What is English?

A short history of the origins and development of the English language

The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who
invaded Britain during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saons and the !utes,
crossed the "orth Sea from what today is Denmar# and northern Germany. At that time the
inhabitants of Britain s$o#e a %eltic language. But most of the %eltic s$ea#ers were $ushed
west and north by the invaders&mainly into what is now 'ales, Scotland and (reland. The
Angles came from Englaland and their language was called Englisc&from which the words
England and English are derived.
Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east and south coasts in the 5th century.
Old English (450-1100 AD
The invading Germanic tribes s$o#e
similar languages, which in Britain
develo$ed into what we now call )ld
English. )ld English did not sound or
loo# li#e English today. "ative
English s$ea#ers now would have
great difficulty understanding )ld
English. "evertheless, about half of
the most commonly used words in
*odern English have )ld English
roots. The words be, strong and
water, for eam$le, derive from )ld
English. )ld English was s$o#en until
around ++,,.

-art of Beowulf, a $oem written in )ld
English.

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!iddle English (1100-1500
(n +,.. 'illiam the %on/ueror, the
Du#e of "ormandy 0$art of modern
1rance2, invaded and con/uered
England. The new con/uerors 0called
the "ormans2 brought with them a
#ind of 1rench, which became the
language of the 3oyal %ourt, and the
ruling and business classes. 1or a
$eriod there was a #ind of linguistic
class division, where the lower
classes s$o#e English and the u$$er
classes s$o#e 1rench. (n the +4th
century English became dominant in
Britain again, but with many 1rench
words added. This language is called
*iddle English. (t was the language
of the great $oet %haucer 0c+54,6
+4,,2, but it would still be difficult
for native English s$ea#ers to
understand today.

An eam$le of *iddle English by %haucer.
!odern English
Early !odern English (1500-
1"00
Towards the end of *iddle English, a
sudden and distinct change in
$ronunciation 0the Great 7owel Shift2
started, with vowels being
$ronounced shorter and shorter.
1rom the +.th century the British
had contact with many $eo$les from
around the world. This, and the
3enaissance of %lassical learning,
meant that many new words and
$hrases entered the language. The
invention of $rinting also meant that
there was now a common language
in $rint. Boo#s became chea$er and
more $eo$le learned to read.
-rinting also brought standardi8ation
to English. S$elling and grammar
became fied, and the dialect of
9ondon, where most $ublishing
houses were, became the standard.
(n +.,4 the first English dictionary
was $ublished.

:amlet;s famous <To be, or not to be< lines,
written in Early *odern English by
Sha#es$eare.
#ate !odern English (1"00-$resent
The main difference between Early *odern English and 9ate *odern English is vocabulary. 9ate
*odern English has many more words, arising from two $rinci$al factors= firstly, the (ndustrial
3evolution and technology created a need for new words> secondly, the British Em$ire at its
height covered one /uarter of the earth;s surface, and the English language ado$ted foreign
words from many countries.
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%arieties of English
1rom around +.,,, the English coloni8ation of "orth America resulted in the creation of a
distinct American variety of English. Some English $ronunciations and words <fro8e< when they
reached America. (n some ways, American English is more li#e the English of Sha#es$eare than
modern British English is. Some e$ressions that the British call <Americanisms< are in fact
original British e$ressions that were $reserved in the colonies while lost for a time in Britain
0for eam$le trash for rubbish, loan as a verb instead of lend, and fall for autumn> another
eam$le, frame-up, was re6im$orted into Britain through :ollywood gangster movies2. S$anish
also had an influence on American English 0and subse/uently British English2, with words li#e
canyon, ranch, stampede and vigilante being eam$les of S$anish words that entered English
through the settlement of the American 'est. 1rench words 0through 9ouisiana2 and 'est
African words 0through the slave trade2 also influenced American English 0and so, to an etent,
British English2.
Today, American English is $articularly influential, due to the ?SA;s dominance of cinema,
television, $o$ular music, trade and technology 0including the (nternet2. But there are many
other varieties of English around the world, including for eam$le Australian English, "ew
@ealand English, %anadian English, South African English, (ndian English and %aribbean
English.
&he 'ermani( )amily of #anguages
English is a mem*er of the 'ermani( family of languages+
'ermani( is a *ran(h of the ,ndo-European language family+
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A *rief (hronology of English
B% 55 3oman invasion of Britain by !ulius %aesar.
B% 45
3oman invasion and occu$ation. Beginning of 3oman rule of
Britain.
45. 3oman withdrawal from Britain com$lete.
44A Settlement of Britain by Germanic invaders begins
9ocal inhabitants
s$ea# %eltish
45,64B, Earliest #nown )ld English inscri$tions.
+,..
'illiam the %on/ueror, Du#e of "ormandy, invades and
con/uers England.
)ld English
c++5, Earliest surviving manuscri$ts in *iddle English.
+54B
English re$laces 9atin as the language of instruction in most
schools.
+5.C
English re$laces 1rench as the language of law. English is
used in -arliament for the first time.
c+5BB %haucer starts writing The Canterbury Tales.
c+4,, The Great 7owel Shift begins.
*iddle English
+4D. 'illiam %aton establishes the first English $rinting $ress.
+5.4 Sha#es$eare is born.
+.,4 Table Alphabeticall, the first English dictionary, is $ublished.
+.,D
The first $ermanent English settlement in the "ew 'orld
0!amestown2 is established.
+.+. Sha#es$eare dies.
+.C5 Sha#es$eare;s 1irst 1olio is $ublished
+D,C
The first daily English6language news$a$er, The Daily
Courant, is $ublished in 9ondon.
+D55 Samuel !ohnson $ublishes his English dictionary.
+DD.
Thomas !efferson writes the American Declaration of
(nde$endence.
+DBC Britain abandons its American colonies.
Early *odern English
+BCB 'ebster $ublishes his American English dictionary.
+ACC The British Broadcasting %or$oration is founded.
+ACB The Oxford English Dictionary is $ublished.
9ate *odern English
O-,',. O) E.'#,/0 Ada$ted from <A Brief :istory of English< by -aul 3oberts

'e s$ea# English but do we #now where it comes fromE ( didnFt #now until ( started to study on
this subGect and ( learned where it comes from and how it has develo$ed.
The history of English begins a little after A.D. .,,. The ancestors of the language were
wandering in the forests of northern Euro$e. Their language was a $art of Germanic branch of
(ndo6Euro$ean 1amily.
The $eo$le tal#ing this language s$read to the northern coast of Euro$e in the time of 3oman
Em$ire. Among this $eo$le the tribes called Angels,Saons,!utes which is called Anglo6Saons
come to England. The first 9atin effect was in that $eriod. 9atin effected the language with the
merchants traveling the tribes. Some of the words ta#en from 9atin are> #ettle,wine,cheese,
butter, chea$.
Also in the +4th century 3ome Em$ire wea#ened because Goths attac#ed to *editerranean
countries of 3oman Em$ire and Anglo6Saons attac#ed to em$ire. )n the other hand the %eltic
tribes in Scotland and 'ales develo$ed. At the end in 4+, the last roman em$eror left the
island to %eltic and Anglo6Saons. %eltic and Anglo6Saons fought for +,, years and Anglo6
Saons #illed all the %eltics. (n 55, Anglo HSaons established England. During 3oma Em$ire
9atin wasnFt the native language of the #ingdom because $eo$le in the country were tal#ing
%eltic.
'hen Anglo6Saons became %hristian in 5AD they learned 9atin. According to the effects to
English , the history of the language divided in to three> )ld English0Dth century6++,,2, *iddle
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English0++,,6+45,I+5,,2, *odern English 0+5,,6now2. (n some boo#s *odern English is divided
in to two Early modern 0+5,,6+D,,2, 9ate *odern 0+D,,6now2.
O#D E.'#,/0
'hen England was established there were several #ingdoms and the most advanced one was
"urthumbria. (t was this $eriod that the best of the )ld English literature was written ,
including the e$ic $oem Beowulf
(n the Bth century "urthumbrian $ower declined , 'est Saons became the leading $ower. The
most famous #ing of the 'est Saons was Alfred the Great. :e founded and established
schools, translated or caused to be translated many boo#s from 9atin in to English.
After many years of hit6and6run raids between the Euro$ean #ingdoms, the "orseman landed
in the year of B.. and later the east coast of the island was "orsemanFs. "orse language
effected the English considerably. "orse wasnFt so different from English and English $eo$le
could understand "orseman. There were considerable interchanges and word borrowings
0s#y,give,law,egg,outlaw,leg,ugly,tal#2. Also borrowed $ronouns li#e they,their,them. (t is
su$$osed also that the "orseman influenced the sound structure and the grammar of English.
)ld English had some sound which we donFt #now have now. (n grammar , )ld English was
much more highly inflected that *iddle English because there were case endings for nouns,
more $erson and number endings of words and a more com$licated $ronoun systems, various
endings for adGectives. (n vocabulary )ld English is /uiet different from *iddle English. *ost of
the )ld English words are native English which werenFt borrowed from other languages. )n the
other hand )ld English contains borrowed words coming from "orse and 9atin.
!,DD#E E.'#,/0
Between ++,,6+C,, many im$ortant changes too# $lace in the structure of English and )ld
English became *iddle English. The $olitical event which effected the administration system
and language was the "orman %on/uest. (n +,.. they crossed the %hannel and they became
the master of England. 1or the net several net years ,England was ruled by the #ings whose
native language was 1rench. )n the other hand 1rench couldnFt become the national language
because it became the language of the court , nobility, $olite society, literature. But it didnFt
re$lace as the language of the $eo$le. English continued to be the national language but it
changed too much after the con/uest.
The sound systemJgrammar wasnFt so effected but vocabulary was effected much. There
were word related with goverment=$arliment,ta, goverment,maGesty> church word= religion,
$arson, sermon> words for food! veal, beef, mutton, $each,lemon,cream,biscuit> colors! blue,
scarlet, vermilion> household words= curtain, chair,lam$,towel,blan#et> play words!
dance,chess,music,leisure,conversation> literary words! story romance, $oet, literary> learned
words! study, logic grammar,noun,surgeon, anatomy, stomach> ordinary words for all sorts!
nice,second,very,age,buc#et, final,gentel, fault, flower,count,sure, move, sur$rise, $lain. 0%lar#,
7.-.J Eschhol8, -.A. J3ose ,A.1.> +AA4>.CC 2
*iddle English was still a Germanic language but it is different from )ld English in many ways.
Grammar and the sound system changed a good deal. -eo$le started to rely more on word
order and structure words to e$ress their meaning rather than the use of case system. KThis
can be called as a sim$lification but it is not eactly. 9anguages donFt become sim$ler , they
merely echange one #ind of com$leity for anotherL0 0%lar#, 7.-.J Eschhol8, -.A. J3ose ,A.1.>
+AA4>.CC 2
1or us *iddle English is sim$ler that )ld English because it is closer to *odern English.
EA-#1 !ODE-. E.'#,/0
Between +4,,6+.,, English underwent a cou$le of sound changes. )ne change was the
elimination of a vowel sound in certain unstressed $ositions at the end of the words. The
change was im$ortant because it effected thousands of words and gave a different as$ect to
the whole language.
The other change is what is called the Great 7owel Shift. This was a systematic shifting of half a
do8en vowels and di$hthongs in stressed syllables. 1or eam$le the word name had in *iddle
English a vowel something li#e that in the modern word father>...etc. The shift effected all the
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words in which these vowels sounds occurred. These two changes $roduced the basic
differences between *iddle English and *odern English. But there are several other
develo$ments that effected the language. )ne was the invention of $rinting. (t was introduced
to England by 'illiam %aton in +4D5. After this boo#s became chea$er and chea$er, more
$eo$le learned to read and write and advanced in communication.
The $eriod of Early *odern English was also a $eriod of English 3enaissance, which means the
develo$ment of the $eo$le. "ew ideas increased. English language had grown as a result of
borrowing words from 1rench, 9atin, Gree#.
The greatest writer of the Early *odern English $eriod is Sha#es$eare and the best #nown boo#
is the Ming !ones version of the B"B#E
-E2E.& DE%E#O$!E.&/
(n order to establish the language they develo$ a dictionary. The first English Dictionary was
$ublished in +.,5. Another $roduct of the +Bth century was the invention of English Grammar.
As English is re$laced with 9atin as the language of scholarshi$, it was felt to control the
language.
The $eriod where English develo$ed most in the *odern English. (n that $eriod the $eo$le
s$ea#ing that language increased too much. "ow, English is the greatest language of the
world s$o#en natively and as a second language. 'hat will ha$$en in the futureE (tFll continue
to grow , may be it will be the universal language.
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