msharizanJJ204

1






SCREW THREAD








General Objective: To understand the methods of testing and
measuring elements of ISO and BSW screw
threads.

Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit you will be able to :

Identify the methods of measuring major
diameter, minor diameter and mean diameter.

Measure and calculate major diameter, minor
diameter and mean diameter of a screw thread.

To check the thread form by using the optical
comparator.




msharizanJJ204

2


1.0 INTRODUCTION


All elements of the thread influence the strength and interchange ability of
screw thread, but the pitch, angle and effective diameter are much more
important than the other elements



1.1 ELEMENTS OF A THREAD

To understand and calculate the thread elements, the following
definition relating to screw threads should be known (Fig. 1.1).
root
pitch















1.1.1. Major Diameter
It is the largest diameter of the thread. This is the distance
between the crests of the thread measured perpendicular to the
thread axis.

Figure 1.1 Screw thread terminology
thread angle
m
a
j
o
r

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

m
i
n
o
r

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

m
e
a
n

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

msharizanJJ204

3


1.1.2. Pitch/Mean Diameter
The diameter of the thread used to establish the relationship,
or fit, between an internal and external thread. The pitch diameter is
the distance between the pitch points measured perpendicular to the
thread axis. The pitch points are the points on the thread where the
thread ridge and the space between the threads are of the same width.
1.1.3. Minor Diameter
It is the smallest diameter of the thread. This is the distance
between the roots of the thread measured perpendicular to the thread
axis.
1.1.4. Thread Angle
This is the included angle of the thread form.
1.1.5. Pitch
It is the distance between the same points on adjacent threads.
This is also the linear distance the thread will travel in one
revolution.
1.1.6. Root
The surface of the thread that joins the flanks of adjacent
threads. The distance between the roots on opposite sides of the
thread is called the root, or minor diameter.




msharizanJJ204

4


1.2. MEASURING THE MAJOR DIAMETER

To measure major diameter of the screw, a micrometer, with anvils of
a diameter sufficient to span two threads, may be used,( Fig. 1.2). To
eliminate the effect of errors in the micrometer screw and measuring faces,
it is advisable first to check the instrument to a cylindrical standard of about
the same diameter as the screw. For such purposes a plug gauge or a set of
Hoffman rollers is useful.

anvil









1.3. MEASURING THE MINOR/CORE DIAMETER

The diameter over the roots of a thread may be checked by means of a
special micrometer adapted with a shaped anvils, (Fig. 1.3) or a micrometer
may be used in conjunction with a pair of vee pieces ( steel prisms ). The
second method is recommended ( Fig.1.5). The steel prisms on the
micrometer are pressed into the thread groove. The ends of the prisms are
slightly curved and parallel to the root thread. It is important , when
making the test, to ensure that the micrometer is positioned at right angles
to the axis of the screw being measured, and when a large amount of such
work is to be done, a special floating bench micrometer ( Fig. 1.4 ) is used.
It is because, it supports the screw and incorporates the micrometer
Figure 1.2 Checking the major diameter with a micrometer
msharizanJJ204

5

elements correctly located, as well as providing means for suspending the
vee prisms.












Fig. 1.4. A Floating Micrometer
Fig. 1.3 Checking the core diameter of a thread with an
shaped anvil micrometer

msharizanJJ204

6




The prism values are stated as,
Dm = W 2T

Note:
Dm - mean diameter
W - distance between two prism
T - prism height (known)


T
prism

W






1.4. MEASURING THE MEAN/PITCH/EFFECTIVE DIAMETER

The three-wire method is recognized as one of the best methods of
checking the pitch diameter because the results are least affected by any
error which may be present in the included thread angle. For threads which
require an accuracy of 0.001 in. or 0.02 mm, a micrometer can be used to
measure the distance over the wires. For threads requiring greater accuracy
an electronic comparator should be used to measure the distance over the
wires.
In the three-wire method, three wires of equal diameter are placed in
the thread; two on one side and one on the other side (Fig. 1.6). The wires
Figure 1.5 Checking minor diameter by using a micrometer and prisms
msharizanJJ204

7

used should be hardened and lapped to three times the accuracy of the
thread to be
inspected. A standard micrometer may then be used to measure the
distance over the wires. For greatest accuracy, the best size wire should be
used.












Figure 1.6 Three wire method



The hard round bars (wire) with the same size are positioned opposite
to the screw thread groove shown in the diagram above. The distance is
measured between the outside of the round bars. The most suitable wire
size is 0.57735p. In Fig. 1.7 P is the pitch of the screw thread. The suitable
wire size is quite hard to get, usually a size bigger than 0.57735p wire size
will be used.


msharizanJJ204

8



Fig. 1.7. Conditions when measuring with wires



1.4.1. Best Size Wires.

Wires which touch the thread at the pitch diameter are known
as "Best Size" Wires. Such wires are used because the measurements
of pitch diameter are least affected by errors that may be present in
the angle of the thread.
The above analysis for the distance over wires holds good
provided the wire touches the thread somewhere on its right side, and
provided the thread angle is correct. The extremes of wire sizes which
touch on the straight sides and which can be measured are shown at
(a) and (c), Fig.1.9. For ISO metric, unified and Whitworth threads
these limiting sizes are given in Table 1.1





msharizanJJ204

9



Thread
Form
Max.
Wire
Min.
Wire
Best
Wire
Size range for
Best wire
ISO metric and
Unified
1.01p 0.505p 0.557p 0.534p
0.620p
Whitworth 0.853p 0.506p 0.564p 0.535p
0.593p








Note:
W = Distance over wires
DE = Pitch/ Effective Diameter
Dw = Wire diameter
= 60
0
From the Fig. 1.8, mean/pitch diameter can be calculated by applying
the following formula;
B
C
D
W
D
E
P/2
r
A
h
E
60
o

Pitch (P)

2

H
Figure 1.8. Three-wire measurement
Table 1.1. Wire sizes for thread measurement ( p = pitch of thread)
msharizanJJ204

10

AD = AB cosec
2
= r cosec
2

H = DE cot
2
=
2
P
cot
2

CD = 0.5H =
4
P
cot
2

h = AD CD = r cosec
2

4
P
cot
2




and distance over wires (W)
= DE + 2h + 2r
= DE + 2 {r cosec
2

4
P
cot
2
} + 2r
= DE + 2r cosec
2
-
2
P
cot
2
+ 2r
= DE +2r ( 1 + cosec
2
)
2
P
cot
2

and, since 2r = d (the diameter of the wire),
W = DE + d ( 1 + cosec
2
)
2
P
cot
2
(1)
From this general formula we may apply the special adaptation for
common threads.
msharizanJJ204

11







(a) ISO metric and unified Fig. 1.9 (a)
The effective diameter lies 0.3248p inside the crest of the thread,
Hence DE = D 0.6496p
= 60 and cosec
2
= 2
cot
2
= 1.732
W (over wires) = DE + d (1 + cosec
2
)
2
P
cot
2

=D 0.6496p + d(3)
2
P
(1.732)
= D +3d- 1.5156p (2)

Figure 1.9. a) ISO metric and unified b) Whitworth
msharizanJJ204

12

(b) Whitworth Fig. 1.9(b)

Depth of thread = 0.64p, so that DE = D 0.64p
= 55 and cosec
2
= 2.1657 cot
2
= 1.921
Hence W ( over wires) = DE + d { 1 + cosec
2
} -
2
P
cot
2

= D -0.64p + d 3.1657) -
2
P
(1.921)
= D + 3.165d - 1.6 p (3)


1.5. OPTICAL COMPARATOR

An optical comparator or shadowgraph (Fig. 1.10a and 1.10b) projects
an enlarge shadow onto a screen where it may be compared to lines or to a
master from which indicates the limits of the dimensions or the contour of
the part being checked. The optical comparator is a fast, accurate means of
measuring or comparing the work piece with a master. It is often used when
the work piece is difficult to check by other method. Optical comparators are
particularly suited for checking extremely small or odd-shaped parts, which
would be difficult to inspect without the use of expensive gauges.
Optical comparators are available in bench and floor models, which
are identical in principle and operation. Light from a lamp passes through a
condenser lens and is projected against the work piece. The shadow caused
by the work piece is transmitted through a projecting lens system, which
magnifies the image and casts it onto a mirror. The image is then reflected
to the viewing screen and is further magnified in this process.
The extent of the image magnification depends on the lens used.
Interchangeable lenses for optical comparators are available in the following
magnifications: 5 x, 10 x, 31.25 x, 50 x, 62.5 x, 90 x, 100 x, and 125 x.
msharizanJJ204

13

A comparator chart or master form mounted on the viewing screen is
used to compare the accuracy of the enlarged image of the work piece being
inspected. Charts are usually made of translucent material, such as cellulose
acetate or frosted glass. Many different charts are available for special jobs,
but the most commonly used are linear-measuring, radius, and angular
charts. A vernier protractor screen is also available for checking angles.
Since charts are available in several magnifications, care must be taken to
use the chart of the same magnification as the lens mounted on the
comparator.
Many accessories are available for the comparator, increasing the
versatility of the machine. Some of the most common ones are tilting work

centres, which permit the work piece to be tilted to the required helix angle
for checking threads; a micrometer work stage, with permit quick and
accurate measuring of dimensions in both direction; and gauge blocks,
measuring rods, and dial indicators used on comparators for checking
measurement. The surface of the work piece may be checked by a surface
illuminator, which lights up the face of work piece adjacent to the projecting
lens system and permits this image to be projected onto the screen.


1.5.1. To check the angle of a 60
o
thread using an optical comparator

1. Mount the correct lens in the comparator.
2. Mount the tilting work centres on the micrometer cross-
slide stage.
3. Set the tilting work centres to the helix angle of the
thread.
4. Set the work piece between centres.
msharizanJJ204

14

5. Mount the vernier protractor chart and align it
horizontally on the screen.
6. Turn on the light switch.
7. Focus the lens so that a clear image appears on the
screen.
8. Move the micrometer cross-slide stage until the thread
image is centralized on the screen.
9. Remove the vernier protractor chart to show a reading of
30
o
.
10. Adjust the cross-slides until the image coincides with the
protector line.
11. Check the other side of the thread in the same manner.


Note: If the threaded angle is not correct or square with the centre
line, adjust the vernier protractor chart to measure the angle of the
thread image. Other dimensions of the threads, and width of flats,
may be measured with micrometer measuring stages or devices such
as rods, gauge blocks and indicators.











msharizanJJ204

15
























helix angle
Figure 1.10 (a). Checking a thread form on an optical comparator

Figure 1.10 (b) Principle of the optical projector
msharizanJJ204

16








1.1. Draw and label a schematic drawing of how you would check
the core diameter of an external V-thread.

1.2. Using best wire sizes determine the distance of the wire for M
20 x 2.5 ISO metric thread.

1.3. Why is the three-wire method is one of the best method of
measuring the pitch diameter of a V thread?

1.4. With the aid of a labelled diagram, briefly explain how you
would use an optical comparator to check the thread angle of
60
o



















ACTIVITY

msharizanJJ204

17







GEAR





General Objective : To understand the concept of gears and gearing

Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to:

Know the types and functions of gears in
engineering.
Know, sketch and label the parts of gears.
Understand the method of measuring spur gear.















msharizanJJ204

18


2.0 INTRODUCTION

Gears are used to transmit power positively from one shaft to another
by means of successively engaging teeth (in two gears). They are used in
place of belt drives and other forms of friction drive when exact speed ratios
and power transmission must be maintained. Gears may also be used to
increase or decrease the speed of the driven shaft, thus decreasing or
increasing the torque of the driven number.


2.1. TYPES OF GEARS

2.1.1. Spur gear

Spur gears, Fig. 2.1, are generally used to transmit power
between two parallel shafts. The teeth on these gears are straight
and parallel to the shafts to which they are attached. When two gears
of different sizes are in mesh, the larger is called the gear while the
smaller is called the pinion. Spur gears are used where slow to
moderate- speed drive are required.



.










Figure 2.1. Spur gears Figure 2.2. Internal gears

Gear
Pinion
msharizanJJ204

19

2.1.2. Internal gears

Internal gears, Fig. 2.2., are used where the shafts are parallel
and the centers must be closer together and that could be achieved
with spur or helical gearing. This arrangement, provides a stronger
drive since there is the greater area of contact than with the
conventional gear drive. It also provides speed reductions with a
minimum space requirement. Internal gears are used on heavy duty
tractors where much torque is required.

2.1.3. Helical gears

Helical gears, Fig.2.3, may be used to connect parallel shafts or
shafts which are at an angle. Because of the progressive rather than
intermittent action of the teeth, helical gears run more smoothly and
quietly than spur gears. Since there is more than one tooth in
engagement at any one time, helical gears are stronger than spur
gears of the same size and pitch. However, special bearing (thrust
bearings) are often required on shafts to overcome the end thrust
produced by these gears as they turn.











2.1.4. Herringbone gears

Figure 2.3. Helical gears

Figure 2.4. Herringbone gears

msharizanJJ204

20


Herringbone gears, Fig. 2.4., are resembles of two helical
gears placed side by side, with one half having a left-hand helix and
the other half a right-hand helix. These gears have a smooth
continuous action and eliminate the need for thrust bearings.

2.1.5. Bevel gears

When two shafts are located at an angle with their axial lines
intersecting at 90
o
, power is generally transmitted by means of bevel
gears, Fig. 2.5.










2.1.6. Miter gears

When the shafts are at right angles and the gears are of the
same size, they are called miter gears, Fig. 2.6..













Figure 2.5. Bevel gears

Figure 2.6. Miter gears

Figure 2.7. Angular bevel gears

msharizanJJ204

21

2.1.7. Angular bevel gears

However, it is not necessary that the shafts be only at right
angles in order to transmit power. If the axes of the shafts intersect
at any angle other 90
o
, the gears are known as angular bevel gears,
Fig. 2.7.

2.1.8. Hypoid gears

Bevel gears have straight teeth very similar to spur gears.
Modified bevel gears having helical teeth are known as hypoid gears.
The shafts of these gears, although at right angles, are not in the
same plane and, therefore, do not intersect. Hypoid gears are used in
automobile drives, Fig. 2.8.














2.1.9. Worm and worm gear

When shafts are at right angles and considerable reduction in
speed is required, a worm and worm gear may be used, Fig. 2.9. The
worm, which meshes with the worm gear, may be single or multiple
start thread. A worm with a double-start thread will revolve the


Figure 2.8. Hypoid gears

Figure 2.9. Worm and worm gears

Worm
Worm gear
msharizanJJ204

22

worm gear twice as fast as a worm with a single-start thread and the
same pitch.

2.1.10. Rack and pinion

When it is necessary to convert rotary motion to linear motion,
a rack and pinion may be used, Fig. 2.10. The rack, which is actually
a straight or flat gear, may have straight teeth to mesh with a spur
gear, or angular teeth to mesh with a helical gear.












2.2. GEAR TERMINOLOGY














Fig. 2
Figure 2.10. Rack and pinion

circular pitch
c
l
e
a
r
a
n
c
e

addendum
dedendum
face width
addendum circle
face
flank
thooth
thickness
top land/peak
pitch circle
dedendum
circle
root
pitch
diamete
r
outside
diamete
r
base
diamete
r
pitch
liner
Fig. 2.11 Parts of a spur gear
Pinion
Rack
msharizanJJ204

23



2.2.1. Addendum

Addendum is the radial distance between the pitch circle and
the outside diameter or the height of the tooth above the pitch.

2.2.1. Dedendum

Dedendum is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the
bottom of the tooth space.

2.2.3. Pitch diameter

Pitch diameter is the diameter of the pitch circle which is equal
to the outside diameter minus two addendums.


2.2.4. Base diameter

The diameter of the circle from which the involute is
generated; which is equals to pitch diameter times the cosine of the
pressure angle.

2.2.5. Pitch circle

Pitch circle is the circle through the pitch point having its
centre at the axis of the gear.


msharizanJJ204

24

2.2.6. Pitch line

The line formed by the intersection of the pitch surface and the
tooth surface.

2.2.7. Face width - The width of the pitch surface.

2.2.8. Tooth thickness

The thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle.

2.2.9. Top land - The surface of the pitch cylinder.

2.2.10. Base diameter - The diameter of the root circle.

2.2.11. Root - The bottoms of the tooth surface.














msharizanJJ204

25


2.3. MEASUREMENT AND TESTING OF GEARS

2.3.1. Gear-tooth vernier caliper

The gear-tooth vernier, Fig.2.12, is an instrument for
measuring the pitch-line thickness of a tooth. It has two scales and
must be set for the width (w) of the tooth, and the depth (h) from the
top, at which the width occurs.


























AO = R
Figure 2.12. The gear-tooth vernier caliper
msharizanJJ204

26


NOTE: The following considerations of gear elements, the
symbols below will be used for the quantities.

T/t = No. of teeth
P = Diametral pitch ( inch gear )
P = Circular pitch
D/d = Diameter of pitch circle
R/r = Radius of pitch circle
= pressure angle
M = Modul
Add/A = Addendum
Ded/D = Dedendum
Circular pitch = x Modul M


The angle subtended by a half tooth at the centre of the gear
( AOB), Fig. 2.12, is given by,

=
4
1
x
T
360
=
T
90
; T = no. of teeth
AB =
2
w
= AO sin
T
90
= R sin
T
90

D = Modul x No. of Teeth, and
R = R
2
MT

i.e. D = 2R =MT and R =
2
MT

msharizanJJ204

27

Hence
2
w
= R sin
T
90
=
2
MT
sin
T
90


and w = MT sin
T
90
(1)
To find h we have that h = CB = OC OB
But OC = R + Add =
2
MT
+M
And OB = R cos
T
90
=
2
MT
cos
T
90

Hence h =
2
MT
+M -
2
MT
cos
T
90

=
2
MT
+M -
2
MT
cos
T
90
] (2)
= M +
2
MT
[ 1- cos
T
90
]
For diametral-pitch gears, (1) becomes w =
P
T
sin
T
90

And (2) becomes h =
P
1
[ 1 +
2
T
( 1 cos
T
90
)








msharizanJJ204

28




Example:

To calculate the gear tooth vernier setting to measure a gear of
33T, 6 modul.
w = MT sin
T
90
= 6 x 33 sin
33
90

= 198 sin 2
o
43.5 = 198 x 0.0476
= 9.42 mm.
h = M [ 1 +
2
T
( 1 cos
2
T
)]

= 6 [ 1 +
2
33
( 1 cos
33
90
) ]
= 6 [ 1 +
2
33
(0.0011) ]
= 6.11 mm









msharizanJJ204

29



2.4. PLUG METHOD OF CHECKING FOR PITCH DIAMETER AND
DIVIDE OF TEETH

The tooth vernier gives us a check on the size of the individual tooth,
but does not give a measure of either the pitch diameter or the accuracy of
the division of the teeth.













Fig. 2.13 shows a rack tooth symmetrically in mesh with a gear tooth
space, the curved sides of the gear teeth touching the straight rack tooth at
the points A and B on the lines of action. O is the pitch. If now we consider
the rack

tooth as an empty space bounded by its outline, a circle with centre at O and
radius OB would fit in the rack tooth and touch it at A and B (since OA and
OB are perpendicular to the side of the rack tooth). Since the rack touches
Figure 2.13
msharizanJJ204

30

the gear at these points, the above circle (shown dotted) will rest against the
gear teeth at points A and B and will have its centre on the pitch circle.


In triangle OBD: OB = radius of plug required.
OD =
4
1
circular pitch
=
4
m

< B = 90
o
, < O =
OB = OD cos
=
4
m
cos
Dia of plug = 2OD
=
2
m
cos

This is the diameter of a plug which will rest in the tooth space and
have its centre on the pitch circle. Notice that the plug size remains the
same for all gears having the same pitch and pressure angle.
With such plugs placed in diametrically opposite tooth spaces, it is a
simple matter to verify the gear pitch diameter. The accuracy of the spacing
over any number of teeth may be found as shown in chordal calculations.








msharizanJJ204

31





Example:
Calculate for a 36Tgear of 5 mm module and 20
o
pressure angle, (a) plug size
(b) distance over two plugs placed in opposite spaces, (c) distance over two
plugs spaced 10 teeth apart.

Solutions:
(a) Dia of plug =
2
m
cos
=
2
5
cos 20
o

= 7.854 x 0.9397
= 7.38 mm
Pitch dia of gear = mT
= 5 x 36
= 180 mm

(b) Distance across plugs in opposite spaces = 180 + 7.38
= 187.38 mm

(c) Distance across plugs spaced 10 teeth apart (Fig.2.14)







msharizanJJ204

32





Angle subtended by 10 teeth = 10 x
36
360

= 100
o
.


In triangle OAB:
AB = OA sin 50
o

= 90 x 0.766
= 68.94
Centre distance of plugs = 2 x AB
= 2 x 68.94
= 137.88 mm.
Distance over plugs = 137.88 + 7.38
= 145.26 mm.













Figure 2.14
msharizanJJ204

33



2.5 MEASURE AND INSPECT OF SPUR GEAR
Mengukur tebal perentas dengan angkup vernier gigi gear




Rajah di atas menunjukkan sebuah angkup vernier gigi gear.
Angkup tersebut dilengkapkan dengan plat penahan yang boleh dilaraskan
mengikut ukuran adendum gear yang hendak diukur.
Kemudian hujung plat yang terletak di antara rahang angkup itu dikenakan pada
puncak gigi gear.
Rahang angkup vernier dilaraskan untuk mendapat ukuran tebal perentas gigi.
msharizanJJ204

34


2.6 KAEDAH PERENTAS MALAR
Perentas malar ialah satu garis rentas yang panjangnya sentiasa sama bagi semua
gigi gear yang mempunyai pic di garis pusat dan sudut tekan sama , walaupun
bilangan gigi bagi gear mungkin berbeza.

msharizanJJ204

35










msharizanJJ204

36

2.7 KAEDAH TANGEN TAPAK

Alat pengukur seperti angkup vernier yang besar, tolok tinggi vernier,
pembandingan tangen tapak atau mikrometer tebal gigi iaitu sejenis mikrometer
yang dipasang dengan andas yang besar berbentuk plat bulat,boleh lah digunakan
untuk mengukur jarak rentang itu.








msharizanJJ204

37
















msharizanJJ204

38

2.8 MEMERIKSA GARIS PUSAT PIC BAGI GEAR TAJI
Dalam kaedah ini sepasang guling (rola) atau palam piawai digunakan bersama
mikrometer luar.
Garis pusat guling hendaklah bersesuaian dengan pic dan sudut tekanan bagi gear
hendak diuji.
Jika gear bergigi genap, guling guling itu di letakkan dalam lurah yang
bersetentangan.
Jika gear bergigi ganjil, kedudukan guling mestilah pada lurah-lurah yang paling
hampir bersetentangan.


msharizanJJ204

39

2.9. THE INDEXING OR DIVIDING HEAD

The indexing or dividing head is one of the most important
attachments for the milling machine. It is used to divide the circumference
of a work piece into equally spaced divisions when milling gears, splines,
squares and hexagons. It may also be used to rotate the work piece at a
predetermined ratio to the table feed rate to produce cams and helical
grooves on gears, drills, reamers, and other parts.


2.10. INDEX HEAD PARTS

The universal dividing head set consists of the headstock with index
plates, headstock change and quadrant, universal chuck, footstock, and the
centre rest ( Fig 3.9 ). A swiveling block mounted in the base enables the
headstock to be tilted from 5
o
below horizontal position to 10
o
beyond the
vertical position. The side of the base and the blocks are graduated to
indicate the angle of the setting. Mounted in the swiveling block is a
spindle, with 40-tooth worm wheel attached, which meshes with a worm (
Fig. 3.10 ). The worm , at right angles to the spindle, is connected to the
index crank, the pin of which engages in the index plate. A direct indexing
plate is attached to the front of the spindle.
A 60
o
centre may be inserted into the front of the spindle, and a
universal chuck may be threaded onto the end of the spindle.
The footstock is used in conjunction with the headstock to support
work held between centers or the end of work held in a chuck. The footstock
centre may be adjusted longitudinally to accommodate various lengths of
work and may be raised or lowered off centre. It may also be tilted out of
parallel with the base when cuts are being made on tapered work.

msharizanJJ204

40


Long, slender work held between centers is prevented from bending
by the adjustable centre rest.











Figure 3.10 Section through a dividing head, showing
the worm wheel and worm shaft
Figure 3.9. A universal dividing head set
msharizanJJ204

41


2.11 METHODS OF INDEXING

The main purpose of the indexing or dividing head is to divide the
work piece circumference accurately into any number of divisions. This may
be accomplished by the following indexing methods: direct, simple, angular,
and differential. However, this modul will only cover direct and simple
indexing.

Direct indexing

Direct indexing is the simplest form of indexing. It is
performed by disengaging the worm shaft from the worm wheel by
means of an eccentric device in the dividing head. Some direct
dividing heads do not have a worm and worm wheel but rotate on
bearings. The index plates contain slots, which are numbered , and a
spring-loaded tongue lock is used to engage in the proper slot. Direct
indexing is used for quick indexing of the work piece when cutting
flutes, hexagons, squares, and other shapes.
The work is rotated the required amount and held in place by a
pin which engages in to a hole or slot in the direct indexing plate
mounted on the end of the dividing head spindle. The direct indexing
plate usually contains three sets of hole circles or slots: 24, 30, and 36.
The number of divisions it is possible to index is limited to numbers
which are factors of either 24, 30, or 36. The common divisions that
can be obtain by direct indexing are listed in Table 3.3




msharizanJJ204

42




Plate
Hole
Number

24 2, 3, 4, -, 6, 8, - ----- 12 24
30 2, 3, -, 5, 6, -, -, -, 10, -, -, 15, .30
36 3, 4, -, 6, -, 9, -, 12, -, 18, 36

Example:
What direct indexing is necessary to mill eight flutes on a reamer blank?
As the 24 hole circle is the only one divisible by eight (the required of
divisions), it is the only circle which can be used in this case.

Indexing =
8
24
= 3 holes on a 24-hole circle.
Note: Never count the hole or slot in which the index pin is engaged.


Simple Indexing

In simple indexing, the work is positioned by means of the
crank, index plate, and sector arms. The worm attached to the crank
must be engaged with the worm wheel on the dividing head spindle.
Since there are 40 teeth on the worm wheel, one complete turn of the
index crank will cause the spindle and the work to rotate one-fortieth
of a turn. Similarly, 40 turns of the crank will revolve the spindle and
Table 3.3. Direct Indexing Divisions
msharizanJJ204

43

work one turn. Thus there is a ratio of 40:1 between the turns of the
index crank and the dividing head spindle.
To calculate the indexing or the number of turns of the crank
for most divisions, it is necessary only to divide 40 by the number of

division (N) to be cut, or
Indexing =
N
40


Example:

The indexing required to cut eight flutes would be:
8
40
= 5 full turns of the index crank
If, however, it was necessary to cut seven flutes, the indexing would be
7
40
= 5
7
5
turns
Five complete turns are easily made; however, the five seventh of a turn
involves the use of the index plate and sector arms.

















msharizanJJ204

44









1. State three (3) characteristics of the following gears
i. helical gear
ii. spur gear

2. Sketch and name six (6) parts of a spur gear

3. Calculate the diameter of plug which will lie in the tooth space of a 5
mm module gear with its centre on the pitch circle. If the gear has
50T, find (a) distance over two such plugs spaced in opposite spaces,
(b) distance over two plugs spaced 12 spaces apart ( = 20
o
)
(J: 1. 7.38 mm (a) 257.38 mm (b) 178.52 mm)

4. Determine the diameter of a plug which will rest in the tooth space of
a 4 mm module 20
o
rack, and touch the teeth at the pitch line.
Calculate (a) the distance over two such plugs spaced 5 teeth apart.
(b) The depth from the top of the plug to the top of the teeth.
(J: 5.9 mm (a) 59 mm (b) 10.664 mm)










ACTIVITY

msharizanJJ204

45







SURFACE TEXTURE







General Objectives: To understand the importance of surface texture
in engineering.
To understand the methods of calculating the
surface roughness.

Specific Objectives : At the end of this unit you will be able to:

Identify the surface finish symbols that appear on
a drawing.

Identify the surface texture terms/ definitions.

Calculate the arithmetic mean value, Ra.

Calculate the root-mean-square average, Rq.

Calculate the maximum roughness height, Rt.

Compare Ra and Rq.

msharizanJJ204

46


4.0 DEFINITION

Surface Texture is defined as a degree of finish conveyed to the
machinist by a system of symbols devised by a Standards Association, eg.
ASA American Standards Association, BS British Standards
Modern technology has demanded improved surface finishes to ensure
proper functioning and long life of machine parts. Pistons, bearings, and
gears depend to a great extent on a good surface finish for proper functioning
and therefore, require little or no break-in period. Finer finishes often
require additional operation, such as lapping or honing. The higher finishes
are not always required on parts and only result in higher production costs.
To prevent overfinishing a part, the desired finish is indicated on the shop
drawing. Information specifying the degree of finish is conveyed to the
machinist by a system of symbols devised by Standards Associations, eg.
ASA American Standards Association and BS British Standards. These
symbols provide a standard system of determining and indicating surface
finish. The inch unit for surface finish measurement is microinch (in), while
the metric unit is micrometer (m)














msharizanJJ204

47

4.1. SURFACE TEXTURE TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

















Surface profile Error of form Waviness
Roughness



Regardless of the method of production, all surfaces have their own
characteristics, which are collectively referred to as surface texture, Fig. 4.1.
Certain guidelines have been established to identify surface texture in terms
of well-defined and measurable quantities (Figure 4.2)





Figure 4.1. Standard terminology and symbols to describe surface
finish
Lay
direction
Waviness
width
Roughness
spacing
Roughness
Height, R
t

Waviness
height
Flaw
Roughness
width cutoff
msharizanJJ204

48


4.1.1. Flaws

Flaws or defects, are random irregularities, such as scratches,
cracks, holes, depression, seams, tears or inclusions. These defects can
be caused during the machining or production process such as
molding, drawing, forging, machining, eg, holes cause by air bubbles
during casting, crack and tears by forging and drawing process.

4.1.2. Lay

Lay or directionality, is the direction of the predominant
surface pattern caused by the machining process and it is usually
visible to the naked eye.

4.1.3. Roughness

Roughness is defined as closely spaced, irregular deviation on a
scale smaller than that of waviness. It is caused by the cutting tool or
the abrasive grain action and the machine feed. Roughness may be
superimposed on waviness.

4.1.3.1. Roughness height
Roughness height, Ra is the deviation to the centre line
in micro inches or micrometers.
4.1.3.2. Roughness width
Roughness Width is the distance between successive
roughness peaks parallel to the nominal surface in inches or
millimeters.

msharizanJJ204

49


4.1.4. Waviness

Waviness is a recurrent deviation from a flat surface, much like
waves on the surface of water. It is measured and described in terms
of the surface between adjacent crests of the waves (waviness width)
and height between the crests and valleys of the waves (waviness
height). Waviness can be caused by:
a) deflection of tools, dies or the work piece
b) force or temperature sufficient to cause warping
c) uneven lubrication
d) vibration
e) any periodic mechanical or thermal variations on the system
during manufacturing operations.

4.1.5. Profile

The contour of a specified section through a surface.

4.1.6. Microinch and micrometer

The unit of measurement used to measure surface finish.
The microinch is equal to 0.000 001 inch and the micrometer
equals to 0.000 001 meter.







msharizanJJ204

50


4.2. STANDARD SYMBOLS TO DESCRIBE SURFACE TEXTURE/FINISH



0.02 2
6.3
1.6 0.01




Figure 4.2 A sample of a surface texture/finish designation

Symbols definition:
0.02 Maximum waviness height (mm)
2 - Maximum waviness width (mm)
6.3 - Maximum roughness height ( m)
1.6 - Minimum roughness height ( m)
0.01 - Maximum roughness width (mm)
- Lay symbol (Lay perpendicular to the line
representing the surface to which the
symbol is applied)

Sometimes, the roughness number is used as a substitute for the
roughness value eg. N7 is equals to 1.6 m, (Table. 4.1). Table 4.2 shows an
average surface roughness produced by standard machining processes.






msharizanJJ204

51




Table 4.1. Roughness number and value

m 50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.025
Roughness
number
N12 N11 N10 N9 N8 N7 N6 N5 N4 N3 N2 N1


Table 4.2 Average surface roughness produced by standard machining
processes

PROCESS MICROINCHES MICROMETERS
Turning 100 - 250 2.5 - 6.3
Drilling 100 - 200 2.5 - 5.1
Reaming 50 - 150 1.3 - 3.8
Grinding 20 - 100 0.5 - 2.5
Honing 5 - 20 0.13 - 0.5
Lapping 1 - 10 0.025 - 0.254
















msharizanJJ204

52

4.3. SYMBOLS FOR SURFACE ROUGHNESS

The following symbols indicate the direction of the lay (Table
4.3)

Lay
Symbol
Interpretation Examples

=
Lay parallel to the line representing the
surface to which the symbol is applied

Lay perpendicular to the line representing the
surface to which the symbol is applied.









Lay angular and both direction to line
representing the surface to which symbol is
applied








Lay multidirectional


Lay approximately circular relative to the
centre of the surface to which the symbol is
applied


Lay approximately radial relative to the
centre of the surface to which the symbol is
applied




X
M
C
R
C
R
msharizanJJ204

53


Pitted, protuberant, porous, or particulate
non-directional lay











4.4 SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Surface roughness is generally described in two methods: arithmetic
mean value and root-mean-square average.

4.4.1 The Arithmetic Mean Value, Ra.
Ra, formerly identified as AA for arithmetic average or CLA for
centre-line average is based on the schematic illustration of a rough
surface, which is shown in (Figure 4.4). The arithmetic mean value,
Ra, is defined as

Ra =
n
f e d c b a ...
(4.4.1)
Where, all ordinates, a, b, c, , are absolute values, and n is the
number of readings











Figure 4.3. Standard lay symbols for engineering surfaces

P
P
msharizanJJ204

54

4.4.2. The Root-Mean-Square Average, Rq.
Rq, formerly identified as RMS is defined as

Rq =
n
d c b a ...
2 2 2 2
(4.4.2)




The datum line AB in figure 4.4 is located so that the sum of
the area above the line is equal to the sum of the areas below the line.
The units generally used for surface roughness are m (micrometer, or
micron) or in (microinch). ( Note, 1m = 40 in and 1in = 0.025 m
).













3.4.3. Maximum Roughness Height, Rt

Maximum roughness height, Rt, is defined as the height from
the deepest trough to the highest peak. It indicates how much
material has to be removed in order to obtain a smooth surface by
polishing or other means

A f g h i j k B

a b c d e

Centre line (datum line)

Figure 4.3. Coordinates used for surface roughness using equations 4.4.1 &
4.4.2
msharizanJJ204

55

Rt =
5
) ( ) (
10 8 6 4 2 9 7 5 3 1
h h h h h h h h h h









h1 h3 h6 h5 h7
h9

h2 h4 h8 h10




Where,
h1, h2......hn - height of ordinates in mm

M - magnification






4.5. COMPARISON OF Ra AND Rq

The arithmetic mean value, Ra was adopted internationally in the
mid-1950s and is used widely in engineering practice. Equations 4.4.1 and
4.4.2 show that there is a relationship between Rq and Ra, as shown by the
ratio
Ra
Rq
. The table 4.4 below gives this ratio for various surfaces:


msharizanJJ204

56

Table 4.4 Ratio for various surfaces

Surface
Ra
Rq

Sine Curve 1.1
Machining by cutting 1.1
Grinding 1.2
Lapping and honing 1.4

In general, a surface cannot be describe by its Ra and Rq value alone,
since these values are averages. Two surfaces may have the same roughness
value but have actual topography which is very different. A few deep
troughs on an otherwise smooth surface, for example, do not affect the
roughness values significantly. However, the type of surface profile can be
significant in terms of friction, wear and fatigue characteristics of a
manufactured product.
It is therefore, important to analyze the surface in great detail,
particularly for parts used in critical applications. Some 130 parameters
have been identified thus far for measuring surface roughness.















msharizanJJ204

57







4.1. Explain why present-day standards relating to surface texture
are very important to industry .

4.2. List and explain the types of defects found on surfaces.


4.3. Explain the following terms:
a) roughness
b) waviness
c) lay

4.4. What do Ra, Rq and Rt stand for?

4.5. Describe how you would use the surface roughness comparator
gauge.


4.6 Define the symbol on figure below.

0.03 1.5
3.2
1.6








0.01
ACTIVITY 4A

msharizanJJ204

58











COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL





General Objective :To understand the concept and principles of
computer numerical control (CNC) system.

Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to :

Understand the main components of the CNC
system,

Understand the point-to-point system
(positioning),

Understand the contouring system (continuous
system), and

Write a simple CNC milling program.
.


msharizanJJ204

59



6.0 INTRODUCTION

Computer numerical control is a system in which a control
microcomputer is an integral part of a machine or a piece of equipment
(onboard computer). The part programmes can be prepared at a remote site
by programmer, and it may incorporate information obtained from drafting
software packages and from machining simulations, in order to ensure that
the part programme is bug free. The machine operator can, however, easily
and manually programme onboard computers. The operator can be modify
the programs directly, prepare programme for different parts, and store the
programmes.
Because of the availability of small computers having a large memory,
microprocessor(s), and programme-editing capabilities, CNC systems are
widely used today. The availability of low-cost programmable controllers
also played a major role in the successful implementation of CNC in
manufacturing plants.
Numerical Control is a system where machine action is created from
the insertion of Numeric Data. The Numeric Data is, in the beginning,
written words in an easily understood code of letters and numbers
(alphanumeric characters) known as a programme, which in turn is
converted by the machine control unit (MCU) into the electrical signals used
to control the machine movements.






msharizanJJ204

60



The relationship between the words "Numerical" and "Control" is
shown below.
NUMERICAL CONTROL







Two important points should be made about N.C. First, the actual
N.C. machine tool can do nothing more than it was capable of doing before a
control unit was joined to it. There are now new metal removing principles
involved. N.C. machines position and drive the cutting tools, but the same
milling cutters, drills, taps, feeds, and other tools still perform the cutting
operations. Cutting speeds, feeds, and tooling principles must still be
adhered to. Given this knowledge, what is the real advantage of numerical
control?
Primarily, the idle time or time to move into position for new cuts is
limited only by the machine's capacity to respond. Because the machine
receives commands from the machine control unit (MCU), it responds
without hesitation. The actual utilisation rate or chip making rate is
therefore much higher than on a manually operated machine.
The second point is that numerical control machines can initiate
nothing on their own. The machine accepts and responds to commands from
the control unit. Even the control unit cannot think, judge, or reason.
Without some input medium, e.g., punched tape or direct computer link, the
An instructional expression,
in a language of numbers,
which represents a series of
commands for specific
machine tool movements


To control such machine
actions as:

Directing Altering
Commanding Timing
Prescribing Ceasing
Sequencing Guiding
Initiating
msharizanJJ204

61

machine and control unit will do nothing. The N.C. Machine will perform
only when the N.C. tape is prepared and loaded and cycle start is initiated.

6.1. NC OPERATION

CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control. An N.C. system in
which a dedicated stored program computer is used to perform basic control
functions.
The functions of a CNC Controller are:
1. To read and store programme information.
2. To interpret the information in a logical command sequence.
3. To control the motion of the machines mechanical members.
4. To monitor the status of the machine.
The interpretation of programme commands by a machine control unit
and its conversion of those commands into machine motion is complex. The
basic elements and operation of a typical NC machine are shown in Fig. 6.1.
The functional elements in numerical control and the components involved
follow:
a. Data input: The numerical information is read and stored
in the tape reader or in computer memory
b. Data processing: The programmes are read into the
machine control unit for processing.
c. Data output: This is information is translated into
commands (typically pulsed commands) to the servomotor
(Fig. 6.2 and 6.3). The servomotor then moves the table (on
which the work piece is mounted) to specific positions,
through linear or rotary movements, by means of stepping
motors, leadscrews, and other similar devices.


msharizanJJ204

62































Computer:
Input command,
Processing,
Output command
D
r
i
v
e

s
i
g
n
a
l

P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

f
e
e
d
b
a
c
k

L
i
m
i
t

s
w
i
t
c
h
e
s

Figure 6.1. A schematic illustration of the major component
of a computer numerical control machine tool
Comparator DAC
Lead screw Position sensor
Dc
servomotor
Gear
Work table
Feedback signal
Input
Stepping
motor
Gear
Work table
Lead screw
Pulse train
Figure 6.3. A closed-loop control system for a numerical-control machine
Figure 6.2. An open-loop control system for a numerical-control machine

msharizanJJ204

63


6.2. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION

6.2.1. Metal Machining
Lathes of all types
Milling Machines of all types
Drilling Machines
Jig borers
Electric Discharge Machining (including wire cut machines)
Laser cutting machines
Machining centres
Turning centres
All types of grinding machines
Gear cutting machines

6.2.2. Metal Forming
Punching and nibbling
Guillotines
Flame cut and profiling
Folding

Pipe bending
Metal spinning

6.2.3. Finishing
Plating
Painting



msharizanJJ204

64


6.2.4. Assembly Joining -
Pick and place robots, spot and seam welding machines and robots,
riveting, looming of wires and assembly of components into printed
circuit boards.

6.3. CNC AXIS CONVENTIONS

CNC axis classification follows the three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system and is established in BS 3635: 1972: Part 1. Fig. 5.3 shows
the tree primary axes and the associated rotational axes.
Most machines have two or three slide ways placed at right angles to
one another. On CNC machines each slide is fitted with a control system,
and is identified with either the letter X, Y or Z.
Conventions have been adopted as to the naming of each axis. The
axis of the main spindle, whether it is the axis of the tool spindle or the axis
about which the work piece rotates is called the Z axis.
The X axis is the motion of the largest travel of the primary movement
(in case there is more than one).
The Y axis then makes the third motion and is the shorter primary
movement.
In addition to these primary linear axes, there is provision for Rotary
axes. They are designated A, B and C, with A rotary about the X axis, B
rotary about the Y axis, and C rotary about the Z axis.
It is often required to command a motion parallel to X, Y or Z axes
within the realm of a secondary motion, or a tertiary motion within special
automatic cycles such as describing the amount of finish allowance on a
turned part, or to describe the distance of advancement of a drill during a
drilling cycle etc. etc.

msharizanJJ204

65




Linear Axes X Y Z
Rotary Axes A B C
Secondary Linear U V W
Interpolation I J K

Tertiary motion codes differ considerably, but the address characters
variously used are P, Q, R, D, L, E, and H.
The z-axis is parallel to the main spindle of the machine. It will be
horizontal on a lathe or horizontal machining centre and vertical on a
vertical machining centre.

The x-axis is always horizontal and at 90
o
to z.
The y-axis is at right angles to both the x and z axes.













z
y
x
table
rotation
spindle
Figure 6.3. CNC axes
Table 6.1. NC axes
msharizanJJ204

66

6.4. NC MACHINE SUB-UNIT

We have already seen the many and varied applications of numerical
control to the manufacturing and other industries, now we will look at the
methods of controlling machines. There are three sub units to study:

The machine tool itself.
The control unit.
The control system.


6.4.1. The Machine Tool

A machine tool is a device designed to cut away surplus
material and leave a component of the required shape and size. To do
this a machine tool must be capable of:
- Holding the work piece securely
- Holding the cutting tool securely and driving it with suitable power.
- Moving the tool and work piece relative to one another precisely
enough to achieve accuracy of size and surface finish.
In addition, provision must be made for altering the spindle
speed and feed rates, tool changing, supply of coolant etc. On a
conventional machine an operator controls these functions and sets or
alters them when he considers it necessary, the decision resulting
from his training, skill and experience. Obviously, the machine
settings may differ between operators as will the time taken to read
scales, set positions, change tools, alter speeds and feeds, engage
drives and set up the work piece etc. CNC Automatic Control can be
applied to these functions and so result in consistent and reduced
msharizanJJ204

67

machining times through optimised cutting data, fast accurate
positioning between cuts and fast automatic tool changing.

6.4.2. The Control Unit

The CNC Machine Control Unit (MCU) has to read and decode
the part programme, and to provide the decoded instructions to the
control loops of the machine axes of motion, and to control the
machine tool operations.

The main grouping of parts of a control could be considered to be:
The Control Panel.
The Tape Reader,
The Processors

The first part of the control panel is the human interface that
allows various modes of machine or control operation to be initiated,
from switching on and homing, to programme loading and editing, to
setting work positions and tool offsets, manually controlled
movements and commencing the automatic cycling of a programme.
Information about machine status and condition is available to the
operator via VDU screens, gauges, meters, indicator lights and
readouts.
The tape reader is the device used to transfer the programme
information contained on a programme tape into the control unit.
Most tape readers are of the photo-electric type which offers high
speed reading with reliability and accuracy providing the tape is in
good condition and the reader is kept clean and free of paper dust
particles.
msharizanJJ204

68

The processors within a control are the electronic circuits that
permit conversion of part programme data into machine motions and
they may be classified into two main sections. The data processing
unit and the axis control processor. The function of the data processor
is to decode the commands of the part program, process it and provide
data to the axis control processor which then operates the slide drives
and receives feedback signals on the actual position and velocity of
each axis.

The Data Processing Unit includes the following functions:
i. The input device, such a tape reader.
ii. Reading circuits and parity checking logic.
iii. Decoding circuits for distributing data to the controlled axes
iv. An interpolator to supply velocity commands to the axes,
either singly or in combination.
The axis control processor consists of the following circuits:
i. Position control loops for each and all axes.
ii. Velocity control loops.
iii. Deceleration and backlash take up circuits.

An MCU is adaptable to virtually any machine, the differing
control motions and codes being a result of the way the control has
been programmed. This permanent resident program is known as an
executive programme and resides in the read only memory (ROM) of
the control, whereas the N.C. programme resides in the Random
Access Memory (RAM). RAM allows external access and alteration if
necessary, while ROM is programmed by the manufacturer and
cannot be accessed through the control keyboard.


msharizanJJ204

69


6.4.3. Control System

There are two types of control systems used on NC machines.
The point-to-point system and the continuous-path system.
Point-to-point systems are not so common these days, but they operate
only in straight lines, which are suitable for positioning moves on a
drilling machine or limited use on a lathe or milling machine, where
at best 45% cuts are possible with two axes running continuous path
controls allow angular path and radius motion because the control
interpolator has the ability to move the axis drive motors at varying
velocities.
The point-to-point controls were NC controls, while the
continuous path controls could be NC or CNC controls.

NOTE: NC is a general term used for Numerical Control and is also a
term used to describe controls that run directly off tape. CNC is a specific
term for Computer Numerical Control. CNC Machines are all NC machines,
but NC controlled machines are not CNC machines.












msharizanJJ204

70

6.6. NC PROGRAMMING

6.6.1. Job Planning

1. Sketch the part. Add incremental or absolute dimensions.
2. Ascertain fixturing. Select fixtures which have minimal
projections
above the part.
3. Identify a set-up point. Locate the set-up point near:
1. A corner of the part
2. A spot above the fixture

Consider space requirements for:
1. Part loading and unloading
2. Tool change.
4. Plan operation sequence Mark sequence pattern of sketch.
Test program data for accuracy.
5. Record necessary data for
each movement of the table
and tool on the program
sheet.
6. Record instructions for Identify, specific:
the machine operator. 1. Tools needed.
2. Speed and feed data
3. Tool change points
4. Console switch setting





msharizanJJ204

71

6.6.2. Incremental

The word "incremental" may be defined as a dimension or a
movement with respect to the preceding point in a prescribed
sequence of points. Each positioning move is described quantitatively
in distance and in direction from a previous point rather than from a
fixed zero reference point.
In incremental mode all moves are with respect to the last
position reached.



N10 G91
N15 G01 X10.Y10.F300.
N20 Y10.
N25 X20.
N30 X10.Y20.
N35 X20-Y-30.
N40 X-10.Y-10.
N45 X-50.
N50 M02









40
30
20
10 20 30 40 50 60
10
Y

4
0

4
0

X
msharizanJJ204

72



6.6.3. Absolute

The data in the absolute system describes the next location
always in terms of its relationship to the fixed zero point. The zero
point when used as a programme datum is known as the programme
origin.
The G90 code sets the control up in absolute mode. All moves are
performed with respect to the axes zero.



N10 G90
N15 G01X10.Y10.F300.
N20 Y20.
N25 X30.
N30 X40.Y40.
N35 X60.Y10.
N40 X50.Y0.
N45 X0.
N50 M02








40
30
20
10 20 30 40 50 60
10
Y

4
0

4
0

msharizanJJ204

73



6.6.4. Linear Interpolation

Under this command the machine tool will move in a straight
line at a defined feed rate. Combined axis motions (angled moves) will
be executed at the programming feed rate as the control will reduce
the velocity of both axes accordingly.

E.g. G01 X200. F250.
G01 Move in a straight line
X200. A distance of 20O.mm
F250. At a feed rate of 250.mm/min.

NOTE: If a new line with G01 is listed again somewhere below, the F250
does not have to be written again. This is called modal.














msharizanJJ204

74

Example:

A block as shown below is to be machined, write a program in absolute
mode.

%
G90 -
G01 X100 F300
Y70
X90. Y80
X20.
X10. Y90.
XO. Y80
Y0.
M02
6.6.5. Circular Interpolation

In circular interpolation mode G02 will cause the path to be
transcribed in a clockwise direction and G03 will cause
counter-clockwise motion.

G02 - Clockwise
G03 - Counterclockwise

In circular interpolation there are a number of points to be
remembered:
The end point of the arc is defined as X and Y coordinates
exactly the same as if commanding linear motion.
The centre of the arc is defined with respect to the start point in
the I and J words as an "increment" from this point.
100
70
7
0

8
0

9
0

10
0
10
0
10
0
8
0

msharizanJJ204

75

For G02 and G03 to function the feed rate "F." must be specified.

Example:

N5%
N10 G90
N15 G01 Y110. F200.
N20 G02 X20. I10.
N25 G03 X30. Y100. I10.
N30 G01 X90.
N35 G02 X100. Y90. J-10.
N40 G01 Y10,
N45 G02 X90. Y0. I-10.
N50 G01 X0.
N55 M02
6.7. PROGRAM DEFINITION

To enable the machine to operate automatically it is necessary to put
into its memory a programme or set of instructions to carry out the required
operation.
a) Programme.
A programme is a series of instructions to the machine, set out
in sequence to -produce a complete machining operation. A
programme is made up of a series of blocks.


b) Block.-
A block or programme line is a set of instructions to the
machine that are carried out simultaneously. A block is made up of
100
1
1
0

All radius R10
msharizanJJ204

76

one or more Words and is terminated by an End of Block which is the
Line Feed Character.

c) Word.
A word is a specific instruction to the machine that will affect a
particular machine function. Every word consists of a Letter Code and
a Numerical value.

Examples of Dimensional Words: X100. Y2.345 F0.25
Examples of Non-Dimensional Words: N25 G90 M03 S1200

Dimension words can be written in various ways, depending on the
control. Let's take the examples X100. Y2.345 some older controls cannot
accept decimal points, so both dimensional words would be written X100000
Y2345, with Y showing all decimal places. With these controls, if the X word
was written as X100, it would be interpreted as one-tenth of a millimeter,
not one hundred millimeters.
If a control accepts decimal points, then ALL dimensional words
should have a decimal point. On any control, non-dimensional must NOT
have a decimal point. The method of writing words beginning with a letter
is known as word address format and is now almost universally used.













msharizanJJ204

77

6.7.1. Program

(Start of Program)
(Material 25.mm. dia.)
(Grip 120.m.m. from Front of Jaws)
N01 G71G90G95
N02 G50X100.Z130.
N03 S2000M03



(Select Turning & Facing Tool)
N05 GO1X2.F.O4
N06 GOOZ120.
N07 X24.
N08 G01Z20.
N09 X26.
N10 G00X100.Z130.T0100
N11 M02

WORD ADDRESS The letter at the beginning of each word is called
the address character.

e.g. X Y Z for Axis designating word
F for Feed rates
G for Preparatory functions
M for miscellaneous function
N for Sequence numbers


N04 G00X26.Z119.T0101 BLOCK
WORDS
N10 GOOX100. Z130. T0100
msharizanJJ204

78

CNC mills, drills and machining centers are all equipped with cycles
to perform drilling, reaming, counter boring, boring and tapping operations.
Some others have pocketing cycles, slot cutting cycles, hole pattern cycles
etc, all of which are designed to save programming time and effort.
CNC lathes usually have cycles to cover drilling, grooving/parting,
screw cutting, repetitive cut (automatic roughing) operations and others.
Each cycle has its own G code to control the sequence of motions and an
accompanying set of words to define the parameters of those motions. These
words have addresses such as: R,P,Q,D,E,I,K,H,B etc.

6.7.2. Program Preparation

CNC programmes can be prepared manually, where the programmer
usually roughs the programme out on paper, then produces it via a keyboard
device of the type detailed below, or by assisted preparation in which a
computer plays a predominant role -such as when CAD/CAM packages have
been installed for design and programming.
The programmer must posses knowledge and skills in planning
machining sequences, fixturing, cutting data, cutting tools, calculations, as
well as being familiar with the machines he is programming. To implement
these skills to best effect a programmer should be prepared to observe
critically his programs in use and modify them as necessary in order to gain
maximum machine utilization.

6.7.3. Operation of program

Before a machine can set into automatic motion a program must be
checked for errors. A simple typing mistake - an incorrect code, a minus sign
instead of a zero, the exclusion of a decimal etc, could cause and expensive

msharizanJJ204

79

machine crash. Anyone who considers their programmes to be without error
and not in need of careful and conscientious trialing has an attitude problem
and is placing expensive machinery and operators safety at risk.
There may be many ways in which a programme can be checked for
errors, but a programme can only be proved 100% by running the machine
and producing a part.

Error checking can be performed in a variety of ways:
Verification: Read through the print-out (NOT the handwritten
manuscript) carefully - sometimes mistakes can be seen
easily.
Trialing: This involves the execution of the programme without
actually cutting the part and may be carried out in
several ways depending on the type of machine, or
control, or even the philosophy of the person in charge.
Adhere to the later unless
you can put up good reasons for alteration.
Trialing usually consists of running the machinewith the single
block switch active, that is, each block will only be executed by
pressing cycle start, in conjunction with the programme
being displayed on the screen.
Quite often the dry run mode is switched on to hasten
Proceedings. 'Dry Run' results in all machine motion
being executed at a preset rate, usually in the region of
50% to 80% of the rapid traverse capability of the
machine. The actual axisvelocity can be overridden from
0% to 100%. The disadvantage of dry running a
programme is that feed rates will be masked, and
attention must be paid to determining theactual
msharizanJJ204

80

programmed feed rate for each block. This may be
displayed on the screen.

Every movement the machine makes during programme
trialing should be expected and accountable to the
programmer, if not, those motions should be checked for
viability, and if necessary, a more thorough
understanding of the machine operation should be
sought.

Editing: Wherever errors are found, they should be corrected and
rechecked, be it on the machine or at the programming
station. Whenever a programme is edited on the
machine, a note should be made on the print-out so the
master or original programme can also be corrected. A
better method is to punch out a programme from the
control after successfully producing a component.

6.8. TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM

There are two basic types of control systems in numerical control:
point-to-point and contouring.

a. In a point-to-point system, also called positioning, each axis of the
machine is driven separately by lead screws and, depending on the
type of operation, at different velocities. The machine moves
initially at maximum velocity in order to reduce non-productive
time, but decelerates as the tool approaches its numerically
defined position. Thus, in an operation such as drilling (or
msharizanJJ204

81

punching a hole), the positioning and cutting take place
sequentially (Fig. 5.4).
After the hole is drilled or punched, the tool retracts upward
and moves rapidly to another position, and the operation is
repeated. The path followed from one position to another is
important in only one respect. It must be chosen to minimize the
time of travel, for better
efficiency. Point-to-point systems are used mainly in drilling,
punching, and straight milling operations.












Position Coordinate
(X)
Coordinate
(Y)
C.P. -15 15
Point 1 10 -10
Point 2 55 -10
Point 3 55 -55
Point 4 10 -55

Position Coordinate
(X)
Coordinate
(Y)
C.P. -15 15
Point 1 25 -25
Point 2 45 0
Point 3 0 -45
Point 4 -45 0

Incremental (G90)
Absolute (G91)
Figure 5.4. Point-to point system

C.P
15
15
(0,0)
1
0

10
45
4
5

1
2
3 4
msharizanJJ204

82


b. In a contouring system (also known as a continuous path system),
the positioning and the operations are both performed along
controlled paths but at different velocities. Because the tool acts as it
travels along a prescribed path (Fig. 5.5), accurate control and
synchronization of velocities and movements are important. The
contouring system is typically used on lathes, milling machines,
grinders, welding machinery, and machining centres.












6.9. PROGRAMMING CODES

A number of standard codes are used to reduce the amount of
programming effort needed to command commonly used machining
operations, instructions and conditions. These are commonly known as:
G codes call up machining commands
M codes call up machine control activities
T codes call up tool selection
F codes call up feed rates
S codes call

Figure 5.5. Continuous path by a milling cutter
Cutter
radius
Cutter
path
Machined
surface
Work piece
msharizanJJ204

83

- modal codes remain active after being entered, unless they are
cancelled by another G code; and
- non-modal codes are only active in the programme block in which they
appear.


6.9.1. G codes (preparatory codes)

The majority of manufacturers follow the same practice in designation
of codes, but their detailed implementation mav differ.

Sample G codes
GOO Rapid movement for position
GOI Linear interpolation used for straight-line feed
G02 Circular interpolation, clockwise
G03 Circular interpolartion, counterclockwise
G04 Dwell, a programmed stop to the tool movement
G17 Circular interpolation xy plane
G18 Circular interpolation xz plane
G19 Circular interpolation yz plane
G20 Inch units
G21 Millimetre units
G28 Return to home position
G29 Return from home position
G31 Reverses programmed direction of x axis
G32 Reverses programmed direction of y axis
G41 Tool radius compensation left
G42 Tool radius compensation right
G43 Tool length compensation-positive direction
G44 Tool length compensation-negative direction

G70 Imperial unit
G71 Metric units
G80 Cancel canned cycle
G81 Drilling cycle
G82 Drilling cycle with dwell
G83 Deep hole drilling
G84 Tapping cycle
G85 89-boring cycles
G90 Absolute mode
G91 Incremental mode

msharizanJJ204

84

6.9.2. M codes

These control the auxiliary functions of the machine.
MOO Program stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle on, clockwise
M04 Spindle on, counter clockwise
M05 Spindle off
M06 Tool change
M07 Oil mist coolant on
M08 Flood coolant on
M09 Coolant off
M30 End of tape





















msharizanJJ204

85

6.10. WRITING A PROGRAM
















Position Coordinate (X) Coordinate (Y)
C.P. 0 0
P. 1 45.0 -25.0
P. 2 70.0 -25.0
P. 3 60.0 -65.0
P. 4 45.0 -50.0
P. 5 60.0 -50.0
P. 6 49.393 -75.607
P. 7 38.787 -65.0
P. 8 15.0 -65.0



Figure 5.6. To cut a S-slot/groove with a point-to-point
method and a continuous path/contouring system
Table 5. Reference points and X and Y coordinates to cut a S-slot/groove
with a point-to-point method and a continuous path/contouring system
msharizanJJ204

86

To machine the above component (as in Fig.5.6), below is the
programme that can be followed;


N10 G71 G90 S1500 T1
N20 G00 X0 Y0
N30 G00 X70.0 Y-25.0 Z10.0
N40 G01 Z-5.0 F250
N50 G03 I-25.0 J0
N60 X45.0 Y-50.0
N70 G01 X60.0 Y -50.0
N80 G02 I0 J-15.0
N90 X49.393 Y-75.607
N100 G01 X38.787 Y-65.0
N110 X15.0 Y-65.0
N120 Z10.0
N130 G00 M00
N140 G00 X0 Y0

Description of The Above Programme

NXX block number
Block No. 10 set machine to use metric unit, incremental coordinate,
spindle speed 1500 rpm, choose tool no. 1.
Block No. 20 rapid movement to centre point (C.P).
Block No. 30 - rapid movement to point 1 (P. 1), cutting tool distance
is
5.0 mm from the surface of the work piece.
Block No. 40 cutting tool cuts 10.00 mm deep, feed 250 mm/min
msharizanJJ204

87

Block No. 50 circular interpolation, counter clockwise, radius 25.0
mm
Block No. 60 tool ends interpolation cutting at P. 4
Block No. 70 linear interpolation until P. 5
Block No. 80 - circular interpolation, clockwise, radius 15.0 mm
Block No. 90 - tool ends interpolation cutting at P. 6
Block No. 100 - linear interpolation until P. 7
Block No. 110 - linear interpolation until P. 8
Block No. 120 tool rises up 10.0 mm
Block No. 130 program stops
Block No. 140 - rapid return to centre point (C.P).

6.11. ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL

i. The component programming tape and the tape reader are used
once only when the programme is copied into the computer
memory, not only this practice wills same time but it will also
reduce errors.
ii. The programming tape can be edited on the shop floor, when
the machine is placed/located. Editing, correction and
optimising; such
as machine tool operations, spindle speeds and speeds; are
usually done in the test run of the tape.
iii. Computer numerical control can easily changes into metric
system if the programme is in the imperial units.
iv. It is widely used in industry. It is easily adaptable in a
computerised industry system.
v. Increased flexibility the machine can produce a specific part,
followed by other parts with different shapes, and at reduces
cost.
vi. Greater accuracy computers have a higher sampling rate and
faster operation.
vii. More versatility editing and debugging programmes,
reprogramming, and plotting and printing part shape are
simpler.
viii. Programmes are stored on the machine ready for use.
ix. Programmes and data can be modified on the machine.
msharizanJJ204

88









6.1. Briefly state four (4) advantages of numerical control system.

6.2. You are given a drawing of a component. List down the steps you would take to
operate a NC machine in order produce the component.

6.3. Write a short paragraph on three (3) basic components of a numerical control
system.


6.4 Numerical control machine can be done in absolute coordinate (G90) and
incremental coordinates (G91). What is the difference between the two coordinates.

6.5 By using G90 and G 91 coordinates write a program to cut a component in is the
.below figure.

















ACTIVITY 6

30
7
0

J20
20
60
3
5

msharizanJJ204

89




Answer 6.5
Point
G 90 G 91
X Y X Y
Origin Point 0
0 0 0
1 30 -70 30 -70
2 30 -40 0 30
3 70 -15 40 25
4 90 -35 20 -20
5 90 -70 0 -35



























msharizanJJ204

90









SHIELDED GAS ARC WELDING





General Objective: To understand the principles of shielded gas arc
welding i.e. TIG and MIG welding.

Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to :


Identify the principles of shielded gas arc
welding i.e. TIG and MIG welding.

Elaborate on the TIG and MIG welding
principles, welding procedures, welding
machines, gas, etc.

State the advantages and disadvantages of
TIG and MIG compared to manual arc
welding.

State the weaknesses of TIG and MIG welding
and how to prevent them.
.





msharizanJJ204

91

7.0. INTRODUCTION

The objective of welding is to produce a welding joint that contains the
same mechanical properties as the base metal. The objective can be
achieved if the molten metal is free from atmospheric air. If not, nitrogen
and oxygen gases in the atmosphere will be absorbed by the melting pool.
The welding produced will have small pore that will weaken the weld.
To prevent the welding, molten metal and the end of the filler rode
and electrodes from atmospheric air pollution before the molten metal
become solid inert gas is blown out from the welding point. These gases will
cover the welding pools, the filler rod points and electrode tips to avoid
oxidation.

7.1. TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG)

The welding of aluminium and magnesium alloys by the oxy-acetylene
and manual metal arc processes is limited by the necessity to use a corrosive
flux. The gas shielded, tungsten arc process enables these metals and a wide
range of ferrous alloys to be welded without the use of a flux. The choice of
the either a.c. or d.c. depends upon the metal to be welded. For metals
having refractory surface oxides such as aluminium and its alloys,
magnesium alloys and aluminium bronze, a.c. is used whilst d.c. is used for
carbon and alloy steels, heat-resistant and stainless steels, cooper and its
alloys, nickel and its alloys, titanium, zirconium and silver.
The arc burns between a tungsten electrode and the work piece within
a shield of the inert gas argon, which excludes the atmosphere and prevents
contamination of electrode and molten metal. The hot tungsten arc ionizes
argon atoms within the shield to form a gas plasma consisting of almost
equal numbers of free electrons and positive ions. Unlike the electrode in
the manual metal arc process, the tungsten is not transferred to the work
and evaporates very slowly, being classed as non-consumable. Small
msharizanJJ204

92

amount of other elements are added to the tungsten to improve electron
emission.






















Figure 7.1. TIG welding equipment
Gas flow
Water inlet
Water outlet
Welding
machine
Torch
Work piece
msharizanJJ204

93























7.1.1. Preparation of Metal.

Gas tungsten-arc processes must start with clean metal which
has the proper joint design i.e., V, U, or J. Mechanical and chemical
cleaning are often necessary to prepare the base metal. The edges of
the joint should be shaped to permit adequate fusion and penetration.
It is common practice to reduce or bevel the adjoining edges to 1.6 mm
thickness.
A strip (backup bar) to support the back side of the base metal
should be used when needed. This is especially helpful on aluminium
since it aids in shielding. The backup bar may be removed after
welding.

Figure 7.2. TIG in progress. The tungsten does not melt into the
puddle for filler. This is a nonconsumable electrode.


Shielded gas
Electrode
(tungsten)
Filler rode
arc
Melting pool
Inert/noble
gas
Work piece
20 30
o

80 90
o
Direction of travel
msharizanJJ204

94

7.1.2. Joint Fit.

Good joints make it easier to obtain a good weld. In production
work, carefully fitted joints can help save money and can help the
welding operator develop standardized welding techniques. Root
opening (distance apart) and angle of bevel are two major factors
requiring close tolerance when fitting joints.

7.1.3. Welding Machine.

Gas tungsten-arc welding requires a conventional welding
machine, with the following accessories:
1. Torch, lead cable, and hoses.
2. Inert gas supply and flow meter for measuring
amount of shielding gas.
3. Water cooling system for water-cooled torches.
Air-cooled torches are limited to 150 ampere capacity.
4. High-frequency spark unit attached to the output
leads of the power supply (to start and stabilize arc).

The finished weld will be greatly affected by type of current and
polarity. For example, aluminium is welded with alternating current
plus superimposed high-frequency current (ACHF). Stainless steel is
welded with direct current straight polarity (DCSP). Improper
electrical connections will cause (a) the electrode to overheat, (b) poor
penetration, or (c) insufficient cleaning effect upon the base metal.
Current selection must be made with care. When an electrode
is connected to the negative terminal (DCSP), electrons pass through
the arc to bombard the base plate (Fig. 7.3).

msharizanJJ204

95












This causes nearly 70% of the arc heat to accumulate in the
base metal to assist fusion and penetration. When the electrode is
made positive (DCRP), a cleaning effect is created on the surface of
the base plate (Fig. 7.4).













Deep penetration
Work piece
Figure 7.3 Power supply with direct current straight polarity
Direction of electron
travel
Welding
machine
Positive surface
particles travel
Electrode
Positive surface
particles travel
Direction of electron
travel
Electrode
Welding
machine
Work piece
Shallow penetration
Figure 7.4 Power supply with direct current reverse polarity
msharizanJJ204

96

In welding aluminium this method is used to remove surface
oxidation. While an electrode positive connection furnishes a cleaning
effect, it also heats the tungsten electrode. The electrode may get hot

enough to melt, transfer to the weld pool, and contaminate the base
metal. When this happens, the electrode must be removed, its end
broken off, and it must be ground to shape.
Alternating current offers the advantages of both direct current
straight polarity (DCSP) and direct current reverse polarity (DCRP).
Gas tungsten-arc welding of aluminium and magnesium requires an
AC power supply (Fig. 7.5).
Gas tungsten-arc welding is not recommended for metal more
than 20 mm thick. Welds have been completed on 25 mm thick plate
but require a great deal of time and, consequently, are expensive.
Most applications are less than 12 mm thick, and require less than
500 amperes of current.














Electrode
Surface
particles lifted
Electron flow
Welding
machine
Work piece
Medium penetration
Figure 7.5 Alternating current power supply
msharizanJJ204

97


7.1.4. Welding Torch.

The welding torch has a round collet which compresses to hold
the electrode and a nozzle to control the gas (Fig. 7.2). Water-cooled
torches are used when current values exceed 150 amperes.
Maintenance of either torch is more time consuming than with the
metal-arc process. Careful selection of nozzle size, proper shaping of
the working end of the electrode and correct extension of electrode
beyond nozzle are important. Nozzle size influences the flow of gas.
End shape of electrode and extension of electrode beyond nozzle
control the stability of the arc. Further, it is important that electrode
diameter match current value (Table 7.1). If the current is too high for
the diameter of an electrode, the life of the electrode will be reduced.
When the current is too low for a given electrode diameter, the arc will
not be stable.

Electrode
Size
(Diameter,
Inches)
Nozzle or
Cup Sizes

WELDING CURRENT IN AMPERES
ACHF DCSP DCRP
Pure
Tungsten
Thoriated
Tungsten
Pure or
Thoriated
Pure or
Thoriated
0.020 4,5 5-15 5-20 5-20 *
0.040 4,5 10-60 15-80 15-80 *
1/16 4-6 50-100 70-150 70-150 10-20
3/32 5-7 100-160 140-235 150-250 15-30
1/8 6-8 150-210 225-325 250-400 25-40
*Not applicable.
Table 7.1. Selection of nozzle size and electrode size for gas tungsten-arc
welding
msharizanJJ204

98


The end of the electrode should remain bright, as if it was
polished. On some metals, such as aluminium and magnesium, the
end is contaminated when starting or by touching the base plate.
Contamination can be burned off by welding on a scrap plate of metal,
or it can be removed by grinding (Fig. 7.6). The electrode should be
adjusted to extend beyond the nozzle a distance equal to the electrode
diameter (Fig. 7.7)






















Figure 7.6 Electrode shapes for gas shielded tungsten-arc welding
3/8 max
Electrode diameter
Figure 7.7. Adjustment of electrode from nozzle
Grind here
AC
30
o

45
o
15
o
DCSP
DCRP
msharizanJJ204

99


7.1.5. Shielding Gas.

Gas used with this process produces an atmosphere free from
contamination and also provides a path for arc transfer. The path
creates an environment that helps stabilize the arc. The gas and arc
activity also perform a cleansing action on the base metal. Both argon
and helium are generally used for this process but argon is preferred
because it is cheaper and provides a smoother arc. Helium, however,
helps produce deeper penetration (Table 7-2).

7.1.6. Filler Metal.

Filler metals are selected to meet or exceed the tensile strength,
ductility, and corrosion resistance of the base metal. The usual
practice is to select a filler metal having a composition similar to that
of the base metal. For most efficient application, select clean filler
metals of proper diameter; the larger the diameter of the filler metal,
the more heat is lost from the weld pool.











msharizanJJ204

100


Metal Shielding Gas Remarks
Aluminium Argon Easy starting
Good cleaning action.
Helium Faster and more penetration.
Argon-10% helium Increase in penetration over pure argon.
Stainless steel Argon Better control of penetration (16 gauge
and thinner).
Argon-helium
mixtures
Higher welding speeds.
Copper and
nickel
Argon Easy to control penetration and weld
contour on sheet metal.
Argon-helium Increases heat into base metal.
Helium Highest welding speed.

7.2. TIG WELDING TECHNIQUES

After the base metal has been properly cleaned and clamped or tacked
together, welding can be started. On aluminium, the arc is usually started
by bringing the electrode near the base metal at a distance of about one
electrode diameter so that a high-frequency spark jumps across the gap and
starts the flow of welding current. Steel, copper alloys, nickel alloys, and
stainless steel may be touched with the electrode without contamination to
start the arc. Once started, the arc is held stationary until a liquid pool
appears. Filler rod can be added to the weld pool as required (Fig. 7.8).
Highest current values and minimum gas flow should be used to produce
clean, sound welds of desired penetration (Table 7-3).


Table 7.2 Selection of gases for manual application of tungsten-arc welding.
msharizanJJ204

101



Material Aluminium Stainless Steel Magnesium Deoxidized
Copper
Type of Current ACHF DCSP ACHF DCSP
1.6mm electrode
Current:
Argon:
Passes:

60-80
15 cfh
1

80-100
11 cfh
1

60
13 cfh
1

110-140
15 cfh
1
3.2mm electrode
Current:
Argon:
Passes:

125-145
17 cfh
1

120-140
11 cfh
1

115
19 cfh
1

175-225
15 cfh
1
4.7mm electrode
Current:
Argon:
Passes:

190-220
21 cfh
1

200-250
13 cfh
1

120-175
19 cfh
1,2

250-300
15 cfh
1 at 257.4*
*Preheat to temperature indicated.

The shielded gas is pure argon and pre-heating is required for drying
only to produce welds of the highest quality. All surfaces and welding wire
should be degreased and the area near the joint and the welding wire should
be stainless steel wire brushed or scrape to remove oxide and each run
brushed before the next is laid.
The angles of torch and filler rod are shown in Fig. 7.8. After
switching on the gas, water, welding current and HF unit, the arc is struck
by bringing the tungsten electrode near the work (without touching down).
The HF sparks jump the gap and the welding current flows. Arc length
should be about 3 mm. Practice starting by laying the holder on its side and
bringing it to the vertical position, but using the ceramic shield as a fulcrum
can lead to damage to the holder and ceramic shield. The arc is held in one
Table 7.3 Operating data for TIG
msharizanJJ204

102


position on the plate until a molten pool is obtained and welding is
commenced, proceeding from right to left, the rod being fed into the forward
edge of the molten pool and always kept within the gas shield. It must not
be allowed to touch the electrode or contamination occurs. A black
appearance on the weld metal indicates insufficient argon supply.











The flow rate should be checked and the line inspected for leaks. A
brown film on the weld metal indicates presence of oxygen in the argon while
a chalky white appearance of the weld metal accompanied by difficulty in
controlling the weld indicates excessive current and overheating. The weld
continues with the edge of the portion sinking through, clearly visible, and
the amount of the sinking which determines the size of the penetration bead
is controlled by the welding rate.






30
o
15
o
Direction of
travel

Figure 7.8. Example of TIG
msharizanJJ204

103

7.3. METAL INERT GAS (MIG)

It is convenient to consider, under this heading, those applications
which involve shielding the arc with argon, carbon dioxide (CO2) and
mixtures of argon with oxygen and/or CO2, since the power source and

equipment is essentially similar except for gas supply. With the tungsten
inert gas shielded arc welding process, inclusions of tungsten become
troublesome with currents above 300 A. The MIG process does not suffer
from these advantages and larger welding current giving greater deposition
rates can be achieved. The process is suitable for welding aluminium,
magnesium alloys, plain and low-alloy steels, stainless and heat-resistant
steel, copper and bronze, the variation being filler wire type of gas shielding
the arc.
The consumable electrode of bare wire is carried on the spool and is
fed to a maually operated or fully automatic gun through an outer flexible
cable by motor-driven rollers of adjustable speed, and rate of burn-off of the
electrode wire must be balance by rate of wire feed. Wire feed rate
determines the current used.
In addition, a shielding gas or gas mixture is fed to the gun together
with welding current supply, cooling water flow and return (if the gun is
water cooled) and a control cable from gun switch to control contractors.
A d.c. power supply is required with the wire electrode connected to the
positive pole ( Fig. 7.9).






msharizanJJ204

104














During this process an electric arc is used to heat the weld zone. The
electrode is fed into the weld pool at a controlled rate and the arc is shielded
by a protective gas such as argon, helium, or carbon dioxide (Fig. 7.9). Gas
metal-arc welding can be either the short-circuiting process or the spray-arc
process (Fig. 7.10).












Inert/noble gas
Melting pool
Arc
Shielded gas
Work piece
Figure 7.10. MIG in progress
Figure 7.9 . MIG welding equipment
Spool of
electrode
wire
Control head
forelectrode feed
and gas supply
Inert gas
cylinder
Electrode
feed
rools
Welding
power
cable
Arc welding
power supply
Gas flow
meter
Contactor lead,welding
current,electrode, and
inert gasto welding
gun
Contacto
r cable
Ground
cable
msharizanJJ204

105

The short-circuiting arc process (short arc) operates at low currents
and voltages. For example, 18-gauge sheet metal can be welded at 45 amps
and 12 volts.







In contrast, the spray-arc process uses high currents and voltages,
e.g., Arc action is illustrated in Fig. 7.12. This results in high heat input to
the weld area, making possible deposition rates of more than 0.4 lb per
minute. (The deposition rate is the weight of filler metal melted into the
weld zone

per unit of time.) Most applications of the spray-arc process are in thick
metal fabrications, e.g., in heavy road-building machinery, ship construction,
and beams for bridges.











Work piece
Work piece
Figure 7.11. Mechanics of the short circuiting transfer process as
shown between the electrode and work piece. Electrode dips into pool
an average of 90 times a second

Electrode maintains steady arc length
Figure 7.12. Mechanics of the spray-arc transfer
process as shown between the electrode and work
msharizanJJ204

106

All metal inert-gas (MIG) welding is classified as semi-automatic,
since the electrode feeds into the weld according to a preset adjustment.
After making an initial adjustment, the welding operator merely moves the
gun along the joint. For effective applications, the welding operator needs
information concerning power requirements, welding gun, selection of
shielding gas, type of filler metal, and job procedures.

7.3.1. Power Requirements.

Conventional power supplies used for shielded metal-arc
welding are not satisfactory. A welding machine designed for the MIG
process is called a constant potential power source; it produces a
constant voltage and also permits the operator to adjust electrode feed
rates. The adjustments on the power supply are voltage, slope (limits
current), and wire feed rate. Welding current is established by

selecting a wire feed rate. Slope adjustment to limit current is not a
problem with spray-arc type transfer. However, in short-circuiting arc
processes, limitations on short-circuit current are essential to prevent
excessive spatter.
The electrode feed mechanism, an important part of the
welding machine, consists of a storage reel for electrode wire and a
power drive which feeds the electrode into the weld at a controlled
rate.


Metal Shielding Gas Remarks
Aluminium and copper Argon + helium
20-80% mixture
High heat input
Minimum of porosity
Table 7.4 Shielding mixtures for MIG
msharizanJJ204

107

Copper Argon + nitrogen
25-30% mixture
Good heat input on copper
Carbon steels
Low alloy steels
Argon + oxygen
3-5% mixture
Stabilizes arc
Reduces spatter
Causes weld metal to flow
Eliminates undercut
May require electrode to
contain deoxidizers
Low alloy steels Mixture of argon,
helium and carbon
dioxide
Increases toughness of weld
deposit


7.3.2. Selection of Gas.

The primary purpose of the inert gas is to shield the weld
crater from contamination. Shielding gas may also affect (1) the
transfer of
metal across the arc, (2) fusion and penetration, (3) the shape of weld
deposit, (4) the speed of completing the weld, (5) the ability of filler
metal to flow over the surface without undercutting, and (6) the cost of
the finished weld.
No single inert gas is satisfactory for all welding conditions. Some specific
jobs are more efficiently welded with a mixture of gases.
For example, low alloy steels are welded with a mixture of argon,
helium, and carbon dioxide (Table 7.4).

7.3.3. Filler Metal.

msharizanJJ204

108

Electrodes used for filler metal with the MIG process are much
smaller in diameter than those used with the metal-arc process. Sizes
may range from 0.4 mm to 5.5 mm in diameter. Small diameter
electrodes require high feed rates, from 100 to 1,400 inches per
minute. The composition of the electrode usually matches that of the
base metal, but for welding high-strength alloys, the composition of
the electrode may vary widely from that of the base metal.
For example, an aluminium-zinc-magnesium alloy (7039) is
welded with an aluminium-magnesium alloy (5356).

7.4. JOB PROCEDURES

High-quality welds are obtained by controlling process variables
which include current, voltage, travel speed, electrode extension, cleanliness,
and type of joint.

7.4.1. Current.

Welding current varies with the melting rate of the electrode.
Extreme values of current tend to promote defects, but a high current
(1.1 mm. electrode at 220 amp) reduces the drop size of the transfer,
improves arc stability, and improves penetration.

7.4.2. Voltage.

With the MIG welding process, the voltage control determines
the arc length. The higher the voltage setting, the longer the arc. A
desirable voltage range to establish a short arc is 19-22 volts; defects
are more likely to occur outside this range (Fig. 7.14).

msharizanJJ204

109













Position of welding will determine voltage needed. For example, a
higher voltage is more desirable for flat-position welding than for vertical or
overhead welding. Table 7-5 indicates typical voltage values.
Metal Argon Helium Ar-O2 Mixture
1-5%O2
CO2
Aluminium 25 30 * *
Carbon Steel * * 28 30
Low-alloy Steel * * 28 30
Stainless Steel 24 * 26 *
Nickel 26 30 * *
Copper 30 36 * *
*Not recommended.



S
e
v
e
r
i
t
y

o
f

d
e
f
e
c
t


(
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
)

S
e
v
e
r
i
t
y

o
f

d
e
f
e
c
t


(
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
)

Fig. 7.13. Defects related to voltage settings.
Voltage
Voltage
Curve representing
undercutting
Curve representing
porosity
Table 7-5 Typical arc voltage for MIG using drop transfer and 1/16 inch
diameter electrode.
msharizanJJ204

110

7.4.3. Travel Speed.

After selecting a current and voltage setting, select the rate of
travel. A typical example is 0.6m 0.76m per minute (in./min). If the
rate is changed more than a few mm per minute, weld quality will be
greatly affected (Fig. 7.15).









Position of welding will affect the travel speed. For example, if
the weld direction is dropped 15 degrees from flat so that the position
is slightly downhill, travel speed can be increased.

7.4.4. Electrode Extension.

Electrode extension is important. The further the electrode
extends from the gun to the arc, the greater the electrical resistance
between the output terminals. Higher resistance increases the
temperature of the electrode, and the resistance-heated electrode uses
less current in the weld puddle. In the spray-arc process, the electrode
Fig. 7.15. Undercutting of horizontal fillet on 6.3mm thick aluminium as
affected by travel speed. Gas metal arc process was used.
No undercut.
Travel speed
26 in/min
Undercutting.
Travel speed
32 in/min
msharizanJJ204

111

extension should be about 12 mm to 25 mm, for short-circuiting
transfer; it should be approximately half this distance.

7.5. MIG WELDING TECHNIQUES

There are three methods of initiating the arc.
i. The gun switch operates the gas and water solenoids and
when released the wire drive is switched on together
with the welding current.
ii. The gun switch operates the gas and water solenoids and
strikes the wire end on the plate operates the wire drives
and welding current (known as scratch start).
iii. The gun switch operates the gas and water solenoids and
wire feed with welding current known as scratch start.

As a general rule dip transfer is used for thinner sections up to 6.4
mm and for positional welding, whilst spray transfer is used for thicker
sections.
The gun is held at an angle of 80
o
or slight less to the line of the weld
to obtain a good view of the weld pool, and welding proceeds from right to
left with nozzle held 6 12 mm from the work.
The further the nozzle is held from the work less the efficiency of the
gas shield, leading to porosity. If the nozzle is held too close to the work
spatter may build up, necessitating frequent cleaning of the nozzle, while
acting between nozzle and work can be caused by a bent wire guide tube
allowing the wire to touch the nozzle, or by spatter build-up short-circuiting
wire and nozzle. If the wire burns back to the guide tube it may be caused
by a late start of the wire feed, fouling of the wire in the feed conduit or the
feed rolls being too tight. Intermittent wire feed is generally due to
insufficient feed rolls pressure or looseness wire due to wear in the rolls.
msharizanJJ204

112

Excessively sharp bends in the flexible guide tubes can also lead to this
trouble.
Root run is performed with no weave and filler runs with as little
weave as possible consistent with good fusion since excessive weaving tends
to promote porosity. The amount of wire projecting beyond the contact tube
is important because the greater the projection, the greater the I
2
R effect
and the greater the voltage drop which may reduce the welding current and
affect penetration. The least projection commensurate with accessibility to
the joint being welded should be aimed at.
Backing the strips which are welded permanently on to the reverse
side of the plate by the root run are often used to ensure sound root fusion.
Backing bars of copper or ceramics with grooves of the required penetration
bead profile can be used and are removed after welding. It is not necessary
to back-chip the root run of the light alloys but with stainless steel this is
often done and a sealing run put down. The importance of fit-up in securing
continuity and evenness of the penetration bead cannot be over-emphasized.
Flat welds may be slightly tilted to allow the molten metal to flow
against the deposited metal and thus give a better profile. If the first run
has a very convex profile poor manipulation of the gun may cause cold laps
in the subsequent run.

















msharizanJJ204

113




7.6. DIRECT CURRENT STRAIGHT POLARITY

The welding circuit shown in figure 7.16, is known as a straight
polarity circuit. It is understood that the electrons are flowing from the
negative terminal (cathode) of the machine to the electrode. The electrons
continue to travel across the arc into the base metal and to the positive
terminal (anode) of the machine.
Approximately two-thirds of the total heat produced with DCSP is
released at the base metal while one-third is released at the electrode. The
choice of direct current straight polarity depends on many variables such as
material of the base metal, position of the weld, as well as the electrode
material and covering.






















Electrode
Reactor
Cathode
d
Field
Holder
Anode
Arc gap
Work piece
Figure 7.16. Wiring diagram of a direct current, straight polarity (DCSP)
arc circuit
msharizanJJ204

114



7.7. DIRECT CURRENT REVERSE POLARITY ARC WELDING

It is possible, and sometimes desirable, to reverse the direction of
electron flow in the arc welding circuit. When electron flow from the
negative terminal (cathode) of the arc welder to the base metal, this circuit is
known as direct current reverse polarity (DCRP). In this case, the electron
returns to the positive terminal (anode) of the machine from the electrode
side of the arc, as shown in Figure 7.17.















When using DCRP, one-third of the heat generated in the arc is
released at the base-metal and two-thirds is liberated at the electrode. With
two-thirds of the heat released at the electrode in DCRP, the electrode metal
and the shielding gas are super-heated. This superheating causes the
molten metal in the electrode to travel across the arc at a very high rate of
speed. Deep penetration results due to the force of the high velocity arc.
There is theory that, with a covered electrode, a jet action and/or expansion
of gases in the metal at the electrode tip causes the molten metal to be
propelled with great impact across the arc.
The choice of direct current reverse polarity depends on many
variables such as material of the base metal, position of the weld, as well as
the electrode material and covering.

Anode
Electrode
Reactor
Cathode
d
Field
Holder
Arc gap
Work piece
Figure 7.17. Wiring diagram of a direct current, reverse polarity (DCRP)
arc circuit
msharizanJJ204

115






1. Explain the term nonconsumable electrode.

2. What does the term inert signify?

3. List the gases used for shielding a welding arc.

4. Explain how TIG welding electrodes are shaped.

5. How far should the electrode extend beyond the nozzle of the TIG
torch?

6. Explain why MIG welding is classified as a semiautomatic process.

7. From the standpoint of operation, how are TIG and MIG processes
different? How are they similar?

8. What polarity does anode signify?

9. In what direction do the electrons travel when using straight polarity?

10. How much of the heat used for arc welding is liberated at the
electrode when using straight polarity?

11. Why is it recommended that a tungsten electrode arc be started on a
scrap tungsten surface?
12. What would happen if the tungsten electrode were bent off centre?

13. Name two defects that could occur with gas shielded-arc welding
processes and explain how each could be avoided.

ACTIVITY 7

msharizanJJ204

116







CONTENT
1 Introduction

1.1 : Introduction of rapid prototyping
1.2 : History of rapid prototyping
1.3 : The advantages of rapid prototyping

2 Classification of rapid prototyping
2.1 : Three major group of rapid prototyping
2.1.1 : Subtractive process
2.1.2 : Additive process
2.1.3 : Virtual process

2.1.3.1 : Fused deposition modeling
2.1.3.2 : Stereolithography
2.1.3.3 : Selective laser sintering
2.1.3.4 : Ballistic
2.1.3.5 : Laminated object manufacturing


3 Understanding Direct Manufacturing And Rapid Tooling

3.1 : Basic methodology of rapid tooling
3.2 : Rapid tooling

3.2.1 : Benefits of rapid injection tool molding
3.2.2 : Advantages of rapid tooling for manufacturing




msharizanJJ204

117

Topic 1 : Introduction

1.1 : Introduction of Rapid Prototyping

Rapid prototyping is a revolutionary and powerful technology with wide
range of applications. The process of prototyping involves quick building up
of a prototype or working model for the purpose of testing the various design
features, ideas, concepts, functionality, output and performance. The user is
able to give immediate feedback regarding the prototype and its
performance. Rapid prototyping is essential part of the process of system
designing and it is believed to be quite beneficial as far as reduction of
project cost and risk are concerned.

Rapid prototyping is known by many terms as per the technologies involved,
like SFF or solid freeform fabrication, FF or freeform fabrication, digital
fabrication, AFF or automated freeform fabrication, 3D printing, solid
imaging, layer-based manufacturing, laser prototyping and additive
manufacturing.
msharizanJJ204

118

1.2 : History of Rapid Prototyping:

Sixties: The first rapid prototyping techniques became accessible in the later
eighties and they were used for production of prototype and model parts. The
history of rapid prototyping can be traced to the late sixties, when an
engineering professor, Herbert Voelcker, questioned himself about the
possibilities of doing interesting things with the computer controlled and
automatic machine tools. These machine tools had just started to appear on
the factory floors then. Voelcker was trying to find a way in which the
automated machine tools could be programmed by using the output of a
design program of a computer.

Seventies: Voelcker developed the basic tools of mathematics that
clearly describe the three dimensional aspects and resulted in the earliest
theories of algorithmic and mathematical theories for solid modeling. These
theories form the basis of modern computer programs that are used for
designing almost all things mechanical, ranging from the smallest toy car to
the tallest skyscraper. Voleckers theories changed the designing methods in
the seventies, but, the old methods for designing were still very much in use.
The old method involved either a machinist or machine tool controlled by a
computer. The metal hunk was cut away and the needed part remained as
per requirements.

Eighties: However, in 1987, Carl Deckard, a researcher form the University
of Texas, came up with a good revolutionary idea. He pioneered the layer
based manufacturing, wherein he thought of building up the model layer by
layer. He printed 3D models by utilizing laser light for fusing metal powder
in solid prototypes, single layer at a time. Deckard developed this idea into a
technique called Selective Laser Sintering. The results of this technique
msharizanJJ204

119

were extremely promising. The history of rapid prototyping is quite new and
recent. However, as this technique of rapid prototyping has such wide
ranging scope and applications with amazing results, it has grown by leaps
andbounds.

Voelckers and Deckards stunning findings, innovations and researches
have given extreme impetus to this significant new industry known as rapid
prototyping or free form fabrication. It has revolutionized the designing and
manufacturingprocesses. Though, there are many references of people
pioneering the rapid prototyping technology, the industry gives recognition
to Charles Hull for the patent of Apparatus for Production of 3D Objects by
Stereolithography. Charles Hull is recognized by the industry as the father
of rapid prototyping.

Present-day Rapid Prototyping: Today, the computer engineer has to simply
sketch the ideas on the computer screen with the help of a design program
that is computer aided. Computer aided designing allows to make
modification as required and you can create a physical prototype that is a
precise and proper 3D object.

1.3 : The Advantages Of Rapid Prototyping

CAD data files can be manufactured in hours.

Tool for visualization and concept verification.

Prototype used in subsequent manufacturing operations to
obtain final part.

Tooling for manufacturing operations can be produced.

msharizanJJ204

120

TOPIC 2 : CLASSIFICATION OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

2.1 : Three Major Group Of Rapid Prototyping.

2.1.1 : Subtractive Process

The subtractive process is the prevalent process in the history of model
making. Model makers once utilized materials like clay and wood or other
hard material, to whittle, carve, or sculpt a model component. A complex
part could be made in a number of pieces and assembled to create the final
product. The excess material was basically chiseled, cut, and sanded to
expose the design within the carving medium. This process was
understandably time-intensive and resulted in a finished product that was a
one-of-a-kind and could not be easily replicated without remaking the part
from scratch. Once a part was roughed out in the desired material, hand
finishing, applying colors, textures and graphics allowed model makers to
achieve a unique part that often closely mimicked the desired future
product.
Today CAD/CAM programs make the replication of these parts much
simpler and provide high tolerances for part specifications. Architectural
model makers use laser cutting technology to precisely incise materials like
foam core, high- density papers and other materials to replicate panels used
in the construction of structural models. Product design model makers may
use molds and castings, CNC routers or milling machines to electronically
carve parts out of the desired medium.




msharizanJJ204

121

2.1.2 : Additive Process

Additive fabrication refers to a class of manufacturing processes, in
which a part is built by adding layers of material upon one another. These
processes are inherently different from subtractive processes or
consolidation processes. Subtractive processes, such as milling, turning, or
drilling, use carefully planned tool movements to cut away material from a
workpiece to form the desired part. Consolidation processes, such as casting
or molding, use custom designed tooling to solidify material into the desired
shape. Additive processes, on the other hand, do not require custom tooling
or planned tool movements. Instead, the part is constructed directly from a
digital 3-D model created through Computer Aided Design (CAD) software.
The 3-D CAD model is converted into many thin layers and the
manufacturing equipment uses this geometric data to build each layer
sequentially until the part is completed. Due to this approach, additive
fabrication is often referred to as layered manufacturing, direct digital
manufacturing, or solid freeform fabrication.

The most common term for additive fabrication is rapid prototyping. The
term "rapid" is used because additive processes are performed much faster
than conventional manufacturing processes. The fabrication of a single part
may only take a couple hours, or can take a few days depending on the part
size and the process. However, processes that require custom tooling, such
as a mold, to be designed and built may require several weeks. Subtractive
processes, such as machining, can offer more comparable production times,
but those times can increase substantially for highly complex parts. The
term "prototyping" is used because these additive processes were initially
used solely to fabricate prototypes. However, with the improvement of
msharizanJJ204

122

additive technologies, these processes are becoming increasingly capable of
high-volume production manufacturing, as will be explored in the section on
applications.

Additive fabrication offers several advantages, listed below.

Speed - As described above, these "rapid" processes have short build
times. Also, because no custom tooling must be developed, the lead time in
receiving parts is greatly reduced.
Part complexity - Because no tooling is required, complex surfaces and
internal features can be created directly when building the part. Also, the
complexity of a part has little effect on build times, as opposed to other
manufacturing processes. In molding and casting processes, part
complexity may not affect the cycle times, but can require several weeks
to be spent on creating the mold. In machining, complex features directly
affect the cycle time and may even require more expensive equipment or
fixtures.
Material types - Additive fabrication processes are able to produce
parts in plastics, metals, ceramics, composites, and even paper with
properties similar to wood. Furthermore, some processes can build parts
from multiple materials and distribute the material based on the location
in the part.
Low-volume production - Other more conventional processes are not
very cost effective for low-volume productions because of high initial costs
due to custom tooling and lengthy setup times. Additive fabrication
requires minimal setup and builds a part directly from the CAD model,
allowing for low per-part costs for low-volume productions.
msharizanJJ204

123

With all of these advantages, additive fabrication will still not replace more
conventional manufacturing processes for every application. Processes such
as machining, molding, and casting are still preferred in specific instances,
such as the following:

Large parts - Additive processes are best suited for relatively small parts
because build times are largely dependent upon part size. A larger part in
the X-Y plane will require more time to build each layer and a taller part
(in the Z direction) will require more layers to be built. This limitation on
part size is not shared by some of the more common manufacturing
methods. The cycle times in molding and casting processes are typically
controlled by the part thickness, and machining times are dependent upon
the material and part complexity. Manufacturing large parts with
additive processes is also not ideal due to the current high prices of
material for these processes.
High accuracy and surface finish - Currently, additive fabrication
processes can not match the precision and finishes offered by machining.
As a result, parts produced through additive fabrication may require
secondary operations depending on their intended use.
High-volume production - While the production capabilities of additive
processes are improving with technology, molding and casting are still
preferred for high-volume production. At very large quantities, the per-
part cost of tooling is insignificant and the cycle times remain shorter
than those for additive fabrication.
Material properties - While additive fabrication can utilize various
material types, individual material options are somewhat limited. As a
result, materials that offer certain desirable properties may not be
msharizanJJ204

124

available. Also, due to the fabrication methods, the properties of the final
part may not meet certain design requirements. Lastly, the current prices
for materials used in additive processes are far greater than more
commonly used materials for other processes.

2.1.3 : Virtual Process

Virtual prototyping is becoming a cost-effective method used in testing new
products and systems. It is an integral part of current rapid prototype
Shenzhen methods wherein virtual designs created from computer aided
design (CAD) or animation modeling software are used and then
transformed into cross sections in a still virtual environment.A special
machine is then used to create each virtual cross section in then takes
physical form layer after layer until an identical prototype model is created.
The whole process enables the virtual model become a physical model with
corresponding identical features.

In the additive fabrication of virtual prototypes, the rapid prototyping (RP)
machine reads the data from a CAD drawing, and forms successive layers of
liquid or powdered material according to the virtual data received. It slowly
builds up a physical model from a series of cross sections.These different
layers, which match up to the virtual cross sections created from the CAD
model, are then glued or fused together to create the final three dimensional
prototype model.All the rapid prototyping technologies in current use have
many things in common. All make use of additive processes. Rapid
prototyping makes use of additive construction as the means of creating
solid prototype objects which has the distinct advantage of creating almost
msharizanJJ204

125

any shape or form that even the best machining and tooling methods may
not be able to achieve. During the ensuing development, virtual prototyping
goes through a number of stages that eventually turns designs into fully
testable three dimensional models.All the rapid prototyping machines being
used slowly form the three dimensional models by putting together thin,
two-dimensional layers one at a time. The three dimensional manifestation
of the virtual design is formed from the bottom up. Models are formed on an
elevator-like platform from virtual CAD designs. The platform is lowered a
layer-height at a time once a layer is completed. The thinner the layer, the
smoother the finish will be on the completed prototype model. Once the
model is completely formed, it may be sanded, plated or painted, depending
on material used.Rapid prototyping technologies can either be a "dry" or a
"wet" process. Most machines create prototype models by solidifying some
sort of loose powder, liquid, or semi-liquid material. A machine may be able
to cut through adhesive-coated sheets of prototype fabrication material. The
dry powdered materials can either be some sort of polymer, powdered metal,
or wax. Some machines may even be able to use starch as the building
material for forming the prototype model.Some of the powders used may also
require a binder. The liquid materials mainly used are usually
photosensitive polymers that solidify when exposed to either a laser or
ultraviolet (UV) light. Wet rapid prototype Shenzhen methods generally
require a curing phase.






msharizanJJ204

126

2.1.3.1 : Fused-Deposition Modeling

The Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) process constructs three-
dimensional objects directly from 3D CAD data. A temperature-controlled
head extrudes thermoplastic material layer by layer.

The FDM process starts with importing an STL file of a model into a pre-
processing software. This model is oriented and mathematically sliced
into horizontal layers varying from +/- 0.127 - 0.254 mm thickness. A
support structure is created where needed, based on the part's position
and geometry. After reviewing the path data and generating the
toolpaths, the data is downloaded to the FDM machine.
The system operates in X, Y and Z axes, drawing the model one layer at a
time. This process is similar to how a hot glue gun extrudes melted beads
of glue. The temperature-controlled extrusion head is fed with
thermoplastic modelling material that is heated to a semi-liquid state.
The head extrudes and directs the material with precision in ultrathin
layers onto a fixtureless base. The result of the solidified material
laminating to the preceding layer is a plastic 3D model built up one
strand at a time.
Once the part is completed the support columns are removed and the
surface is finished.
msharizanJJ204

127


FDM process
Figure : 2.1.3.1

2.1.3.2 : Stereolithography


Stereolithography is an additive manufacturing process using a vat of
liquid UV-curable photopolymer "resin" and a UV laser to build parts a layer
at a time. On each layer, the laser beam traces a part cross-section pattern
on the surface of the liquid resin. Exposure to the UV laser light cures,
solidifies the pattern traced on the resin and adheres it to the layer below.
After a pattern has been traced, the SLA's elevator platform descends by a
single layer thickness, typically 0.05 mm to 0.15 mm (0.002" to 0.006").
Then, a resin-filled blade sweeps across the part cross section, re-coating it
with fresh material. On this new liquid surface, the subsequent layer
pattern is traced, adhering to the previous layer. A complete 3-D part is
formed by this process. After building, parts are cleaned of excess resin by
immersion in a chemical bath and then cured in a UV oven.
msharizanJJ204

128

Stereolithography requires the use of support structures to attach the part
to the elevator platform and to prevent certain geometry from not only
deflecting due to gravity, but to also accurately hold the 2-D cross sections in
place such that they resist lateral pressure from the re-coater blade.
Supports are generated automatically during the preparation of 3-
D CAD models for use on the stereolithography machine, although they may
be manipulated manually. Supports must be removed from the finished
product manually; this is not true for all rapid prototyping technologies.

2.1.3.3 : Selective Laser Sintering, SLS
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is a layer additive production process that
creates three dimensional objects using a CO2 laser to melt, or sinter, and
fuse selective powder molecules based on information supplied by a
computer aided design (CAD) file. Selective laser sintering (SLS) was born
out of the University of Texas and is a popular process used in rapid
prototyping and product development. The selective laser sintering (SLS)
technology was brought to the forefront of commercialization by DTM
Corporation which is now called 3D Systems. The powder material that is
fused during the selective laser sintering (SLS) process is commonly called
thermoplastic material or, in some cases, thermoplastic binders for use in
metals. The selective laser sintering (SLS) technology allows for these
materials to be fused together in tiny layers ranging between .003 and
.006. This allows selective laser sintering (SLS) to create parts with
accurate details and tolerances comparable to stereolithography (SLA).
However, selective laser sintering (SLS) has an added benefit in that the
strength and durability of the parts it creates is much better. Additionally,
the selective laser sintering (SLS) process makes parts that have longer
msharizanJJ204

129

stability than stereolithography (SLA) and selective laser sintering (SLS)
parts wont lose their shape or post cure over time.
There are a variety of different types of materials available for use in the
selective laser sintering (SLS) process. The most beneficial characteristic of
selective laser sintering (SLS) is how durable and functional the materials
are. These durable and functional selective laser sintering (SLS) materials
include DuraForm and DuraForm glass-filled (GF) which are nylon based
materials that create plastic prototypes. Other selective laser sintering
(SLS) materials are CastForm used for investment casting patterns,
selective laser sintering (SLS) Flex for elastomeric, rubber-like parts, and
selective laser sintering (SLS) LaserForm which makes metal prototypes.
Additionally, there is continual research and development going on to bring
new selective laser sintering (SLS) materials to market. Each of these
selective laser sintering (SLS) materials requires little to no post build
processing to be ready to use which cuts out several steps in post processing
of selective laser sintering (SLS) parts as compared to stereolithography
(SLA). However, all of the selective laser sintering (SLS) materials can be
finished in multiple ways to meet the desire or needs of selective laser
sintering (SLS) users. Among other types of post processing, selective laser
sintering (SLS) parts can be sanded, painted, plated, tapped, or even
machined. This allows for a higher grade of smoothness and appearance to
selective laser sintering (SLS) parts and assemblies and also gives users an
unlimited number of ways to use selective laser sintering (SLS) parts.
Other advantages of selective laser sintering parts (SLS) are:
Parts and/or assemblies that move and work that have a good surface
finish and feature detail
msharizanJJ204

130

Selective laser sintering (SLS) gives the capability of flexible snaps
and living hinges as well as high stress and heat tolerance
Wide variety of materials such as flexible and rigid plastics,
elastomeric materials, fully dense metals and casting patterns
Tight dimensional tolerances all the way down to thousandths of an
inch
Finishing capabilities that include painting for presentations, tapping
or threading for use and inserts for assemblies
Rapid delivery time of most parts and/or patterns in a few days
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) process has evolved into a common option for
the creation of end-use production parts. The large assortment of different
plastics and metals have made it quicker and less costly to use selective
laser sintering (SLS) as opposed to other methods of manufacturing such as
tooling. Selective laser sintering (SLS) is especially attractive when a design
is complex or customized and the total part production requirements are low.
Finally, the selective laser sintering (SLS) technology is well suited for use
in rapid tooling. Rapid tooling, or RT, is generally different from
conventional tooling in the following key areas:
Rapid tooling is generally produced faster than conventional tooling,
taking off as much as 80-90% of the time it takes to create first parts.
This is where the speed of selective laser sintering (SLS) comes into
play as parts can be created in days as opposed to weeks
Rapid tooling is typically delivered at a lower cost compared to
conventional tooling as much as 90-95% less
msharizanJJ204

131

Tolerances for rapid tooling are usually not as accurate as
conventional tooling but selective laser sintering (SLS) allows for
customization of specs to meet customer needs
Rapid tooling life is considerably less than a conventional tool
In spite of these differences, for many applications, rapid tooling using the
selective laser sintering (SLS) process is ideal for first run parts or short run
prototype production until conventional tooling methods can be obtained.
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an avenue that cuts a products time to
market down considerably and, since the process can be customized, allows
for design changes to be made without having to create a new tool. Harvest
Technologies has multiple options for selective laser sintering (SLS) rapid
tooling, as well as others, so please allow us to consult with you on the best
choice for your requirements.

2.1.3.4 : Ballistic

The BPM personal modeler came with all hardware and software
enclosed in one compact unit.
The BPM is controlled by a DOS based 486 powered PC which is
housed within the unit.
The BPM utilized ink jet or droplet based manufacturing techniques,
where it builds the models by firing micro-droplets of molten wax
material from a moving nozzle or jet onto a stationary platform, the
platform then lowers and the process is repeated for each layer of the
model.
The part is built as a hollow shell.
msharizanJJ204

132

The parts can be scaled, rotated, or translated to a desired
orientation. This is performed on a 5 axis workstation
BPM parts are not intended to be finished, however they may be
painted.

BPM Process
BPM employs a technology called digital Microsynthesis.
1.) In the first step of the process, molten plastic is fed to a piezoelectic
jetting mechanism, almost like those of inkjet printers.
2.) Next a multi-axis controlled NC (Numerical Control) system shoots
tiny droplets of material onto the target, using the jetting mechanism.
3.) Last, small droplets freeze upon contact with the surface, forming
the surface particle by particle.

BPM Uses
BPM parts are mainly used for concept visualization. Due to the
weakness of the material, the parts arent well equipped for use as
functional components.
BPM parts are useful during the design process






msharizanJJ204

133

BPM Advantages

Requires minimal post-processing.
Low toxicity.
Minimal power consumption.
Low cost of cost and materials.
Ability to perform in microgravity and vacuum environments.
BPM has no size constraints.
The process allows use of virtually any thermoplastic. Because of this,
there are no heath hazards involved.



BPM Disadvantages
Parts produced lack strength and durability.










msharizanJJ204

134

2.1.3.5 : Laminated

A manufacturing process that uses a carbon-dioxide laser to create
successive cross-sections of a three-dimensional object from layers of paper
with a polyethylene coating on the backside. The first step is to create a base
on which the paper can attach itself to. This is done by placing a special tape
down onto the platform. A sheet of paper is fed through with the aid of small
rollers. As the paper is fed through, a heated roller is used to melt the
coating on the paper so that each new layer will adhere to the previous layer.
The carbon-dioxide laser then cuts the outline of the cross-sectional pattern
into the top layer of paper. Once the laser is done cutting the pattern, it
creates a border around the build that contains the desired part. This
enables the part to stay intact as each new layer is created. Once the border
has been cut, the laser then proceeds to create hatch marks, or cubes that
surround the pattern within the border. The cubes behave as supports for
the part to ensure that no shifting or movement takes place during the
entire build.
When the build is completed, the part, attached to the platform, needs to be
removed from the LOM. Depending on the size of the part, the block to be
removed may take more than one person to remove the build from the LOM.
After the part has been successfully removed from the LOM, it must then be
removed for the actual platform. Again this may take the work of more than
one individual. A wire is used and placed between the part and the platform
to "cut" the part away from the metal platform.

msharizanJJ204

135

The border, or frame of the part is then removed. The next step involves
decubing. or removing the supports. Often times the supports can be
removed from simple shaking the part; other times it is necessary to use a
chisel to pry the cubes away from the part.
When all of the cubes have been removed, the unfinished part is sanded
down and a lacquer is used to seal the part. Being that LOM parts are made
for paper, humidity and temperature affect the structure and composure of
the part if it is not coated; hence, the lacquer serves as a protective measure.
The LOM is very useful in manufacturing large parts quickly.

Highlights of Laminated Object Manufacturing
Layers of glue-backed paper form the model.
Low cost: Raw material is readily available.
Large parts: Because there is no chemical reaction involved, parts can be
made quite large.
Accuracy in z is less than that for stereolithography and selective laser
sintering.No milling step.
Outside of model, cross-hatching removes material
Models should be sealed in order to prohibit moisture.
Before sealing, models have a wood-like texture.

Not as prevalent as stereolithography and selective laser sintering.



msharizanJJ204

136

Laminated Object Manufacturing

The figure below shows the general arrangement of a Laminated Object
Manufacturing (LOM, registered trademark by Helisys of Torrance,
California, USA) cell:

General arrangement of a Laminated Object Manufacturing
Figure : 2.1.3.5

Material is usually a paper sheet laminated with adhesive on one side, but
plastic and metal laminates are appearing.
1. Layer fabrication starts with sheet being adhered to substrate with
the heated roller.
2. The laser then traces out the outline of the layer.
3. Non-part areas are cross-hatched to facilitate removal of waste
material.
msharizanJJ204

137

4. Once the laser cutting is complete, the platform moves down and out
of the way so that fresh sheet material can be rolled into position.
5. Once new material is in position, the platform moves back up to one
layer below its previous position.
6. The process can now be repeated.
The excess material supports overhangs and other weak areas of the part
during fabrication. The cross-hatching facilitates removal of the excess
material. Once completed, the part has a wood-like texture composed of the
paper layers. Moisture can be absorbed by the paper, which tends to expand
and compromise the dimensional stability. Therefore, most models are
sealed with a paint or lacquer to block moisture ingress.

UNDERSTANDING DIRECT MANUFACTURING AND RAPID TOOLING
3.1:Basic Methodology for RP Process

Methodology of Rapid Prototyping
The basic methodology for all current rapid prototyping techniques can be
summarized as follows:
1. A CAD model is constructed, then converted to STL format. The
resolution can be set to minimize stair stepping.
2. The RP machine processes the .STL file by creating sliced layers of the
model.
3. The first layer of the physical model is created. The model is then
lowered by the thickness of the next layer, and the process is repeated
msharizanJJ204

138

until completion of the model.
4. The model and any supports are removed. The surface of the model is
then finished and cleaned.

Method

A general procedure for adopting the rapid prototyping method is outlined
below.
1. Allow enough time to create the prototype. If the prototype is to be
evaluated with users then allow time to design relevant tasks, recruit
the users, evaluate the prototype and report the results.
2. Assemble the necessary equipment, including the hardware and
software tools necessary to create the interactive prototype.
3. Develop the prototype itself.
4. Select appropriate users to test the prototype, trying to cover the
range of users within the target population. A facilitator will also be
required to instruct the users and run the evaluation.
5. Prepare realistic tasks to occupy the users as they work with the
prototype.
6. Pilot the evaluation procedure and ensure the prototype can be used
to accomplish the tasks.
7. Ensure recording facilities are available and functioning.
msharizanJJ204

139

8. Conduct each session. The facilitator instructs the user to work
through the allocated tasks, interacting with, and responding to, the
system as appropriate.
9. If necessary additional information can be obtained by interviewing
users following their use of the prototype. Debrief and thank the user.
10. Analyse the obtained information and then summarise the
observations and user evaluations. Determine the themes and
severity of the problems identified.
11. Summarise design implications and recommendations for
improvements and feed back to design team. Video recordings can
support this.
12. Where necessary refine the prototype and repeat the above process.

When using this method, avoid spending too long on the development of
initial prototypes as user evaluation may result in substantial changes. Also,
avoid making the prototype too polished as this may force users to accept it
as finished. Do not put in features that will raise the users expectations but
which are unlikely to be achieved with the real system (e.g. too fast response
times, too sophisticated graphics) and do not put too much effort into
particular features (e.g. animations) which may not be required.
Be aware that the method requires software development skills. Also,
although rapid, the method can often be more time consuming than other
approaches and that resources required are greater than paper and pens due
to the need for software and hardware.


msharizanJJ204

140



3.2:Rapid Tooling

Rapid Tooling (RT) describes a process that is the result of combining Rapid
Prototyping techniques with conventional tooling practices to produce a mold
quickly or parts of a functional model from CAD data in less time and at a
lower cost relative to traditional machining methods. Rapid Tooling can act
as a bridge to production injection molded parts.
Rapid Tooling (RT) typically, either uses a Rapid Prototyping (RP) model as
a pattern or uses the Rapid Prototyping process directly to fabricate a tool
for a limited volume of prototypes.
Expensive tooling cost can be well justified just when the production
quantity is massive. Actually the way to produce tooling quicker and more
economically, especially for small quantity manufacturing becomes a
significant question. Additionally, in the product development cycle, requires
always some intermediate tooling to produce a small quantity of prototypes
or functional tests, samples for marketing, evaluation purpose, or production
process design. RT becomes more and more important to nowadays
manufacturing industry.
The main advantages are tooling time is much shorter than for a
conventional tool. Time to first articles can be less than one-fifth that of
conventional tooling; tooling cost is much less than for a conventional tool.
Cost can be below five percent of conventional tooling cost.
The main challenges are tool life is less than for conventional tools and
tolerances are wider than for conventional tools.
msharizanJJ204

141

3.2.1 : BENEFITS OF RAPID INJECTION TOOL MOLDING
Prototypes in production material in little time.
Allows for full fit and function testing.
Discover any design imperfection on early stage.
Low cost tooling allows for facilitate design refinement and modification.
Preceding production process- molds can produce thousands of parts.

New stations rapid milling CNC -
CharlyRobot
presenting attractive costs can produce
molds or prototypes in Fiberglass,
aluminum and Composites or fast
production of products in extremely short
time in dimensions:
3100 mm x 2100 mm x 450 mm
even to fraction larger molds modeling.




msharizanJJ204

142

3.2.2:Advantages Of Rapid Tooling For Manufacturing

Shorten the Tooling Lead-Time - Normal development time is
shortened from months to a few days or weeks.
Low Cost - reduced Cost allowing real trials affordable.
Allows functional test of parts on initial design stage.
Data CAD Direct Transfer - Many imperfections due to drawings
misinterpretation can be avoided using the original CAD model all
through the RP process and then along to RT process.
Due to short tooling manufacture time and low cost in using RT,
many engineers prefer to produce parts for functional test in the early
design stage. As a result, many design faults are debugged before
production, so many design failures are avoided.









msharizanJJ204

143

3.2.3:RAPID TOOLING CONSTRAINTS
The most rapid RP systems are still too slow and are limited as they can't
produce parts in a wide range of materials, at a fast enough rate, to perform
the enormous range of industry requirements. Despite the vast progress in
direct part fabrication, even conventional processes such as molding and
casting are still the only means available.
RP is frequently the technological path making these manufacturing
processes faster, cheaper and better. Certainly, the tooling fabrication Is
actually the most important application of direct manufacturing.
The two main ways to make tooling molds using Rapid Prototyping are
directly fabricated by an RP system, or indirect or secondary processes RP-
generated parts that can be used as patterns for a mold fabricating.

3.2.4:DIRECT FABRICATION PROCESSES
Molding and casting are specialized rapid prototyping processes that have
been developed to meet specific application and material requirements.
Stereolithography or selective laser sintering are normally forms of basic RP
processes and methods developed for specific applications.





msharizanJJ204

144

3.2.5:INDIRECT OR SECONDARY PROCESSES
Despite RP materials properties improve and expand continuously, a
limitless array of applications means will always request to transfer parts
fabricated in a material employed in an RP process into another material. As
usually it is necessary to use very specific materials to make most tools,
several material transfer technologies have been developed.
3.2.6:RAPID TOOLING CHOICE METHODS
The clear result is that there are a different number of paths to obtain a
final functional part or tool starting from a CAD definition. The choice
depends on:

The purpose

Volume to be produced

Final material and accuracy requirements

Applied rapid prototyping process
Numerous other factors may influence choices since most technologies are
emergent, have significant limitations, and there are usually several
competing alternatives.



msharizanJJ204

145

3.2.7:TYPES OF RAPID TOOLING PROCESS
Low Volume (from tens to hundreds)

Soft Tooling

Reaction injection molding

Bridge Tooling - Direct Access Injection Molding
Intermediate (from hundreds to thousands)

Metal filled Epoxy Tooling

Powdered Metal Tooling

Space Puzzle Molding

3.2.8:CONNECTED SERVICES

Simulation

Consulting and information about simulation techniques

Numerical simulation of manufacturing processes

Numerical simulation of the mechanical and thermal component behavior

Topology and shape optimization

Rapid Prototyping

Consulting and technology transfer
Prototyping of parts

Manufacturing of mold insert.


msharizanJJ204

146

Enclosure


figure 5.1.1:Example of Rapid Prototyping


Figure 5.1.2:Example of Parts of Rapid Prototyping


msharizanJJ204

147



Figure 5.1.3:Example of Fused Deposition Modelling


148


Figure 5.1.4:Example Stereolithiography



Figure 5.1.5: 3-D Printing Process


149


Figure 5.1.6:Laminated Object Material


Figure 5.1.7:Example of Rapid Tooling


150


Figure 5.1.8:Example of Rapid Tooling