Resources, Conservation and Recycling 52 (2008) 12831289

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Resources, Conservation and Recycling
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Reuse of iron ore mineral wastes in civil engineering constructions:
A case study
Mohan Yellishetty
a,
, Vanda Karpe
b
, E.H. Reddy
b
, K.N. Subhash
b
,
P.G. Ranjith
a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Melbourne, Australia
b
Government Polytechnic Mayem, Bicholim 403504, Goa, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 February 2008
Received in revised form 10 July 2008
Accepted 12 July 2008
Available online 28 August 2008
Keywords:
Mine aggregate
Granite aggregate
Compressive strength
Construction
a b s t r a c t
Tomake mining activities more eco-friendly, it is important toconduct mining operations ina manner that
is more environmentally friendly, economically feasible andsocially acceptable. The volume of solidwaste
generated, including tailings from mineral processing activities, is one of the main pollution concerns in
the mining industry. In the tiny state of Goa (India), it is becoming increasingly difcult to nd space
for dumping these huge volumes. And therefore ways of utilizing mine waste need to be found. This
paper examines the suitability of these wastes for use in construction. Studies by others were reviewed
where it was found that these wastes contain acid producing mineral phases and high concentrations of
heavy metals. The presence of such concentrations can jeopardize the environment, if management of
these wastes is not addressed with due consideration and care. Particle size classication on these wastes
suggests that mine wastes contain coarse-grained rock, sand, silt and clays. A number of tests were then
conducted on the aggregate part of mine wastes and the physico-mechanical properties were obtained.
According to the results obtained the mean values of uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of concrete
cubes after 28 days of curing was found to be of the order of 21.93 and 19.91MPa with mine aggregate and
granite aggregate, respectively. Through toxicity leaching procedure tests the study also conrmed that
the hydraulic binder arrests metal mobility from these wastes. This paper does not discuss the economic
aspects as that was beyondthe scope of the research. However, tosome extent socio-economic perspective
of mine waste utilization has been presented and discussed.
2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Mining in India meets the mineral demands of various indus-
tries. It employs about six million people and also generates
revenues of 2.3%of Indias gross domestic product (IBM, 1995). India
is endowed with fairly large reserves of iron ore of moderate to
good quality for its domestic requirement as well as for export. The
land mass of Goa, is a rising plateau occurring between longitudes
14

48

00

15

48

00

and latitude 73

40

00

74

20

07

having an
area of approximately 3700km
2
with the coast line extending over
100km (Fig. 1). Goa is well known for its iron and manganese ore
production. Important iron ore deposits are located in Bicholim,
Sanguem, and Sattari talukas (shaded portion on the mineralogical
map of Goa state, Fig. 1). Value of mineral production in the tiny
state of Goa is at US$ 80 million during 20012002, about 98% of

Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 99054261; fax: +61 3 99054944.

E-mail addresses: mohan.yellishetty@eng.monash.edu.au (M. Yellishetty),
ranjith.pg@eng.monash.edu.au (P.G. Ranjith).
which is contributed by iron ore alone. The mining industry in Goa
is by far the largest employing industry.
Removal of overburden to access the ore can pose major prob-
lems in storage and reclamation. The stripping ratio (waste-to-ore)
for surface mining of metal ores generally ranges from 2:1 to 5:1,
dependingonlocal conditions. Theironoreis predominantlymined
by opencast mining throughout the country. The solid material
generated in large quantities by iron ore extraction is the mate-
rial that overlies the ore body and the processed tailings (Fig. 2).
These wastes contain minerals associated with the ore body and
host rock, mainly the laterite, and sometimes the clays. Mine waste
generally has different physical and chemical properties, resulting
in potentially different environmental impacts.
Approximately18,000ha of landis currentlyunder miningoper-
ations in Goa (Kumar, 2000). The present mining rate of 1621
million ton of ore, with high ore-over burden ratio of around 1:3,
means that there is a need of removal and disposal of 4050 mil-
lionm
3
of waste per year. Having exhausted the available area for
waste dumps within leasehold area, the mining companies had to
procure private land outside the lease area to the tune of 964ha
0921-3449/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2008.07.007
1284 M. Yellishetty et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 52 (2008) 12831289
Fig. 1. Mineralogical map of Goa.
for creating waste dump facilities. The need of additional land will
increase from year to year unless some method of utilization is
established.
The physical and chemical composition of the waste varies con-
siderably according to the substance mined and the nature of the
geological formation containing the deposit. Thus, mine wastes
(called overburden) consists of coarse-grained waste, weathered
rock, freshly exposed rock fragments, silt and clays. A detailed
analysis is therefore required to identify the suitability of vari-
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of waste generation in mines (BRGM, 2001).
Fig. 3. Schematic explaining the potential uses of mine wastes (Skarzynska, 1995b).
ous fractions or combinations of them as construction material.
When needed, a suitable strategy to segregate each fraction must
be explored. Further contaminants in the waste, if any, need to be
identied to avoid any long-term environmental problem.
2. World perspective of mine waste utilization
Mining waste may consist of natural materials without any
modication other than crushing (ordinary mining waste, unus-
able mineralized materials) or of natural materials, processed to
varying degrees during the ore-processing and enrichment phases,
and possibly containing chemical, inorganic and organic additives.
Overburden and topsoil are classied as waste (BRGM, 2001). Each
of the mining and ore processing steps can generate mining waste
(Fig. 2). Mine waste is also usedas rawmaterial for the manufacture
of building materials and for recovering expensive minerals such as
aluminum. However, this aspect will not be dealt withto any extent
in this article. Fig. 3 summarizes a variety of ways in which mine
waste can be, and has been, used (Mohan and Asolekar, 2004).
In recent years, almost every mineral producing country is fac-
ing the problem of better utilization of mine waste because of its
accumulation and lack of suitable storage space. For many years
the mining industry has used mine waste in various small engi-
neering structures, essentially in close proximity to the coal mines
(Skarzynska, 1995a). The use of mine waste as a construction
material for embankments of roadways, railways, rivers and dams
instead of using natural soil has increased in the last 20 years.
Mine waste is also widely used in land reclamation and backll-
ing of opencast quarries (Skarzynska, 1995b). An example of direct
utilization of mine waste as bulk ll in the Ruhr mining industry
(Germany) is shown in Table 1 (Leininger et al., 1983). The amount
of mine waste utilized in France over the years 19591984 is illus-
trated in Fig. 4 (Berthe, 1984).
This waste generally has different physical and chemical prop-
erties, resulting in different potential environmental impacts.
The respective volumes of waste produced essentially depend on
the type of deposit and the technological alternatives used for
mining and for ore processing. Stripping ratios of the deposits
Table 1
Mine waste usage in the Ruhr mining industry, Germany, during 1980 (Leininger et
al., 1983)
Field of utilization Quantity (Mton)
Construction of dykes and dams 2.6
Earth and road construction 6.6
Filling in gravel and sand pits 3.0
Discharging of mine waste into river water 3.5
Total usage 15.5
M. Yellishetty et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 52 (2008) 12831289 1285
Fig. 4. Mine waste utilization in France.
in strip-mined quarries is often one of the steps producing the
most waste during ore extraction operations. The physical and
chemical composition of the waste varies considerably according
to the substance mined and the nature of the geological formation
containing the deposit. Studies by Juwarkar et al. (2003) on the
Codli mines wastes of Goa have been presented in Table 2. These
physico-chemical properties suggest that these mine wastes are
devoid of plant growthsupportive nutrients and hence pose danger
when they are mixed with the agriculture soil.
Several research groups have studied the possibility of mak-
ing ceramic structural products from a variety of solid mineral
waste (Fine and Heising, 1968; Kluth, 1984; Trinity-Stevens, 1995).
Under sponsorship of Department of Interiors, former ofce of coal
research West Virginia University has developed a process for mak-
ing building bricks and other structural units from mine wastes
and tailings. Stanford University studied the feasibility of using
siliceous gangue fromCalifornia gold mine tailing as rawmaterials
for calciumsilicate bonded bricks (Mining Journal, 2000). Colorado
School of Mines conducted investigations aimed at making build-
ing bricks fromvarious mine and mill waste accumulations located
throughout Colorado (Boving and Herold, 1967).
Dean et al. (1986) investigated the use of copper mill tailings for
making building bricks. They observe that by utilizing this material
in the down-stream economic activities and industries, the socio-
economic issues of mine closure can be alleviated, divisive income
imbalance can be reduced and greater community self-sufciency
and self-reliance encouraged. The use of mine tailings in producing
Table 2
Physico-chemical characteristics of mine wastes of Goa (Juwarkar et al., 2003)
Physical properties of soil
Bulk density (g/cm
3
) 1.501.65
Maximum water holding capacity (%) 35.537.6
Porosity (%) 32.540.7
Chemical properties of the soil
pH 6.06.5
EC (mS/cm) 0.440.55
Na (mq/l) 0.010.03
K (mq/l) 0.0070.009
Heavy metals (ppm)
Cr 130.0300.0
Zn 300.0600.0
Pb 60.0150.0
Cd 6.020.0
Ni 200.0250.0
Mn 9,86012,490
Fe 108,400123,430
Cu 80.0150.0
Nutrients
Organic carbon (%) 0.140.16
Nitrogen (%) 0.0030.007
Phosphorus (%) 0.0030.009
Potash (%) 0.0050.010
bricks and blocks was investigated as part of intensive researchinto
waste utilization in the 1970 (Collins and Miller, 1979). Lead-zinc
tailings fromtheUpper Mississippi Valleyminingdistrict wereused
to produce a whole range of building products, including foamed
building blocks, concrete beams and tiles, and dense silicate bricks
and aerated concrete (Hansen et al., 1968). Copper, lead, zinc and
iron ore tailings fromvarious US sources were also used to produce
cemented blocks.
Investigations in USA, Canada and Britain have shown that the
tailings and mine waste have potential for use in manufacture of
building material, glass, and ceramics. Some positive results from
tailings uses are the manufacture of silicate bricks from gold tail-
ings, lightweight-building products from taconite tailings, bricks
from iron ore tailings were made (Jacobi, 1975). In India, some
examples are manufacture of glass by utilizing the quartz and
feldspar from waste produced in mica mines, use of tailings with
high silica content limestone to benet agriculture as a carrier for
pesticides and manure (IBM, 2002; Kumar, 2000).
More recent research at the Montana State University, USA
showed that concrete blocks made from gold tailings mixed with
y-ash and minimal cement, were signicantly stronger than stan-
dard concrete blocks (Trinity-Stevens, 1995). Similarly, concrete
blocks made frombase metal mine tailings during tailings recycling
research in Melbourne, Australia (Struthers, 1999) also resulted
in superior compressive strengths than conventional blocks. He
observes that tailings are often too ne to work successfully in
a commercial high-speed production system, but they are suited
to slower, intermediate technology methods and are ideal for the
production of complex concrete formwork.
Emery (1975) and Williams (1996) have also made a reference
about trends in waste utilization of mining and metallurgical waste
in construction. Tenconite tailings have been accumulated and are
being used in many locations. Mining wastes are occasionally seen
as a resource and may be suitable as aggregates for road construc-
tion and building materials. There are proposals to use them for
making concrete. However, their volume is so huge that it is hard
to see more than a small fraction of them being used in this way.
Also, they should be used with care, especially in the construction
industry as contaminants in the mine waste sometimes might pose
long-term environmental problems (Struthers, 1999).
2.1. Geology and climate of Goa
The iron ore formation of Goa is considered to be the north-
ernmost extensionof theShimogaNorthKanaraGoasupracrustal
belt of the Dharwad super group area and forms the western part
of the castle rock schist belt. The local geological sequence is as the
following: Laterites-basic/ultrabasic intrusives-granites-pink phyl-
lites with banded ferruginous and manganiferous quartzites schist
and metavolcanics, metagreywakes, conglomerates, gneisses. This
sequence is intruded by Usgao layered mac ultramac suite and
basic dykes/quartz veins. Usgao layered complex essentially con-
sists of dunite, peridotites, pynoxinites and gabbros. Chromite
mineralisation is seen within dunite/peridotite.
This area has been subjected to three phases of folding defor-
mations, namely GD1, GD2, and GD3. GD1 and GD2 are coaxial
trending along NWSE direction and GD3 type deformation trends
along EW direction. These faults of regional trending NNWSSE
are genetically related with western ghat orogeny/west coast fault-
ing probably occurred when India and Madagasker separated from
Africa in the upper cretaceous period. The principal iron ore ranges
are (1) BicholimPale range; (2) ConquiremPoikulMelca range
passing through Sacorda; (3) ShigaoKaleyTathodi range; (4)
KirlapalCodliCosti range; (5) TudouBarazanUguem range and
(6) PirlaSulcorna range.
1286 M. Yellishetty et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 52 (2008) 12831289
This part of Goa, receives rainfall from southwest monsoon
betweenthe months of JuneSeptember. The average rainfall varies
between 3000 and 4000mm with highest rainfall occurring in the
month of July while February is the driest month. During most of
the year, temperatures in Goa vary from20 to 34

C. Goas climate is
generally humid due to its proximity to the sea. The relative humid-
ity is higher during the months of JulySeptember, which ranges
between 60 and 90%.
3. Materials and methods
The main aimof this study is to investigate the usability of mine
aggregate in making of concrete. The tests were performed on the
samples collectedfromminewastedumps of Dignemmines of Tim-
blo Pvt. Ltd., (TPL); Advalpal mines of Infrastructure Logistics Pvt.
Ltd. (ILPL); Bicholimmines of Dempo Mining Corp. Pvt. Ltd., (DMC);
and Salitho Mines of Salgaonkar Mining Industries Pvt. Ltd., (SMI).
Commercially available Portland cement (PC) (ASTM C 150) was
used in all mixtures of concrete as hydraulic binder.
3.1. Methodology
In this study, use was made of two types of material for mak-
ing concrete: (a) natural aggregate obtained from quarry (mainly
the granite) in the range of 12.520mm, and (b) aggregates from
mine (mainly the laterite). The latter was collected randomly, from
different fresh waste dumps as recommended ASTM D75; C702
sampling of aggregates. These mine wastes were sieved and par-
ticles between 12.5 and 20mm size were used as coarse aggregate
in preparing concrete mix in the current study.
In order to ascertain various physico-mechanical properties of
the mine waste the following experiments were carried out in
accordance with and ASTM C/109C and 109M standards for con-
crete testing: Sieve analysis for coarse and ne aggregates (ASTMC
136); elongation index: akiness index; aggregate crushing value;
aggregate impact value; specic gravity and water absorption
(ASTM C127); determination of bulk density and percentage voids
(ASTMC29/C29M); determination of aggregate abrasion value; and
determination of aggregate angularity number (ASTM C/109C and
109M).
To study the mechanical properties of concrete made from
both mine waste aggregate and normal aggregate, the con-
crete cubes of 15cm15cm15cm were prepared with ratio
of 1:2:4 (cement:sand:aggregate) with better workability by
ow tests. For each series triplicate specimens were cast using
15cm15cm15cm molds. A thin layer of oil was applied on the
internal faces of molds to ensure that demolding of casted spec-
imens was easy. Mixing and casting procedures were performed
in accordance with ASTMC192/C192Mstandards for concrete test-
ing. All the specimens were demolded after 24h and immersed
into water for further curing. Addition of PC was calculated on
dry aggregate basis (wt/wt). Uniaxial compressive strengths (UCSs)
were determined after 7, 14, and 28 days. Also, the UCS studies on
cubical specimens with cement, sand and aggregate ratios as fol-
lowing 1:2:5; 1:2:6; and 1:2:10 were conducted. Tests were also
conducted on the laterite bricks, which are predominant construc-
tion materials in the Sate of Goa, to measure the wet UCS. The
chemical analyses of these wastes were reviewed in the context
of their high concentrations of heavy metals and presence of acid
producing mineral phases.
Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) (USEPA 1311,
2006) tests were conducted on all the specimens after 28 days of
curing to evaluate the metal mobility in these mine wastes. The
water and chemicals used were of reagent grade. The procedure
adopted was consistent with protocol of USEPA Test Method 1311.
Fig. 5. Cumulative particle size analysis of mine wastes.
All the QA/QC methods as described in TCLP procedure were fol-
lowed while conducting the tests.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Physical properties of mine aggregates
The mine waste samples were collected from different parts of
active waste dumps of various mining sites, belonging to differ-
ent companies. They were mixed to form a homogeneous mixture
that is representative in nature. Out of this, a representative sample
was randomly taken for the sieve analysis. The data generated was
then plotted on a semi-log scale. Fig. 5, represents a typical particle
size distribution of overburden material from the waste dumps of
respective iron ore mines. A volume equivalent of approximately
50% of the total is within the usable range as aggregates for mak-
ing of concrete cubes. Of the whole volume, 20% is in the range of
sandsiltclay material, which can be further used in brick making.
Variabilityinsizedistributionis anindicationof inherent geological
properties of minewastematerial andthecrushingandcompaction
that the waste undergoes while breaking/loosening.
The physical properties of the mine aggregates are summarized
inTable 3. Inaggregates fromdifferent mines, the neness modulus
(FM) was within the range of IS2386 specications prescribed for
Table 3
Typical properties of aggregates of mine wastes of Goa
Sr. no Test name Name of sample
DMC
a
TPL
a
SMI
a
ILPL
a
1 Sieve analysis for
(a) Coarse aggregate F.M. =7.5 F.M. =8 F.M. =7 F.M. =8
(b) Fine aggregate F.M. =3.3 F.M. =3.4 F.M. =3.2 F.M. =3.5
2 Flakiness index (%) 10 13 14 11
3 Elongation index (%) 11 15 14 11
4 Impact value (%) 19.09 29 15.75 21.94
5 Specic gravity 2.5 2.3 2.6 2.5
6 Water absorption (%) 11 13.10 5.59 8.13
7 Bulk density for
(a) Rodded wt (kg/l) 1.39 1.25 1.4 1.3
(b) Loose wt (kg/l) 1.36 1.22 1.3 1.2
8 Void ratio for
(a) Rodded wt (%) 44.40 46.80 46.00 48
(b) Loose wt (%) 45.60 48.08 47 52
9 Crushing value (%) 30 30 28.6 29.90
10 Abrasion value (%) 29.42 30.00 30.00 29.00
11 Angularity number 3 3 1 7
a
DMC: DempoMiningCorp. Pvt. Ltd.; TPL: TimbloPvt. Ltd.; SMI: Salgaocar Mining
Ind. Pvt. Ltd.; ILPL: Infrastructural Logistics Pvt. Ltd.
M. Yellishetty et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 52 (2008) 12831289 1287
Table 4
Comparison of compressive strengths of mine and natural aggregates
Curing time (days) Uniaxial compressive strength (MPa)
Mine aggregate Granite aggregate
Mean
a
UCS S.D. Mean
a
UCS S.D.
7 13.21 0.656 15.10 1.016
14 17.13 1.138 17.42 0.836
28 21.93 0.651 19.91 0.874
a
Mean: arithmetic mean of three test values.
aggregate for civil constructions. Most of the physical properties
of the mine aggregates, belonging to different mines, were within
5% range of standard specications and were in conformity with
the concurrent Indian Standards for aggregates.
4.2. Mechanical properties of concrete made of different mine
waste aggregates
Aggregates are the important constituents in the concrete. They
give body to the concrete, reduce the shrinkage and affect the per-
formance of the material. The mere fact that the aggregates occupy
7080% of the volume of concrete, their impact on various charac-
teristics and properties of cement are undoubtedly considerable.
As compressive strength test provides a measure of the resistance
of hydraulic cement and other mortars to compressive stresses,
attempts were made to compare the UCS of cube specimens made
of lateritic aggregates with that of granitic aggregates, which after
28 days of curing were 21.93 and 19.91MPa, respectively. The UCS
of the cubes made of mine aggregates and granitic aggregates were
the same after 14 days of curing. Whereas the strength of concrete
made from mine aggregate was less than that of granite aggregate
after 7 days of curing.
The cubes were tested in triplicate sets for each of the differ-
ent types of curing to establish correctness of the values and avoid
experimental errors (Table 4). It is observed from the experiments
that the wet UCS of granite were in the range of 15.1019.91MPa
with a standard deviation values ranging between 0.8 and 1.1.
Whereas, the UCS values of cube specimens made frommine aggre-
gate were in the range of 13.2121.93 with standard deviation
values ranging from 0.65 to 1.15. This clearly indicates that with
the progress of time (curing), the strength attainment was better in
mine aggregate (Fig. 6). The rate of increment of strength has been
more in the case of cubes made of mine aggregates. The improved
achievement of UCS in case of concrete with mine aggregate can
Fig. 6. Plot showing the relation between the average UCS and curing time for
concretes.
be attributed to the internal curing effect whereby water from the
aggregate is gradually released into the concrete to further hydrate
the paste. Also, this may be relatedto waste compositionchemistry.
Duringcement hydrationprocess aggregateconstituents mayaffect
the hydration and solidication process. Predicting these reactions
in the aggregates is difcult and cumbersome process. Heavy met-
als present in the aggregates such as Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd retard
hydration, while iron compounds accelerate the cement hydration
(Conner, 1990). It is possible that in this case, the presence of iron
in higher concentrations might have the positive effect on strength
attainment.
Further, the tests were also performed on the cube specimens
made from other mixes of concrete (i.e. 1:2:4, 1:2:5, and 1:2:6) in
triplicate (see Table 5). After 28 days of curing with above mixes of
concrete, the UCS were found to be of the order of 21.93, 20.59, and
11.28MPa, respectively (see Fig. 7). Finally, the lean-mix (1:2:10)
was found to attain the mean UCS of 5.39MPa, which still is con-
sidered superior UCS to that of lateritic brick used for construction.
For cubes of 1:2:4 ratio, the mean values of UCS was found to be
of the order of 13.24, 17.16 and 21.93MPa with the standard devi-
ation being 0.65, 1.13 and 0.65 respectively for 7, 14 and 28 days.
Then for cubes specimens with 1:2:5 ratios, the UCS was found to
be 11.77, 14.71 and 20.59MPa respectively for 7, 14 and 28 days. As
we decrease the quantity of cement, for 1:2:6 ratio the UCS was
measured as 6.77, 9.90 and 11.28MPa and that of 1:2:10 ratios the
UCS was as low as 3.33, 4.61 and 5.39MPa respectively for 7, 14
and 28 days of curing. This is far higher value of wet strength than
that of lateritic cubes (i.e. 0.680.98MPa), which are the predom-
inant construction materials in the State of Goa (Fig. 7). According
to the IS456 code of practice the water cured cubes after 14 and 28
days shouldattainUCS of at least 15.49 and20.59MPa, respectively,
whereas the cubes that were made using the mine aggregates have
the mean UCS of 17.13 and 21.93MPa. Another important charac-
teristic of these bricks, compared to laterite blocks is that, besides
being available in different sizes and shapes, they can be tailor
made tosuit different requirements for buildings, fencing andother
generic uses.
4.3. Mine waste utilizationa geochemical perspective
Mine waste utilization has become an important issue for the
State of Goa, in the light of geochemical research studies conducted
by Kumar et al. (2003), Juwarkar et al. (2004) and IBM (2002).
Juwarkar et al. (2004) performed chemical analysis of these wastes
Fig. 7. Plot showing the relation between the strength and curing time for the
concrete.
1288 M. Yellishetty et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 52 (2008) 12831289
Table 5
Concrete mixture proportions and corresponding strengths for mine aggregates
Curing time (days) Uniaxial compressive strength (MPa)
1:02:04 1:02:05 1:02:06 1:02:10
Mean
a
S.D. Mean
a
S.D. Mean
a
S.D. Mean
a
S.D.
7 13.21 0.656 16.11 0.441 6.8 1.081 3.3 0.246
14 17.13 1.138 18.93 0.640 9.87 0.694 4.58 0.252
28 21.93 0.651 21.28 0.200 11.31 0.441 5.43 0.247
a
Mean: arithmetic mean of three test values.
and the ndings are presented in Table 2. According to their nd-
ings, these wastes are devoid of plant supporting nutrients and
have high concentrations of heavy metals. If no proper strategy
is adapted in tackling these wastes, the local environment may
be jeopardized through siltation into agricultural elds and con-
sequent metal leaching in surface and ground waters. IBM (2002)
reports that in the Goa region the agricultural elds, nallahs, river
beds and creeks are prone to heavy siltation/sediment deposition.
This is due to heavy wash off frommine rejection dumps that occur
each year after periods of heavy rainfall. It was reported in both
IBM(2002) and Juwarkar et al. (2004) that the eroded mine wastes
are deprived of plant supporting nutrients. Hence they pose a great
threat to agricultural yields. They also cause problems such as, the
reduction of sh populations and the restriction of river naviga-
tion. Ore mineralogical studies by Kumar et al. (2003) suggest that
the ores in the State of Goa are essentially made up of hematite,
magnetite, limonite, and goethite. Further, in detailed petrograph-
ical studies conducted on the soils from these mining areas of Goa,
they have identied several other ore mineral phases, other than
thoselistedabove, whichincludepyrrhotite, platinumbearingmin-
erals like marcasite, magnetite, and gold bearing arsenopyrite. All
these sulde minerals that have been identied in the soils from
ironore mining areas of Goa (India) have potentially acidproducing
characteristics. In general, the pyrite oxidation depends on: surface
area of pyrite; form of pyretic sulfur; oxygen concentration; solu-
tion pH; catalytic agents; ushing frequencies and the presence
of thiobacillus bacteria (Caruccio et al., 1998; Smith and Shumate,
1970).
TCLP has been used as a tool to evaluate and classify metal
mobility of industrial wastes. In the light of heavy metals present in
the mine wastes the TCLP tests were conducted on the specimens
cured for 28 days. The TCLP results revealed that with addition of
hydraulic binder (i.e. PC) toconcrete mixture using mine aggregates
as main constituents, the metal mobility becomes belowthe detec-
tion limits-rendering it safe for use as an alternative aggregates in
construction activities.
4.4. Mine waste utilizationan eco-efcient alternative for Goas
mining industry
Waste accumulates during the life of a mine and most of it
remains after extraction has long since ceased. Often the wastes
dump requires ongoing monitoring for geotechnical stability and
may contain potentially hazardous elements, which could be
released into the wider environment through either leaching or
through erosion due to wind and water. Many times it has been
observed that the cost of handling and storage of waste represents
a nancial loss to a mining company, estimated at around 1.53.5%
of total costs depending on the mineral being mined (Symonds
Group, 2001). A direct benet from utilization can be made from
the revenues the company earns fromthe saleable co-product. And
the indirect nancial gains are in terms of creating co-products
that will result in signicant reduction in the dumping of waste,
thereby resulting in avoidance of additional environmental liability
costs. Also, the income fromproducts made fromwaste can reduce
the nancial and legitimate responsibility of managing the waste
dumps and the monitoring of the programmes associated with it
after mine closure. In the State of Goa, it is very essential to view
this from the socio-economic point of view, particularly as min-
ing industry and Goan economy are intricately related. Therefore,
utilization of mine waste through legislative/taxation related pol-
icy initiatives should be encouraged. Furthermore, as most of the
local communities depend largely on the mining and related occu-
pations, either directly or indirectly, it is imperative to encourage
the productionof co-industrial products as down-streameconomic
activities. This will ensure that the dependent communities do not
decline into large-scale unemployment upon mine closure.
The mining industry of Goa is facing several challenges such as
constrained space availability, mounting environmental pressures,
increased international competition for marketing the low-grade
ores and diminishing social acceptability in the light of greater
demand from eco-tourism industry. In view of these, it is worth-
while for the industry to consider the option of recycling mine
waste. Further, such an effort by the Goan iron ore mining indus-
try will displace the laterite mining, which caters to construction
industries requirement in Goa. As a direct consequence of this,
the environmental impacts due to primary laterite mining activity
wouldbe reduced. This wouldaccorda social license to operate to
the mining industry in Goa. This will also add positively to the com-
panies prots by eliminating rehandling, storage and containment
of these wastes piles.
This will reduce the ecological footprints as well as provide
greater employment opportunities to local communities through
down-stream economic activities and most importantly, achieve
long-termoptimization, rather thanshort-termmaximization. This
paradigmshift, of considering environmental protection a nancial
burden to a source of strategic advantage, is the long cherished goal
of sustainable development.
5. Conclusions
From the particle size analysis it was found that grain sizes
of 12.520mm are suitable for use in concrete, which means
approximately 5060% by volume of total waste is consumed. Fine
aggregates between 12.5 and 4.75mmcan be used as sand for vari-
ous construction works. The ner particles below 4.75mm may be
used for brick making. This is nearly 1015% by volume. These mine
wastes shouldbe seenas resources, andmaybe useful as aggregates
for road construction, building materials, and the ne clays may be
used for brick making.
Fromthe results reported in Table 4, it is evident that the aggre-
gate component of mine waste conforms to the IS specications
for quality standards of aggregates. This technical evidence is very
encouraging and further research into this important aspect of
waste utilizationis imperative. There is a needto establishthe tech-
nical skills to commercialize the benet from bringing a higher
percentage of mine waste into standard construction processes.
Further reduction of 5060% by volume of waste may result in high
M. Yellishetty et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 52 (2008) 12831289 1289
returns. Also, this will open up many down-streameconomic activ-
ities, and thereby enhance the employability of rural communities.
Acknowledgments
The authors duly acknowledge the nancial grant support of the
Department of Science, Technology and Environment, Government
of Goa (India) for this project and the logistic support extended by
managements of mining companies in Goa. We also wish to thank
Dr N. P. S. Varde and Pushpa K. Desai for their support during the
course of the project. Special thanks are due to Dr Frank Leahy and
Judith Leahy for their critical review and comments for the paper.
The work of project staff and the students is also greatly acknowl-
edged. Finally, the help rendered by Rob Alexander, Scott Gould and
William Darlington for manuscript preparation is acknowledged.
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