The Cosmic Engine: Site Licence Conditions

KCiC Physics 4 Cosmic Engine
copyright 2009 keep it simple science

www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
Slide 1
k eep i t si mpl e sc i enc e
Key Conc ept s i n Col our
Preliminary Physics Topic 4
The Cosmi c Engi ne
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Slide 2
Usage & copying is permitted according to the
Site Licence Conditions only

Pr el i mi nar y Physi c s Topi c 4
The Cosmi c Engi ne
First, Some Revision:
The St r uct ur e of t he Uni ver se
The EARTH is a PLANET. The Earth
and 7 other planets (plus
dwarf planets, moons,
asteroids, comets, etc)
are in orbit around
the Sun. The SUN
and all these
things in orbit
around it, make
up our " SOLAR
SYSTEM" .
Everything stays
in orbit around
the Sun because
of gravity.
Our understanding
of the Universe is very
recent. Just 100 years
ago we had no idea of the
vastness of the Universe or
what was going on inside the Sun.
We had no knowledge of the life and death of a star.
Were still learning...
The SUN is a STAR. Energy is being produced
inside it, due to NUCLEAR REACTIONS. The Sun is
one of over 100 billion stars that make up our
GALAXY. Each star in the night sky is another " Sun"
within our galaxy, the " MILKY WAY" . Our Sun and
the other stars of the Milky Way are orbiting around
the galaxys centre because of gravity.
Beyond our galaxy are billions of other galaxies.
The di stances i nvol ved are i mmense and
unimaginable!
We have good reason to believe that the entire
Universe is EXPANDING, with the space between
galaxies increasing.
This topic begins with a little history, then gives
you an introduction to modern Astronomy.
Along the way youll learn about nuclear
reactions
and finish
up with a
look at
the Sun,
its many
radiations
and how
they
affect the
Earth.
Other, distant galaxies
Our Galaxy,
the Milky Way
Sun
Mercury
Venus
Mars
Earth
Pluto
Neptune
Uranus
Jupiter
Saturn
Position of
our Sun in the
galaxy
Slide 3
Hertzsprung-Russell
Diagram
Big Bang
Theory
Radiation
from the Sun
Temperature &
Colour of Stars
Energy
in a Star
Nuclear
Reactions.
Radioactivity
Evidence for the
Big Bang
Formation of
Stars & Galaxies
Impacts &
Effects
on Earth
Stages in a
Stars Life
Brightness &
Distance.
Inverse-Square Law
Geocentric
or
Heliocentric?
THE COSMI C
ENGI NE
A Little
History
How the
Universe Began
Life-Cycles
of the Stars
Energy from
the Sun

Slide 4
Different Models of the Universe
First, be aware that our understanding of galaxies and the true extent of the Universe was only discovered
within the last 100 years. Prior to that, any theory or model of the Universe really only dealt with our Solar
System. The stars were thought to be part of the Solar System, or only just beyond it..
Over the centuries there have been TWO main models of the Universe competing for acceptance.
1. HISTORY OF OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE UNIVERSE
Heliocentric Models correctly place the Sun
at the centre of the Solar System. (" Helios" = Sun)
Heliocentric models require that the Earth rotates on
its axis so that everything in the sky appears to go
around us. However, we can't feel that the Earth is
spinning, so this idea is harder to accept on the basis
of common sense, even though it is correct.
Only the Moon truly orbits the Earth.
Geocentric Models
Many early Astronomers believed that the EARTH is
at the centre of the Universe.
(" Geos" = Earth, centric = at the centre)
Geocentric models easily explain why the Sun, Moon,
planets and stars all appear to move across the sky.
Common sense suggests that everything revolves
around the Earth once per day. Also, we cannot feel
that the Earth is spinning, so this model makes
common sense, even though it is wrong!
Earth
Sun
Sun
Fixed
Stars
Earth

Planets
Moon
Fixed Stars
Moon
Planets
Slide 5

Aristotle ~330 BC Geocentric Theory
This great thinker of ancient Greece thought that the
Sun, Moon, planets & stars are carried on invisible
crystal spheres rotating around the Earth.
This basic concept was believed for about 2,000
years.
Aristarchus ~240BC
Heliocentric Theory
Another Greek, Aristarchus
realised that it was possible
that the Sun is in the centre
with everything orbiting
around it. For this to work the
Earth must rotate on its axis,
so it appears that everything
moves around us.
This idea was not accepted because " parallax"
could not be
detected at this
time.
Historical Summary up until about 1700 AD
Claudius Ptolemy ~120AD
Geocentric Model with " Epicycles"
Based on the best (naked eye) measurements of the
time, Ptolemy developed a model which could predict
the motion of planets & the times of eclipses.
Although we now know it was wrong, it
was a practical, working model used for
1,400 years.
The " epicycles" were needed to explain
the " retrograde" motion of the planets.
Ptolemys model was accepted for such
a long time that it became part of the
belief system of the Middle Ages, and
was even adopted as the official
religious explanation of the Universe.
So, when new ideas and new discoveries emerged
around 1500 AD, they were seen as dangerous and
heretical, and were punishable by torture and death.
See Further Explanations
at the end of this section
See Further Explanations
at the end of this section
Which is
Spinning
Around the
Other?
Slide 6

Tycho Brahe 1546-1601
Accurate Observations
Tycho used the most advanced observatory of that time to
gather outstandingly accurate data (accurate for naked eye
measurement) of planetary movements. He favoured the
geocentric model and hoped his observations would prove
Copernicus wrong.
He jealously guarded his data from others, but when he
died it went to his student Kepler.
Johannes Kepler 1571-1630
Heliocentric Model, with elliptical orbits
Kepler tried to fit Brahe's extremely accurate data to the
Copernicus model. Finally, he found it only fitted if the
orbits were ellipses, not circles.
Eventually he proposed 3 " Laws of Planetary Motion" .
These described the orbits accurately, but could give no
explanation of how or why the Earth and planets
could orbit around the Sun.
The Heliocentric idea was still NOT accepted widely.
Historical Summary continued...
Nicholas Copernicus 1473 - 1543 AD
Heliocentric Theory
As measurements improved, Ptolemy's model
needed more & more adjustments and epicycles
to stay accurate i n i ts descri pti on of the
heavens. It got so complicated that Copernicus
decided there must be a simpler explanation. He
decided that perhaps Aristarchus had been
correct after all, and the Sun was in the centre.
Copericuss new model still relied on crystal
spheres to carry planets and stars in circular
orbits, but it was Heliocentric... Sun centred.
The accuracy of predicted motions remained
much the same as Ptolemys, but this model was
much simpler in its explanations.
This model was NOT immediately accepted at
the time.
Slide 7
Sir Isaac Newton 1642-1727
Mathematical Theory of Gravity
Newtons Theory of Universal Gravitation provided
the explanation for things to be
in orbit , and did away with the
clumsy crystal spheres of
previous models.
From his equation for Gravity,
Newton could prove Kepler's Laws
mathematically... this proved that
the Heliocentric Model was
correct.
Since the time of Newton, the Heliocentric model has
been accepted as the scientifically correct description of
the Universe, but it took another 200 years to discover
the full story of stars, galaxies and distances.
Sir Isaac Newton
Historical Summary continued...
Galileo Galilei 1564-1642
Telescope Observations
Galileo was the first to use a TELESCOPE to view the
heavens.
His observations conflicted
with the model of Ptolemy,
and supported the
Heliocentric idea of
Copernicus.
He observed that the planet
Jupiter has moons orbiting
around it. (Only the Earth was
supposed to have things go
around it!)
He saw that the planet Venus showed phases like the
Moon. (This was only explainable if Venus orbited the
Sun, not Earth!)
The Significance of Telescopes in Astronomy
All of the theories until the time of Galileo, were limited by the lack of the TELESCOPE.
Without telescopes, all measurements and observations were made by naked-eye, and
were of limited accuracy.
If telescopes had been available earlier, then PARALLAX might have been
observed in nearby stars, and greater accuracy would have been possible in
measuring planetary positions and movements. This would have led to rejection of the
clumsy and complicated " epicycles" of Ptolemy and perhaps the correct Heliocentric
model would have been accepted earlier.

Slide 8

Parallax
Parallax is the apparent movement of an object against
a more di stant background, when vi ewed from a
different angle.
Opponents of any Hel i ocentri c model throughout
history could argue (correctly) that if Earth was orbiting
the Sun, then the stars should show some parallax
movements relative to other stars, when viewed from
one part of our orbit compared to another.
A Simple Example of Parallax
Hold up one finger and view it with one eye
against a distant tree or post. Hold the finger still
while switching to view it with your other eye.
Your finger appears to move relative to
the distant " landmark" .
This apparent movement is called " PARALLAX"
Further Explanations
This information may help your understanding. It is NOT a syllabus requirement to learn it.
Sun
Earth
Earth,
6 months
later
lin
e o
f o
b
servatio
n
Star
being
observed
More
distant
stars
The position of the star
should change against the
background stars.
Parallax!
This parallax motion could not be detected by naked
eye observati ons, even wi th the most accurate
instruments invented right up until the 17th century,
so heliocentric theories tended to be rejected.
In fact, nearby stars DO show parallax movement, but
you need a telescope to detect it, because even the
nearest stars are billions of kilometres away.
Slide 9 Usage & copying is permitted according to the

Retrograde Motion & Epicycles
Epicycles were a device invented by Ptolemy to
explain the " retrograde" motion of the planets.
Firstly you must know that, while the stars always
appear in exactly the same relative positions every
ni ght, the pl anets do not. (" Pl anet" means
" wanderer" in Greek.) If you observe a planet night
after ni ght, i t seems to move sl owl y eastward
compared to the background of stars. However,
sometimes the planet moves westward for a while.
This was called " retrograde" (backwards) motion.
To explain it, Ptolemy proposed that the planets were
carried on smaller crystal spheres (the epicycles)
whi ch rotated on the ri m of the mai n spheres
(" deferents" ) surrounding the Earth.
Normal planetary wanderings
Retrograde motion
Fixed Stars in background
Further Explanations
This information may help your understanding. It is NOT a syllabus requirement to learn it.
This " wheels-on-wheels" idea was able to explain
retrograde motion adequately, if rather clumsily.
The real explanation for retrograde motion is that we
view the moving planets from a moving Earth. At
certain parts of our orbit, we " overtake" other planets
and so they appear to move " backwards" for a while.
Retrograde moti on i s easi l y expl ai ned by the
geometry of a Heliocentric model, with the Earth and
other planets all orbiting the Sun.
Earth
Deferent
Epicycle
Planet
Planet
Each planets main orbit is a
rotating glass sphere, called
the deferent.
It revolves around the Earth.
The planet
is carried
on a
smaller
sphere, the
epicycle,
which
rotates on
the
deferent.
Slide 10
Ac t i vi t y 1
The following activity might be completed by class discussion,
or your teacher may have paper copies for you to do.
Some Hi st or y Student Name .................................
1. Out l i ne t he di f f er enc e bet ween a Hel i oc ent r i c and Geoc ent r i c model .
2. The f ol l ow i ng peopl e al l pr oposed a model t o desc r i be t he uni ver se.
Ar i st ot l e Ar i st ar chus Pt ol emy Coper ni c us Kepl er
Ci r cl e t hose w hose model was Geoc ent r i c .
3. What was Tycho Br ahes c ont r i but i on t o Ast r onomy?
4. What was t he si gni f i c anc e of Gal i l eos obser vat i ons?
5.
a) What di d Kepl er s Law s desc r i be?
b) I n w hat way was t hi s model di f f er ent t o any pr evi ous i dea?
c ) How, and by w hom, wer e Kepl er s Law s c onf i r med t o be c or r ec t ?

Slide 11

Outline of the Big Bang Theory
1. The universe began about 13-14 billion years ago.
2. In the beginning, all the space, matter
and energy of the universe was
concentrated in a " singularity" ...
one tiny point of incredible density and
temperature.
3. This exploded outwards in all
directions, becoming cooler and less
dense as it expanded very rapidly.
This expansion is still occurring today.
Galaxies are moving further apart as space expands.
4. Within a galaxy, gravity attracts matter and holds stars and
planets together in their orbits around each other, so there is no
apparent expansion in the " local" area of space.
This theory seems strange and unbelievable when
described in simple outline, so why is it accepted as
being correct? Simple! ...because the theory explains
and fits many observed facts about the universe.
2. HOW THE UNI VERSE BEGAN
What the
Big Bang Explains
The Universe is Expanding
The main evidence is the " Red-Shift" of
the spectral lines of distant galaxies. This
can only be explained by a continuing
expansion of space. Expansion is thought
to due to the original explosion.
Cosmic Background Radiation
It was discovered in 1965 that the entire
Universe seems to be filled with
microwave radiation coming from every
direction. This is explained as being the
" afterglow" of radiation from soon after
the Big Bang explosion.
What the Universe is Made From
The observed chemical composition of
the universe (almost entirely Hydrogen
and Helium) agrees with theoretical
predictions of what should have
happened during the first seconds
of the Big Bang.
Note: You must NOT think of this as if the matter exploded
outwards into the space surrounding it.
The explosion and expansion was of space itself.
Before the explosion there was no space or time.
The RED SHIFT is
explained in the next slide
Slide 12

In 1922, the Russi an Al exander
Friedmann predicted that the universe
was expanding.
His prediction arose from working on
the equations of Einstein's " General
Theory of Relativity" . This was a brave
predi cti on at the ti me, si nce other
galaxies beyond ours had not been
discovered, and there was no known
evidence of expansion.
Duri ng the 1920' s new, bi gger
telescopes led to the discovery of other
distant galaxies. The American, Edwin
Hubbl e, anal ysed the spectral l i nes
from distant galaxies and discovered
the " cosmological red-shift" .
What is the " RED-SHIFT" ?
The " Red-Shift" is when the lines in a
galaxy's light spectrum have shifter to
longer wavelengths... nearer to the red
end of the visible light spectrum.
Discovery of the Expanding Universe
This is due to the Doppler Effect:
The waves emitted by a stationary object spread out evenly in all
directions, with the same wavelength.
However, when the object is moving, the waves in front get
bunched up and their wavelength is shortened. The waves behind
get stretched and the wavelength is lengthened.
The Red-Shift in the light from distant galaxies seems to be caused
by them moving away from us as the universe expands. The
wavelength of light gets longer (redder). If they were approaching,
we would see a blue shift in the light.
All distant galaxies show a red-shift.
It seems to be a fact that space is expanding.
Waves spreading out
evenly from a stationary
object
In Front,
wavelength
shortened
Light Bluer
Behind,
wavelength
lengthened
Light redder
Light Waves Spreading Out From a
Moving Galaxy
Slide 13

In 1915, Albert Einstein had deduced his
famous equation
E = energy, m = mass
c = the speed of light = 3x10
8
ms
-1
The equation predicts that matter and
energy are equivalent and inter-
changeable.
Because the c term in the equation is a very large
number, it follows that a very small amount of matter
is equivalent to a large amount of energy
For example, during a nuclear explosion a small
amount of matter " disappears" . It has been converted
into the energy of the explosion. In the Sun, as in all
stars, energy is constantly being released from the
conversion of matter to energy.
The reverse happened duri ng the Bi g Bang.
Originally there was only energy. The matter and
mass of the universe was formed from this energy,
according to Einstein's equation. Obviously it must
have taken large amounts of energy to form each tiny
particle of matter.
E = mc
How the Matter of the Universe was Formed
In the fi rst spl i t second of the Bi g Bang
explosion, all the " substance" of the universe
was radiation energy. It was too hot for matter to
form, or rather, any matter that formed was
instantly torn apart again.
As the fireball expanded, however, it cooled
rapi dl y unti l parti cl es of matter (protons,
electrons & neutrons) were " condensed" from the
energy according to E=mc.
After further cooling, some protons & neutrons were
able to combine into simple atomic nuclei.
After approximately 300,000 years it became cool
enough for electrons to combine with nuclei to form
atoms of (mainly) hydrogen and helium, with a trace
of lithium.
The atoms formed were
nearly all hydrogen,
with a small amount of
helium and a trace
of lithium
p
e
e
e
p
n
n
p
Slide 14

The Formation of Stars and
Galaxies
Gravity was able to attract the
matter within each " lump" of
gas and cause it to collapse
in on itself. Eventually, each
separate " lump" of matter
became a galaxy. Further
" accretion" of " lumps" within each galaxy led to the formation
of stars. Later, the debris of
exploded stars, containing
heavier elements, accreted to
form solar systems like ours.
As the early universe (now made up of large
amounts of atoms) continued to expand, it
also cooled further. At this time the entire
universe may be pictured as a single, hot
cl oud of mostl y hydrogen gas, sti l l
expanding as space itself grows.
Expansion of a gas causes it to cool, so the
temperature of the fireball must have fallen
as the cloud expanded. Since temperature
is really a measure of the Kinetic Energy
(i.e. speed) of the particles, it follows that
the KE of the atoms must have dropped
also.
Eventually, the particles became cool
enough (and slow enough) for gravity to
have an effect.
If the atoms in the cloud had been
perfectly evenly distributed, then
gravitational attractions would have
been equal in every direction and
cancelled out. However, it seems
that random fluctuations within the
cloud had caused a degree of " lumpiness" .
Roughly 13 billion
years later, here we
are on a planet, in a
solar system,
orbiting a star.
Our star is one
of billions, orbiting
around our galaxy.
Our galaxy is one of
billions, all flying
apart from each
other as space
itself continues
to expand. Note: we know this is true because the Cosmic Background Radiation (the afterglow of
the Big Bang fireball) shows distinct patterns of unequal distribution.
Universe is a singularity
Particles of matter,
then atoms form.
As space expands, the galaxies get
further apart.
Galaxies form
Universe of pure
energy
Slide 15
Ac t i vi t y 2
Begi nni ng of t he Uni ver se Student Name .................................
1. The Bi g Bang Theor y i s ac c ept ed as our best ex pl anat i on f or t he begi nni ng of
t he Uni ver se bec ause i t c an ex pl ai n c er t ai n obser vat i ons. What ar e t he 3 maj or
f ac t s about t he Uni ver se t hat Bi g Bang ex pl ai ns?
2.
a) What i s t he c osmol ogi c al r ed-shi f t ?
b) What c auses i t ?
3. I n t he ear l y Uni ver se t her e was no mat t er, onl y ener gy.
Out l i ne how mat t er i s t hought t o have f or med.
4. How c an al l par t s of t he Uni ver se be movi ng away f r om al l ot her par t s?


To understand the life of a star, you first need to know some
basics about the radiation of energy (e.g. light) from a hot object
such as a star.
Any hot object will radiate energy (typically infra-red heat and
light) from its surface. The hotter it gets, the more energy will be
radiated. This energy will be radiated at a variety of wavelengths,
but for any given temperature there is a particular " peak"
wavelength that dominates the emitted energy.
The graph shows the relationship.
At (relatively) low temperature, there is
less energy being emitted, and the peak
wavelength is longer.
At higher temperatures, there is more energy emitted and the
peak wavelength gets shorter.
3. LI FE-CYCLES OF THE STARS
shorter longer
Wavelength of Radiation
very hot
object
hot object
peak
wavelength
peak
wavelength
shorter
A
m
o
u
n
t

o
f

E
n
e
r
g
y

R
a
d
i
a
t
e
d
HOT BODY
RADIATION
CURVES
warm
object
peak wavelength
longer
Relationship of Temperature & Wavelength of Radiation from a Hot Object
For stars, this means
there is a relationship
between their
TEMPERATURE and
their COLOUR.
Slide 17
Relatively cool stars (surface temp 3,000C) emit
radiation which peaks at long wave-lengths in the infra-
red and red light part of the spectrum.
COOL STARS ARE RED
Hotter stars (our Sun's surface temp is about 5,700C)
also emit a lot of infra-red and the whole range of
visible light, but the peak is yellow light rather than
red. (shorter wavelength)
Very hot stars (30,000C and more) have a peak emission
at the shorter wavelengths of blue light.
Spectral
Lines
The light spectrum
from a star is
never a simple
rainbow of
colours. It always
contains many fine lines.
These lines are the fingerprints of particular types
of atoms. The spectral lines in starlight reveal which
chemical elements are present in the star. Each type
of atom absorbs or emits light at precise frequencies
to make its own unique spectral pattern.
The Study of
Star Light
You are familiar with
the way that a prism
can break white
light up into the
colours of the
rainbow by
refracting each
wavelength so that they separate.
A spectroscope is simply a more sophisticated version of
the prism, and allows the intensity of each wavelength to
be measured. Measuring the peak wavelength of the
spectrum of light from a star allows astronomers to
determine the stars surface temperature.
Temperature and Colour of Stars
Short wavelengths of light are BLUE. Longer wavelengths are RED.

HOT STARS ARE BLUE
Some bright stars can be seen to be reddish or blue-
ish to the naked eye, but generally the " peak" colour
of a star can onl y be determi ned by usi ng a
Spectroscope to analyse the wavelengths of light
gathered via a telescope.
The spectrum of light from a star gives us a lot of
information, but the "peak" wavelength (i.e. the dominant
colour) tells astronomers the star's surface temperature.
This turns out to be vitally connected to the star's life and
ultimate death.
white light is a
mixture of
wavelengths
different
wavelengths
spread out to
form a spectrum

Some Definitions
" Luminosity" = amount of light energy emitted from
a glowing object such as a star.
" Brightness" or
Intensity = amount of light being received when
you look at it from a distance.
Obviously, how bright a star appears depends on how luminous
it is, AND how far away it is.
Example: A really luminous star (i.e. emitting a lot of light)
could look quite dull (low brightness) if viewed from a huge
distance. A less luminous star could appear very bright if
viewed from close up.
Mathematically, the relationship is that the apparent brightness
or intensity (I) is inversely proportional to the SQUARE of the
distance (d) from which it is viewed.
This relationship
was studied in
an earlier topic
( The World
Communicates )
I 1 or I.d
2
= constant
d
2
(The symbol means proportional to )
One way to understand this is explained in
the diagram.
If you start wi th the mathemati cal
relationship:
I.d
2
= constant,
this means that no matter how far you are
from a star the product (bri ghtness x
distance squared) has the same value.
Therefore, at a position A , I
A
d
A
2
= k
and at another position B , I
B
d
B
2
= k
therefore, I
A
d
A
2
= I
B
d
B
2
Light spreading out from a star
Brightness & Distance: the Inverse Square Law
x
Star
d
istan
ce
d
d
is
ta
n
c
e
2
d
2x
Square
Area x
2
Square with
sides twice as
long.
Area = 4x
2
Same amount
of light falls
on 4 times
the area
Slide 19

Now we put together the Colour-Temperature relationship,
and the Brightness-Distance relationship:
The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram is a graphical plot of
the Luminosity of stars against Temperature. It is named
after the 2 astronomers who independently discovered the
relationship.
Hertzsprung and Russel
found that when they
graphed luminosity
against surface
temperature like this, the
vast majority of stars
plotted in this shaded
zone.
cool, dull,
red stars
hot, bright,
blue stars
Spectral O B A F G K M
Classes
Colours Blue White Yellow Red
Temp. 30,000+ 10,000 5,000 2,500
(
o
C)
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g
(
A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
s
)
+
1
5

+
1
0

+
5

0

-
5

-
1
0
our Sun
This zone is now called the
MAIN SEQUENCE
To calculate a star's luminosity, astronomers must
measure the apparent brightness as seen from Earth,
and measure (or estimate) the star's distance from us.
The luminosity can then be calculated using
I
A
d
A
2
= I
B
d
B
2
Luminosity is often expressed on a numerical scale of
" magnitudes" as shown on the graph. Our Sun has a
magnitude of +3 on this scale.
The temperature scale is often described by " spectral class" . This uses letters to
classify stars according to the peak wavelength, and colour, being emitted. For
example, our star (the Sun) is classified as spectral class " G" . This translates to a
peak wavelength of yellow light and a surface temperature about 5,700C.
Note: Temp scale decreases to the right
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
To an astronomer,
the Sun is an
average Main
Sequence star,
classified G3 on
the H-R diagram.
Ac t i vi t y 3
Temper at ur e & Lumi nosi t y of St ar s
Student Name .................................
1. Hot obj ec t s (l i ke st ar s) emi t r adi at i on.
As t he obj ec t get s hot t er, w hat happens t o:
a) t he amount of r adi at i on gi ven of f ?
b) t he wavel engt h of t he peak r adi at i on?
2. What does a Spec t r osc ope al l ow Ast r onomer s t o st udy?
3. Out l i ne t he r el at i onshi p bet ween t he t emper at ur e and c ol our of st ar s.
4.
a) What i s t he di f fer ence bet ween t he l umi nosi t y of a st ar and i t s bri ght ness ?
b) I f 2 st ar s had t he same l umi nosi t y, but one was t w i c e as f ar away, how woul d
t hei r br i ght ness val ues c ompar e?
5. Two sc i ent i st s i ndependent l y di sc over ed
t hat i f st ar dat a was gr aphed i n a c er t ai n way,
most st ar s woul d be gr ouped i n a pat t er n.
a) Name t he 2 sc i ent i st s.
b) Label t he axes of t he H-R gr aph.
c ) Sket ch t he zone w her e most st ar s w i l l l i e
w hen t hei r dat a i s gr aphed.

Slide 21

Not all stars fit into the " main sequence" . Some stars have
luminosity-temperature combinations that place them
elsewhere on the H-R grid.
" Red Giants" are very large
(and therefore luminosity is quite high)
but relatively cool (therefore red in colour).
" White Dwarfs" are very small
(therefore luminosity is low)
but relatively hot.
Astronomers have figured out that stars go through a
series of changes during their life. Most stars spend most
of their life on the Main Sequence, but later they will rapidly
change to become Red Giants, and end their life as a
White Dwarf. The H-R diagram shows what our
Sun is likely to do in the future.
So, what causes a star to change from
one type to another during its life?
To answer that, you must understand
where the energy of a star comes from,
and that different types of star
(at different phases of their life)
are powered by different energy
sources.
SUN
30,000 10,000 6,000 3,000
blue green yellow red
TEMPERATURE (
o
C) & COLOUR
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y
Red Giants
White
Dwarfs
M
a
i
n
S
e
q
u
e
n
c
e
Edge
of a
giant
star
our Sun.
Diameter
1,300,000 km
Dwarf
star
On the scale of this diagram, the
Earth is microscopic
Stages in the Life of a Star
The Future Evolution of our Sun
Slide 22
Nuclear Fusion
If small atomic nuclei are slammed together hard enough, they may join together (" fusion" ) to form
one larger nucleus. When this occurs, the final nucleus is found to have slightly less mass
than the original, separate nuclei a little bit of mass has " gone missing" . E = mc is at work.
The missing mass has converted into energy. This is the process that powers a star.
When a star forms from the gravitational collapse of a cloud of gas
(mostly hydrogen), the pressure and temperature in the core become
high enough to slam hydrogen nuclei together so that they undergo
fusion. Through a sequence of fusion reactions and other nuclear
processes, 4 hydrogen nuclei (each is really just a proton) fuse to
form one helium nucleus.
This sequence of reactions is called the Proton-Proton Chain,
and is what produces the energy in a Main Sequence star like our
Sun. In summary, the overall reaction is:
Energy Sources in a Main Sequence Star
4 Hydrogen Helium + Energy
4
1
H
1
4
He
2
+ Energy
fusion
START WITH
4 Hydrogen nuclei (protons)
Energy
Energy
2 protons
re-released
Energy
Helium-3 nuclei
FINAL PRODUCT = Helium-4 nucleus
heavy hydrogen
(deuterium) nuclei
E
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

o
f
p
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
s

&
e
n
e
r
g
y
E
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

o
f
p
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
s

&
e
n
e
r
g
y
Reaction 1
2 more
protons
Reaction
2
Reaction 3
+ + + +
+
n
n
n
n
n n
n
n
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+

Slide 23
Core Temperature and Star Size
A main sequence star like the Sun can " burn" steadily for billions of years. In the core of the Sun the
temperature is thought to be around 15 million C. It would explode outwards like a huge atomic bomb
except that enormous gravitational forces hold it together.
The size of any star is determined by the balance between gravity and the energy released by fusion.
Energy Source in Red Giant Stars
Main Sequence stars " burn" hydrogen to helium for
billions of years. The Sun is about 5 billion years old,
and we think it will last another 5 billion years as a
Main Sequence star .
Meanwhile, in the core, the amount of hydrogen
steadi l y decreases and the amount of hel i um
increases.
When the helium concentration reaches a certain
critical level, the amount of energy being produced
in the core decreases rapidly. Without the outward
push of fusion energy, gravity takes over and the
core collapses inwards under its own weight. This
generates immense heat from the conversion of
gravitation potential energy. Extra heat causes the
outer layers above the core to expand outwards.
the star may grow to thousands of times its original
diameter.
When this happens in about 5 billion years, the Sun
will swell outwards beyond the Earth's current orbit,
destroying the inner planets as it goes.

Meanwhi l e, down i n the hel i um-ri ch core, the
temperature keeps increasing until it is hot enough
for helium to begin fusing. Three helium nuclei, if
slammed together hard enough, will fuse to form
carbon and release even more energy.
Helium burning has begun.
3 Helium Carbon + energy
3
4
He
2
12
C
6
+ energy
Although the star expands due to extra heat within,
conversely its outer layers become cooler and so its
" peak" emitted wavelength is typically red light. So
it is much bigger, and is red: a RED GIANT.
Despite being cooler, its total luminosity increases
due to its immense size. On the H-R diagram it
moves off the main sequence upwards to the right.
fusion
carbon
nucleus
energy release
3

h
e
l
i
u
m
n
u
c
l
e
i
Slide 24

The Red Giant burns helium for a billion years or so,
but gradually the fuel begins to run out and fusion
slows down.
As its energy radiates away and the core cools,
gravity now collapses the outer layers of the star.
There may be a series of stuttering explosions as fuel
in a collapsing layer re-ignites fusion and blows part
of the star away. Eventually, it shrinks down to the
size of a planet. Its density becomes immense
(around 1,000kg per cm) and the atoms themselves
are compressed by gravity into " degenerate matter" ...
a fancy name for squashed atoms.
Because i t i s smal l , i ts l umi nosi ty i s very l ow.
Residual heat causes the surface temperature to
reach about 10,000C so the peak wavelength is
green, but it radiates the whole range of visible
wavelengths so that the star appears white:
it is a WHITE DWARF.
Over billions of years, the star cools and eventually
dies as a " brown dwarf" . In its death it moves down
to the right and completely off the H-R diagram. It
also becomes virtually invisible and undetectable to
Earth-bound astronomers.
Summary: Energy Sources in Stars
Main Sequence: Proton-Proton Fusion
4 Hydrogen Helium + energy
Red Giants: Helium-Burning Fusion
3 Helium Carbon + energy
White Dwarfs: Residual heat only. No energy
being produced once gravitational collapse is
complete.
Energy Source in a White Dwarf
star
death
SUN
30,000 10,000 6,000 3,000
blue green yellow red
TEMPERATURE (
o
C) & COLOUR
Red Giants
White
Dwarfs
M
a
i
n
S
e
q
u
e
n
c
e
Typical Life of a Main Sequence Star

L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

If a star forms a lot larger than normal (e.g. more than
8 times the mass of the Sun) the compression and heat
generated in the core causes more fusion reactions to
occur than just the basic hydrogen to helium reaction.
Larger nuclei are produced by a variety of fusion
reactions; carbon, oxygen, silicon and other elements
as large as iron are formed in abundance. The star is
large, hot and luminous, so on the H-R diagram these
" Blue Supergiants" are near the top left of the grid.
Because they are so hot and dense in the core, Blue
Supergiants burn their fuel very quickly and so have a
relatively short life span.
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

Red Giants
White
Dwarfs
M
a
i
n
S
e
q
u
e
n
c
e
Blue Supergiant
Stars
Supernova: what's the story?
When the core runs out of fuel and fusion ceases,
gravity causes a collapse that is truly cataclysmic!
The core collapses and shrinks rapidly, and when
the outer layers fall in onto this dense core, they
rebound in a hugely energetic explosion...
a Supernova!
The Crab Nebula is the remains of a star which
exploded as a Supernova almost 1,000 years ago.
Photo courtesy of NASA & ESA
Temperature
Slide 26

A " supernova" explosion has several interesting
consequences:-
The star briefly flares as bright as a million stars
combined.
The explosion creates all the larger atoms (by
nuclear reactions) and then sprays them outwards to
form a dust cloud in space. Billions of years later, this
cloud may condense to form a new star, and the
heavier elements may collect to form planets like
Earth, rich in iron, silicon, oxygen and carbon, and
perhaps capable of supporting life.
Our Solar System is 2nd
generation . The Earth is rich
in iron, silicon, oxygen, etc.
and has heavy elements like
lead, gold and uranium. These
can only have been made by
fusion in a star which went
supernova.
The core of the exploding
star, collapsing under gravity
and further compressed by the
explosion, may become either
a " Neutron Star" and " Pulsar" ,
or even (if the core was large
enough) a " Black Hole" .
Aftermath of a Supernova
A Neutron Star is so dense that electrons get rammed
i nto the protons formi ng a si ngl e " nucl eus" of
neutrons about 20km across. This far too small to be
seen at cosmic distances, but we know they're out
there because they send us signals.
The neutron star rotates and emits high frequency
radiations in a tight beam. We detect " pulses" of
radi ati on as the beam sweeps past us. These
" Pulsars" were discovered by early radio telescopes
and, for a whi l e, thought to be possi bl e
communications from ET's.
If the core of the exploding star exceeds a certain
size, the collapse inwards goes way beyond neutron
star stage. Matter collapses into
itself forming a " singularity" with
a near-infinite density. The gravity
field becomes so strong that even
a beam of light cannot escape the
singularity. Thus it cannot be
seen and any light or matter
which goes near it will
disappear into it.
(Hence " Black Hole" )
Within the black hole time stops
and all the laws of physics cease
to operate. We think that our
galaxy (and probably most others)
has one or more massive black
holes near the centre.
Artists impression of a black hole
sucking matter from a nearby
star. Atoms are torn apart as they
circle into the event horizon.
Twisted magnetic fields
cause 2 jets of matter to
be ejected.
It is these jets and their radiation
which allow us to find a black hole
Slide 27
Ac t i vi t y 4
Li f e of St ar s Student Name .................................
1.
a) What i s meant by nucl ear f usi on ?
b) Wr i t e a wor d equat i on t o summar i se t he f usi on r eac t i on t hat r el eases most of
t he ener gy i n a mai n sequenc e st ar.
c ) Wher e does t he ener gy c ome f r om?
2. Wr i t e a wor d equat i on f or t he mai n f usi on r eac t i on i n Red Gi ant st ar.
3. How i s t he t emper at ur e of a st ar r el at ed t o i t s si ze?
4. Sket ch a H-R gr aph show i ng t he posi t i ons
of t he Mai n Sequenc e , Red Gi ant s,
Whi t e Dwar f s and Bl ue Super gi ant s.
5.
a) Name 2 possi bl e st ar s w hi ch c an r esul t f r om a super nova.
b) Ci r cl e one of your answer s t o (a) w hi ch may al so be a Pul sar .
c ) Out l i ne t he evi denc e t hat our Sol ar Syst em f or med f r om super nova debr i s.

Slide 28

4. ENERGY FROM THE SUN
& I TS EFFECTS ON US
Energy From the Nucleus
There are basically 3 different ways that energy can be released from the nuclei of atoms.
1. Nuclear Fusion
When 2 small nuclei are slammed together
hard enough they join and become one.
A small amount of mass goes missing ...
it has converted to energy according to
E = mc
2
.
This is the process which powers the stars.
p
p
p
p
p
n
n
p
Hydrogen nuclei.
(protons)
Helium
nucleus
Fusion
Energy
released
2. Nuclear Fission
Under certain conditions, a very large nucleus
(e.g. uranium or plutonium) can break apart into
smaller nuclei. Once again, a small amount
of matter disappears ...
E = mc
2
is at work again!
This is the process occurring in a nuclear reactor
used to generate electricity in many countries.
It is also the energy source in
an atomic bomb .
Photo of the atom bomb
explosion on the Japanese
city of Nagasaki, 1945.
Another Nuclear Process
Next Slide
Slide 29

ALPHA RADIATION ()
is a particle ejected from a nucleus
which is simply too big.
The alpha particle is made up of
2 protons and 2 neutrons
and is the same as the
nucleus of a helium atom.
For that reason it is often
given the symbol
GAMMA RADIATION
involves the emission of a high frequency wave
of the electromagnetic (EMR) type.
Gamma rays often accompany Alpha or Beta emission.
BETA RADIATION ()
also involves emission of a particle...
this time an electron, ejected at high speed.
Symbol often used:
n
+
+
n
2
4
He
-1
0
e
-
Energy From the Nucleus continued
3. Radioactivity
Some atoms have an unstable nucleus and can spontaneously re-adjust
themselves to a more stable form.
When they do so, excess energy and matter can be emitted in 3 different ways:
Slide 30

Radiation Causes Ionisation
Al l 3 radi oacti ve radi ati ons can cause
ionisation... they can cause electrons to be
knocked out of their orbit around an atom,
turning the atom into an ion.
This is why radiation is
dangerous to living things.
Ionisation of atoms in a living
cell can disrupt membranes, cause genetic
mutations or alter the cells DNA so
that it becomes cancerous.
The massive
ALPHA particle
has the highest
ionisation
ability, BETA is
much less
ionising and
GAMMA less
again.
Effects of Electric & Magnetic Fields
Alpha and Beta radiations are particles and both carry
electric charges. Alpha is positive (+ve), Beta negative(-ve).
This means that both Alpha and Beta can be deflected by an
electric field and by a magnetic field. The deflection of alpha
compared to beta will be opposite in both cases.
Note that Gamma rays are NOT deflected by either field, because
they have no electric charge.
Alpha, Beta or Gamma
radiation
Electric Field
between charged plates
Alpha (+ve)
small deflection due to large mass
Gamma. (no charge)
no deflection
Beta (-ve) larger deflection
due to small mass.
Deflection of Radiations by Electric Field
Magnetic Field
(into page)
between mag. poles
Alpha (+ve) small deflection
Gamma. (no charge)
no deflection
Beta (-ve) larger deflection
Deflection of Radiations by a Magnetic Field
Atom becomes ionised
Electron knocked
out of orbit
+
-
Properties of Alpha, Beta & Gamma Radiation
R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n
Slide 31

Penetrating Ability
Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation are quite different in their abilty to penetrate through
different substances. You may have done Practical Work on this.
FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION,
that you may have done to test the penetration
of radiation through different materials.
Geiger Tube.
Detects
radiation by
the ionisation
it causes.
Alpha, Beta or Gamma source.
Each tested separately.
Different
materials placed
here (e.g. paper,
lead, aluminium)
to see what can
block the
radiation.
Data sent to
electronic counting
device to measure the
radiation levels
What You Might Have Discovered
ALPHA particles have low penetrating ability.
They are so likely to collide and interact with atoms in their
path, that they usally do not penetrate far. A few centimetres in
air is as far as theyll get, and a piece of paper will stop 99% of
them.
BETA particles penetrate further than alpha.
They are less likely to interact, and so penetrate further, but
rarely go more than 10-20cm in air and most can be stopped
by thin metal sheets such as aluminium foil.
Properties of Alpha, Beta & Gamma Radiation
GAMMA rays are highly penetrating.
They are like X-rays, only more so. Gamma can
travel many metres through air and other substances. To absorb gamma rays,
several centimetres of lead or a metre of concrete are a good start.
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Paper Aluminium Lead
foil
Slide 32
Ac t i vi t y 5
Nucl ear Reac t i ons Student Name .................................
1. Compar e (si mi l ar i t i es) and c ont r ast (di f f er enc es) nucl ear f i ssi on & f usi on.
2. Li st t he 3 c ommon emi ssi ons of r adi oac t i vi t y.
For each one, st at e ex ac t l y w hat i s emi t t ed and w r i t e a symbol f or i t .
3. How ar e t he 3 r adi oac t i ve r adi at i ons af f ec t ed by el ec t r i c and magnet i c f i el ds?
4. I magi ne you had a smal l amount of an unk now n r adi oac t i ve subst anc e and a
gei ger c ount er. Desc r i be a si mpl e ex per i ment usi ng c ommon, at -hand
subst anc es w hi ch c oul d al l ow you t o i dent i f y t he t ype(s) of r adi at i on bei ng
emi t t ed.
Desc r i be t he r esul t s ex pec t ed f or each t ype of r adi at i on.

Slide 33

Every second from the corona, tri l l i ons of charged
particles (electrons and ionised atoms, especially ionised
hydrogen = protons) with enough energy to escape the
Suns gravity, stream outwards into space. They exert
enough force to push comet tails outwards, and affect the
orbits of the smaller members of the Solar System such as
asteroids.
This Solar Wind would be very dangerous to life, but the
Earths magnetic field deflects, traps and channels the
particles, so very few get through to the surface.
EMR
With a surface temperature around 5,700
o
C, most
of the EMR from the Sun is at the wavelengths
corresponding to visible light (with the peak
being yellow) and infra-red (heat).
Some radiation is also at the longer wavelengths
of radio and microwaves, but most of this is
absorbed by the Earths atmosphere.
A small fraction of the Suns EMR is at shorter
wavelengths corresponding to ultra-violet (UV)
rays. These coul d be very dangerous, but
fortunatel y the ozone l ayer i n the upper
atmosphere absorbs most of the UV.
The Solar Wind
The Suns corona is an atmosphere of hot gas
extending millions of kilometres into space. It is
only visible during a solar eclipse when the
brighter face of the Sun is blotted out by the
Moon.
solar wind
solar wind deflected by magnetic field
Earth
Radiation From the Sun
The Sun emits huge amounts of energy every second. Some is electromagnetic radiation
(EMR), but it also gives out streams of high energy particles... the Solar Wind .
magnetic field
distorted by
solar wind
Slide 34

The flow of charged particles that make up the
solar wind is not a constant stream. It fluctuates
with changes in the Suns magnetic field, which
scientists monitor by studying the sunspots .
Galileo was the first to see sunspots with his
telescope... dark spots on the Suns bright
surface.
We now know that sunspots appear dark
because they are regions that are cooler (only
4,500
o
C). They are associated with regions
where the Suns magnetic field is stronger, and
this causes more particles to be ejected in the
solar wind.
AND, the Suns magnetic field undergoes cyclic
changes over an 11 year period. Every 11 years
there are more sunspots and more intensity in
the solar wind, sometimes to the extent that it
can affect our power supplies and
communications.
More evidence against Ptolemys geocentric
model: Sunspots were obvious blemishes
on one of the heavenly bodies which were
believed to be perfect!
Earth
Earths
magnetic
field
The particles spiralling down
into the poles also cause the
beautiful aurora displays of
the Northern Lights &
Southern Lights.
Sometimes, the Solar Wind
penetrates the magnetic field
Sunspots & the Solar Wind
When sunspot activity peaks, our magnetic field can be
overwhelmed by the solar wind. Charged particles
penetrate the field and are sent into spiralling paths
towards the Earths poles. Intense pulses of EMR at radio
frequenci es can resul t, whi ch can cause stati c ,
j ammi ng our communi cati ons, especi al l y satel l i te
telephone links which use radio and microwaves.
Extreme pulses can causes surges in electric power lines
and damage electronic equipment. In one event some 25
years ago, the EMR pulse set off a surge in the power grid
of the eastern USA & Canada which was so severe that
the entire system shut down. Millions of people were left
without power for several days in mid-winter!
Spiralling charged
particles produce
EMR pulses.

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Typical Life of a Main Sequence Star

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