Plastic deformation

and
creep
in
crystalline materials
Chap. 11
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Stiffness
Strength
ductility
Toughness
Resistance to elastic
deformation
Youngs
modulus
Resistance to plastic
deformation
Yield
stress
Resistance to fracture Energy to
fracture
Ability to deform
plastically
Strain to
fracture
Uniaxial Tensile Test
Gauge
length
specimen
Result of a uniaxial tensile test
Slope = Youngs
modulus (Y)

UTS
Ultimate
tensile
strength

y
Yield
strength
(Engineering stress)
(engineering strain)

f
(strain to fracture)
necking
Area = Toughness
e
l
a
s
t
i
c
p
l
a
s
t
i
c
break
Yield
point
STIFFNESS
STRENGTH
DUCTILITY
If there is a smooth
transition from elastic
to plastic region (no
distinct yield point)
then 0.2 % offset proof
stress is used
During uniaxial tensile test the length of the specimen is
continually increasing and the cross-sectional area is
decreasing.
True stress Engineering stress (=F/A
0
)
True strain Engineering strain (=L/L
0
)
True stress
i
T
A
P
=
A
i
= instantaneous area
True incremental strain
L
dL
d
T
=
0
ln
0
L
L
L
dL
L
L
T
= =

True strain
Eqn. 11.3
Eqn. 11.4
n
T T
K =
K Strength coefficient
n work hardening exponent
Eqn. 11.5
What happens
during plastic
deformation?
Externally, permanent shape change
begins at
y
Internally, what happens?
What happens to crystal structure after
plastic deformation?
?
Plastic
Deformation
Some Possible answers
Remains the
same
Changes to
another
crystal
structure
Becomes random
or
amorphous
How Do We Decide?
X-ray diffraction
No change in crystal structure!
No change in internal crystal structure but
change in external shape!!
How does the microstructure of polycrystal
changes during plastic deformation?
EXPERIMENT 5
Comparison of undeformed Cu and deformed Cu
Slip Lines
Before Deformation After Deformation
Slip lines in the
microstructure of
plastically deformed
Cu
Callister
Slip
Slip Planes, Slip Directions, Slip
Systems
Slip Plane: Crystallographic planes
Slip Direction: Crystallographic direction
Slip System: A combination of a slip
plane and a slip direction
Slip Systems in Metallic Crystals
Crystal Slip Slip Slip
Plane Direction Systems
FCC {111} <110> 4x3=12
(4 planes) (3 per plane)
BCC {110} <111> 6x2=12
(6 planes) (2 per plane)
HCP {001} <100> 3x1=3
(1 plane) (3 per plane)
Why slip planes are usually close packed
planes?
Why slip directions are close-packed
directions?
Slip Systems in FCC Crystal
x
y
z
(111)
Tensile vs Shear Stress
Plastic deformation takes place by slip
Slip requires shear stress
Then, how does plastic deformation
take place during a tensile test?

N
D

: Applied tensile stress

N: Slip plane normal
D: Slip direction

1
: angle between and N

2
=angle between and D
Is there any shear stress on the
slip plane in the slip direction
due to the applied tensile
stress?
F
N
D

1
F
Area=A
= F/ A
F
D
= F cos
2
Area = A
s
A
s
= A cos
1
S
D
RSS
A
F
=
1
2
cos
cos

A
F
=
2 1
cos cos
A
F
=
2 1
cos cos =
RSS
Resolved Shear stress
F
F
F
F
No resolved
shear stress
on planes
parallel or
perpendicular
to the stress
axis
cos
2
= 0
cos
1
= 0
Plastic deformation recap
No change in crystal structure:
slip
twinning
Slip takes place on slip systems (plane + direction)
Slip planes usually close-packed planes
Slip directions usually close-packed direction
Slip requires shear stress
In uniaxial tension there is a shear component
of tensile stress on the slip plane in the slip
direction:
RESOLVED SHEAR STRESS
Extra Classes
Thursdays 10-11
MS 702
2 1
cos cos =
RSS RSS

2 1
cos cos
y

CRSS

CRITICAL RESOVED SHEAR STRESS

2 1
cos cos
y CRSS
=

N
D

2 1
cos cos
y CRSS
=
If we change the direction of stress with respect to the
slip plane and the slip direction cos
1
cos
2
will change.
1.
CRSS
changes.
To maintain the equality which of the following
changes takes place?
2.
y
changes
Schmids Law:

CRSS
is a material constant.
Anisotropy of Yield Stress
2 1
cos cos

crss
y
=
Yield stress of a single crystal depends upon the
direction of application of load
cos
1
cos
2
is called the Schmid factor
RSS

b b
2
cos cos
1

y

CRSS

Active slip system

2 1
cos cos
y CRSS
=
a a
2
cos cos
1

Slip system with
highest Schmid
factor is the
active slip system
Magnitude
of
Critical Resolved Shear Stress
Theory (Frenkel 1926)
Experiment
b
d

CRSS
Shear stress
b/2
b
Potential
energy
Fe (BCC)
Cu (FCC)
Zn (HCP)
Theory
(GPa)
12
7
5
Experiment
(MPa)
15
0.5
0.3
Ratio
Theory/Exp
800
14,000
17,000
Critical Resolved Shear Stress
?
1934
1934
E. Orowan
Michael Polanyi
Geoffrey Ingram Taylor
Solution
Solution
Not a rigid body slip
Part slip/ part unslipped
Slip Not-yet-slipped
Boundary between slipped and unslipped parts
on the slip plane
Dislocation Line (One-Dimensional Defect)
Movement of an Edge Dislocation
From
W.D. Callister
Materials
Science
and Engineering
Minor Answer Scripts
10-11 am and 4-5 pm from Lab
Extra Class
Thursday 2
nd
. Nov. 10-11 am MS 702
Maturity is often more absurd than youth and
very frequently is most unjust to youth.
Thomas A. Edison
I never did a day's work in my life. It was all fun.
Thomas A. Edison
Plastic Deformation Summary
Plastic deformation slip
Slip dislocations
Plastic deformation requires movement of
dislocations on the slip plane
Recipe for strength?
Remove the dislocation
700
50
Stress,
MPa
strain
Cu Whiskers tested in tension
Fig. 11.6
The critical resolved shear stress to
move the dislocation depends upon
1.The width of dislocation
2.The Burgers vector
WIDTH of a DISLOCATION
Narrow dislocation Wide Dislocation
Wide dislocations are easier to move than narrow
dislocations
Width of a dislocation in crystal of different types of bonding:
1. Covalent crystal:
Strong and directional bond:
narrow dislocation
brittle
2. Metallic crystal:
Weak and non directional bonds
wide dislocation
ductile
3. Ionic Crystal
Weak and non-directional bond but large b
brittle
Eqn. 11.13
Not in course
Effect of temperature on dislocation motion
Higher temperature makes the dislocation motion easier
W
F
e
S
i
Al
2
O
3
Ni
Cu
18-8 ss
Y
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
s
s
T/T
m
0 0.7
Fig. 11.8
Eqn. 11.14
11.15
11.16
11.17
11.18
Recipe for strength
Remove the dislocation:
Possible but Impractical
Alternative:
Make the dislocation motion
DIFFICULT
Strengthening Mechanisms
Strain hardening
Grain refinement
Solid solution hardening
Precipitation hardening
Movement of an Edge Dislocation
A unit slip takes
place only when
the dislocation
comes out of the
crystal
During plastic deformation dislocation
density
of a crystal should go down
Experimental Result
Dislocation Density of a crystal actually goes up
Well-annealed crystal: 10
10
m
-2
Lightly cold-worked: 10
12
m
-2
Heavily cold-worked: 10
16
m
-2
?
Dislocation Sources
F.C. Frank and W.T. Read
Symposium
on
Plastic Deformation of Crystalline Solids
Pittsburgh, 1950
A
B
P
Q
b
b
b

http://zig.onera.fr/~douin/index.html
b
http://zig.onera.fr/~douin/index.html
b
b
Fig. 11.9
Problem 11.11
Strain Hardening or Work
hardening
Strain,

y
During plastic deformation dislocation density increases.
Dislocations are the cause of weakness of real crystals
Thus as a result of plastic deformation the crystal should
weaken.
However, plastic deformation increases the yield strength
of the crystal: strain hardening or work hardening
?
Dislocation against Dislocation
A dislocation in the path of other
dislocation can act as an
obstacle to the motion
of the latter
Strain Hardening
] 1 1 0 [
2
1
) 11 1 (
] 1 1 0 [
2
1
) 1 1 1 (
) 001 (
] 0 1 1 [
2
1
] 1 10 [
2
1
] 0 1 1 [
2
1
Sessile dislocation in an FCC crystal
Eqn. 11.20
2 2 2
2 2 2
a a a
+ <
] 110 [
] 1 10 [
2
1
(001) not a favourable slip plane
(CRSS is high).
The dislocation
immobile or sessile.
Energetically
favourable reaction
Fig. 11.10


) 11 1 (
) 1 1 1 (
Sessile dislocation a barrier to other
dislocations creating a dislocation pile-up
Piled up dislocations
Sessile dislocation (barrier)
Fig. 11.10
Empirical relation for strain hardening or
work hardening
A + =
0
Is the shear stress to move a dislocation in a
crystal with dislocation density

o
and A : empirical constants
Eq. 11.21
Fig. 11.11
Dislocation Motion
Plastic Deformation
Difficult
Dislocation Motion
Difficult
Plastic Deformation
Strong Crystal
Easy Dislocation Motion Easy Plastic Deformation
Weak Crystal
Grain Boundary
Grain1
Grain 2
Grain boundary
2-D Defect: Grain Boundaries
Single Crystal Polycrystal
No Grain Boundaries
Grains of different orientations
separated by grain boundaries
Discontinuity of a slip plane
across a grain boundary
Disloca-
tion
Slip plane
Grain Boundary
Grain Boundary Strengthening
Slip plane discontinuity at grain
boundary
A dislocation cannot glide across a grain
boundary
Higher stresses required for deformation
Finer the grains, greater the strength
Coarse Grains Fine Grains
Grain Size
Strengthening
Hall-Petch Relation

y
k
D
= +
0

y
: yield strength
D: average grain diameter

0
, k: constants
Hardness increases as as a function of time
No change in microstructure - Wilm!
hardness
time
As-quenched
hardness
Guinier-Preston Zones, 1938
Numerous fine precipitates form with time
Not visible in optical micrograph
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
It seems justifiable at the moment to
conclude that the process of age
hardening in this alloys is associated
with the segregation of copper atoms on
the (100) planes of the crystal as
suggested by C.H. Desch in The
Chemistry of Solids, 1934
Preston, 1938, The Diffraction of X-rays
by Age-Hardening Aluminium Copper Alloys
Precipitation Hardening
Precipitates are obstacles to the motion of dislocation
Solute atoms Pebbles
Precipitates boulders
Cake with nuts
Age-hardening = Precipitation hardening
Dislocation-precipitate interaction
Dislocation can
1. Either cut through the precipitate
particles (small precipitate)
2. Or they can bypass the
precipitates

before after
Precipitate cutting
Fig 11.14 a, c
Dislocation bypassing the
precipitate
Fig. 11.14 b and d L
b
=
Movement of one-
dimensional defects called
dislocations causes plastic
deformation
Obstacles to the movement
of dislocations cause
strengthening
Strengthening Mechanisms
Name Obstacle Type
Solid solution hardening Solute atoms (0-D)
Strain hardening Dislocations (1-D)
Grain refinement Grain boundaries (2-D)
Precipitation hardening Precipitates (3-D)
Mixture of two or more metals
Solute atoms: a zero dimensional defect or
a point defect
Two types:
1. Interstitial solid solution
2. Substitutional solid solution
Solid Solutions
Interstitial Solid Solution
Perfect Crystal
Distortion caused by a
large interstitial atom
Substitutional Solid Solution
Small solute atom Large solute atom
Solute atom: a zero-dimensional point defect
Solid Solution
Strengthening
Strains in the
surrounding crystal
Solute
atoms
Obstacle to dislocation
motion
Strong
crystal
Alloys stronger than pure metals
Fig 11.13
Solute Concentration (Atom %)
50
100
150
10 20 30
40
200
0
Matrix = Cu (r = 1.28 )
Be (1.12)
S
i
(
1
.
1
8
)
Sn (1.51)
N
i

(
1
.
2
5
)
Zn (1.31)
A
l

(
1
.
4
3
)
(Values in parenthesis are
atomic radius values in )
Figure: Anandh
Subramaniam
What was one major natural causes of deaths
during Kargil war?
How do electric bulbs fuse?
What does the Rolls-Royce company make?
What is common to the above three?
Creep
Creep is time dependent plastic deformation at
constant load or stress
It is a high temperature deformation
m
T T 4 . 0 >
T
m
is the m.p. in K.
CREEP
Fig. 11.15
Creep
Dislocation climb
Vacancy diffusion
Cross-slip
Grain boundary sliding
Creep Mechanisms of crystalline materials
Cross-slip
In the low temperature of creep screw dislocations can cross-slip
(by thermal activation) and can give rise to plastic strain [as f(t)]
I
Z
3

SIip
pIone I
S
I
i
p

p
I
o
n
e

Z
Dislocation climb
Edge dislocations piled up against an obstacle can climb to another slip
plane and cause plastic deformation [as f(t), in response to stress]
Rate controlling step is the diffusion of vacancies
Diffusional creep
In response to the applied stress vacancies preferentially move from
surfaces/interfaces (GB) of specimen transverse to the stress axis to
surfaces/interfaces parallel to the stress axiscausing elongation
This process like dislocation creep is controlled by the diffusion of
vacancies but diffusional does not require dislocations to operate

Flow of vacancies
Coble creep low T Due to GB diffusion
Nabarro-Herring creep high T lattice diffusion
Grain boundary sliding
At low temperatures the grain boundaries are stronger than the crystal
interior and impede the motion of dislocations
Being a higher energy region, the grain boundaries melt before the crystal
interior
Above the equicohesive temperature grain boundaries are weaker than
grain and slide past one another to cause plastic deformation
Creep Resistant Materials
Higher operating temperatures gives better efficiency for a heat engine
Creep
resistance
Dispersion hardening ThO
2
dispersed Ni (~0.9 T
m
)
Solid solution strengthening
High melting point E.g. Ceramics
Single crystal / aligned (oriented) grains
Cost, fabrication ease, density etc. are other factors which determine
the final choice of a material
Commonly used materials Fe, Ni, Co base alloys
Precipitation hardening (instead of dispersion hardening) is not a good
method as particles coarsen (smaller particles dissolve and larger
particles grow interparticle separation )
Ni-base superalloys have Ni
3
(Ti,Al) precipitates which form a low
energy interface with the matrix low driving force for coarsening
Cold work cannot be used for increasing creep resistance as
recrystallization can occur which will produced strain free crystals
Fine grain size is not desirable for creep resistance
grain boundary sliding can cause creep elongation / cavitation
Single crystals (single crystal Ti turbine blades in gas turbine
engine have been used)
Aligned / oriented polycrystals
No Dislocations
Ultra Strong Crystals
Whiskers
Composite Materials
Various Crystal Defects
Disloca-
tions
Grain Boundary
G-P zone
Substitu-
tional
solute
Interstitial
solute
Stacking
fault
Vacancy
(Diffusion)
Moral of the Story
Strength depends upon defects
Microstructure
Structural features observed under a
microscope
Phases and their distribution
Grains and grain boundaries
Twin boundaries
Stacking faults
Dislocations
Hierarchy of Structures
engineering structure
macrostructure
microstructure
crystal structure
atomic structure
nuclear structure
Physics and
chemistry
Metallurgy and
Materials Science
Engineering: Civil,
Mechanical, etc.
1m
1mm
1m
1nm
1A
0
Real Moral of the Story
Propert|es depend upon
m|crostructure
Structure Sensitive
vs
Structure Insensitive Properties
For true understanding comprehension
of detail is imperative. Since such
detail is well nigh infinite
our knowledge is always
superficial and
imperfect.
Duc Franccois de la Rochefoucald
(1613-1680)