if it "as necessary to house them in a
!essel %"hich "ould ha!e temperature limits due to materials constraints&. Additionally# a contained
reactor can only allo" a small percentage of its fuel to undergo fission at any gi!en time# other"ise
it "ould o!erheat and meltdo"n %or e-plode in a runa"ayfission chain reaction&. Because the
fission reaction in an N'/R is dynamic and $ecause the reaction products are e-hausted into space
it doesn;t ha!e a limit on the proportion of fission fuel that reacts. In many "ays this ma,es N'/Rs
li,e a hy$rid $et"een fission reactors and fission $om$s.
3.Gas core
=as core reactor roc,ets are a conceptual type of roc,et that is propelled $y the e-hausted coolant of
a gaseous fission reactor. The nuclear fission reactor core may $e either a gas or plasma. They may
$e capa$le of creating specific impulses of 3#444Q@#444 s %34 to @4 ,NUs?,g# effecti!e e-haust
!elocities 34 to @4 ,m?s& and thrust "hich is enough for relati!ely fast interplanetary tra!el. Aeat
transfer to the"or,ing fluid %propellant& is $y thermal radiation# mostly in the ultra!iolet# gi!en off
$y the fission gas at a "or,ing temperature of around 2@#444 KC.
Theor$ of operation
Nuclear gas)core)reactor roc,ets can pro!ide much higher specific impulse than solid core nuclear
roc,ets $ecause their temperature limitations are in the no**le and core "all structural temperatures#
"hich are distanced from the hottest regions of the gas core. Conse0uently# nuclear gas core reactors
can pro!ide much higher temperatures to the propellant. 'olid core nuclear thermal roc,ets can
de!elop higher specific impulse than con!entional chemical roc,ets due to the e-treme po"er
density of the reactor core# $ut their operating temperatures are limited $y the ma-imum
temperature of the solid core $ecause the reactor;s temperatures cannot rise a$o!e its components;
lo"est melting temperature.
Due to the much higher temperatures achie!a$le $y the gaseous core design# it can deli!er higher
specific impulse and thrust than most other con!entional nuclear designs. This translates into shorter
mission transit times for future astronauts or larger payload fractions. It may also $e possi$le to use
partially ioni*ed plasma from the gas core to generate electricity magnetohydrodynamically#
su$se0uently negating the need for an additional po"er supply.
4.%ightbulb
Nuclear gas)core)reactor roc,ets can pro!ide much higher specific impulse than solid core nuclear
roc,ets $ecause their temperature limitations are in the no**le and core "all structural temperatures#
"hich are distanced from the hottest regions of the gas core. Conse0uently# nuclear gas core reactors
can pro!ide much higher temperatures to the propellant. 'olid core nuclear thermal roc,ets can
de!elop higher specific impulse than con!entional chemical roc,ets due to the e-treme po"er
density of the reactor core# $ut their operating temperatures are limited $y the ma-imum
temperature of the solid core $ecause the reactor;s temperatures cannot rise a$o!e its components;
lo"est melting temperature.
Due to the much higher temperatures achie!a$le $y the gaseous core design# it can deli!er higher
specific impulse and thrust than most other con!entional nuclear designs. This translates into shorter
mission transit times for future astronauts or larger payload fractions. It may also $e possi$le to use
partially ioni*ed plasma from the gas core to generate electricity magnetohydrodynamically#
su$se0uently negating the need for an additional po"er supply.
,pen s$ste"
o .uclear pulse propulsion
.uclear pulse propulsion %or (4ternal Pulsed Plas"a Propulsion# as it is termed in one
recent NA'A document
C1D
& is a proposed method of spacecraft propulsion that uses nuclear
e-plosions for thrust. It "as first de!eloped as ro+ect Orion $y DARA# after a suggestion
$y 'tanisla" Ulam in 1596.
C2D
Ne"er designs using inertial confinement fusion ha!e $een the
$aseline for most post)Orion designs# including ro+ect Daedalus and ro+ect Bongshot.
Anti"atter
Anti"atter catal$1ed nuclear pulse propulsion is a !ariation of nuclear pulse propulsion $ased
upon the in+ection of antimatter into a mass of nuclear fuel "hich normally "ould not $e useful in
propulsion. The anti)protons used to start the reaction are consumed# so it is a misnomer to refer to
them as a catalyst.
Traditional nuclear pulse propulsion has the do"nside that the minimum si*e of the engine is
defined $y the minimum si*e of the nuclear $om$s used to create thrust. /ith con!entional
technologies nuclear e-plosi!es can scale do"n to a$out 1?144 ,iloton %14 tons# 92 =>G/@9&# $ut
ma,ing them smaller seems difficult. Barge nuclear e-plosi!e charges re0uire a hea!y structure for
the spacecraft# and a !ery large %and hea!y& pusher)plate assem$ly. 'mall nuclear e-plosi!es are
$elie!ed to stop shrin,ing in o!erall si*e and re0uired fissile nuclear materials at around 2@
,ilograms "eight# so smaller pulse units are much more e-pensi!e per deli!ered unit energy# and
much less mass efficient than larger ones. By in+ecting a small amount of antimatter into
a su$critical mass of fuel %typically plutonium or uranium& fission of the fuel can $e forced. An anti)
proton has a negati!e electric charge +ust li,e an electron# and can $e captured in a similar "ay $y a
positi!ely charged atomic nucleus. The initial configuration# ho"e!er# is not sta$le and radiates
energy as gamma rays. As a conse0uence# the anti)proton mo!es closer and closer to the nucleus
until they e!entually touch# at "hich point the anti)proton and a proton are $oth annihilated. This
reaction releases a tremendous amount of energy# of "hich some is released as gamma rays and
some is transferred as ,inetic energy to the nucleus# causing it to e-plode. The resulting sho"er
of neutrons can cause the surrounding fuel to undergo rapid fission or e!en nuclear fusion.
o /usion rocket
A fusion rocket is a roc,et that is dri!en $y fusion po"er. The process of nuclear fusion is "ell)
understood and recent de!elopments indicate this technology may $e a$le to pro!ide terrestrial
$ased po"er "ithin 34 years. Ao"e!er# the proposed reactor !essels are large and hea!y# ma,ing
them unsuita$le to use on spacecraft in the foreseea$le future. A smaller and lighter fusion reactor
might $e possi$le in the future "hen more sophisticated methods ha!e $een de!ised to control
magnetic confinement and pre!ent plasma insta$ilities.
:or space flight# the main ad!antage of fusion "ould $e the !ery high specific impulse# the main
disad!antage the %pro$a$le& large mass of the reactor. In addition# a fusion roc,et may produce less
radiation than a fission roc,et# reducing the mass needed for shielding. The surest "ay of $uilding a
fusion roc,et "ith current technology is to use hydrogen $om$s as proposed in ro+ect Orion# $ut
such a spacecraft "ould also $e massi!e.
'ussard ra"et
The 'ussard ra"et is a theoretical method of spacecraft propulsion proposed in 1574 $y the
physicist Ro$ert /. Bussard# populari*ed $y Barry Ni!en in his Ino"n 'paceseries of $oo,s# and
referred to $y Carl 'agan in the tele!ision series and $oo, Cosmos.
Bussard proposed a ram+et !ariant of a fusion roc,et capa$le of fast interstellar spaceflight# using
enormous electro)magnetic fields %ranging from ,ilometers to many thousands of ,ilometers in
diameter& as a ram scoop to collect and compress hydrogenfrom the interstellar medium. Aigh
speeds force the reacti!e mass into a progressi!ely constricted magnetic field# compressing it until
thermonuclear fusion occurs. The magnetic field then directs the energy as roc,et e-haust opposite
to the intended direction of tra!el# there$y accelerating the !essel.
Design
A ma+or pro$lem "ith using roc,et propulsion to reach the !elocities re0uired for interstellar flight
is the enormous amounts of fuel re0uired. 'ince that fuel must itself $e accelerated# this results in an
appro-imately e-ponential increase in mass as a function of !elocity change at non)relati!istic
speeds# asymptotically tending to infinity as it approaches the speed of light. In principle# the
Bussard ram+et a!oids this pro$lem $y not carrying fuel "ith it. An ideal ram+et design could in
principle accelerate indefinitely until its mechanism failed. Ignoring drag# a ship dri!en $y such an
engine could theoretically accelerate ar$itrarily close to the speed of light# and "ould $e a !ery
effecti!e interstellar spacecraft. In practice# since the force of drag produced $y collecting the
interstellar medium increases appro-imately as its speed s0uaredat non)relati!istic speeds and
asymptotically tends to infinity as it approaches the speed of light %ta,ing all measurements from
the ship;s perspecti!e&# any such ram+et "ould ha!e a limiting speed "here the drag e0uals thrust.
To produce positi!e thrust# the fusion reactor must $e capa$le of producing fusion "hile still gi!ing
the incident ions a net rear"ard acceleration %relati!e to the ship&.
An o$+ect;s !elocity can $e calculated $y summing o!er time the acceleration supplied %ignoring the
effects of special relati!ity# "hich "ould 0uic,ly $ecome significant at useful interstellar
accelerations&. If a ram+et could accelerate at 14 m?s
2
# slightly more than one Earth gra!ity# it "ould
attain 66H of light !elocity "ithin a year. Ao"e!er# if the ram+et has an a!erage acceleration of
4.1 m?s
2
# then it needs 144 years to go as fast# and so on.
o /ission+frag"ent rocket
The fission+frag"ent rocket is a roc,et engine design that directly harnesses hot nuclearfission
products for thrust# as opposed to using a separate fluid as "or,ing mass. The design can# in theory#
produce !ery high specific impulses "hile still $eing "ell "ithin the a$ilities of current
technologies.
Design and consideration
In traditional nuclear thermal roc,et and related designs# the nuclear energy is generated in some
form of EreactorE and used to heat a "or,ing fluid to generate thrust. This limits the designs to
temperatures that allo" the reactor to remain E"holeE# although cle!er design can increase this
critical temperature into the tens of thousands of degrees. A roc,et engine;s efficiency is strongly
related to the temperature of the e-hausted "or,ing fluid# and in the case of the most ad!anced gas)
core engines# it corresponds to a specific impulse of a$out 6444 s %75 ,NUs?,g&.
The temperature of a con!entional reactor design is actually the a!erage temperature of the fuel# the
!ast ma+ority of "hich is not actually reacting at any gi!en instance. In fact the atoms undergoing
fission are at a temperature of millions of degrees# "hich is then spread out into the surrounding
fuel# resulting in an o!erall temperature of a fe" thousand. In the fission)fragment design# it is the
indi!idual atoms that actually undergo fission that are used to pro!ide thrust# $y e-tracting them
from the rest of the fuel as 0uic,ly as possi$le $efore their energy is spread out into the surrounding
fuel mass.
This is easier to achie!e than it might sound. By physically arranging the fuel such that the
outermost layers of a fuel $undle "ill $e most li,ely to undergo fission# the high)temperature atoms#
the fragments of a nuclear reaction# can E$oilE off the surface. 'ince they "ill $e ioni*eddue to the
high temperatures of the reaction# they can then $e handled magnetically and channeled to produce
thrust. Numerous technological challenges still remain# ho"e!er.
/ission sail
The fission sail is a type of spacecraft propulsion proposed $y Ro$ert :or"ard that
uses fission fragments to propel a large solar sail)li,e craft. It is similar in concept to the fission)
fragment roc,et in that the fission $y)products are directly harnessed as "or,ing mass# and differs
primarily in the "ay that the fragments are used for thrust.
In the fission sail# the Eroc,etE is $uilt in the form of a t"o)layer sheet# "ith some sort of a$sor$er
on one side# and nuclear fuel on the other. Atoms in the fuel that decay "ill release their fragments
in random# $ut opposite# directions. In the simple case "here the decay releases the fragments
EfrontE and ErearE# the rear"ard mo!ing fragment generates thrust directly# "hile the front"ard
mo!ing one is a$sor$ed in the front half of the sail# also contri$uting thrust. The system must $e
$uilt !ery large in order to ensure that those fragments that are not mo!ing directly to the front of
rear ne!ertheless tend to hit the sail some"here. A sail se!eral ,ilometers on a side "ould ha!e
fairly good Ecapture ratiosE.
The sail is not a nuclear reactor# and relies on natural decay rates for energy release. The thrust from
such a system "ill al"ays $e !ery lo"# al$eit e-tremely efficient. Another pro$lem is that the sail
recei!es the energy e0ually o!er the entire sail surface# and thus can;t $e steered. This differs from a
solar sail# "here tilting the sail to the sunlight can produce a side"ays thrust for steering.
:or"ard proposed the system as an Eadd onE to e-isting solar sails. Close to stars "here the light
density is high the sails "or, fine# $ut as they mo!e past a$out 2 AU their thrust is too lo" to $e
useful. :or"ard suggested that coating the sail "ith fissiona$le material "ould pro!ide thrust in this
region# "here maneu!ering is no longer as important. 'uch a system "ould accelerate and
maneu!er $ased on solar energy for the start of its flight# and then continue to accelerate at a lo"er
rate for long periods of time.
o .uclear photonic rocket
In a nuclear photonic rocket# a nuclear reactor "ould generate such high temperatures that
the $lac,$ody radiation from the reactor "ould pro!ide significant thrust. The disad!antage is that it
ta,es a lot of po"er to generate a small amount of thrust this "ay# so acceleration is !ery slo". The
photon radiators "ould most li,ely $e constructed using graphite or tungsten. hotonic roc,ets are
technologically feasi$le# $ut rather impractical "ith current technology.
,T#()
Solar sail
'olar sails %also called light sails or photon sails& are a form of spacecraft propulsion using the
radiation pressure of light from a star or laser to push enormous ultra)thin mirrors to high speeds.
It is further e-panded as
1. Electric sail
2. (agnetic sail
(lectric sail
An Electric sail %also called electric solar "ind sail or E)'ail& is a proposed form of spacecraft
propulsion using the dynamic pressure of the solar "ind as a source of thrust. It uses an electric
field for deflecting solar "ind protons and e-tracting momentum from them. It "as in!ented $y
e,,a >anhunen from :inland in 2447 at the :(I and creates a E!irtualE sail $y forming an electric
field on small "ires. To test the technology a ne" European Union)$ac,ed electric sail study pro+ect
is under"ay. The EU funding contri$ution is 1.6 million Euros and its goal is to $uild the la$oratory
prototypes of the ,ey components of the electric sail. The research pro+ect called E)'ail in!ol!es
fi!e European countries and "ill last for three years. In the EU e!aluation# the E'AIB pro+ect got
the highest mar,s in its category. The electric solar "ind sail could ena$le faster and cheaper access
to the solar system and in the longer run may ena$le an economic utili*ation of asteroid resources.
The "or,ing principles of the electric sail "ill $e tested in the coming years on the Estonian
E'TCu$e)1 and the :innish Aalto)1 nanosatellites.
Principle
The electric sail consists of a num$er of thin# long and conducting tethers "hich are ,ept in a high
positi!e potential $y an on$oard electron gun. The positi!ely charged tethers repel solar "ind
protons# thus deflecting their paths and e-tracting momentum from them. 'imultaneously they also
attract electron from the solar "ind plasma. The arri!ing electron current is compensated $y the
electron gun. A "ay to deploy the tethers is to rotate the spacecraft and ha!e the centrifugal
force ,eep them stretched. By fine)tuning the potentials of indi!idual tethers and thus the solar "ind
force indi!idually# the attitude of the spacecraft can $e controlled.
Applications
:ast mission %V@4 ,m?s or 14 AU?year& out of the 'olar system and heliosphere for small or
modest payload
As a $ra,e for small interstellar pro$e "hich has $een accelerated to high speed $y some
other means such as laser lightsail
In"ard)spiralling mission to study the 'un at closer distance
T"o)"ay mission to inner 'olar 'ystem o$+ects such as asteroids
Off)Bagrange point solar "ind monitoring spacecraft for predicting space "eather "ith
longer "arning time than 1 hour
Magnetic sail
A magnetic sail or magsail is a proposed method of spacecraft propulsion "hich "ould use a static
magnetic field to deflect charged particles radiated $y the 'un as a plasma "ind# and thus impart
momentum to accelerate the spacecraft. A magnetic sail could also thrust directly against planetary
and solar magnetospheres.
Principle of operation and design
The solar "ind is a tenuous stream of plasma that flo"s out"ards from the 'un. near the Earth;s
or$it# it contains se!eral million protons and electrons per cu$ic meter and flo"s at 944 to 744
,ilometers per second %2@4 to 364 mi?s&. The magnetic sail introduces a magnetic field into this
plasma flo"# perpendicular to the motion of the charged particles# "hich can deflect the particles
from their original tra+ectory. the momentum of the particles is then transferred to the sail# leading
to a thrust on the sail. One ad!antage of magnetic or solar sails o!er %chemical or ion& reaction
thrusters is that no reaction mass is depleted or carried in the craft.
In typical magnetic sail designs# the magnetic field is generated $y a loop of superconducting "ire.
Because loops of current)carrying conductors tend to $e forced out"ards to"ards a circular shape
$y their o"n magnetic field# the sail could $e deployed simply $y unspooling the conductor and
applying a current through it.
The operation of magnetic sails using plasma "ind is analogous to the operation of solar sails using
the radiation pressure of photons emitted $y the 'un. Although solar "ind particles ha!e rest mass
and photons do not# sunlight has thousands of times more momentum than the solar "ind.
Therefore# a magnetic sail must deflect a proportionally larger area of the solar "ind than a
compara$le solar sail to generate the same amount of thrust. Ao"e!er# it need not $e as massi!e as a
solar sail $ecause the solar "ind is deflected $y a magnetic field instead of a large physical sail.
Con!entional materials for solar sails "eigh around 6 grams per s0uare metre %4.4419 l$?s0 ft&#
gi!ing a thrust of 1e)@ N?m
2
at 1 AU. This gi!es a mass?thrust ratio of at least 644 ,g?N# similar to a
magnetic sail# neglecting other structural components.
The solar and magnetic sails ha!e a thrust that falls off as the s0uare of the distance from the 'un.
/hen close to a planet "ith a strong magnetosphere# e.g. Earth or a gas giant# the magsail could
generate more thrust $y interacting "ith the magnetosphere instead of the solar "ind# and may
therefore $e more efficient.
'ea" po-ered propulsion
Beam)po"ered propulsion is a class of aircraft or spacecraft propulsion mechanisms that use energy
$eamed to the spacecraft from a remote po"er plant to pro!ide energy. (ost designs are roc,et
engines "here the energy is pro!ided $y the $eam# and is used to superheat propellant that then
pro!ides propulsion# although some o$tain propulsion directly from light pressure acting on a light
sail structure# and at lo" altitude heating air gi!es e-tra thrust.
The $eam "ould typically either $e a $eam of micro"a!es or a laser. Basers are su$di!ided into
either pulsed or continuous $eamed.
The rule of thum$ that is usually 0uoted is that it ta,es a mega"att of po"er $eamed to a !ehicle
per ,g of payload "hile it is $eing accelerated to permit it to reach lo" earth or$it.
Ther"al propulsion
/ith $eamed propulsion one can lea!e the po"er)source stationary on the ground# and directly %or
!ia a heat e-changer& heat propellant on the spacecraft "ith a maser or a laser $eam from a fi-ed
installation. This permits the spacecraft to lea!e its po"er)source at home# sa!ing significant
amounts of mass# greatly impro!ing performance.
'ince a laser can heat propellant to e-tremely high temperatures# this potentially greatly impro!es
the efficiency of a roc,et# as e-haust !elocity is proportional to the s0uare root of the temperature.
Normal chemical roc,ets ha!e an e-haust speed limited $y the fi-ed amount of energy in the
propellants# $ut $eamed propulsion systems ha!e no particular theoretical limit %although in practice
there are temperature limits&.
A$lati!e Baser ropulsion is a form of laser propulsion that uses a laser to create a plasma plume
from a metal propellant# thus producing thrust.
In addition# micro"a!es can $e used to heat a suita$le heat e-changer# "hich in turn heats a
propellant %!ery typically hydrogen&. This can gi!e a com$ination of high specific impulse %644Q
544 seconds& as "ell as good thrust?"eight ratio %@4)1@4&
(lectric propulsion
'ome proposed spacecraft propulsion mechanisms use po"er in the form of electricity. Usually
these schemes assume either solar panels# or an on)$oard reactor. Ao"e!er# $oth po"er sources are
hea!y.
Beamed propulsion in the form of laser can $e used to send po"er to a photo!oltaic panel# for Baser
electric propulsion. In this system# careful design of the panels is necessary as the e-tra po"er tends
to cause a fall)off of the con!ersion efficiency due to heating effects.
A micro"a!e $eam could $e used to send po"er to a rectenna# for micro"a!e electric
propulsion. (icro"a!e $roadcast po"er has $een practically demonstrated se!eral times %e.g.
=oldstone# California in 1569&# rectennas are potentially light"eight and can handle high po"er at
high con!ersion efficiency. Ao"e!er# rectennas tend to need to $e !ery large for a significant
amount of po"er to $e captured.
Solar ther"al rocket
Solar ther"al propulsion is a form of spacecraft propulsion that ma,es use of solar po"er to
directly heat reaction mass# and therefore does not re0uire an electrical generator as most other
forms of solar)po"ered propulsion do. A solar thermal roc,et only has to carry the means of
capturing solar energy# such as concentrators and mirrors. The heated propellant is fed through a
con!entional roc,et no**le to produce thrust. The engine thrust is directly related to the surface area
of the solar collector and to the local intensity of the solar radiation.
In the shorter term# solar thermal propulsion has $een proposed $oth for longer)life# lo"er)cost and
more)fle-i$le cryogenic upper stage launch !ehicles and for on)or$it propellant depots. 'olar
thermal propulsion is also a good candidate for use in reusa$le inter)or$ital tugs# as it is a high)
efficiency lo")thrust system that can $e refueled "ith relati!e ease.
'olar thermal design concept
There are t"o $asic solar thermal propulsion concepts# differing primarily in the method $y "hich
they use solar po"er to heat the propellant.
Indirect solar heating in!ol!es pumping the propellant through passages in a heat
e-changer that is heated $y solar radiation. The "indo"less heat e-changer ca!ity concept is a
design ta,ing this radiation a$sorption approach.
Direct solar heating in!ol!es e-posing the propellant directly to solar radiation. The rotating
$ed concept is one of the preferred concepts for direct solar radiation a$sorptionG it offers
higher specific impulse than other direct heating designs $y using a retained seed %tantalum
car$ide or hafnium car$ide& approach. The propellant flo"s through the porous "alls of a
rotating cylinder# pic,ing up heat from the seeds# "hich are retained on the "alls $y the rotation.
The car$ides are sta$le at high temperatures and ha!e e-cellent heat transfer properties.
Due to limitations in the temperature that heat e-changer materials can "ithstand %appro-imately
2L44 I&# the indirect a$sorption designs cannot achie!e specific impulses $eyond 544 seconds
%5 ,NUs?,g&. The direct a$sorption designs allo" higher propellant temperatures and therefore higher
specific impulses# approaching 1244 seconds. E!en the lo"er specific impulse represents a
significant increase o!er that of con!entional chemical roc,ets# ho"e!er# an increase that can
pro!ide su$stantial payload gains %9@ percent for a BEO)to)=EO mission& at the e-pense of
increased trip time %19 days compared to 14 hours&.
Ccitation neededD
'mall)scale hard"are has $een designed and fa$ricated for the Air :orce Roc,et ropulsion
Ba$oratory %A:RB& for ground test e!aluation.
C1D
'ystems "ith 14 to 144 N of thrust ha!e $een
in!estigated $y 'ART.
Tether propulsion
Tether propulsion systems are proposals to use long# !ery strong ca$les %,no"n as tethers& to
change the !elocity of spacecraft and payloads. The tethers may $e used to initiate launch# complete
launch# or alter the or$it of a spacecraft. 'paceflight using this form of spacecraft propulsion may $e
significantly less e-pensi!e than spaceflight using roc,et engines.
Tethers are ,ept straight $y either rotating end for end# "ith !ery high tips speeds %se!eral ,m?s&# or
$y the difference in the strength of gra!ity o!er their length %tidal sta$ilisation&. Tethers re0uire
strong# light materials. 'ome current tether designs use crystalline plastics such as ultra high
molecular "eight polyethylene# aramid or car$on fi$er. A possi$le future material "ould $e car$on
nanotu$es# "hich ha!e an estimated tensile strength $et"een 194 and 166 =a %24.3)2@.7 million
psi&# and a pro!en tensile strength in the range @4)74 =a.
A "o"entu" e4change tether is a rotating tether that "ould gra$ a spacecraft and then release it
at later time. Doing this can transfer momentum and energy from the tether to and from the
spacecraft "ith !ery little lossG this can $e used for or$ital manoeu!ring. A rotating momentum
e-change tether is ,no"n as a bolo.
Another type of tether is an electrod$na"ic tether# this is a conducti!e tether that carries a current
that can generate thrust or drag from a planetary magnetic field# in much the same "ay as an electric
motor.
Gravit$ assist
In or$ital mechanics and aerospace engineering# a gravitational slingshot# gravit$ assist
"aneuver# or s-ing+b$ is the use of the relati!e mo!ement and gra!ity of a planet or other celestial
$ody to alter the path and speed of a spacecraft# typically in order to sa!e propellant# time# and
e-pense. =ra!ity assistance can $e used to accelerate# decelerate and?or re)direct the path of a
spacecraft.
The EassistE is pro!ided $y the motion %or$ital angular momentum& of the gra!itating $ody as it
pulls on the spacecraft.
C1D
The techni0ue "as first proposed as a mid)course manoeu!re in 1571# and
used $y interplanetary pro$es from (ariner 14 on"ards# including <oyagers; nota$le fly)$ys of
>upiter and 'aturn.
#$pothetical "ethods
Diametric dri!e
itch dri!e
Bias dri!e
Dis+unction dri!e
Alcu$ierre dri!e %a form of /arp dri!e&
Differential sail
/ormholes ) theoretically possi$le# $ut unachie!ea$le in practice "ith current technology
Reactionless dri!es ) $rea,s the la" of conser!ation of momentumG theoretically impossi$le
EmDri!e ) tries to circum!ent the la" of conser!ation of momentumG may $e theoretically
impossi$le
A EhyperspaceE dri!e $ased upon Aeim theory
Dia"etric drive
The dia"etric drive "as a speculati!e proposal for an EengineE "hich "ould create a non)
conser!ati!e gra!itational field "ith non)*ero curl. It "as argued that in such circumstances# the
side of the field "hich creates more force on the spacecraft "ill accelerate the spacecraft in the
direction of the force.
One idea for reali*ing this concept in!ol!ed hypothetical particles "ith negati!e mass# originally
proposed $y Ro$ert :or"ard and >amie /ood"ard. If one "ere to construct a $loc, of negati!e
mass# and then attach it to a normal Epositi!eE mass# the negati!e mass "ould fall to"ards the
positi!e as does any mass to"ard any other. On the other hand# the negati!e mass "ould generate
Enegati!e gra!ityE# and thus the positi!e mass %the spaceship itself generally& "ould fall a"ay from
the negati!e mass. If arranged properly# the distance $et"een the t"o "ould not change# "hile they
continued to accelerate fore!er. It has $een argued that sta$ility issues might arise.
Disunction drive
The EDis+unction Dri!eE. According to a summary of speculati!e propulsion ideas on NA'A;s
"e$site EThis concept entertains the possi$ility that the source of a field and that "hich reacts to a
field can $e separated. By displacing them in space# the reactant is shifted to a point "here the field
has a slope# thus producing reaction forces $et"een the source and the reactant. Although e-isting
e!idence strongly suggests that the source# reactant# and inertial mass properties are insepara$le#
any future e!idence to the contrary "ould ha!e re!olutionary implication to this propulsion
application.E
Pitch drive and bias drive
One proposed method of achie!ing a Ediametric dri!eE# or possi$ly a Edis+unction dri!eE# "hich "as
allegedly studied in the B "as called the pitch drive. This has $een descri$ed as in!ol!ing a
hypothetical Edis+oint fieldE "hich# it "as claimed# "ould eliminate the need for the field to $e
generated on the spacecraft itself.
One specific proposal for such a pitch dri!e "as allegedly called the bias drive. According to this
proposal# if it "ere possi$le to locally alter the !alue of the gra!itational constant = in front of and
$ehind the craft# one could create a $ias dri!e. It might help to point out here that "hile the
gra!itational constant is indeed a fundamental physical constant in our current gold standard theory
of gra!itation# general relati!ity# its $est ,no"n competitor# the Brans)Dic,e theory of gra!itation#
does in a sense allo" for a locally !arying gra!itational constant# so the notion of a locally !arying
gra!itational constant has $een seriously discussed in mainstream physics. It has $een claimed that
one pro$lem "ith the concept of a $ias dri!e "as that it might create a singularity in the field;s
gradient located inside the !ehicle# $ut this Eo$+ectionE appears to $e as speculati!e as the proposal
itself.
Alcubierre drive
The Alcu$ierre dri!e# also called the -arp drive# is a proposal# originally due to the
physicist (iguel Alcu$ierre# "hich consists of a toy modelof a Borent*ian spacetime "ith
properties some"hat reminiscent of the fictional E"arp dri!eE from the science fiction series 'tar
Tre,. In the semipopular literature# this proposal has often $een descri$ed as ha!ing the status of
an e-act solution of the Einstein field e0uation# $ut this characteri*ation is "ildly misleading. In
fact# e!ery possi$le spacetime is an e-act solution gi!en a certain configuration of energy. It has
also $een claimed that the Alcu$ierre dri!e is grounded in a "ell)esta$lished physical effect#
the Casimir effect# "hich is currently understood in terms of 0uantum field theory# $ut this is also
rather misleading.
Differential sail
The differential sail "as another speculati!e proposal# "hich appealed to the *ero)point
energy field. As the Aeisen$erg uncertainty principle implies that there is no such thing as an e-act
amount of energy in an e-act location# !acuum fluctuations are ,no"n to lead to discerni$le effects
such as the Casimir effect. The differential sail "as a speculation that it might $e possi$le to induce
differences in the pressure of !acuum fluctuations on either side of sail)li,e structure )) "ith the
pressure $eing someho" reduced on the for"ard surface of the sail# $ut pushing as normal on the aft
surface )) and thus propel a !ehicle for"ard. %A description of a differential sail appears
in Christina# (ariette D.# E'pace at /arp 'peed#E opular 'cience# (ay 2441# p. 95.&