National Open University of Nigeria: Course Code:-Law 242

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF LAW
COURSE CODE:-LAW 242
COURSE TITLE:-
THE HUMAN RIGHTS LAW II
LAW 242 HUMAN RIGHTS LAW II
LAW 242
THE HUMAN RIGHTS LAW II
Course Writer Ayodeji Ige
National Oen Uni!ersity o" Nigeria
Course #ditor $ro"essor %ustus A& So'e"un
$rogra((e Leader G& I& Oya')iro(en $)&*+ ,L
Course Coordinator Ayodeji Ige
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ii
COURSE
GUIDE
Head-uarters
.4/.0 A)(adu ,ello Way
1i2toria Island
Lagos
A3uja O""i2e
No& 4 *ar es Salaa( Street
O"" A(inu 5ano Cres2ent
Wuse II+ A3uja
Nigeria
e6(ail7 2entralin"o8nou&edu&ng
URL7 999&nou&edu&ng
$u3lis)ed 3y
$rinted 2::;
IS,N7 ;<=6:4=6
All Rig)ts Reser!ed
iii
CONTENTS PAGES
Introdu2tion >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>&&>>>>&& .
W)at ?ou Will Learn in t)is Course >>>>>>>>>>&&& .
Course Ai(s >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>&&>>& .
Course O3je2ti!es >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> .
Wor'ing t)roug) t)is Course >>>>>>>>>>>>&>&& 2
Course Materials>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 2
Study Units>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>&>>> @
TeAt3oo' and Re"eren2es>>>>>>>>>>>>&&>>>& 4
Assign(ent Bile>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>& 4
$resentation S2)edule>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 4
Tutor6Mar'ed Assign(ent >>>>>>>>>>>>&&>>> 4
Binal #Aa(ination and Grading >>>>>>>>>>>>&>& 4
Course Mar'ing S2)edule>>>>>>>>>>>>>>&>&& 4
Course O!er!ie9>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 4
Ho9 to Get t)e Most "ro( t)is Course >>>>>>>>>> <
Ba2ilitators/Tutors and Tutorials>>>>>>>>>>>>&& =
Su((ary>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>&>> ;
Introdut!on
Hu(an Rig)t La9 is a t9o6se(ester 2ourse& ?ou 9ould ta'e t)e "irst
art in t)e "irst se(ester& T)e 2ode is LAW 242& It is a "oundation le!el
2ourse and a!aila3le to all students to9ards "ul"illing 2ore re-uire(ents
"or t)e degree in La9&
T)e 2ourse 9ill dis2uss 3asi2 la9 rin2iles& T)e (aterial )as 3een
de!eloed to suit students in Nigeria 3y adating ra2ti2al eAa(les
"ro( 9it)in our jurisdi2tions&
T)is 2ourse guide tells you 3rie"ly 9)at t)e 2ourse is a3out+ 9)at 2ourse
(aterials you 9ill 3e using and )o9 you 2an 9or' your 9ay t)roug)
t)ese (aterials& It suggests so(e general guidelines "or t)e a(ount o"
ti(e you are li'ely to send on ea2) unit o" t)e 2ourse in order to
2o(lete it su22ess"ully& It also gi!es you so(e guidan2e on your tutor6
(ar'ed assign(ent CTMAsD& *etailed in"or(ation on TMAs is "ound in
t)e searate assign(ent "ile+ 9)i2) 9ill 3e a!aila3le to you in due
2ourse& T)ere are regular tutorial and surgery 2lasses t)at are lin'ed to
t)e 2ourse& ?ou are ad!ised to attend t)ese sessions&
W"#t You W!$$ L%#rn !n t"!& Cour&%
T)e ai( o" LAW 242 is to introdu2e t)e "unda(ental rin2iles and
ali2ations o" t)e La9 o" Hu(an Rig)t& *uring t)is 2ourse+ you 9ill
learn a3out Grou Rig)t+ Rig)t o" 9o(an+ Rig)t o" Re"uges and
"unda(ental Hu(an Rig)t en"or2e(enet ro2edure
i!
Cour&% A!'&
T)e ai( o" t)e 2ourse 2an 3e su((arised as "ollo9s7 t)is 2ourse ai(s to
gi!e you an understanding o" t)e general rin2iles o" la9 and )o9 t)ey
2an 3e used in relation to ot)er 3ran2)es o" la9&
T)is 9ill 3e a2)ie!ed 3y ai(ing to7
Introdu2e you to t)e 3asi2 sour2es o" la9 o" Hu(an Rig)t
Bor(ation o" Grou Rig)t
Ter(s o" Hu(an Rig)ts+ Go!ern(ental ad(inistrati!e ro2ess
and ad(inistration o" justi2e
Lo2us Standi&
Cour&% O()%t!*%&
To a2)ie!e t)e ai(s set out a3o!e+ t)e 2ourse sets o!erall o3je2ti!es& In
addition+ ea2) unit also )as se2i"i2 o3je2ti!es& T)e o3je2ti!es are
al9ays in2luded at t)e 3eginning o" a unitE you s)ould read t)e( 3e"ore
you start 9or'ing t)roug) t)e unit& ?ou (ay 9ant to re"er to t)e(
during your study o" t)e unit to (onitor your rogress& ?ou s)ould
al9ays ensure t)at you )a!e done 9)at 9as re-uired o" you 3y t)e unit&
Set out 3elo9 is t)e 9ider o3je2ti!es o" t)e 2ourse& ,y (eeting t)ese
o3je2ti!es you s)ould )a!e a2)ie!ed t)e ai(s o" t)e 2ourse&
On su22ess"ul 2o(letion o" t)is 2ourse+ you s)ould 3e a3le to7
@ eAlain t)e ter( Hu(an Rig)ts
4 di""erentiate 3et9een *o(esti2 La9 and International La9
4 des2ri3e t)e nature o" International O3ligations
0 des2ri3e 9)at 2onstitutes a Treaty in International La9
< eAlain 3uilding 3lo2's o" Hu(an Rig)t La9s
= eAlain t)e en"or2e(ent o" Hu(an Rig)ts
; de"ine Lo2us Standi
.: eAlain *e2laration a2tions&
Wor+!n, t"rou," t"!& Cour&%
To 2o(lete t)is 2ourse you are re-uired to read t)e study units+ read set
3oo's and ot)er (aterials7 #a2) unit 2ontains sel" assess(ent eAer2ises+
and at oints in t)e 2ourse you are re-uired to su3(it assign(ents "or
assess(ent uroses& At t)e end o" t)e 2ourse is t)ere a "inal
eAa(ination& T)e 2ourse s)ould ta'e you a3out .2 9ee's or (ore to
2o(lete& ,elo9 you 9ill "ind a list o" all t)e 2o(onents o" t)e 2ourse+
!
9)at you )a!e to do and )o9 you s)ould allo2ate your ti(e to ea2) unit
in order to 2o(lete t)e 2ourse su22ess"ully on ti(e&
Cour&% M#t%r!#$&
T)e (ajor 2o(onents o" t)e 2ourse are7
.& Course Guide
2& Study Units
@& TeAt3oo's
4& Assign(ent Bile and
4& $resentation S2)edule&
In addition+ you o3tain t)e set 3oo'sE t)ese are not ro!ided 3y t)e
National Oen Uni!ersity o" Nigeria CNOUND+ o3taining t)e( is your
resonsi3ility& ?ou (ay ur2)ase your o9n 2oies& ?ou (ay 2onta2t
your tutor i" you )a!e ro3le(s in o3taining t)ese teAt3oo's&
!i
Stud- Un!t&
T)ese are .< study units in t)is 2ourse+ as "ollo9s7
Modu$% .
Unit . T)e Hu(an Rig)ts o" Wo(an
Unit 2 Rig)t o" C)ildren
Unit @ Rig)ts o" Re"ugees
Unit 4 #t)ni2 Nationals in Nigeria and t)e Rig)t to Sel"
*eter(ination
Modu$% 2
Unit . #uroean Syste( o" $rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts
Unit 2 Inter A(eri2an Syste( "or t)e $rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)t
and e&g& A"ri2an C)arter o" Hu(an Rig)ts
Unit @ A"ri2an C)arter o" Hu(an Rig)ts and t)e Status o"
*o(esti2 Legislation
Modu$% /
Unit . Hu(an Rig)ts+ Go!ern(ental Ad(inistrati!e $ro2ess and
Ad(inistration o" %usti2e
Unit 2 #n"or2e(ent o" Hu(an Rig)tsE Lo2us Standi
Unit @ Lo2us Standi
Modu$% 4
Unit . #n"or2e(ent o" Hu(an Rig)tsE T)e Role and Bun2tions
o" t)e National Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts arti2ularly
in Relation to t)e Monitoring and In!estigation o" Hu(an
Rig)ts 1iolations
Unit 2 T)e $u3li2 Co(laints Co((ission
Unit @ T)e Role and Bun2tion o" t)e A"ri2an Co((ission on
Hu(an and $eoleFs Rig)ts
Modu$% 0
Unit . T)e Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(ent $ro2edureD Rules&
Unit 2 Relie" A!aila3le uon an Ali2ation "or %udi2ial Re!ie9
Unit @ *e2laratory A2tion
Unit 4 Originating Noti2e o" Motion
#a2) unit 2ontains a nu(3er o" sel" assess(ents& In general+ t)ese sel"
assess(ents -uestion you on t)e (aterials you )a!e just 2o!ered or
!ii
re-uired you to aly it in so(e 9ay and+ t)ere3y+ )el you to gauge
your rogress and rein"or2e your understanding o" (aterial& Toget)er
9it) Tutor6Mar'ed Assign(ents CTMAsD+ t)ese eAer2ises 9ill assist you
in a2)ie!ing t)e stated learning o3je2ti!es o" t)e indi!idual units o" t)e
2ourse&
T%1t(oo+& #nd R%2%r%n%&
T)ere are so(e 3oo's you s)ould ur2)ase "or yoursel"7
London7 S9eet &
A&&!,n'%nt F!$%
In t)is "ile you 9ill "ind all t)e details o" t)e 9or' you (ust su3(it to
your tutor "or (ar'ing& T)e (ar's you o3tain "or t)ese assign(ents 9ill
2ount to9ards t)e "inal (ar' you o3tain "or t)is 2ourse& Burt)er
in"or(ation on assign(ents 9ill 3e "ound in t)e assign(ent "ile itsel"
and later in t)is 2ourse guide in t)e se2tion on assign(ent& ?ou are to
su3(it "i!e assign(ents+ out o" 9)i2) t)e 3est "our 9ill 3e sele2ted and
re2orded "or you&
Pr%&%nt#t!on S"%du$%
T)ere are t9o ase2ts to t)e assess(ents o" t)e 2ourse& Birst+ are t)e
TMAs and se2ond+ t)ere is a 9ritten eAa(ination&
In ta2'ling t)e assign(ents+ you are eAe2ted to aly in"or(ation+
'no9ledge and te2)ni-ues gat)ered during t)e 2ourse& T)e assign(ents
(ust 3e su3(itted to your tutor "or "or(al assess(ent in a22ordan2e
9it) t)e deadlines stated in t)e resentation s2)edule and t)e assign(ent
"ile& T)e 9or' you su3(it to your tutor "or assess(ent 9ill 2ount "or
@:G o" your total 2ourse (ar'&
At t)e end o" t)e 2ourse you 9ill need to sit "or a "inal 9ritten
eAa(ination "or t)ree )ours duration& T)is eAa(ination 9ill also 2ount
"or <:G o" your total 2ourse (ar'&
Tutor-M#r+%d A&&!,n'%nt
T)ere are "i!e tutor6(ar'ed assign(ents in t)is 2ourse& ?ou only need
to su3(it "our o" t)e(& ?ou are en2ouraged+ )o9e!er+ to su3(it all "i!e
assign(ents+ in 9)i2) 2ase t)e )ig)est "our assign(ents 2ount "or @:G
to9ards your 2ourse (ar'&
Assign(ent -uestions "or t)e units in t)is 2ourse are 2ontained in t)e
assign(ent "ile& ?ou 9ill 3e a3le to 2o(lete your assign(ents "ro(
!iii
t)e in"or(ation and (aterials 2ontained in your set 3oo's+ reading and
study units& Ho9e!er+ it is desira3le in all degree le!el edu2ation to
de(onstrate t)at you )a!e read and resear2)ed (ore t)an t)e re-uired
(ini(u(& Using ot)er re"eren2es 9ill gi!e you a 3roader !ie9oint and
(ay ro!ide a deeer understanding o" t)e su3je2t& W)en you )a!e
2o(leted ea2) assign(ent+ send it toget)er 9it) a TMA "or( to your
tutor& Ma'e sure t)at ea2) assign(ent rea2)es your tutor on or 3e"ore
t)e deadline gi!en in t)e resentation s2)edule and assign(ent "ile& I"+
"or any reason+ you 2annot 2o(lete your 9or' on ti(e+ 2onta2t your
tutor 3e"ore t)e assign(ent is due to dis2us t)e ossi3ility o" an
eAtension& #Atensions 9ill not 3e granted a"ter t)e due date unless
eA2etional 2ir2u(stan2es&
F!n#$ E1#'!n#t!on #nd Gr#d!n,
T)e "inal eAa(ination "or LAW 242 9ill 3e o" t9o )ours duration and
)a!e a !alue o" <:G o" t)e total 2ourse grade& T)e eAa(ination 9ill
2onsist o" -uestions t)at re"le2t t)e tyes o" sel" assess(ent+ and tutor6
(ar'ed ro3le(s you )a!e re!iously en2ountered& All areas o" t)e
2ourse 9ill assessed&
Use t)e ti(e 3et9een "inis)ing t)e last unit and sitting "or t)e
eAa(ination to re!ise t)e entire 2ourse& ?ou (ig)t "ind it use"ul to
re!ie9 your sel" assess(ent eAer2ises+ TMAs and 2o((ents 3y your
tutorial "a2ilitator 3e"ore t)e eAa(ination& T)e "inal eAa(ination 2o!ers
in"or(ation "ro( all arts o" t)e 2ourse&
Cour&% M#r+!n, S"%du$%
T)e "ollo9ing Ta3le sells out )o9 t)e a2tual 2ourse (ar' allo2ation is
3ro'en do9n7
A&&%&&'%nt M#r+&
A&&!,n'%nt& .-4 Bour assign(ents+ 3est t)ree (ar's o" t)e 2ount at
@:G o" 2ourse (ar's&
F!n#$ %1#'!n#t!on <:G o" o!erall 2ourse (ar's
Tot#$ .::G o" 2ourse (ar's
T#($% . Cour&%-M#r+!n, S"%du$%
Cour&% O*%r*!%3
T)is Ta3le 3rings toget)er t)e units+ t)e nu(3er o" 9ee's you s)ould
ta'e to 2o(lete t)e( and t)e assign(ents t)at "ollo9 t)e(&
iA
Un!t T!t$% o2 Wor+ W%%+&
At!*!t-
A&&%&&'%nt 4End
o2 Un!t5
A
Course Guide Wee' .
Modu$% .
. T)e Hu(an Rig)ts o"
Wo(an
Wee' . Assign(ent .
2 Rig)t o" C)ildren Wee' 2 Assign(ent 2
@ Rig)ts o" Re"ugees Wee' @ Assign(ent @
4 #t)ni2 Nationals in Nigeria
and t)e Rig)t to Sel"
*eter(ination
Wee' 4 Assign(ent 4
Modu$% 2
. #uroean Syste( o"
$rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts
Wee' 4 Assign(ent 4
2 Inter A(eri2an Syste( "or
t)e $rote2tion o" Hu(an
Rig)t and e&g& A"ri2an
C)arter o" Hu(an Rig)ts
Wee' 0 Assign(ent 0
@ A"ri2an C)arter o" Hu(an
Rig)ts and t)e Status o"
*o(esti2 Legislation
Wee' < Assign(ent <
Modu$% /
. Hu(an Rig)ts+
Go!ern(ental
Ad(inistrati!e $ro2ess and
Ad(inistration o" %usti2e
Wee' = Assign(ent =
2 #n"or2e(ent o" Hu(an
Rig)tsE Lo2us Standi
Wee' ; Assign(ent ;
@ Lo2us Standi Wee' .: Assign(ent .:
Modu$% 4
. #n"or2e(ent o" Hu(an
Rig)tsE T)e Role and
Bun2tions o" t)e National
Co((ission on Hu(an
Rig)ts arti2ularly in
Relation to t)e Monitoring
and In!estigation o" Hu(an
Rig)ts 1iolations
Wee' .. Assign(ent ..
2 T)e $u3li2 Co(laints
Co((ission
Wee' .2 Assign(ent .2
@ T)e Role and Bun2tion o"
t)e A"ri2an Co((ission on
Hu(an and $eoleFs Rig)ts
Wee' .@ Assign(ent .@
Modu$% 0
. T)e Bunda(ental Rig)ts Wee' .@ Assign(ent .4
Ai
C#n"or2e(ent $ro2edureD
Rules
2 Relie" A!aila3le uon an
Ali2ation "or %udi2ial
Re!ie9
Wee' .4 Assign(ent .4
@ *e2laratory A2tion Wee' .4 Assign(ent .0
4 Originating Noti2e o"
Motion
Wee' .0 Assign(ent .<
Ta3le 2 Course organiHer
Ho3 to G%t t"% Mo&t 2ro' t"!& Cour&%
In distan2e learning t)e study units rela2e t)e uni!ersity le2turer& T)is
is one o" t)e great ad!antages o" distan2e learningE you 2an read and
9or' t)roug) se2ially designed study (aterials at you o9n a2e+ and at
a ti(e and la2e t)at suit you 3est& T)in' o" it as reading t)e le2ture
instead o" listening to a le2turer& In t)e sa(e 9ay t)at a le2turer (ig)t
re2o((end so(e reading+ t)e study units tell you 9)en to read
re2o((ended 3oo's or ot)er (aterials+ and 9)en to underta'e ra2ti2al
9or'& %ust as a le2turer (ig)t gi!e you an in62lass eAer2ise+ your study
units ro!ide eAer2ises "or you to do at aroriate ti(e&
#a2) o" t)e study units "ollo9s a 2o((on "or(at& T)e "irst ite( is an
introdu2tion to t)e su3je2t (atter and )o9 a arti2ular unit is integrated
9it) t)e ot)er units and t)e 2ourse as a 9)ole& NeAt+ is a set o" learning
o3je2ti!es& T)ese o3je2ti!es let you 'no9 9)at you s)ould 3e a3le to
do 3y t)e ti(e you )a!e 2o(leted t)e unit& ?ou s)ould use t)ese
o3je2ti!es to guide your study& W)en you )a!e "inis)ed t)e unit you
(ust go 3a2' and 2)e2' 9)et)er you )a!e a2)ie!ed t)e o3je2ti!es& I"
you (a'e a )a3it o" doing t)is you 9ill signi"i2antly i(ro!e your
2)an2es o" assing t)e 2ourse&
T)e (ain 3ody o" t)e unit guides you t)roug) t)e re-uired reading "ro(
ot)er sour2es& T)is 9ill usually 3e eit)er "ro( your re2o((ended
3oo's or "ro( a reading se2tion& Sel" assess(ent eAer2ises are
intersersed t)roug)out t)e unit+ and ans9ers are gi!en at t)e end o"
units& Wor'ing t)roug) t)ese tests 9ill )el you to a2)ie!e t)e
o3je2ti!es o" t)e unit and reare you "or t)e assign(ents and t)e
eAa(ination& ?ou s)ould do ea2) sel" assess(ent eAer2ise as you 2o(e
to it in t)e study unit& T)ere 9ill also 3e nu(erous eAa(les gi!en in
t)e study unitsE 9or' t)roug) t)ese 9)en you 2o(e to t)e( too&
T)e "ollo9ing is a ra2ti2al strategy "or 9or'ing t)roug) t)e 2ourse& I"
you run into any trou3le+ tele)one your tutorial "a2ilitator or !isit your
Aii
study 2entre& Re(e(3er t)at your tutorFs jo3 is to )el you& W)en you
need )el+ donFt )esitate t)e 2all and as' your tutor&
Read t)is 2ourse guide t)oroug)ly
Organise a study s2)edule& Re"er to t)e ICourse O!er!ie9F "or
(ore details& Note t)e ti(e you are eAe2ted to send on ea2)
unit and )o9 t)e assign(ents relate to t)e units& I(ortant
in"or(ation+ e&g& details o" your tutorials+ and t)e date o" t)e "irst
day o" t)e se(ester is a!aila3le& ?ou need to gat)er toget)er all
t)is in"or(ation in one la2e+ su2) as your diary or a 9all
2alendar& W)ate!er (et)od you 2)oose to use+ you s)ould de2ide
on and 9rite in your o9n dates "or 9or'ing on ea2) unit&
On2e you )a!e 2reated your o9n study s2)edule+ do e!eryt)ing
you 2an to sti2' to it& T)e (ajor reason t)at students do not
er"or( 9ell is t)at t)ey get 3e)ind 9it) t)eir 2ourse 9or'& I"
you )a!e di""i2ulties 9it) your s2)edule+ lease let your tutor
'no9 3e"ore it is too late "or )el&
F#!$!t#tor&6Tutor& #nd Tutor!#$&
T)ere are .: )ours o" tutorials ro!ided in suort o" t)is 2ourse& ?ou
9ill 3e noti"ied o" t)e dates+ ti(es and lo2ation o" t)ese tutorials
toget)er 9it) t)e na(e and )one nu(3ers o" your tutor+ as soon as you
are allo2ated a tutorial grou&
?our tutor 9ill (ar' and 2o((ent on your assign(ents+ 'ee a 2lose
9at2) on your rogress and on any di""i2ulties you (ig)t en2ounter and
assistan2e 9ill 3e a!aila3le at t)e study 2entre& ?ou (ust su3(it your
tutor6(ar'ed assign(ents to your tutor 9ell 3e"ore t)e due date Cat least
t9o 9or'ing days are re-uiredD& T)ey 9ill 3e (ar'ed 3y your tutor and
returned to you as soon as ossi3le&
*o not )esitate to 2onta2t your tutor 3y tele)one+ e6(ail+ or during
tutorial sessions i" you need to& T)e "ollo9ing (ig)t 3e 2ir2u(stan2es
in 9)i2) you 9ould "ind )el ne2essary& Conta2t your tutor i"7
.& ?ou do not understand any art o" t)e study units or t)e
assigned readings
2& ?ou )a!e di""i2ulty 9it) t)e sel" assess(ent eAer2ises
@& ?ou )a!e a -uestion or ro3le( 9it) an assign(ent or 9it)
your tutorFs 2o((ents on an assign(ent or 9it) t)e grading
o" an assign(ent&
?ou s)ould try your 3est to attend t)e tutorials& T)is is t)e only 2)an2e
to )a!e "a2e to "a2e 2onta2t 9it) your tutor and to as' -uestions 9)i2)
are ans9ered instantly& ?ou 2an raise any ro3le( en2ountered in t)e
Aiii
2ourse o" your study& To gain t)e (aAi(u( 3ene"it "ro( 2ourse
tutorials+ reare a -uestion list 3e"ore attending t)e(& ?ou 9ill learn a
lot "ro( arti2iating in dis2ussions a2ti!ely&
So(e o" t)e -uestions you (ay 3e a3le to ans9er are not li(ited to t)e
"ollo9ing7
aD *istinguis) 3et9een Agree(ent and a 2ontra2t
3D Outline "our 2onstituent ele(ents o" a 2ontra2t
2D *e"ine t)e ter( 2ontra2t
dD #Alain t)e ter( o""erJ And in!itation to Treat
eD W)at 2onstitute a22etan2e in t)e la9 o" 2ontra2t
"D W)at i" illegal 2ontra2t
gD Can a 2ourt o" la9 en"or2e an illegal 2ontra2t
Su''#r-
O" 2ourse t)e list o" -uestions t)at you 2an ans9er is not li(ited to t)e
a3o!e list& To gain t)e (ost "ro( t)is 2ourse you s)ould try to aly t)e
rin2iles t)at you en2ounter in e!ery day li"e& ?ou are also e-uied to
ta'e art in t)e de3ate a3out legal (et)ods&
W% 3!&" -ou &u%&& !n t"% our&% #nd "o7% t"#t -ou 3!$$ 2!nd !t
(ot" !nt%r%&t!n, #nd u&%2u$8
Ai!
UNIT . THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF WOMEN
CONTENTS
.& Introdu2tion
2& O3je2ti!es
@& Main Content
@&. T)e C)allenge o" I9o(enFs rig)tF .4:
@&.&. An O!er!ie9
@&.&2 Case Study7 roerty rig)ts o" 9o(en in 5enya
@&.&@ A note on 9o(enFs rig)ts and international La9
@&2 T)e Con!ention on t)e #li(ination o" All Bor(s o"
*is2ri(ination against Wo(en CC#*AWD
@&2&. O!er!ie9 o" C#*AW
@&2&2 Content o" C#*AW
@&2&@ Additional #n"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s
@&2&4 Analysis o" Rig)ts in C#*AW and ot)er Hu(an
Rig)ts Instru(ents
@&2&4 Be(inist Criti2is(s o" C#*AW
@&@ T)e Otional $roto2ol
@&@&. W)y 9as t)ere a need "or an Otional $roto2olJ
@&@&2 W)at is t)e role o" t)e Otional $roto2olJ
@&@&@ Case Study7 Singaore
@&@&4 Case study7 Nigeria
@&4 *e2laration on t)e #li(ination o" 1iolen2e against
Wo(en
@&4 T)e Se2ial Raorteur on 1iolen2e against Wo(en
@&4&. Case Study7 T)e US $rison Ser!i2e
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
0&: Tutor6Mar'ed Assign(ents
<&: Re"eren2es/Burt)er Readings
.89 INTRODUCTION
Wo(enFs rig)ts are an integral art o" )u(an rig)ts& T)e 2entrality o"
9o(enFs rig)ts to )u(an rig)ts+ and indeed+ t)e inter6lin'ed nature o"
all )u(an rig)ts+ 9as a""ir(ed 3y t)e .;;@ 1ienna World Con"eren2e&
T)e 1ienna *e2laration and $rogra((e o" A2tion stated t)at IT)e
)u(an rig)ts o" 9o(en and t)e girl 2)ild are an inaliena3le+ integral+
and indi!isi3le art o" uni!ersal )u(an rig)tsF& T)e rote2tion and
en)an2e(ent o" 9o(enFs rig)ts ensures7
4& t)e "ull and e-ual arti2iation o" 9o(en in oliti2al+ 2i!il+
e2ono(i2+ so2ial and 2ultural li"e+ at t)e national+ regional+
and international le!els+ and t)e eradi2ation o" all "or(s o"
A!
dis2ri(ination on t)e grounds o" seA are riority o3je2ti!es o"
t)e international 2o((unity&
C)tt7//999&un)2)r+org/)uri2ane/)uri2ane+ns"/Ne9sRoo(D
289 O:;ECTIVES
,y t)e end o" t)is 2)ater and t)e rele!ant readings you s)ould 3e a3le
to7
4& eAlain t)e nature o" 9o(enKs rig)ts as )u(an rig)ts in2luding
"e(inist 2riti-ues o" international la9
0& outline t)e Arti2le o" t)e Con!ention "or t)e #li(ination o" All
Bor(s o" *is2ri(ination Against Wo(en CC#*AWD
<& eAlain t)e oeration o" t)e Otional $roto2ol to C#*AW
=& des2ri3e t)e role o" T)e Co((ission on t)e Status o" Wo(en
CCSWD and
;& gender (ainstrea(ing
.:& su((arise t)e *e2laration on t)e #li(ination o" 1iolen2e
against Wo(en
..& eAlain t)e role o" t)e Se2ial Raorteur on 1iolen2e against
Wo(en
.2& are2iate t)e 2ultural issues relating to t)e en"or2e(ent o"
9o(enFs rig)ts&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. T"% C"#$$%n,% o2 <Wo'%n=& R!,"t&=
/8.8. An O*%r*!%3
Wo(enFs rig)ts see' to 2)allenge and 3rea' do9n t)e eA2lusion t)at
9o(en )a!e su""ered in all arts o" t)e 9orld& We 2ould relate 9o(enKs
rig)ts to "e(inis( as a 2ultural and oliti2al "or2e& Be(inis( 2an 3e
understood as a 3road 3ased and di!erse (o!e(ent t)at see's to rote2t
and ro(ote t)e interests o" 9o(en& Be(inists are also a2ti!e in lin'ing
9o(enFs rig)ts to t)e eradi2ation o" o!ertyE a "a2tor t)at in2reasingly
dri!es "or9ard t)e rig)ts agenda& A re2ent UN reort ro!ides so(e
details& $o!erty )as to 3e understood in a 9ide sense+ as in2luding not
just a la2' o" "inan2ial and so2ial resour2es+ 3ut an eA2lusion "ro( )ealt)
2are+ legal ser!i2es and 2i!i2 li"e& On t)e 9)ole+ 9o(en 9or' longer
)ours t)an (en+ 9it) at least )al" t)e total ti(e sent in unre(unerated
la3our& T)is in!isi3ility leads to Klo9er so2ial entitle(ents to 9o(en as
2o(ared to &(en& T)is ine-uity in turn eretuates t)e gender ga in
a22essing needed resour2esF&
A!i
Rerodu2ti!e )ealt) ro3le(s also i(a2t negati!ely on 9o(en&
$oor 9o(en (ay 3e "or2ed to )a!e (ore 2)ildren t)an t)ey 9ant&
In"e2tion rates o" AI*S/HI1 and ot)er SI*s are also )ig)er "or 9o(en
t)an (en 3e2ause7
gender ine-uality o"ten deri!es 9o(en o" t)e a3ility to re"use ris'y
ra2ti2es+ 9)i2) leads to 2oer2ed seA and seAual 3e)a!iour& &&Wo(en
reresented )al" o" all HN6ositi!e adults in 2::.+ u "ro( 4. er
2ent in .;;<&
So2ial and e2ono(i2 de!elo(ent re-uires t)e e(o9er(ent o"
9o(en& T)ose 2ountries t)at )a!e s)o9 good de!elo(ent rates )a!e
also in!ested in uni!ersal )ealt) 2are and edu2ation&
Burt)er(ore+ su22ess"ully de!eloing nations )a!e assed la9s and
ta'en oli2y initiati!es to end dis2ri(ination and ensure t)at 9o(en
laya "ull art in t)e so2ial and e2ono(i2 li"e o" a 2ountry& Ho9e!er+
t)ese initiati!es )a!e to 3e dri!en "ro( t)e grass roots& T)ere is no oint
i(osing )ealt) 2are rogra((es i" t)ey do not deal 9it) t)e ro3le(s
t)at 9o(en are eAerien2ing& $oli2ies s)ould t)us 3e dri!en 3y
2onsultati!e ro2esses t)at ta'e t)e ro3le(s o" 3ot) rural and ur3an
9o(en seriously& I" a nation is a3le to i(ro!e t)e oortunities oen to
9o(en+ t)ere are ot)er ositi!e 2onse-uen2es7
I(ro!ing 9o(enKs edu2ation )as ro!ed to 2ontri3ute t)e (ost to
redu2ing t)e rate o" 2)ild (alnutrition+ e!en (ore i(ortant t)an
i(ro!e(ents in "ood a!aila3ility& Mot)ersK edu2ation deli!ers
i(ro!ed nutrition& Closing t)e gender ga in edu2ation also )els
9o(en to redu2e "ertility and i(ro!e 2)ild sur!i!al& In 2ountries
9)ere girls are only )al" as li'ely to go to s2)ool as 3oys+ adds t)e
reort+ t)ere are on a!erage 2.&. (ore in"ant deat)s er .+::: li!e
3irt)s t)an in 2ountries 9it) no su2) gender ga&
I$eole+ $o!erty and $ossi3ilities7 Ma'ing *e!elo(ent Wor' "or
t)e $oorF UN$BA+ 2::2 LIS,N :=;<.404:0M& CSee also UNB$AFs
State of World Population at 999&un"a&org&D
Bor "urt)er in"or(ation on 9o(enKs so2ial and e2ono(i2 2onditions+ see
Steiner and Alston C2::: &.0@6.<@D& ?ou (ig)t 9ant to use t)is
in"or(ation in your notes to 3uild u a (ore detailed a22ount o" t)e
ro3le(s t)at 9o(enKs rig)ts are (eant to 2ounter& In arti2ular+ Steiner
and Alston ro!ide eAtra2ts "ro( reorts detailing !iolen2e against
9o(en in ,raHil+ and an A(ne;ty International reort on Rae and
SeAual A3use& T)ese eAtra2ts are rinted alongside ot)er reorts and
2o((ents on t)e so2ial eA2lusion t)at 9o(en su""er& T)e ro3le(s o"
A!ii
!iolen2e and so2ial eA2lusion are 2learly lin'ed& We 9ill return to t)is
ro3le( later in t)is 2)ater&
We 9ill no9 eAa(ine in a little (ore detail one arti2ular area o"
dis2ri(ination against Wo(en&
!8 C#&% Stud-: Pro7%rt- r!,"t& o2 Wo'%n !n
>%n-#
We 2an 3rie"ly eAa(ine a Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) Reort on $roerty
Rig)ts in 5enya& $roerty rig)ts o" 9o(en in 5enya are 3ound u 9it)
t)e stru2ture o" t)e 2ountryKs land la9& W)at )as tended to dri!e re"or(
sin2e indeenden2e 9as gained in .;02+ )as 3een t)e need to ensure an
e-uita3le NN!ision o" land 3et9een t)e di""erent et)ni2 grous 9it)in
5enya& A related ro3le( )as 3een t)e di""erent 2usto(ary jurisdi2tions+
9it) "re-uent 2ontradi2tory ro!isions and t)e )istori2al stru2ture o"
title+ in)erited "ro( 2olonial ti(es 9)i2) "a!oured (ale o9ners)i o"
land& Re"or(s )a!e 3een (ade in t)e la9 o" su22ession and "a(ily la9+
3ut gender i(3alan2e in land o9ners)i re(ains& T)ere are at resent
"i!e di""erent legal syste(s t)at aly to (arriage& T)ese are7
.D 2i!il Cunder t)e Marriage A2tD
2D C)ristian Cunder t)e A"ri2an C)ristian Marriage and *i!or2e A2t
and t)e Marriage A2tD
@D Isla(i2 Cunder t)e Mo)a((edan Marriage+ *i!or2e and
Su22ession A2tD
4D Hindu Cunder t)e Hindu Marriage and *i!or2e A2tD and
4D Custo(ary Cunder 2usto(ary la9sD&
At a 2onstitutional le!el dis2ri(ination on t)e 3asis o" seA is ro)i3ited+
3ut t)ere are eA2etions 9)i2) allo9 dis2ri(ination in ersonal and
2usto(ary la9& At resent+ t)oug)+ t)ere is an ongoing ro2ess o"
2onstitutional re"or(+ and it is )oed t)at t)is 9ill en)an2e 9o(enKs
rig)ts&
T)e "ailure to e""e2ti!ely rote2t 9o(en is one reason 9)y t)ey re(ain
I9orse o"" t)an (enF7
,y just a3out any (easure+ 9o(en in 5enya are 9orse o"" t)an (en&
T)eir a!erage earnings are less t)an )al" t)ose o" (en& Only 2; er
2ent o" t)ose engaged in "or(al 9age e(loy(ent are 9o(en+
lea!ing (ost to 9or' in t)e in"or(al se2tor 9it) no so2ial se2urity
and little in2o(e& T)e nu(3ers o" 9o(en in "or(al e(loy(ent are
de2reasing& Wo(en )ead @< er 2ent o" all )ouse)olds in 5enya+ a
nu(3er li'ely to gro9 as AIDS 2lai(s (ore !i2ti(s& #ig)ty er 2ent
o" "e(ale6)eaded )ouse)olds are eit)er oor or !ery oor+ in art due
A!iii
to t)eir li(ited o9ners)i o" and a22ess to land& Girls re2ei!e less
edu2ation t)an 3oys at e!ery le!el+ and 9o(enKs litera2y rate C<0 er
2entD is lo9er t)an (enKs C=; er 2entD&1iolen2e against 9o(en is
2o((onla2e7 0: er 2ent o" (arried 9o(en reorted in a 2::2
study t)at t)ey 9ere !i2ti(s o" do(esti2 a3use& In anot)er study
u3lis)ed in 2::2+ =@ er 2ent o" 9o(en reorted )ysi2al a3use in
2)ild)ood and nearly 0. er 2ent reorted )ysi2al a3use as adults&
A22ording to 9o(enKs rig)ts ad!o2ates+ t)ere is only one s)elter "or
3attered 9o(en and t)eir 2)ildren in t)e entire 2ountry&
Wo(enFs roerty rig)ts !iolations and t)eir 2onse-uen2es
)n7//)r9&org/reorts/2::@/'enya:@:@/
A si(ilar attern 2an 3e o3ser!ed in relation to land )olding7
.& Wo(enFs land o9ners)i is (inis2ule desite t)eir enor(ous
2ontri3ution to agri2ultural rodu2tion& Wo(en a22ount "or only
4 er 2ent o" registered land)olders nationally& T)e agri2ultural
se2tor 2ontri3utes o!er =: er 2ent o" e(loy(ent and 0: er
2ent o" national in2o(e& Wo(en 2onstitute o!er =: er 2ent o"
t)e agri2ultural la3our "or2e+ o"ten 9or'ing on an unaid 3asis+
and 04 er 2ent o" su3sisten2e "ar(ers are 9o(en& Wo(en
ro!ide aroAi(ately 0: er 2ent o" "ar(6deri!ed in2o(e+ yet
"e(ale6)eaded )ouse)olds on a!erage o9n less t)an )al" t)e
a(ount o" "ar( e-ui(ent o9ned 3y (ale6)eaded )ouse)olds&
Rural 9o(en 9or' an a!erage o" nearly t)ree )ours longer er
day t)an rural (en& Wit) so (any 9o(en 9or'ing in t)e
agri2ultural se2tor and so "e9 in "or(al e(loy(ent+ it is all t)e
(ore de!astating 9)en 9o(en lose t)eir land& Ci3idD
Custo(ary la9 deri!es "ro( 2usto( and ra2ti2e+ 3ut is also "or(ally
re2ognised 3y legislation and t)e 5enyan legal syste(& T)e tenden2y
to9ards a 2o(leA atterning o" 2usto(ary la9 re"le2ts t)e "a2t t)at
ea2) et)ni2 or tri3al grouing (ay )a!e its o9n la9&
Custo(ary la9 is en"or2ed 3y tri3al leaders or elders+ 3ut (ay also 3e
alied in 2ourt ro2eedings& Custo(ary la9s t)at relate to roerty 2an
3e tra2ed 3a2' to t)e re62olonial eriod& $re2isely 3e2ause 2usto(ary
la9 is "luid+ and 2)anges as 2usto( 2)anges+ it is not ne2essarily
resistant to so2ial 2)ange& Ho9e!er+ 9)at is ro3le(ati2 is t)e "a2t t)at
t)e nor(s o" 2usto(ary la9 are rooted in 2usto(s t)at (ay t)e(sel!es
3e dee6seated and )ard to 2)ange& Consider t)e ra2ti2e o" 9i"e
in)eritan2e t)at is ra2ti2ed in so(e arts o" 5enya& Alt)oug) t)ere are
(any di""erent er(utations to t)is ra2ti2e+ so(e 2o((on "eatures 2an
3e suggested& In t)e ast+ t)is 2usto( 9as one 9ay o" ensuring a degree
AiA
o" so2ial rote2tion "or 9ido9s& Wido9s 9ere not t)e(sel!es a3le to
in)erit land+ so+ ro!iding t)at t)e 9ido9 )ersel" 9as in)erited 9ent
so(e 9ay to (a'ing sure t)at t)e 9ido9 and )er deendents 9ould 3e
suorted& T)e rituals asso2iated 9it) 9i"e in)eritan2e in!ol!ed t)e
I2leaningF o" t)e 9ido9& T)ere 9as a "ear t)at s)e 9ould 3e
2onta(inated 9it) )er )us3andKs sirit& In one arti2ular ritual+ t)e
9ido9 9ould )a!e to )a!e seAual inter2ourse 9it) a so2ial out2ast7
2& Wo(enFs roerty rig)ts 2losely relate to 9i"e in)eritan2e and
2leansing rituals in t)at (any 9o(en 2annot stay in t)eir )o(es
or on t)eir land unless t)ey are in)erited or 2leansed& A22ording
to one 9o(enKs rig)ts ad!o2ate+ Wo(en )a!e to 3e in)erited to
'ee any roerty a"ter t)eir )us3ands die& T)ey )a!e a22ess to
roerty 3e2ause o" t)eir )us3and and lose t)at rig)t 9)en t)e
)us3and dies&K Wo(en 9)o eAerien2ed t)ese ra2ti2es told
Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) t)ey )ad (iAed "eelings a3out t)e(& Most
said t)e 2leansing and in)eritan2e 9ere not !oluntary+ 3ut t)ey
su22u(3ed so t)at t)ey 2ould 'ee t)eir roerty and stay in t)eir
2o((unities& Ci3idD
SELF ASSESSMENT E?ERCISE
.& W)at in)erent ro3le(s 9it) t)e stru2ture o" 5enyan so2iety and
la9 tend to (ilitate against 9o(enKs roerty rig)tsJ
2& W)at do t)e "igures -uoted a3o!e suggest a3out t)e so2ial and
e2ono(i2 osition o" Wo(en in 5enyaJ
@& W)at is 2usto(ary la9J Are t)ere any arti2ular ro3le(s 9it)
2usto(ary la9 as "ar as 9o(enKs rig)ts are 2on2ernedJ
Cu&to'#r- L#3
See Steiner and Alston C2::: $$&42:642.D on )o9 2usto(ary ra2ti2es
2an 2)ange& T)e eAa(le 2on2erns t)e Sa3iny eole in eastern Uganda&
It s)o9s t)at t)e nor(s o" 2usto(ary la9 2an 2)ange to reje2t ra2ti2es
t)at are una22eta3le "ro( a )u(an rig)ts erse2ti!e&
Read Steiner and AlstonFs su((ary o" t)e arti2le 3y An6NaFi( on $&
420642=& T)is ie2e 2on2erns state resonsi3ility under international
)u(an rig)ts la9 to 2)ange religious and 2usto(ary ra2ti2es& An6
NaFi( 2on2erns )i(sel" 9it) t)e 9ay in 9)i2) 2usto(ary la9 2an
2)ange&
.& W)at does An6NaFi( suggest in relation to t)e aut)ority o"
2usto(ary la9J W)y is an understanding o" t)e 3asis o"
2usto(ary la9 i(ortant Cor a )u(an rig)ts la9yer or a2ti!istJ
AA
Su((ary
Wo(enFs rig)ts are an integral an o" )u(an rig)ts& Wo(enFs rig)ts
guarantee t)e in)erent dignity o" 9o(en+ 3ut are also rele!ant to t)e
Struggle against o!erty& Wo(en "a2e stru2tured disad!antage in (any
i" not an 2ountries o" t)e 9orld+ alt)oug) 9e )a!e tended to 2on2entrate
in t)is se2tion on t)e de!eloing 9orld& We )a!e also seen t)at
"urt)ering t)e rote2tion o" 9o(enKs rig)ts in!ol!es 2o(leA issues o"
so2ial 2)ange& It is ne2essary t)at ad!o2ates o" )u(an rig)ts do not
aroa2) 2ultures in a )ig)6)anded 9ay+ and see' to engage in
2onstru2ti!e and sensiti!e 2ross62ultural dialogues in order to 3rea'
do9n resistan2es to t)ose 2)anges t)at are ne2essary to e(o9er
9o(en&
!!8 A Not% on Wo'%n=& R!,"t& #nd
Int%rn#t!on#$ L#3
T)ere are ot)er ie2es t)at dra9 insiration "ro( "e(inis( in Steiner
and AlstonKs 2olle2tion& $lease read t)e su((ary o" C)arles9ort) and
C)in'inFs arti2le+ &2.=622:& C)arles9ort) is 2riti2al o" t)e 2entrality
o" t)e state to international la9 in t)e "irst eAtra2t& In t)e se2ond eAtra2t+
9riting 9it) C)ristine C)in'in+ s)e turns )er attention to t)e
international la9 do2trine o" jus cogens. T)is is related to argu(ents
a3out )u(an rig)ts& Alt)oug) )u(an rig)ts are seen as a radi2al
inter!ention in international la9+ t)ese inter!entions are not radi2al
enoug) "ro( t)e !ie9oint o" 9o(en& Alt)oug) de!elo(ents in
)u(an rig)ts la9 )a!e 3ro'en do9n a traditional di!ide 3et9een u3li2
and ri!ate+ t)ese !alues )a!e 3een re6ins2ri3ed in a 9ay t)at re"le2ts
(ale interests& Hu(an rig)ts 2atalogues tend to re"le2t t)e u3li2 )ar(s
t)at (en "ear (ost7 )ar(s t)at 2o(e out o" a "ear t)at go!ern(ent 9ill
a2t in 2ertain unrestrained 9ays& T)e sa(e restige )as not 3een gi!en
to so2ial and e2ono(i2 rig)ts t)at a""e2t t)e ri!ate s)ereE a s)ere
asso2iated (ore 9it) 9o(en t)an (en&
T)is is not to say t)at 9o(en do not su""er "ro( t)e rig)ts lin'ed to t)e
u3li2 s)ere+ 3ut t)e 9ay in 9)i2) Irig)ts )a!e 3een 2onstru2ted
o3s2ures t)e (ore er!asi!e )ar(s done to 9o(enK Ci3id&+ &.<4D&
Consider Arti2le 0 o" t)e ICC$R+ t)e rig)t to li"e+ a rig)t 2on2erned 9it)
u3li2 a2tions t)at Iar3itrarilyF deri!e indi!iduals o" t)eir li"e& T)is
ignores t)e ri!ate 9ay in 9)i2) 9o(en (ay su""er )ar( in t)e ri!ate
s)ereE "ro( t)e a3ortion o" "e(ale "oetuses and "e(ale in"anti2ide to
t)e re"eren2e gi!en to (ale o!er "e(ale 2)ildrenE a oint t)at 2ould 3e
lin'ed to !iolen2e against 9o(en in t)e "a(ily& To ta'e one "inal
eAa(le+ e!en t)e "unda(ental rig)t to sel"6deter(ination asserts t)e
AAi
rig)t o" grous o" eole to deter(ine t)eir oliti2al statusE it does not
aly to 9o(en 9it)in t)ose grous&
.& Re"res) your (e(ory o" 9)at jus cogens (eans+ and reare a
s)ort so'en state(ent 9)i2) you 2ould use to eAlain it to
ot)ers& In2lude one or t9o eAa(les o" 9)ere it (ig)t aly&
T)e eAtra2t "ro( #ngleFs arti2le+ &2.=622:+ is a slig)tly di""erent
2riti-ue o" t)e "oundational u3li2 ri!ate distin2tion in international
la9& Criti2iHing t)e di""erent 2riti-ues o" t)is notion+ #ngle argues t)at
t)e Iri!ateF+ or at least t)e legal rote2tion o" ri!a2y+ 2an 3e 3ene"i2ial
"or 9o(en& T)e ie2e suggests t)at it is ne2essary to re62onsider so(e
o" t)e 'ey ter(s used 3ot) 3y 2riti2s and aologists in de3ates o!er t)e
nature o" )u(an rig)ts and international la9&
Su''#r-
T)is 3rie" se2tion )as loo'ed at "e(inist 2riti-ues o" international la9&
T)ese 2riti-ues are i(ortant as suggesting a di""erent and alternati!e
erse2ti!e on t)e "oundational 2on2ets o" t)e su3je2t& I" t)ere are
9ea'nesses in t)e international rote2tion o" Wo(enKs )u(an rig)ts+
(ig)t it 3e t)at t)e su3je2t itsel" is 3iased against t)e identi"i2ation and
e""e2ti!e rote2tion o" t)ose rig)tsJ
/82 T"% Con*%nt!on on t"% E$!'!n#t!on o2 A$$ For'& o2
D!&r!'!n#t!on #,#!n&t Wo'%n 4CEDAW5
/828. O*%r*!%3 o2 CEDAW
C#*AW results "ro( t)e 9or' o" t)e Co((ission on t)e Status o"
&Wo(en CCSWD&
T)e CCSWD 9as esta3lis)ed 3y a resolution o" t)e #2ono(i2 and So2ial
Coun2il 3y Coun2il resolution in .;40& T)e CSW 9as+ at "irst only a
su362o((ission o" t)e Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts+ 3ut its role 9as
en)an2ed as t)e UN 3egan to are2iate t)at t)e ,ill o" Rig)ts 9as not
e""e2ti!e in ro(oting 9o(enFs rig)ts& Bro( .;4;6 .;4;+ t)e CSW
2reated a nu(3er o" do2u(ents t)at 2o!ered 9o(enKs rig)ts in !arious
areas+ it 9as in2reasingly "elt t)at t)ere 9as a need "or a 2o)erent and
2onsistent aroa2) to t)e issue& T)e *e2laration on t)e #li(ination o"
*is2ri(ination against Wo(en 9as adoted in .;0<& Ho9e!er+ t)e
su3ordinate status o" 9o(enFs rig)ts 9as aarent in t)e "or( o" t)e
AAii
do2u(ent& T)e *e2laration 9as a state(ent o" rin2ile+ and did not
)a!e t)e "or2e o" a treaty& In t)e early .;<:s+ )o9e!er+ as t)e a9areness
o" t)e s2ale o" dis2ri(ination against 9o(en 3e2a(e in2reasingly
o3!ious+ t)e CSW argued t)at a treaty 9as ne2essary& T)e Con!ention
on t)e #li(ination o" All Bor(s o" *is2ri(ination against Wo(en 9as
adoted in .;<;& We 9ill eAa(ine its en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s 3elo9&
C#*AW 3egins 9it) a re"eren2e 3a2' to t)e C)arter o" t)e United
Nations+ t)us 2onne2ting t)e idea o" t)e rig)ts o" 9o(en 9it) t)e
"unda(ental ideas o" dignity and )u(an 9ort) t)at underlie t)at
do2u(ent& T)e aragra) goes on to (a'e re"eren2e to t)e Uni!ersal
*e2laration o" Hu(an Rig)ts and t)e 2entral ro)i3ition o"
dis2ri(ination& T)e ro)i3ition on dis2ri(ination 2learly underlies t)e
idea t)at (en and 9o(en are e-ual in 9ort) and dignity& Ho9e!er+
desite state arties su3s2ri3ing to t)e standards set out in t)e
*e2laration+ and underta'ing t)e o3ligations 2ontained in t)e
International Co!enants+ IeAtensi!e dis2ri(ination against 9o(en
2ontinues to eAistF& T)is (eans t)at 9o(en are not enjoying )u(an
rig)ts+ and are not arti2iating in so2iety on e-ual ter(s as (en&
Moreo!er+ t)e 3urden o" o!erty resses unduly on 9o(en 9)o (ay not
)a!e less a22ess to "ood, )ealt)+ edu2ation+ and e(loy(ent
oortunities t)an (en& C#*AW t)en (a'es a re"eren2e to t)e ne9
international e2ono(i2 order& T)is UN initiati!e 9as an atte(t 3y
de!eloing nations to redress t)e ine-uities o" t)e 9orld e2ono(y& T)e
Con!ention asserts t)at t)is 9ill I2ontri3ute signi"i2antly to9ards t)e
ro(otion o" e-uality 3et9een (en and 9o(enF+ and t)us asso2iates t)e
struggle "or 9o(enFs rig)ts 9it) t)e 3roader struggle "or e2ono(i2
justi2e&
Ot)er re"eren2e oints are se2i"ied+ and t)us t)e 2)a(ioning o" t)e
rig)ts o" 9o(en is inseara3le "ro( t)e struggle against Iaart)eid+ all
"or(s o" ra2is(+ ra2ial dis2ri(ination+ 2olonialis(+ neo62olonialis(+
aggression+ "oreign o22uation and do(inationK& T)is is in turn lin'ed to
t)e !alorisation o" state so!ereignty& One 2an are2iate t)at+ in t)e
2onteAt o" 2olonialis(+ t)e need to ri!ilege t)e nation state 9as
i(ortantE indeed+ Iso2ial rogressF is eAli2itly lin'ed to t)e rig)t to
sel"6deter(ination and international rese2t "or t)e so!ereignty o" t)ose
ne9 states e(erging "ro( 2olonial do(ination&
T)e introdu2tion t)en turns to address t)e se2i"i2 role t)at 9o(en lay&
C#*AW states t)at 9o(en (a'e a Igreat 2ontri3ution&&&to t)e 9el"are
o" t)e "a(ily and to t)e de!elo(ent o" so2ietyF& T)eir role+ )o9e!er+
)as not 3een re2ognised+ and t)e Kso2ial signi"i2an2e o" (aternity and t)e
role o" 3ot) arents in t)e "a(ily and in t)e u3ringing o" 2)ildrenF )as
3een insu""i2iently rote2ted& It is i(ortant to note+ t)oug)+ t)at t)is
Ise2ial roleF t)at .in's 9o(en to t)e "a(ily and t)e )o(e+ Ks)ould not
AAiii
3e a 3asis "or dis2ri(ination 3ut t)at t)e u3ringing o" 2)ildren re-uires
a s)aring o" resonsi3ility 3et9een (en and 9o(en and so2iety as a
9)oleK& T)e 3urdens and resonsi3ilities o" t)e "a(ily+ t)en+ s)ould not
"all disroortionately on 9o(en7 so2iety as a 9)ole s)ould 3e
organised in su2) a 9ay as to in!ol!e (en and 9o(en in e-ual
(easures in t)e tas's asso2iated 9it) t)e "a(ily& T)e ro3le(ati2 nature
o" t)is goal is arti2ulated !ery 2learly 3y t)e neAt aragra)7
@& Ia 2)ange in t)e traditional role o" (en as 9ell as t)e role o"
9o(en in so2iety and in t)e "a(ily is needed to a2)ie!e "ull
e-uality 3et9een (en and 9o(enK& It is easy to are2iate t)at
t)is o3je2ti!e (ay lead to 2las)es 3et9een )u(an rig)ts and
2ultures t)at see' to reser!e t)e ItraditionalF role o" 9o(en&
&
Cont%nt o2 CEDAW
P#rt .
Art!$% . 2ontains a de"inition o" dis2ri(ination against 9o(en7 t)e
ter( Ks)all (ean any distin2tion+ eA2lusion or restri2tion (ade on t)e
3asis o" seA 9)i2) )as t)e e""e2t or urose o" i(airing or nulli"ying
t)e re2ognition+ enjoy(ent or eAer2ise 3y 9o(en+ irrese2ti!e o" t)eir
(arital status+ on a 3asis o" e-uality o" (en and 9o(en+ o" )u(an rig)ts
and "unda(ental "reedo(s in t)e oliti2al+ e2ono(i2+ so2ial+ 2ultural+
2i!il or any ot)er "ieldK&
T)is de"inition o" dis2ri(ination 9ould resu(a3ly 2o!er 3ot) dire2t
and indire2t dis2ri(ination& T)is distin2tion is 2)ara2teristi2 o" U5 anti6
dis2ri(ination legalisation& *ire2t dis2ri(ination is an o!ert a2t o"
dis2ri(inationE indire2t dis2ri(ination in a little )arder to de"ine& It 2an
3e understood as t)e i(osition o" a standard or a rule t)at is not
eAli2itly dis2ri(inatory+ 3ut+ t)e roortion o" t)ose in t)e
dis2ri(inated grou 9)o 2an 2o(ly 9it) it is (u2) s(aller t)an t)ose
not in t)at grou& T)us+ a jo3 re-uire(ent se2i"ying t)at an e(loyee
)as to 3e a9ay "ro( )o(e "or long eriods (ay 3e seen as indire2tly
dis2ri(inatory to 9o(en loo'ing a"ter 2)ildren& T)e 2ondition does not
eAli2itly state t)at 9o(en 2aring "or 2)ildren 2annot aly+ 3ut t)e
roortion t)at 9ould 3e a3le to 2o(ly is resu(a3ly (u2) s(aller
t)an t)ose not loo'ing a"ter 2)ildren&
It is 9ort) noting t)at dis2ri(ination on t)e 3asis on (arital status is
dire2tly ro)i3ited Ci&e& any re-uire(ent t)at a erson s)ould 3e (arried+
or not (arriedD&
AAi!
Art!$% 2 (o!es "ro( a general de"inition to 2o!er t)e 9ays in 9)i2)
dis2ri(ination is to 3e 2o(3ated& Note )o9 t)e o3ligation rests 9it) t)e
state arty to7
4& in2ororate anti6dis2ri(ination rin2iles in t)e 2onstitution and
in legislation
4& deloy san2tions i" ne2essary to a2)ie!e t)e goal o" e-uality :
re-uire u3li2 aut)orities to a2t in a non6dis2ri(inatory 9ay and
0& reeal enal legislation t)at is dis2ri(inatory&
Arti2le @ 2an 3e read alongside Arti2le 2& It states t)at Iall aroriate
(easuresF 9ill 3e ta'en to "urt)er t)e "unda(ental rig)ts and "reedo(s
o" 9o(en& Arti2le 4 states an i(ortant 2a!eat7 (easures ro(oting
9o(enFs rig)ts s)all not t)e(sel!es 3e 2onsidered dis2ri(inatory&
Moreo!er+ t)ey (ust not a(ount to t)e I(aintenan2e o" une-ual or
searate standardsF+ as t)ese are in t)e(sel!es dis2ri(inatory& Ho9e!er+
adotion o" se2ial (easures to rote2t (aternity is not to 3e 2onsidered
dis2ri(inatory&
Arti2le 4 la2es "urt)er duties on state arties& Birst o" all+ t)e arti2le
la2es an o3ligation to7
.D I(odi"y t)e so2ial and 2ultural atterns o" 2ondu2t o" (en and
9o(en+ 9it) a !ie9 to a2)ie!ing t)e eli(ination o" rejudi2es
and 2usto(ary and all ot)er ra2ti2es 9)i2) are 3asedK on t)e
idea o" t)e in"eriority or t)e sueriority o" eit)er o" t)e seAes or
on stereotyed roles "or (en and 9o(en&F
T)is is a22o(anied 3y a duty to ensure t)at "a(ily edu2ation in2ludes a
roer understanding o" (aternity as a so2ial "un2tion and t)e
re2ognition o" t)e 2o((on resonsi3ility o" (en and 9o(en in t)e
u3ringing and de!elo(ent o" t)eir 2)ildren& Underlying t)is
o3ligation is t)e assertion t)at t)e 3est interest o" t)e 2)ildren is t)e
ri(ary 2onsideration in all 2ases&
Arti2le 4 t)us re-uires a signi"i2ant inut "ro( t)e state in 2reating t)e
2onditions "or a so2ial re6align(ent t)at 3rea's do9n t)ose 2onditions
t)at )a!e 'et 9o(en out o" u3li2 li"e+ or treated t)e( as se2ond 2lass
2itiHens& T)is re-uires a2tion on stereotyi2al ideas o" t)e roles o"
9o(en and (enE and a signi"i2ant rogra((e o" edu2ation in relation
to t)e role o" t)e "a(ily& Couled 9it) t)e earlier arti2le o" se2tion .+
t)is 3road set o" goals 2ould 3e a2)ie!ed t)roug) legislation+ 3ut+ to 3e
su22ess"ul+ su2) a rogra((e 9ould )a!e to 3e a22o(anied 9it)
edu2ation&
AA!
Art!$% @ is 3rie"& It (o!es "ro( a 2onsideration o" t)e "a(ily to t9o
ot)er areas 9)ere 9o(en )a!e 3een oressed& It la2es a duty on state
arties to Kta'e all aroriate (easures&&&to suress all "or(s o" tra""i2
in 9o(en and eAloitation o" rostitution o" 9o(enF&
P#rt II
$art II o" C#*AW ela3orates in (ore detail t)e rig)ts 2ontained in $art
I&
Art!$% A 2on2erns !oting rig)ts and u3li2 arti2iation& State arties
underta'e to ensure t)at 9o(en+ li'e (en+ 2an I!ote in all ele2tions and
u3li2 re"erenda &&&and 3e eligi3le "or ele2tion to all u3li2ly6ele2ted
3odiesK& State arties (ust also guarantee t)at 9o(en 2an Karti2iate in
t)e "or(ulation o" go!ern(ent oli2yK and its i(le(entation and )old
u3li2 o""i2e& Wo(en (ust also 3e allo9ed to Karti2iate in non6
go!ern(ental organiHations and asso2iations 2on2erned 9it) t)e u3li2
and oliti2al li"e o" t)e 2ountryKF
Art!$% B ela3orates t)ese ro!isions to an international le!el+ la2ing an
o3ligation on state arties to ensure t)at 9o(en )a!e It)e oortunity to
reresent t)eir go!ern(ents at t)e international le!el and to arti2iate
in t)e 9or' o" international organiHationsF&
Art!$% C (o!es on to a di""erent 3ut related 2on2ern& C#*AW la2es
t)e rig)t o" nationality in t)e 2onteAt o" t)e ro3le(s "a2ed 3y 9o(en&
T)e rig)t to Ia2-uire+ 2)ange or retain>nationalityK s)ould 3e enjoyed
e-ually 3y (en and 9o(en& Ho9e!er+ in relation to 9o(en+ state
arties (ust ensure t)at Kneit)er (arriage to an alien nor 2)ange o"
nationality 3y t)e )us3and during (arriageK s)ould Kauto(ati2ally
2)ange t)e nationality o" t)e 9i"e+ render )er stateless or "or2e uon )er
t)e nationality o" t)e )us3andK& In t)e se2ond aragra)+ state arties
grant 9o(en e-ual rig)ts 9it) (en I9it) rese2t to t)e nationality o"
t)eir 2)ildrenF&
P#rt III
Art!$% .9 relates to t)e rig)t to edu2ation& It addresses !arious issues
t)at )a!e tended to restri2t t)e rig)ts o" 9o(en to enjoy e-ual
oortunities in t)is area 9it) (en& $aragra) CaD 2on2erns itsel" 9it)
2onditions "or 2areer and !o2ational guidan2e+ 9it) arti2ular re"eren2e
to ro(oting t)e oortunities o" 9o(en in rural as 9ell as ur3an
en!iron(ents& T)e Arti2le is detailed+ as it ela3orates an edu2ational
2ulture t)at does not oerate on t)e ro!ision o" une-ual and searate
standards& $aragra) C3D t)us se2i"ies t)at 9o(en (ust )a!e a22ess to
t)e sa(e re(ises+ "a2ilities+ tea2)ers and 2urri2ula as (enE later
aragra)s stress t)at t)ere (ust also 3e e-ual a22ess to grants+ and
oortunities "or )ysi2al edu2ation& Arti2le .: also ela3orates t)e need
AA!i
to 3rea' do9n stereotyi2al ideas a3out t)e role o" 9o(en in edu2ation&
T)us+ state arties (ust 9or' to9ards7
IT)e eli(ination o" any stereotyed 2on2et o" t)e roles o" (en and
9o(en at all le!els and in all "or(s o" edu2ation 3y en2ouraging
2oedu2ation and ot)er tyes o" edu2ation 9)i2) 9ill )el to a2)ie!e t)is
ai( and+ in arti2ular+ 3y t)e re!ision o" teAt3oo's and s2)ool
rogra((es and t)e adatation o" tea2)ing (et)ods+F
Anot)er 3road oli2y goal is se2i"ied at ara& C"D& State arties (ust
9or' to9ards t)e Kredu2tion o" "e(ale student dro6out rates and t)e
organisation o" rogra((es "or girls and 9o(en 9)o )a!e le"t s2)ool
re(aturelyF& In ot)er 9ords+ states (ust (a'e a se2ial e""ort to
2ounter t)e ressures on girls to lea!e edu2ation& Ba(ily lanning is also
(ade art o" t)is general aroa2) to edu2ation in aragra) C)D&
Art!$% .. (o!es "ro( edu2ation rig)ts to e(loy(ent rig)ts& T)e
Arti2le re6states t)e 3asi2 ro)i3ition on dis2ri(ination+ and t)en goes
on+ at . CaD to assert t)e rig)t to 9or' as Ian inaliena3le rig)t o" all
)u(an 3eingsF& T)is assertion relies on t)e "a2t t)at 9or' is itsel" t)e
a22ess to 2i!i2 status+ and a 9age in turn s)ould allo9 t)e generation o"
ersonal resour2es& To 3e "or2e"ully deri!ed o" t)e oortunity to 9or'
is to 3e deri!ed o" t)e 3ene"its t)at 2o(e 9it) 9or'ing& Histori2ally+
and in t)e resent day+ re!enting 9o(en "ro( 9or'ing+ or "ro(
9or'ing in se2i"i2 se2tors or "ields+ 9as and is e""e2ti!e in li(iting li"e
oortunities and (aintaining t)e su3ordinate status o" 9o(en& Arti2le
.. is t)en se2i"i2 a3out )o9 e(loy(ent rig)ts are to 3e rote2ted&
T)ese (et)ods in2lude Kt)e ali2ation o" t)e sa(e 2riteria "or sele2tion
in (atters o" e(loy(ent+ and at C2D+ t)e rig)t to 2)oi2e o" ro"ession+
ro(otion+ jo3 se2urity and all t)e 3ene"its in2idental to e(loy(ent&
#(loy(ent rig)ts are "urt)er se2i"ied to in2lude t)e rig)t to e-ual
re(uneration CdD+ t)e rig)t to so2ial se2urity CeD+ and t)e rig)t to sa"e
9or'ing 2onditions CtD& T)e se2ond art o" t)e Arti2le 2on2erns t)e
e(loy(ent rig)ts o" regnant 9o(en& $aragra) 2CaD ro)i3its
dis2ri(ination on t)e grounds o" regnan2y or (aternity lea!eE C3D
(a'es it a duty o" state arties to ro!ide Kt)e ne2essary suorting
so2ial ser!i2es to ena3le arents to 2o(3ine "a(ily o3ligations 9it)
9or' resonsi3ilities and arti2iation in u3li2 li"eF& $aragra) CdD
states t)at se2ial rote2tion (ust 3e ro!ided "or regnant 9o(en at
9or'& T)e t)ird art o" t)e Arti2le (andates a re!ie9 o" legislation in
t)e Kt)e lig)t o" s2ienti"i2 and te2)nologi2al 'no9ledgeF&
Art!$% .2 guarantees e-ual a22ess to )ealt) 2are "or 9o(en and (en+
as 9ell as re-uiring state arties to Iensure to 9o(en aroriate
ser!i2es in 2onne2tion 9it) regnan2y+ 2on"ine(ent and t)e ost6natal
eriod+ granting "ree ser!i2es 9)ere ne2essary+ as 9ell as ade-uate
nutrition during regnan2y and la2tationF&
AA!ii
Wo(enFs rig)ts are distin2ti!e to t)e eAtent t)at t)ey re2ognise t)e
se2ial )ealt) 2are needs o" 9o(enE indeed+ t)is is one i(ortant area
9)ere 9o(en di""er "ro( (en& T)ese are outlined as t)e 3iologi2al
"a2tors t)at relate to 9o(enKs rerodu2ti!e role+ and also t)e K)ig)er ris'
o" eAosure to seAually trans(itted diseases t)at 9o(en "a2eK& ,ut t)ese
di""eren2es are not just 3iologi2al7
2D so2io6e2ono(i2 "a2tors t)at !ary "or 9o(en in general and so(e
grous o" 9o(en in arti2ular& Bor eAa(le+ une-ual o9er
relations)is 3et9een 9o(en and (en in t)e )o(e and
9or'la2e (ay negati!ely a""e2t 9o(enKs nutrition and )ealt)&
T)ey (ay also 3e eAosed to di""erent "or(s o" !iolen2e 9)i2)
2an a""e2t t)eir )ealt)& Girl 2)ildren and adoles2ent girls are o"ten
!ulnera3le to seAual a3use 3y older (en and &"a(ily (e(3ers+
la2ing t)e( at ris' o" )ysi2al and sy2)ologi2al )ar( and
un9anted and early regnan2y& So(e 2ultural or traditional
ra2ti2es su2) as "e(ale genital (utilation also 2arry a )ig) ris'
o" deat) and disa3ility&
@D C999 &o)2)r &org/ englis)/ a3out/u3li2ations/ do2sD
It (ay also 3e t)e 2ase t)at 9o(en (ay 3e deterred "ro( see'ing
(edi2al ad!i2e in relation to 2ontra2etion+ a3ortion or 9)en !i2ti(s o"
seAual or )ysi2al !iolen2e+ 3e2ause o" t)e stig(a so(eti(es atta2)ed to
su2) (atters&
Art!$% ./ "urt)er ela3orates t)e ro)i3ition on dis2ri(ination in
relation to Ke2ono(i2 and so2ial li"eK& More se2i"i2ally+ 9o(en and (en
(ust )a!e e-ual a22ess to7 "a(ily 3ene"its+ t)e rig)t to 3an' loans and
2redit+ and t)e rig)t to arti2iate in 2ultural li"e& T)is Arti2le see(s
so(e9)at underde!eloed& T)e a22ess to "inan2e+ loan "a2ilities and
2redit is in2reasingly i(ortant to t)e stru2ture o" t)e 2onte(orary
so2ial 9orld in 3ot) t)e de!eloed and t)e de!eloing 9orld& Bor
instan2e+ one 2an only run a 3usiness i" one 2an a22ess 2redit "a2ilities& It
is so(e9)at strange t)at t)e rig)t to 9or'+ and t)e rig)t to edu2ation
C"or eAa(leD are so eAli2itly resented+ 9)ereas t)e rig)t to "inan2ial
ser!i2es is so under6 de!eloed& $er)as t)is re"le2ts t)e situation at t)e
ti(e o" t)e dra"ting o" t)e Arti2leE t)is is one area 9)ere a (ore
t)oroug) arti2ulation o" t)e rig)t (ay 3e use"ul&
Art!$% .4 er)as addresses a reality t)at is (ore ressing in t)e li"e o"
9o(en in t)e de!eloing 9orld t)an t)e de!eloed 9orld+ as e2ono(ies
in t)e "or(er are less deendent on (ass e(loy(ent in agri2ulture t)an
t)e latter& T)e Arti2le la2es a duty on state arties to ta'e into a22ount
t)e Iarti2ular ro3le(s "a2ed 3y rural 9o(en and t)e signi"i2ant roles
AA!iii
9)i2) rural 9o(en lay in t)e e2ono(i2 sur!i!al o" t)eir "a(iliesF& T)is
(eans t)at se2ial regard (ust 3e )ad to 9o(enKs 9or' in t)e Inon6
(onetised se2tors o" t)e e2ono(yK& In ot)er 9ords+ 9o(en are
disroortionately reresented in in"or(al and unregulated areas o"
e2ono(y as a result o" t)eir su3ordinate status& T)e Arti2le goes on to
se2i"y o3je2ti!es t)at (ust 3e addressed& States $arties (ust 2o(3at
dis2ri(ination in rural areas+ and ensure t)at 9o(en K3ene"it "ro( rural
de!elo(entK& More se2i"i2ally+ 9o(en (ust 3e en2ouraged Kto
arti2iate in t)e ela3oration and i(le(entation o" de!elo(ent
lanning at all le!elsK& T)e rig)ts 2o!ered a3o!e in relation to edu2ation
and training are t)en re6iteratedE 3ut+ ot)er areas o" arti2iation are also
ela3orated& Bor instan2e+ 9o(en (ust 3e ena3led to Iorganise sel"6)el
grous and 2o6oerati!es in order to o3tain e-ual a22ess to e2ono(i2
oortunities t)roug) e(loy(ent or sel" e(loy(entF& Arti2le .@ is
t)en reeated in a slig)tly re!ised !ersion7 9o(en (ust 3e ena3led to
K)a!e a22ess to agri2ultural 2redit and loans+ (ar'eting "a2ilities+
aroriate te2)nology and e-ual treat(ent in land and agrarian re"or(
as 9ell as in land resettle(ent s2)e(esF& T)e "inal aragra) se2i"ies
t)at 9o(en (ust also Ienjoy ade-uate li!ing 2onditions+ arti2ularly in
relation to )ousing+ sanitation+ ele2tri2ity and 9ater suly+ transort
and 2o((uni2ationsF&
P#rt IV
$art I1 addresses t)e legal and so2ial status o" 9o(en&
Art!$% .0 addresses t)e e-uality o" (en and 9o(en 3e"ore t)e la9&
T)e se2ond aragra) re-uires state arties to ro!ide identi2al legal
2aa2ity to 9o(en and (en in 2i!il (atters7 Kin arti2ular+ t)ey s)all
gi!e 9o(en e-ual rig)ts to 2on2lude 2ontra2ts and to ad(inister
roerty and s)all treat t)e( e-ually in all stages o" ro2edure in 2ourts
and tri3unalsK& As a 2orollary o" t)is+ state arties (ust ensure t)at all
2ontra2ts and ot)er ri!ate legal do2u(ents t)at deri!e 9o(en o"
2aa2ity are null and !oid+ and (ust ensure t)at (en and 9o(en )a!e
t)e sa(e rig)ts o" (o!e(ent+ residen2e and do(i2ile& T)is oint )as
3een (ade 3e"ore+ 3ut it is 9ort) reeating& T)e guarantee o" lega.
2aa2ity is a 2entra. )u(an rig)tE indeed+ a 2ase 2ould 3e (ade "or it
3eing t)e essentia. )u(an rig)t& I" anyt)ing+ a )u(an rig)t eAresses
t)e 2onjun2tion o" )u(anity 9it) lega. 2aa2ity& To 3e deri!ed o"
)u(anity is to 3e2o(e rig)t6less+ to )a!e no lega. 2aa2ity& T)us+
)u(an rig)ts (ust+ at 3ase+ assert an essentia. 2onne2tion 3et9een
)u(an 3eing and t)e 2i!i2 identity t)at t)e la9 ena3les&
Art!$% .@ ela3orates t)is notion o" e-ua. rig)ts and legal 2aa2ity in
relation to a se2i"i2 area o" la97 (arriage and di!or2e&
AAiA
*is2ri(ination against 9o(en (ust 3e eli(inated in t)ese areas 3y
ro!iding 9o(en and (en 9it) t)e sa(e rig)ts to enter into (arriage
9it) "ree 2onsent and 3y (aintaining a legal syste( t)at gi!es (en and
9o(en t)at sa(e rig)ts during (arriage and in t)e e!ent o" its
dissolution& T)is 9ould a.so 2o!er rig)ts o!er 2)ildren+ irrese2ti!e o"
(arita. status+ in2luding rig)ts o!er guardians)i+ 9ard6s)i+ trustees)i
and adotion o" 2)ildren& T)e last aragra) o" t)e Arti2le is interesting
as it suggests an essentia.lin' 3et9een t)e rig)ts o" 9o(en and
2)ildren7 Kt)e 3etrot)al and t)e (arriage o" a 2)ild s)a.l )a!e no lega.
e""e2t+ and a.l ne2essary a2tion+ in2luding legislation+ s)a.l 3e ta'en to
se2i"y a (ini(u( age "or (arriage and to (a'e t)e registration o"
(arriages in an o""i2ial registry 2o(ulsoryF&
P#rt V
$art 1 o" C#*AW (o!es "ro( su3stanti!e rig)ts to 2ertain institutiona.
and ro2edura. 2on2erns&
Art!$% .A sets u t)e Co((ittee on t)e #li(ination o" *is2ri(ination
against Wo(en sta""ed 3y KeAerts o" )ig) (ora. standing and
2o(eten2e in t)e "ield 2o!ered 3y t)e Con!entionK& #le2ted 3y states
arties "ro( a(ong t)eir nationa.s in a se2ret 3a.lot+ and ser!ing in a
ersona. 2aa2ity C2onsideration 3eing& gi!en to 3ot) geogra)i2a.
distri3ution and to t)e reresentation o" Idi""erent "or(s o" 2i!iliHation
as 9ell as t)e rin2iallega. syste(sFD+ t)e (e(3ers o" t)e Co((ittee
are e(o9ered+ 3y
Art!$% .B+ to 2onsider reorts su3(itted to t)e( 3y t)e Se2retary6
Genera. o" t)e United Nations& T)ese reorts (ust 2o!er It)e
legislati!e+ judi2ia.+ ad(inistrati!e or ot)er (easuresF t)at states arties
K)a!e adoted to gi!e e""e2t to t)e ro!isions o" t)e resent Con!entionK&
States arties (ust also reort on t)e rogress t)ey )a!e (ade in
i(le(enting t)e C#*AW&
Art!$% 2. goes on to detail t)e o9ers and duties o" t)e Co((ittee&
Reorting annua.ly t)roug) t)e #2ono(i2 and So2ial Coun2il to t)e
Genera. Asse(3ly+ t)e Co((ittee (a'es re2o((endations 3ased on
t)e reorts t)at )a!e 3een su3(itted 3y states arties& In turn+ t)e
Se2retaty6Genera. trans(its t)e reorts o" t)e Co((ittee to t)e
Co((ission on t)e Status o" Wo(en "or its in"or(ation&
Art!$% 22 e(o9ers It)e se2ialised agen2iesF to (a'e reorts to t)e
Co((ittee&
$art 1I o" C#*AW 2on2erns itsel" 9it) a nu(3er o" te2)ni2a. (atters
9)i2) 9ill not 3e dis2ussed )ere&
AAA
Under Art!$% 2C o" C#*AW+ t9o or (ore state arties 2an re"er
disutes a3out t)e interretation and i(le(entation o" C#*AW to
ar3itration+ and i" t)e disute is not settled+ it 2an 3e re"erred to t)e
International Court o" %usti2e& T)is ro2edure is su3je2t to a large
nu(3er o" reser!ations and )as ne!er 3een used&
Add!t!on#$ En2or%'%nt M%"#n!&'&
In .;;4+ t)e Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts 2reated+ 3y resolution
.;;4/44+ t)e ost o" se2ial raorteur on 1iolen2e Against Wo(en+
and 2reated ro2edures 9)ere3y in"or(ation 2ould 3e o3tained "ro(
go!ern(ents on 2ases 2on2erning alleged !iolen2e against 9o(en&
It is also 9ort) re(e(3ering t)at (e2)anis(s under di""erent treaties
(ay 3e e(loyed& Co((uni2ations 2ould 3e (ade under t)e "irst
Otional $roto2ol to t)e ICC$R& Co((uni2ations 2on2erning la9s t)at
dis2ri(inate against 9o(en 2ould 3e (ade under t)is $roto2ol and 3y
re"eren2e to Arti2le 20 o" t)e ICC$R&
T)is ro!ides t)at (en and 9o(en are e-ual 3e"ore t)e la9+ and t)at t)e
la9 (ust guarantee e""e2ti!e rote2tion against dis2ri(ination& T)is
ro2edure 9as used in ,roe's ! Net)erlands .<2/.;=49)ere a *ut2)
Une(loy(ent ,ene"its A2t 9as su22ess"ully 2)allenged on grounds o"
dis2ri(ination&
T)e (e2)anis( t)at 9e 2onsidered in C)ater 4+ t)e .4:@
$ro2edure o" t)e Co((ission o" Hu(an Rig)ts+ (ay also 3e used&
*is2ri(ination or !iolen2e against 9o(en (ay also "all under Arti2le
.4 o" T)e Con!ention on t)e #li(ination o" All Bor(s o" Ra2ial
*is2ri(ination+ or Arti2le 22 o" t)e T)e Con!ention Against Torture
and Ot)er Cruel+ In)u(an or *egrading Treat(ent or $unis)(ent&
An#$-&!& o2 R!,"t& !n CEDAW #nd Ot"%r
Hu'#n R!,"t& In&tru'%nt&
It is 9ort) noting t)at (ore states )a!e (ade reser!ations to t)is treaty
t)an to any ot)er )u(an rig)ts treaty& W)at does t)is suggest a3out t)e
resistan2e to 9o(enKs rig)ts at a state le!elJ
$ages .=.6.=4 o" Steiner and Alston 2ontain an interesting analysis o"
rig)ts and duties+ and 9e 9ill eAa(ine t)is in det)&
T)e 2o((ent on t)e state duties oints out t)at )u(an rig)ts la9 )as
(ade a distin2tion 3et9een ositi!e and negati!e rig)ts& It is 9ort)
re(e(3ering t)at all rig)ts 2orrelate 9it) duties to (a'e sense o" t)is
AAAi
analysis& ?ou (ig)t also 9ant to loo' again at C)ater @ o" t)is su3je2t
guide+ 9)ere 9e 2onsidered t)e legal nature o" rig)ts& Negati!e rig)ts
la2e a duty on t)e state not to inter"ere in 2ertain areas 9)ere
indi!iduals )a!e rig)ts& $ositi!e rig)ts la2e a ositi!e duty on t)e state7
t)e duty to do so(et)ing+ su2) as ro!iding "ood& So2ial and e2ono(i2
rig)ts "ell into t)is latter 2ategory& T)e 2lassi2 2i!il li3erties+ "or t)e (ost
art+ "all into t)e "or(er 2ategory& Ho9e!er+ to 9)at eAtent is t)is
distin2tion use"ulJ I" one re(e(3ers t)at rig)ts de!elo o!er ti(e+ t)en
a negati!e duty (erely not to inter"ere+ 2an 3e2o(e a ositi!e duty to
"a2ilitate an area o" a2ti!ity7 to en2ourage "ree see2)+ "or instan2e&
R%&7%t 2or t"% r!,"t& o2 ot"%r&
T)is 9as a good eAa(le o" a 3asi2 negati!e duty la2ed on t)e state& It
is a 3asi2 )u(an rig)ts notion+ laying do9n a "unda(ental standard t)at
2ould e!en eAtend 3eyond t)e state to ri!ate arties& To t)e eAtent t)at
a state s)ould ensure ri!ate arties rese2t t)e rig)ts o" ot)ers+ a
negati!e duty )as turned into a ositi!e duty&
T"% r%#t!on o2 !n&t!tut!on#$ '#"!n%r-
T)ere are (any ro!isions in 3ot) t)e *e2laration and C#*AW t)at
re-uire t)e ro!ision o" 2ertain institutions7 a !oting syste(+ or an
indeendent legal syste(+ "or instan2e& T)is is a ositi!e duty la2ed on
a stateE it 9ould 3e )ard to t)in' o" it as a negati!e duty si(ly not to
inter"ere&
T"% dut- to 7rot%t r!,"t& #nd 7r%*%nt *!o$#t!on&
On2e again t)e stri2t negati!e/ositi!e distin2tion tends to 3rea' do9n
)ere& T)e duty to rote2t rig)ts (eans t)at a state (ust not inter"ere+ i&e&
)as a negati!e dutyE 3ut t)e duty to re!ent !iolations is ositi!e as it
re-uires t)e 2reation o" a oli2e "or2e and a legal syste(&
Pro*!d% ,ood& #nd &%r*!%& to &#t!&2- r!,"t&
Wel"are rig)ts 9)i2) in!ol!e state eAenditure are good eAa(les o"
ositi!e duties7 t)e state )as to ro!ide institutions and resour2es+ a
)ealt) ser!i2e+ "or instan2e&
Pro'ot!on o2 r!,"t&
Anot)er ositi!e duty+ "or reasons si(ilar to t)ose stated a3o!e&
It 9ould see(+ t)en+ t)at a stri2t distin2tion 3et9een ositi!e and
negati!e rig)ts is not use"ul& Indeed+ t)e eAtra2t "ro( t)e arti2le 3y
Ni2'el+ suggests t)at one needs a (ore so)isti2ated 9ay o"
understanding t)e 2o(leA nature o" rig)ts& Consider t)e ro)i3ition o"
torture Cor indeed+ t)e ro)i3ition o" dis2ri(ination in t)e 2onteAt o"
AAAii
C#*AWD& T)e duty to re"rain "ro( an a2t is uni!ersal and general6 it is
addressed to 3ot) state and non6state 3odies& Ho9e!er+ an Kade-uate
resonse to t)e 2lai( to "reedo( "ro( torture also re-uires "inding
indi!iduals or institutions t)at 2an rote2t eole against tortureF C.=4D&
T)is ositi!e duty is not ne2essarily uni!ersal& It is only 3inding on
t)ose states or institutions t)at 2an (o3iliHe t)e ne2essary resour2es&
Ni2'el t)en (a'es a "urt)er distin2tion 3et9een t)e ri(ary addressees+
i&e& t)e state in our eAa(le+ and se2ondary addressees 9)o 3ear
Ise2ondary or 3a2' u resonsi3ilitiesF&
T)us+ t)e eole at large in a 2ountry+ and also international agen2ies+
are se2ondary addressees 3e2ause t)ey o9e duties to assist+ en2ourage
and ressure go!ern(ents to re"rain "ro( torture C.=0D& T)e oint o" t)is
analysis is to 2lari"y t)e sense in 9)i2) rig)ts are al9ays lin'ed 9it)
dutiesE and duties 2an "all on di""erent 3odies&
.& In 9)at 9ays 2ould C#*AW 3e en"or2edJ
F%'!n!&t Cr!t!!&'& o2 CEDAW
Be(inist 2riti-ues o" t)e Uni!ersal *e2laration )a!e (ade a nu(3er o"
oints& T)ere )a!e 3een 2riti2is(s o" Arti2le .0 3e2ause it !alorisesa
notion o" t)e "a(ily t)at is 3ot) un2lear+ and+ in relation to Arti2le 24C2D+
ill t)oug)t out& One issue t)at t)e *e2laration does not 2o!er ade-uately
is t)e rig)ts o" t)e a3used 2)ild+ or e!en t)e a3used 9i"e against t)e
"a(ily& Ot)er 2riti2is(s o" t)e ICC$R raise t)e issue t)at t)e reorting
syste( does not deal roerly 9it) !iolations o" 9o(enKs rig)ts&
Criti2is(s o" C#*AW address t)e "a2t t)at it )as led to a Ig)ettoisationF
o" 9o(enKs rig)ts issues& Burt)er(ore+ in 2o(arison 9it) ot)er )u(an
rig)ts 3odies+ t)e en"or2e(ent (e2)anis( under C#*AW is oorly
"unded&
Are t)ese 2riti2is(s "airJ Clearly any assess(ent o" t)ese 2lai(s 9ould
deend on a derailed study o" t)e reorts under t)e ICC$RE it 9ould also
3e ne2essary& to loo' at t)e "igures "or t)e 3udget o" !arious UN
agen2ies 3e"ore one 2ould assess t)e 2lai( t)at C#*AW is under6
"unded& One 9ould also )a!e to 3ear in (ind gender (ainstrea(ing+ and
ot)er re2ent de!elo(ents 3e"ore one 2ould (a'e an o!erall assess(ent
o" t)ese 2lai(s&
Su''#r-
In t)is se2tion 9e )a!e loo'ed at t)e su3sranti!e rig)ts 2ontained in
C#*AW& We )a!e also 2onsidered t)e en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s t)at
eAist under t)e treaty& We t)en turned to a (ore "or(al analysis o"
AAAiii
rig)ts+ and atte(ted to analyse t)e 2o(leA interlay 3et9een rig)ts
and duties&
o T"% O7t!on#$ Protoo$
C#*AW also )as an otional roto2ol& Its Arti2les+ so "ar as t)ey
2on2ern us+ are eAlained 3elo9&
@8.8. W"- 3#& t"%r% # N%%d 2or #n O7t!on#$
Protoo$D
T)e Otional $roto2ol to C#*AW 9as 3ased on 2o((it(ents (ade in
t)e 1ienna *e2laration in .;;@ and t)e .;;4 Bourt) Con"eren2e on
Wo(en& It 9as 2reated 3y a resolution o" t)e General Asse(3ly& T)e
roto2ol 3egins 3y asserting t)e 2o(eten2e o" t)e Co((ittee on t)e
#li(ination o" *is2ri(ination against Wo(en to re2ei!e and 2onsider
2o((uni2ations in a22ordan2e 9it) Art!$% 2&
Art!$% 2 ro!ides t)at 2o((uni2ations (ay 3e su3(itted 3y or on
3e)al" o" indi!iduals or grous o" indi!iduals 9)o are 2lai(ing to 3e
!i2ti(s o" a !iolation o" Con!ention rig)ts& Art!$% / se2i"ies t)at
2o((uni2ations (ust 3e in 9riting and 2annot 3e anony(ous&
Co((uni2ation 2an only 3e re2ei!ed 3y t)e Co((ittee i" t)e
2o((uni2ation 2on2erns a state arty t)at is a signatory to t)e $roto2ol&
In ot)er 9ords+ t)e Co((ittee 9ould not 3e a3le to 2onsider a
2o((uni2ation i" it 2a(e "ro( an indi!idual or a grou "ro( a state
arty t)at 9as a signatory to t)e Con!ention+ 3ut not t)e $roto2ol&
Art!$% 4 states t)at t)e Co((ittee 9ill only 2onsider a 2o((uni2ation
i" it 2an (a'e sure t)at all a!aila3le do(esti2 re(edies )a!e 3een
eA)austed& T)ere is an eA2etion to t)is rule& A 2o((uni2ation 2ould 3e
2onsidered i" all do(esti2 re(edies )ad not 3een eA)austed+ 3ut+ t)e
ali2ation o" su2) re(edies 9as su3je2t to an unreasona3ly delayE or
indeed+ it 9as unli'ely t)at t)e a!aila3le re(edy 9ould 3e e""e2ti!e&
T)ere are ot)er grounds o" inad(issi3ility7
T)e Co((ittee s)all de2lare a 2o((uni2ation inad(issi3le 9)ere7
CaD T)e sa(e (atter )as already 3een eAa(ined 3y t)e Co((ittee or
)as 3een or is 3eing eAa(ined under anot)er ro2edure o"
international in!estigation or settle(entE
C3D It is in2o(ati3le 9it) t)e ro!isions o" t)e Con!entionE
C2D It is (ani"estly ill6"ounded or not su""i2iently su3stantiatedE CdD It
is an a3use o" t)e rig)t to su3(it a 2o((uni2ationE
AAAi!
CeD T)e "a2ts t)at are t)e su3je2t o" t)e 2o((uni2ation o22urred
rior to t)e entry into "or2e o" t)e resent $roto2ol "or t)e State
$arty 2on2erned unless t)ose "a2ts 2ontinued a"ter t)at date&
Art!$% 0 e(o9ers t)e Co((ittee to re-uest a state arty to ta'e
interi( (easures 9)ilst a 2o((uni2ation is 3eing 2onsidered& T)ese
(easures (ust re!ent Kirreara3le da(age to t)e !i2ti( or !i2ti(s o"
t)e alleged !iolationK& T)is does not aly+ )o9e!er+ 9)en t)e
Co((ittee is (erely 2onsidering t)e ad(issi3ility o" a 2o((uni2ation&
Interi( (easures t)us only 3e2o(e a!aila3le on2e a 2o((uni2ation )as
3een de2lared ad(issi3le&
Art!$% @ (a'es it a 2ondition o" t)e Co((ittee 3ringing a
2o((uni2ation to t)e attention o" t)e state arty 2on2erned
C2on"identiallyD t)at t)e 2o(lainants 2onsent to t)e dis2losure o" t)eir
o9n identity& On2e t)e state arty )as re2ei!ed t)e 2o((uni2ation+ it
)as siA (ont)s to su3(it to t)e Co((ittee I9ritten eAlanations or
state(ents 2lari"ying t)e (atter and t)e re(edy+ i" any+ t)at (ay )a!e
3een ro!ided 3y t)at State artyF&
Art!$% A stresses t)e 2on"idential nature o" t)e ro2eedings 3e"ore t)e
Co((ittee& Arti2le < ara& 4 ro!ides t)at on2e t)e state arty )as
re2ei!ed t)e !ie9s o" t)e Co((ittee+ it )as siA (ont)s to ro!ide a
9ritten resonse+ t)at se2i"ies any a2tion ta'en in t)e lig)t o" t)e !ie9s
and re2o((endations o" t)e Co((ittee&
Art!$% B allo9s t)e Co((ittee to 2ondu2t an in-uiry and to reort
urgently to t)e Co((ittee 9)ere t)ere is e!iden2e o" Igra!e or
syste(ati2 !iolations 3y a State artyF& Su2) an in-uiry (ay in!ol!e a
!isit to t)e territory o" t)e state arty 2on2erned+ and results in a reort
to t)e Co((ittee+ 9)o in turn+ trans(its t)ese "indings to t)e State&
On2e t)e state arty )as re2ei!ed t)is reort+ it )as siA (ont)s to su3(it
its o3ser!ations to t)e Co((ittee& $aragra) C4D ro!ides t)at t)ese
in-uiries are 2on"idential+ and 2onsensual&
Art!$% C se2i"ies t)at a reort to t)e Co((ittee (ay 2ontain details o"
t)e (easures ta'en to resond to t)e issues raised 3y t)e in-uiry&
Art!$% .9 ro!ides t)at it is ossi3le to derogate Arti2les = and ;&
Art!$% .. is !ery ne2essary& It la2es a duty on state arties to ta'e Kall
aroriate stesK to (a'e sure t)at t)ose 2o((uni2ating 9it) t)e
Co((ittee are not ill6treated&
@8.82 W"#t !& t"% Ro$% o2 t"% O7t!#$ Protoo$D
AAA!
T)e Otional $roto2ol in2ludes t9o ro2edures7 t)e 2o((uni2ation
ro2edure and t)e in-uiry ro2edure& T)e 2o((uni2ation ro2edure
allo9s indi!iduals and grous to 2o(lain to t)e Co((ittee a3out
!iolations o" rig)ts& T)e in-uiry ro2edure ena3les in-uiries to 3e (ade
into gra!e or syste(ati2 a3uses o" )u(an rig)ts 3y eAerts&
Read Steiner and Alston+ &.==6.=;& T)is is an eAtra2t "ro( an arti2le
3y =yrnes t)at atte(ts to assess t)e 9or' o" t)e Co((ittee&
.& W)at are ,yrnesF (ain 2on2ernsJ
Steiner and Alston )a!e su((arised 2on2luding o3ser!ations "ro( t)e
Co((itteeKs t)ird and "ourt) eriodi2 reorts on C)ina on &.;.6.;4&
T)ere are also su((arised General Re2o((endations on .;462:2&
2& *o you t)in' t)at t)ey s)o9 t)e Co((ittee engaged in
2onstru2ti!e dialogueJ
A not% on ,%nd%r '#!n&tr%#'!n,
As 9e sa9 a3o!e+ t)e Co((issionKs (andate 9as to ro(ote t)e
rin2ile t)at (en and 9o(en )a!e e-ual rig)ts& Its role 9as to reare
re2o((endations and reorts "or t)e Coun2il on ro(oting 9o(enKs
rig)ts and to (a'e re2o((endations on urgent ro3le(s&
T)e Co((issionKs role 9as eAanded in .;=<+ and again in .;;4
"ollo9ing t)e Bourt) World Con"eren2e on Wo(en in ,eijing& T)e
Co((ission 9as tas'ed 9it) 3uilding on t)e ,eijing *e2laration and
t)e 2on2erns eAressed in t)e P$#t2or' 2or A2tion+ in2luding t)e
(ainstrea(ing o" gender erse2ti!es in t)e 9or' o" all UN agen2ies&
We need to 2onsider t)e $lat"or( "or A2tion+ and t)e idea o" gender
(ainstrea(ing in a little (ore detail&
T)e $lat"or( "or A2tion 3uilds on t)e reort o" t)e .;=4 Nairo3i
2on"eren2e on Wo(en& It 2alls "or a 2on2erted international e""ort to
ad!an2e t)e )u(an rig)ts o" 9o(en+ and a so2ial justi2e agenda+ 9)i2)
in turn re6a""ir(s t)e 2entral rin2ile o" t)e 1ienna *e2laration and
$rogra((e o" A2tion t)at 9o(enFs and girlsF rig)ts are 2entral to
)u(an rig)ts& T)e $lat"or( "or A2tion also re2ognises t)at (en and
9o(en s)ould 9or' toget)er to a2)ie!e t)ese ends& C)tt7//999&un&org/
9o(en9at2)/da9/3eijing/lat"o(l/lat.&)t (D
AAA!i
T)e $lat"or( "or A2tion is lin'ed to t)e ra2ti2e o" gender
(ainstrea(ing& Ho9 2an one understand t)is latter ter(J
Mainstrea(ing a gender erse2ti!e is t)e ro2ess o" assessing t)e
i(li2ations "or 9o(en and (en o" any lanned a2tion+ in2luding
legislation+ oli2ies or rogra((es+ in all areas and at all le!els& It is a
strategy "or (a'ing 9o(enKs as 9ell as (enKs 2on2erns and eAerien2es
an integral di(ension o" t)e design+ i(le(entation+ (onitoring and
e!aluation o" oli2ies and rogra((es in all oliti2al+ e2ono(i2 and
so2ietal s)eres so t)at 9o(en and (en 3ene"it e-ually and ine-uality is
not eretuated& T)e ulti(ate goat is to a2)ie!e gender e-uality&
C)tt7//WW9&un&orgi9o(en9at2ll/da9/2s9/g(s&dtD
T)e General Asse(3ly 9as en2ouraged to dire2t t)e 3odies and
2o((ittees o" t)e UN syste( to (a'e a gender erse2ti!e art o" all
t)eir 9or'& $arti2ular attention 9as dra9n to (a2roe2ono(i2 issues+
de!elo(ent a2ti!ities+ o!erty eradi2ation+ )u(an rig)ts+ )u(anitarian
assistan2e and legal and oliti2al (atters&
On2e 9e turn "ro( t)e la9 o" t)e treaties to t)e issue o" t)e
i(le(entation o" 9o(enKs rig)ts+ 9e 2an are2iate t)e 2o(leA issues
o" 2ulture and tradition t)at t)is raises& We 9ill no9 loo' at t9o initial
2ountry reorts in an atte(t to deter(ine 9)at is at sta'e in t)e
i(le(entation o" 9o(enKs rig)ts&
So in su((ary+ gender (ainstrea(ing ai(s to (a'e gender issues "ar
(ore 2entral to t)e 9or' o" t)e UN Cand 9it)in t)e UN itsel"D&
@8.8/ C#&% Stud-: S!n,#7or%
T)e Reu3li2 o" Singaore 3e2a(e a signatory to C#*AW in .;;4& In
t)e initial reort su3(itted under Arti2le .=+ t)e go!ern(ent o"
Singaore outlined t)e stes t)e 2ountry 9as ta'ing to )onour its
o3ligations under t)e treaty& T)e reort ointed out t)e (ulti6 2ultural
nature o" Singaore& O" a oulation o" a3out @&. (illion Cas at %une
.;;<D+ <<&.4 er 2ent 9ere C)inese+ .4&.. er 2ent 9ere Malays+ <&4:
er 2ent 9ere Indians and t)e re(aining .&@4 er 2ent 9ere "ro( t)e
ot)er et)ni2 grous& In ter(s o" religious "ait)7 @.&; er 2ent are
,udd)ists+ 2.&; er 2ent Taoists+ .4&: er 2ent Musli(s+ .2&; er 2ent
C)ristians and @&@ er 2ent Hindus&
AAA!ii
T)is (ulti6ra2ial 2o(osition in"luen2es t)e legal syste(& Ci!il la9
alies to non6Musli(s+ 9)ile t)e Ad(inistration o" Musli( La9 A2t
CAMLAD alies to Musli(s& Re2ognising t)eir duties under Arti2le .2+
t)e go!ern(ent ointed out t)at t)e Constitution guarantees e-uality
3e"ore t)e la9& At a oli2y le!el+ e-ual oortunity 3ased on (erit is
2entral& #!iden2e o" t)e rogress (ade in Singaore is ro!ided 3y t)e
UN*$ Hu(an *e!elo(ent Reort o" .;;<+ 9)i2) states t)at
Singaore 9as one o" t)e 2ountries t)at )ad Ksu22eeded in en)an2ing t)e
3asi2 )u(an 2aa3ilities o" 3ot) 9o(en and (enK& 1arious oli2y and
legislati!e initiati!es )a!e 3een (ade to "urt)er re2ognise 9o(enKs
rig)ts& T)ese in2lude !arious rogra((es relating to Arti2le .. su2) as
2)ild 2are "or 9or'ing (ot)ers and ro!isions to sa"eguard t)e interest
o" an6ti(e 9or'ersE initiati!es under Arti2le .2 su2) as ro!ision o"
)ealt) ser!i2es "or 9o(en and older 9o(enE ro!ision o" ser!i2es "or
elder 9o(en and disa3led 9o(en under Arti2les @ and .2E and taA
in2enti!es "or (arried 9o(en under Arti2le .@&
T)ese ad!an2es )a!e to 3e read alongside t)e reser!ations (ade 3y
Singaore to t)e Treaty& Reser!ations )a!e 3een (ade to Arti2les 2 and
.0& T)ese Arti2les re-uire t)e (odi"i2ation or a3olition o" la9s and
2usto(s t)at are dis2ri(inatory& T)ese reser!ations )a!e 3een ta3led
3e2ause Arti2les o" t)e Singaore Constitution guarantee t)e rig)ts o"
(inorities in ersonal and religious la9& $ro!isions under t)e
Ad(inistration o" Musli( La9 A2t CAMLAD are ro3a3ly not 2onsistent
9it) t)e C#*AW& T)ese 9ould in2lude t)e rig)t o" Musli( (en to
(arry "our 9i!es+ 3ut not t)e rig)t o" a Musli( 9o(an to (arry "our
)us3ands& T)e go!ern(ent o" Singaore argues t)at it is ne2essary to
(aintain t)ese la9s to reser!e a (ulti62ultural so2iety& T)ere are also
reser!ations "ro( Arti2le ;+ in relation to t)e e-ual rig)ts o" 9o(en and
(en to deter(ine t)e nationality o" t)eir 2)ildren& T)is is 3e2ause it7
is ne2essary to ensure t)at our i((igration oli2y re(ains in line 9it)
our Asian tradition 9)ere )us3ands are t)e )eads o" )ouse)olds&F A
reser!ation )as also 3een (ade in relation to Arti2le 2;+ 9)i2) re-uires
ar3itration on any disute 2on2erning t)e interretation o" t)e
Con!ention 9)i2) 2annot 3e settled 3y negotiation& Reser!ations )a!e
3een (ade )ere to K(aintain SingaoreKs rig)t to its do(esti2 oli2ies&
SingaoreFs Initial Reort to t)e UN Co((ittee "or t)e Con!ention on
t)e #li(ination o" All Bor(s o" *is2ri(ination Against Wo(en
CSingaore7 Ministry o" Co((unity *e!elo(ent+ 2:::D&
W)at general i(ression o" t)e en"or2e(ent o" 9o(enKsK rig)ts is
suggested 3y t)e reort "ro( SingaoreJ
AAA!iii
@8.84 C#&% Stud-: N!,%r!#
I" 9e turn to NigeriaKs 2ountry reort+ 9e 2an see t)at t)e issues raised
3y 9o(enKs rig)ts in A"ri2aKs (ost oulous nation are so(e9)at
di""erent "ro( t)ose in t)e Reu3li2 o" Singaore& Note+ "irst o" all+ t)at
9e are 2onsidering )ere t)e 2o(3ined "ourt) and "i"t) eriodi2 reorts
Cdo2u(ent C#*AW/C/NGN4:4D+ not t)e interi( reort+ as 9e did
a3o!e& In ot)er 9ords+ Nigeria )as 3een a signatory to C#*AW "or
longer t)an Singaore&
Nigeria )as rati"ied 3ot) C#*AW Cin .;=4D and t)e Otional $roto2ol
C.;;;D&
T)ere 9as general raise "or t)e ad!an2es t)at 9ere 3eing (ade in t)e
rote2tion and en)an2e(ent o" 9o(enKs rig)ts& #Aerts dre9 attention
to state la9s t)at )a!e ro)i3ited "e(ale genital (utilation+ early
(arriage and tra""i2'ing in 9o(en and 2)ildren& Legal aid ro!ision
9as also raisedE in arti2ular as it allo9ed one 9o(an+ Sa"iya Hussein+
9)o )ad 3een senten2ed to deat) 3y stoning "or adultery+ to aeal to
t)e So'oto State S)aria o" Aeal+ 9)i2) o!erturned t)e senten2e o" t)e
lo9er 2ourt& A (ajor oli2y initiati!e 9as also 2o(ing to t)e "ore& T)e
National $oli2y on Wo(en 9as intended to i(ro!e t)e ro"ile o"
9o(en in u3li2 li"e&
Ho9e!er+ t)ere 9ere ro"ound (isgi!ings a3out t)e oeration o" a
triartite legal syste( and a go!ernan2e ro2ess t)at i(eded t)e
i(le(entation o" oli2y& In Nigeria t)ere are t)ree legal syste(s in
oeration7 Isla(i2 S)aria la9+ 2usto(ary la9 and 2o((on la9&
T)e reason "or t)is is in art )istori2al+ 3ut ro3le(s o" 2o)eren2e
3et9een t)ese t)ree jurisdi2tions+ (a'e "or di""i2ulties in 2o((on
standard setting& T)e Nigerian Constitution does ro!ide "or "reedo(
"ro( dis2ri(ination+ 3ut+ (any states in t)e Nigerian "ederation re(ain
2o((itted to traditional gender roles t)at are "ro( t)e erse2ti!e o"
C#*AW dis2ri(inatory& Moreo!er+ t)ere are in2onsisten2ies 9it)in
legal traditions& Bor instan2e+ 9)ilst so(e ro!isions o" S)aria la9
ra2ti2ed in t)e nort)ern states o" Nigeria are not 2o(ati3le 9it)
C#*AW+ ot)er ro!isions are& An eAa(le 9ould 3e se2tion 2@; o" t)e
Oa("ara State S)aria $enal Code La9 2:::& T)is unis)es t)e
tra""i2'ing in 9o(en& As "ar as 2usto(ary la9 is 2on2erned+ an eAa(le
9as gi!en o" ra2ti2es in t)e Sout)ern states+ 9)ere ra2ti2es+ su2) as
9ido9)ood rites and in)eritan2e rig)ts re(ain dis2ri(inatory& T)ese
ro3le(s are eAa2er3ated 3y so2ial attitudes7
AAAiA
In (ost 2o((unities>& a di!or2ed or searated 9o(an is desised
regardless o" t)e 2ir2u(stan2es& T)e 9o(an is stig(atised and
3e2o(es so2ially !ulnera3le+ ese2ially in t)e eastern art o" t)e
2ountry& In nort)ern Nigeria+ searated or di!or2ed 9o(en 2an
(arry a"ter t)ree (ont)s and usually do& W)ile t)e (arriage age in
sout)ern Nigeria is 3et9een t)e ages o" .= and 2.+ in t)e nort) it is
3et9een t)e ages o" .2 and .4& In t)e Nort)ern art o" t)e 2ountry+
girls as young as nine+ deending on t)e onset o" u3erty+ are
allo9ed to (arry&
T)ere 9ere also ro3le(s 9it) roerty rig)ts& T)e reort details t)at
around ;: er 2ent o" registered land and roerties re(ain in (enKs
na(es& $roerty rig)ts are also 2o(li2ated 3y t)e triartite legal
syste(+ and 3y general ignoran2e o" t)e eAisten2e o" rig)ts and so2ial
eA2lusion&
So(e states in t)e sout) o" t)e 2ountry do not e!en allo9 9o(en to o9n
land and ot)er roerties7
Under 2usto(ary la9+ )o9e!er+ 9i!es re(ain as sla!es to t)eir
)us3ands and in6la9s& 4 Wido9s in sout)ern and eastern arts o"
Nigeria )a!e no rote2tion+ and t)eir rig)ts are seriously a3used&
Under t)e S)aria legal syste(+ 9ido9s are a22orded (ore rig)ts& I"
t)eir )us3ands die+ t)ey are allo9ed an in6)ouse 2o(ulsory
(ourning eriod o" "our (ont)s and .: days to deter(ine 9)et)er
t)ey are regnant& A"ter t)e 2o(ulsory (ourning eriod+ i" "ound
not regnant+ 9o(en are "ree to re(arry& Wido9s under t)e S)aria
la9 in)erit t)eir )us3andKs roerties toget)er 9it) t)eir 2)ildren&
.& W)at general i(ression o" t)e en"or2e(ent o" 9o(enKs rig)ts
are suggested 3y t)e reort "ro( NigeriaJ
2& Ho9 is t)e situation in Nigeria di""erent "ro( t)at in SingaoreJ
@82 D%$#r#t!on on t"% E$!'!n#t!on o2 V!o$%n% #,#!n&t
Wo'%n
C#*AW is silent on an eAli2it 2onde(nation o" !iolen2e against
9o(en+ alt)oug) t)e 2ore rin2iles o" t)e Treaty 2learly ro)i3it it&
T)e need to 2o(3at su2) ra2ti2es led in .;;@ to t)e General Asse(3ly
resolution& It 9as "elt &t)at t)is 9as ne2essary to 3uild on t)e rogra((e
announ2ed in Nairo3i+ to 2ounter t)e 9idesread use o" !iolen2e against
9o(en and to rodu2e a 2lear state(ent o" 9o(enKs rig)ts in t)is area&
Al
T)e resolution o" t)e General Asse(3ly t)at ro2lai(ed t)e *e2laration
e""e2ti!ely ut t)e 9)ole issue o" !iolen2e in 2onteAt& It asserted t)at
K!iolen2e against 9o(en is a (ani"estation o" )istori2ally une-ual o9er
relations 3et9een (en and 9o(enK+ and Kis one o" t)e 2ru2ial so2ial
(e2)aniHed 3y 9)i2) 9o(en are "or2ed into a su3ordinate osition
2o(ared 9it) (enK& 1iolen2e against 9o(en is all6er!asi!e& It (ay 3e
t)at 2ertain grous o" 9o(en su2) as t)ose K3elonging to (inority
grous+ indigenous 9o(en+ re"ugee 9o(en+ (igrant 9o(en+ 9o(en
li!ing in rural or re(ote 2o((unities+ destitute 9o(en+ 9o(en in
institutions or in detention+ "e(ale 2)ildren+ 9o(en 9it) disa3ilities+
elderly 9o(en and 9o(en in situations o" ar(ed 2on"li2t+ are ese2ially
!ulnera3le to !iolen2eK+ 3ut t)e issue o" !iolen2e against 9o(en K2ut
a2ross lines o" in2o(e+ 2lass and 2ultureK&
We 2an eAa(ine so(e o" t)e 'ey Arti2les&
Art!$% . 3egins 9it) a de"inition7 K!iolen2e against 9o(en (eans any
a2t o" gender63ased !iolen2e t)at results in+ or is li'ely to result in+
)ysi2al+ seAual or sy2)ologi2al )ar( or su""ering to 9o(en+ in2luding
t)reats o" su2) a2ts+ 2oer2ion or ar3itrary deri!ation o" li3erty+ 9)et)er
o22urring in u3li2 or in ri!ate li"eK& 1iolen2e is &t)us understood in a
3road sense 6it 2o!ers sy2)ologi2al as 9ell as )ysi2al )ar(+ and
in2ludes t)reats o" !iolen2e as 9ell& Note t)at it 2o!ers 3ot) u3li2 and
ri!ate li"e+ and so 9ould aly to do(esti2 !iolen2e as 9ell as !iolen2e
ta'ing la2e in t)e u3li2 s)ere& T)e de"inition is eAanded 3y arti2le 2
t)e "irst aragra) alies to !iolen2e ra2ti2ed against 9o(en in 9)at
2ould 3e seen as a ri!ate or at least "a(ily6oriented 2onteAt& T)us
!iolen2e against 9o(en in2ludes7
@ I$)ysi2al+ seAual and sy2)ologi2al !iolen2e o22urring in t)e "a(ily+
in2luding 3attering+ seAual a3use o" "e(ale 2)ildren in t)e
)ouse)old+ do9ry6related !iolen2e+ (arital rae+ "e(ale genital
(utilation and ot)er traditional ra2ti2es )and"ul to 9o(en+ non6
sousal !iolen2e and !iolen2e related to eAloitation&F
T)e se2ond aragra) (o!es a9ay "ro( t)is 2onteAt+ to 2onsider
!iolen2e in a 9ider Kso2ialK sense7
4 F$)ysi2al+ seAual and sy2)ologi2al !iolen2e o22urring 9it)in t)e
general 2o((unity+ in2luding rae+ seAual a3use+ seAual )arass(ent
and inti(idation at 9or'+ in edu2ational 6institutions and else9)ere+
tra""i2'ing in 9o(en and "or2ed rostitution&F
T)at !iolen2e 2an in2lude I)arass(ent and inti(idationK 3uilds on t)e
de"inition o" Arti2le .& T)us rostitution+ to t)e eAtent t)at it is "or2ed+
Ali
9ould 2onstitute !iolen2e against 9o(en& Consensual rostitution+ in
itsel"+ 9ould resu(a3ly not 2onstitute !iolen2e against 9o(en& T)e
t)ird aragra) addresses !iolen2e 2ondoned 3y t)e state7
4 I$)ysi2al+ seAual and sy2)ologi2al !iolen2e eretrated or
2ondoned 3y t)e State+ 9)ere!er it o22urs& A"ter Arti2le @+ 9)i2)
stresses t)e 2o)eren2e o" t)e *e2laration 9it) t)e International ,ill
o" Rig)ts+ Arti2le 4 returns to t)is 2on2ern 9it) t)e state&F
Art!$% 4 states t)at nations t)at are signatories to t)e *e2laration
s)ould 2onde(n !iolen2e against 9o(en+ and s)ould not use F2usto(+
tradition or religious 2onsiderationF to a!oid t)eir o3ligations 9it)
rese2t to its eli(ination& T)is duty eAtends "ar a 3eyond (erely
legislating against !iolen2e& One o" t)e ro3le(s 9it) en"or2e(ent o"
)u(an rig)ts nor(s is t)at (erely legislating is ne!er enoug)+ as
atterns o" so2ial 3e)a!iour )a!e to 3e 2)anged& T)us+ t)e Arti2le
ro!ides t)at states (ust7
0 I#Aer2ise due diligen2e to re!ent+ in!estigate and+ in a22ordan2e
9it) national legislation+ unis) a2ts o" !iolen2e against 9o(en+
9)et)er t)ose a2ts are eretrated 3y t)e State or 3y ri!ate
ersons&F
T)is in2ludes legislation+ resear2) and oli2y initiati!es&
A2'no9ledging t)e need "or a 2on2erted international e""ort+ Art!$% 0
2on2erns t)e UN+ and ro!ides t)at it s)ould en2ourage 2o6oerati!e
regional 2ooeration+ using t)e UN syste( to ad!an2e 2o6ordinated
rogra((es 3ot) to set standards and ta'e a2tion against !iolent
ra2ti2es&
T)e "a2t t)at t)e *e2laration does not 2ontain an en"or2e(ent
(e2)anis( 9as re(edied to so(e eAtent 3y t)e aoint(ent o" t)e
se2ial raoneur on !iolen2e against 9o(en
@8/ T"% S7%!#$ R#7ort%ur on V!o$%n% A,#!n&t
Wo'%n
In .;;4+ T)e United Nations Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts aointed a
se2ial raorteur on !iolen2e against 9o(en+ in2luding its 2auses and
2onse-uen2es& T)e (andate o" t)e Se2ial Raorteur allo9s )er to
re2ei!e indi!idual 2o(laints+ to (a'e 2ountry !isits and to su3(it
annual t)e(ati2 reorts to t)e Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts&
S%$2 #&&%&&'%nt %1%r!&%
Alii
Read Steiner and Alston &2:@62:4& Steiner and Alston eAtra2t t)e
$reli(inary Reort on 1iolen2e against Wo(en&
.& W)at does t)e reort suggest a3out t)e nature o" !iolen2e against
9o(enJ
2& W)at is t)e role o" t)e *e2laration on t)e #li(ination o"
1iolen2e against Wo(enJ
We 9ill no9 2onsider an annual t)e(ati2 reort&
0&@&. C#&% Stud-: T"% US Pr!&on S%r*!%
T)is se2tion re"ers &to t)e Reort o" t)e (ission to t)e United States o"
A(eri2a on t)e issue o" !iolen2e against 9o(en in state and "ederal
risons&
In .;==+ at t)e in!itation o" t)e Go!ern(ent o" t)e United States o"
A(eri2a+ t)e Se2ial Raorteur on !iolen2e against 9o(en !isited
Was)ington *C and t)e States o" Ne9 ?or'+ Conne2ti2ut+ Ne9 %ersey+
Georgia+ Cali"ornia+ Mi2)igan and Minnesota "ro( @. May to .= %une
.;;= to study t)e issue o" !iolen2e against 9o(en in t)e state and
"ederal risons&
We 2annot 2onsider all t)e "indings o" t)e Se2ial Raorteur+ 3ut 9e
2an 2onsider so(e o" t)e issues t)at s)e raised& O" arti2ular 2on2ern
9as Kt)e disroortionate nu(3er o" A"ri2an A(eri2ans in rison+
in2luding A"ri2an A(eri2an 9o(enK Cara&2<D& T)is raises -uestions
a3out a ossi3le "ailure o" t)e 2ri(inal justi2e syste( in t)e US& It
suggests t)at A"ri2an A(eri2ans are 3eing dis2ri(inated against& T)ere
9as also e!iden2e o" ra2ial dis2ri(ination in so(e risons& T)e
Raorteur noted t)at t)is )ad not led to any oli2y dis2ussion at eit)er
state or "ederal le!elE alt)oug) t)ere 9as a Knational dialogue on
ra2eK Cara&2=D no arti2ular agen2y )ad 3een set u to deal 9it)
resear2)ing t)ese ro3le(s in t)e 2ri(inal justi2e syste( and (a'ing
re2o((endations& T)e Se2ial Raorteur also dre9 attention to t)e
"a2t t)at in so(e risons+ at least t9o t)irds o" "e(ale risoners
2o(lained t)at t)ey )ad 3een seAually a3used& T)ere 9as insu""i2ient
a2tion 3eing ta'en to resear2) t)is ro3le(+ and ro!ide (e2)anis(s o"
re!enting its o22urren2e&
As art o" )er study+ t)e raorteur 2onsiders t)e legal 2onteAt o" enal
institutions in t)e US& At an international le!el+ standards alying to
t)e treat(ent o" risoners are detailed in t)e Standard Mini(u( Rules
"or t)e Treat(ent o" $risoners& T)ese rules+ adoted 3y t)e Birst United
Nations Congress in .;44 are not 3inding+ 3ut ro!ide (ini(u(
Aliii
standards "or t)e treat(ent o" risoners& T)e rules are "ounded on t)e
rin2ile o" non6 dis2ri(ination+ and lay do9n standards relating to t)e
treat(ent o" 9o(en& T)ese se2i"y t)at (en and 9o(en s)ould 3e 'et
in searate institutions+ or in searate arts o" t)e sa(e institution&
Wo(en risoners (ust only e!er 3e suer!ised 3y 9o(en o""i2ers+
alt)oug) t)ere are 2ertain eA2etions 9)i2) 9ould allo9 (ale
suer!ision o" "e(ale risoners&
Ho9 do t)ese standards aly to US jailsJ T)e se2ial raorteur dre9
attention to t)e IeAtraordinary di!ersity o" 2onditions in United States
risonsF Cara&4;D t)at (ade 2o)erent standards di""i2ult to (aintain&
T)us+ in so(e Cali"ornian institutions t)ere 9ere !ery little a9areness o"
t)e ro3le( o" seAual (is2ondu2t+ 9)ereas in ot)ers+ 2ases 9ere
a2tually 3eing rose2uted& In t)e US state o" Georgia+ 9)i2) is
2o(osed o" .4; ad(inistrati!e 2ounties+ t)ere 9ere no uni"or( state
ra2ti2es 9it) regard to risons oli2y& T)e reort t)us re2o((ends t)at
t)ere is a need to de!elo 2o)erent oli2ies 9it) re"eren2e to seAual
(is2ondu2t& T)e se2ial raorteur also dre9 attention to a la2' o"
(ini(u( standards relating to t)e use o" instru(ents o" restraint+ and
Klarge s2ale 3rea2)esK Cara&4.D o" rule @@ o" t)e Standard Mini(u(
Rules t)at se2i"ies t)at restraints s)ould not 3e used as a unis)(ent&
T)ere 9as also e!iden2e t)at restraints )ad 3een used on (entally
distur3ed risoners+ and on 9o(en in la3our& 4 T)is 2ould e!en a(ount
to K2ruel and unusual raCti2esK Cara& 44D&
T)e se2ial raorteur "ound t)at t)ere 9as e!iden2e t)at seAual
(is2ondu2t 9as 9idesread in t)e rison syste(7
ISeAual (is2ondu2t 2o!ers a 9)ole range o" a3usi!e seAual ra2ti2es in
t)e 2onteAt o" 2ustody& Rae does o22ur+ 3ut it is a "airly rare
)eno(enon& T)e (ore 2o((on tyes o" seAual (is2ondu2t are seA in
return "or "a!ours or 2onsensual seA& Gi!en t)e o9er i(3alan2e
in)erent in rison/risoner relations)is and t)e )ierar2)y 9it)in t)e
rison+ relations)is 3et9een rison guards and risoners 2orrut t)e
rison en!iron(ent and tend to eAloit t)e 9o(en& San2tioned seAual
)arass(ent+ i&e& 9o(en 3eing at6"ris'ed 3y (en and (onitored in t)eir
roo(s and in t)e s)o9ers 3y (ale 2orre2tions o""i2ers+ is also re!alent&
A 9o(an 9)o 9as )oused in a Mi2)igan rison said t)at .;=4+ 9)en
t)e rison syste( 3egan allo9ing (en to guard 9o(en in 9o(enKs
risons+ 9as t)e turning ointE a"ter t)at seAual (is2ondu2t
a22elerated&K Cara&44D&
Atte(ts 9ere 3eing (ade to address and deal 9it) t)ese ro3le(s+ 3ut
t)e situation )ad 3een (ade (ore 2o(leA 3y a ruling o" t)e Sure(e
Court+ t)at t)e Standard Mini(u( Rules relating to t)e suer!ision o"
Ali!
"e(ale risoners 9ere un2onstitutional as t)ey 3rea2)ed e-ual
e(loy(ent oortunities legislation& T)is 9as 3e2ause+ as t)ere 9as
only a s(all nu(3er o" Wo(enFs risons+ t)e oortunities "or 9o(en
rison o""i2ers 9ould 3e li(ited& As a 2onse-uen2e o" t)is ruling+ (ale
o""i2ers still 9or' "e(ale risoners& T)e se2ial raoneur did not
a22et suorting argu(ents d.at (ale rison o""i2ers ro!ided ositi!e
role (odels+ or t)at t)e gender 2o(osition o" risons s)ould re"le2t t)at
o" so2iety at large& Ho9e!er+ t)ere )ad 3een su22ess"ul litigation t)at
addressed seAual (is2ondu2t+ (ost nota3ly in Georgia+ 3ut t)e
guidelines laid do9n in d.e 9a'e o" t)is 2ase did not ade-uately deal
9it) t)e ro3le( o" ri!a2y in risons& T)ere 9as also+ at t)e ti(e o" t)e
reort a 3ill 3e"ore Congress t)at 9ould see' to re!ent assaults 3y
2orre2tional sta"" in risons& CSee
)tt7//999&un)2)r&2)/)urido2da/)urido2aD&
T)e reort suggests t)at t)ere are a3uses o" 9o(enFs rig)ts in state and
"ederal risons& As 9e )a!e seen+ a disroortionate nu(3er o" A"ri2an
A(eri2ans 9ere in2ar2erated+ suggesting dis2ri(ination against t)is
grou o" t)e oulation& T)ere 9as also a "ailure to en"or2e general
(ini(u( standards in relation to a nu(3er o" areas7 seAual (is2ondu2t+
use o" restraints and t)e suer!ision o" "e(ale risoners 3y (ale guards&
Alt)oug) t)ere 9as so(e rogress in en"or2ing (ini(u( standards+
t)ere 9ere still ro"ound ro3le(s 9it)in t)e rison syste(&
48 CONCLUSION
$er)as one o" t)e de"ining "eatures o" 9o(enFs rig)ts is t)eir relati!e
su3ordination to a suosedly (ore uni!ersal idea o" )u(an rig)ts&
A22ounting "or t)is ta'es us to t)e 2ore o" t)e ro3le(& W)y is it t)at
t)e International ,ill o" Rig)ts is relati!ely silent on t)e a3uses o"
9o(enFsF rig)tsJ One reason (ay 3e t)at e!en 9it)in t)e UN t)e
i(ortan2e o" 9o(enFs rig)ts )as 3een layed do9n and e!en t)oug)
t)is is er)as 2)anging+ t)ere is still t)e sense t)at en"or2e(ent
(e2)anis(s re(ain 9ea'er in relation to 9o(enFs rig)ts+ and t)at
atriar2)al 2ultural attitudes re(ain ingrained and resistant to 2)ange& In
t)is 2)ater 9e )a!e eAa(ined C#*AW and itFs Otional $roto2olE 9e
)a!e also loo'ed at t)e *e2laration on t)e #li(ination o" 1iolen2e
against Wo(en and t)e role o" t)e Se2ial Raoneur& We )a!e seen
t)at t)ese institutions and treaties reresent a (ajor de!elo(ent in
rote2ting 9o(enFs rig)ts+ 3ut t)at a great deal (ust still 3e done&
08 SUMMARY
@8 TUTOR-MAR>ED ASSIGNMENT
.& Wo(enFs rig)ts are )u(an rig)tsJ *is2uss
Al!
A8 REFERENCES6FURTHER READINGS
Merry+ S&A+ KWo(en+ !iolen2e and t)e )u(an rig)ts syste(K+ in Agosin+
M+ Ced+D Women, gender and human rights. CNe9 %ersey7 Rutgers
Uni!ersity $ress+ 2::.D &=@6;=+ MerryKs 9or' ro!ides an
argu(ent t)at t)e )u(an rig)ts syste( is a P-uasi6legal
syste(Q C&=4D+ and eAlores 9)at t)is (eans 9it) re"eren2e to
re!enting !iolen2e against 9o(en+
Wrig)t+ S& KHu(an rig)ts and 9o(enKs rig)ts7 an analysis o" t)e UN
2on!ention on t)e eli(ination o" all "or(s o" dis2ri(ination
against 9o(enK+ in Ma)oney+ 5& and $& Ma)oney CedsD Human
fights in the twenty-first century. C*ordre2)t7 Martinus Nij)o""+
.;;@D &J46=;+ Wrig)t resents an o!er!ie9 o" t)e ideas t)at
stru2ture t)e Con!ention+ and lo2ates it in t)e struggle against
o!erty and so2ial eA2lusion&
Ad*!% on #n&3%r!n, t"% Eu%&t!on
T)is see(ingly si(le state(ent re!eals+ on 2loser inse2tion+ so(e
2o(leA and su3tle issues& In ter(s o" an aroa2) to t)is -uestion+ t)e
in!itation to Kdis2ussK (ig)t 3e 3est ans9ered 9it) a 3road agree(ent to
t)e state(ent& T)e lin' 3et9een 9o(enKs rig)ts and )u(an rig)ts )as
3een asserted 3y nu(erous do2u(ents+ and one (ig)t 9ant to 2onsider
so(e o" t)ese in detail& T)e $rea(3le to C#*AW+ "or eAa(le+ or t)e
1ienna *e2laration 9ould 3e ger(ane& Ho9e!er+ i" 9o(enKs rig)ts are
)u(an rig)ts one 9ould also )a!e to a22ount "or t)e relati!e 9ea'ness
o" rote2tion "or 9o(enKs rig)ts+ and t)e a3sen2e o" rig)ts t)at re"le2t
t)e se2i"i2 )ar(s su""ered 3y 9o(en in t)e International ,ill o" Rig)ts&
Bro( t)is erse2ti!e+ 9o(enKs rig)ts are so(et)ing a little less t)an t)e
Uni!ersal rig)ts o" K(anK& ,uilding t)is argu(ent (ig)t in!ol!e (a'ing
use o" so(e o" t)e "e(inist 2riti-ues o" international la9+ and
international )u(an rig)ts la9 t)at 9e 2onsidered+ and also so(e detail
on t)e en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s under C#*AW and t)e $roto2ol+ t)e
reser!ations "ro( t)ese treaties and t)e re"usal to sign t)e $roto2ol& In
re2ent years+ t)oug) 9it) gender (ainstrea(ing+ t)ere is er)as a
greater 2orrelation 3et9een )u(an rig)ts and 9o(enKs rig)ts& T)ese
ositi!e de!elo(ents 9ould )a!e to 3e ut in 2onteAt o" t)ose
resistan2es to re2ognising t)e "ull and e-ual )u(anity o" 9o(en t)at are
resent in atriar2)al 2ultures t)roug)out t)e 9orld&

Al!i
UNIT 2 THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD
CONTENTS
.D Introdu2tion
2D O3je2ti!es
@D Main Content
@&. T)e Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild
@&2 An O!er!ie9 o" t)e Arti2les o" t)e 2on!ention
@&@ C)ild La3our
@&@&. ,onded La3our
@&@&2 C)ild La3our in India
@&@&@ IndiaFs Reorts to t)e Co((ittee
@&4 C)ild Soldiers
@&4 C)ildren+ Healt)2are and HI1/AI*S
@&0 C)ildren in t)e Cri(inal %usti2e Syste(
4&: Con2lusion
Al!ii
4&: Su((ary
INTRODUCTION
C)ildrenFs rig)ts are not so(e)o9 IadditionalF to )u(an rig)tsE rat)er+
li'e 9o(enKs rig)ts t)ey are t)e ali2ation o" t)e 'ey rin2iles o"
)u(an rig)ts to a se2tor o" )u(anity t)at deser!es se2ial rote2tion&
We 9ill see t)at t)e (ain treaty in t)is area is t)e Con!ention on t)e
Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild+ and 9e s)all re!ie9 t)e o9ers o" t)e Co((ittee
on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild in o!erseeing t)e i(le(entation o" t)e
Treaty& ,ut+ 9e 9ill also 2o(e to understand t)at 2)ildrenKs rig)ts raise
arti2ular ro3le(s+ and 2annot 3e understood urely in t)e a3stra2t&
Alt)oug) t)e Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild is t)e (ost 9idely
adoted o" international )u(an rig)ts instru(ents Ce!en )a!ing 3een
adoted 3y t)e Sudan $eoleKs Li3eration Ar(yD 9e need to are2iate
t)at so(e o" t)e (ost a2ute ro3le(s 2o(e out o" situations 9)ere+
eit)er t)roug) o!erty+ 9ar+ or ot)er "a2tors+ 2i!il so2iety and its
institutions )a!e 3ro'en do9n& Ho9 are )u(an rig)ts to 3e sa"eguarded
in situations 9)ere t)e institutions t)at are (eant to rote2t rig)ts are
not "un2tioningJ We 9ill also eAa(ine situations 9)ere rig)ts are not
rote2ted t)roug) a la2' o" oliti2al 9ill+ or 3e2ause 2ultural "or2es are
deely e(3edded and resistant to 2)ange&
O:;ECTIVES
,y t)e end o" t)is 2)ater and t)e rele!ant readings+ you s)ould 3e a3le
to7
des2ri3e t)e 3asi2 ro!isions o" t)e Con!ention on
t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild
eAlain t)e "un2tions o" t)e Co((ittee on t)e
Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild
eAlain t)e (ain issues relating to 3onded la3our
eAlain t)e (ain issues relating to 2)ild soldiers
eAlain t)e (ain issues relating to t)e rig)t to
)ealt) 2are and t)e ro3le( o" HI1/AI*S
outline t)e (ain issues relating to ju!enile justi2e&
MAIN CONTENTS
/8. T"% Con*%nt!on on t"% R!,"t& o2 t"% C"!$d
Al!iii
C)ildrenFs rig)ts are at t)e 2ore o" t)e UN syste(& In Arti2le 24 t)e
*e2laration itsel" (a'es re"eren2e to t)e Kse2ial 2are and assistan2eK t)at
is due to (ot)ers and 2)ildren and 2learly+ t)e rig)t to edu2ation in
Arti2le 20 is o" arti2ular rele!an2e to 2)ildren& Arti2le 24 o" ICC$R
and Arti2le .: o" t)e IC#SC Rig)ts are also o" rele!an2e in t)is 2onteAt&
T)ese do2u(ents 3uild on earlier state(ents su2) as t)e Gene!a
*e2laration o" t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild o" .;24 and t)e General
Asse(3ly Resolution o" .;4;& T)ere are t)ree ot)er re2ent do2u(ents o"
international i(ortan2e t)at "eed into t)e rin2iles t)at underlie t)e
Con!ention7
@ t)e *e2laration on So2ial and Legal $rin2iles relating to t)e
$rote2tion and Wel"are o" C)ildren+ .;=0+
4 t)e United Nations Standard Mini(u( Rules "or t)e Ad(inistration
o" %u!enile %usti2e CT)e ,eijing Rules .;=4D
4 t)e *e2laration on t)e $rote2tion o" Wo(en and C)ildren in
#(ergen2y and Ar(ed Con"li2t&
*esite t)e eAisten2e o" t)ese do2u(ents+ t)e need "or a 2o)erent and
2o(re)ensi!e state(ent o" t)e la9 re(ained& T)is 9as 3e2ause t)ere
9ere 9idesread and ongoing a3uses o" 2)ildrenFs rig)ts& Hig) (ortality
rates+ oor a22ess to )ealt) 2are and &edu2ation+ t)e e2ono(i2
eAloitation o" 2)ildren and t)e a3use o" 2)ildren in ar(ed 2on"li2t
de(anded international a2tion&
T)e Con!ention 9as dra"ted 3y a 9or'ing grou set u 3y t)e UN
Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts and 2onsisted o" go!ern(ent and UN
reresentati!es+ (e(3ers o" NGOs and delegates "ro( t)e International
La3our Organisation CILOD+ t)e United Nations C)ildrenFs Bund
CUNIC#BD and t)e World Healt) OrganiHation CWHOD& T)e Con!ention
on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild 9as adoted 3y a General Asse(3ly
Resolution in No!e(3er .;=;+ and 2a(e into "or2e in Sete(3er .;;:&
T"% C"!$d #nd t"% F#'!$-
T)e rea(3le to t)e Con!ention in2ludes a aragra) t)at a""ir(s t)e
"a(ily as Ias t)e "unda(ental grou o" so2ietyF and asserts t)at It)e
natural en!iron(ent "or t)e gro9t) and 9ell63eing o" all its (e(3ers
and arti2ularly 2)ildren s)ould 3e a""orded t)e ne2essary rote2tion
and assistan2e so t)at it 2an "ully assu(e its resonsi3ilities 9it)in t)e
2o((unityF& We )a!e already read 2riti2is( "ro( a "e(inist erse2ti!e
on t)e e()asis on t)e "a(ily& Be(inists argue t)at t)e "a(ily 2an itsel"
3e a la2e o" oressionE and 9e 9ill return to t)is issue as 9e 2ontinue
to 2onsider 2)ildrenKs rig)tsE 3ut it is 9ort) ointing out at t)is stage t)at
t)ere are (any 2onne2tions 3et9een 9o(enKs rig)ts and 2)ildrenKs
AliA
rig)ts& In arti2ular+ one o" t)e (ajor ro3le(s is t)at 2ultures o"ten
2ontain 2usto(s and 3elie"s a3out 2)ildren t)at+ li'e t)ose t)at relate to
9o(en+ see a 2)ild as under t)e 2are and rote2tion o" a '#$% adult&
T)us+ any uni!ersal state(ent o" t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild (ust ta'e
a22ount o" Kt)e i(ortan2e o" t)e traditions and 2ultural !alues o" ea2)
eoleK& We are a9are t)at t)ere are ro3le(s 9)en su2) 2usto(s are
in2onsistent 9it) )u(an rig)ts+ and resistant to 2)ange Csee Arti2le
24C@D in t)is 2onteAtD& I" 9e are a9are t)at 2)ildrenKs rig)ts raise si(ilar
ro3le(s to 9o(enKs rig)ts+ 9e also )a!e to ta'e into a22ount t)e "a2t
t)at 2)ildrenKs rig)ts raise a se2i"i2 set o" issues&
One o" t)e ro3le(s "or 2)ildrenFs rig)ts is t)at i" one asserts t)at t)e
"a(ily is a Inatural en!iron(entF+ it 3e2o(es di""i2ult to understand t)at
t)e "a(ily (ay also 3e t)e sour2e o" t)e ro3le( o" 2)ildrenKs
oression and a3use& T)is is a 2o(leA argu(ent& It is not suggesting
t)at t)e "a(ily s)ould so(e)o9 3e Kre"or(edK or a3olis)edE rat)er+ it
atte(ts to oint out a 'ey issue "or 2)ildrenFs rig)tsE an issue t)at is
in)erent in t)e !ery notion o" t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild& $re2isely 3e2ause
t)e 2)ild is not (ature+ it is deendent on 2are in t)e 9ay t)at a3le6
3odied adults are not& As t)e rea(3le goes on to state7

@ It)e 2)ild+ 3y reason o" )is )ysi2al and (ental i((aturity needs
se2ial sa"eguards and 2are+ in2luding aroriate legal rote2tion+
3e"ore as 9ell as a"ter 3irt)&F

Ho9 does one ensure t)at t)e 2areer does not 3e2o(e an a3userJ Gi!en
t)at t)e 2are relations)i in!ol!es une-ual o9er+ and a3use is al9ays a
-uestion o" a stronger arty i(osing its 9ill on a 9ea'er arty+ it 9ould
see( t)at t)ere is an ines2aa3le at)ology to t)e "a(ily& T)e
Con!ention (ust+ t)en+ assert t)at it is 2on2erned 9it) nurturing a
I"a(ily en!iron(entF t)at )as an Iat(os)ere o" )ainess+ lo!e and
understandingFE (oreo!er+ it re2ognises t)at a3uses o" 2)ildrenFs rig)ts
are a glo3al ro3le( in 3ot) t)e de!eloing and t)e de!eloed 9orld7
Iin all 2ountries in t)e 9orld+ t)ere are 2)ildren li!ing in eA2etionally
di""i2ult 2onditionsF&
/82 An O*%r*!%3 o2 t"% Art!$%& o2 t"% Con*%nt!on
P#rt I
Art!$% . ro!ides a de"inition7 Ia 2)ild (eans e!ery )u(an 3eing
3elo9 t)e age o" eig)teen yearsF& A 2)ild is t)us de"ined 3y a la2' o"
(ajorityE in t)is sense+ t)e 2)ild is outside o" t)e la9+ deri!ed o" legal
status and so(et)ing less t)an an adult& T)e eA2etion to t)is rule+ t)at
I(ajorityF 2an 3e attained KearlierK t)an eig)teen i" a national la9 so
allo9s+ does not a""e2t t)is general rin2ile t)at a 2)ild la2's (ajority&
l
In t)is sense+ 2)ildrenKs rig)ts 3elong to t)ose t)at are ot)er9ise
deri!ed o" "ull legal 3eing& &
Art!$% 2 la2es 9)at 9e 2ould 2all 3ot) a negati!e and a ositi!e duty
on state arties Csee C)ater 4D& State arties (ust 3ot) rese2t and
ensure 2o(lian2e 9it) t)e rig)ts 2ontained in t)e Con!ention 9it)out
any "or( o" dis2ri(ination to9ards a 2)ild or t)e 2)ildKs arents or
guardians& Burt)er(ore+ 2)ildren (ust 3e rote2ted "ro( t)e
dis2ri(ination or Kunis)(entK t)at is in"li2ted uon t)e 2)ildKs arents or
guardians& Arti2le 2 t)us re!eals anot)er 'ey t)e(e in t)e stru2ture o"
2)ildrenKs rig)ts7 gi!en t)at t)e 2)ild is lin'ed to t)e "a(ily+ to rote2t
t)e 2)ild+ it is ne2essary to rote2t )er arents or guardians&
Art!$% / arti2ulates a 'ey rin2ile7 Kt)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ildK& T)is
rin2ile is to go!ern all dealings 9it) 2)ildren 9)et)er 3y u3li2 or
ri!ate a2torsE )o9e!er+ it is i((ediately -ua.i"ied&
T)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild+ or at least as it relates to Krote2tion and
2areF (ust ta'e into a22ount It)e rig)ts and duties o" )is or )er arents+
legal guardians+ or ot)er indi!iduals legally resonsi3le "or )i( or )erF&
$resu(ing t)at it is ossi3le to deter(ine t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild+F
t)ese 3est interests+ i" deter(ined 3y a u3li2 or ri!ate agen2y+ 2ould
easily 2on"li2t 9it) t)e Irig)tF o" t)e arents 3e or guardians to
deter(ine t)e(sel!es 9)at is 3est "or It)eirF 2)ild& We 9ill see t)at
ot)er Arti2les 3elo9 Cse2i"i2ally+ ; and .;D are intended to resol!e
so(e o" t)ese di""i2ult 2on2erns&
T)e t)ird aragra) o" Arti2le @ outlines a ositi!e duty t)at la2es inR
an o3ligation on a state arty to ensure t)at agen2ies and institutions
resonsi3le "or t)e 9ell63eing o" 2)ildren 2on"or( to standards
Iesta3lis)ed 3y 2o(etent aut)oritiesK& T)is is ela3orated (- Art!$% 4+
9)i2) goes on to se2i"y t)at states (ust ensure t)at so2ial+ e2ono(i2
and 2ultural rig)ts are en"or2ed to Kt)e (aAi(u( eAtent o" t)eir
a!aila3le resour2esF& O" 2ourse+ t)e o9er to deter(ine t)at eit)er no or
"e9 resour2es are a!aila3le (eans t)at a state arty 2ould al9ays
dra(ati2ally li(it t)e e""e2ti!eness o" t)is Arti2le&
Art!$% 0 returns to anot)er 'ey 2on2ern7 t)e lo2ation o" t)e 2)ild in t)e
"a(ily+ and t)e need "or a 2ultural sensiti!ity to 2)ildrenKs rig)ts gi!en
t)e 2usto(s t)at ertain to "a(ily li"e& T)us+ state arties are ordered to
Irese2tF t)e Iresonsi3ilities+ rig)ts and dutiesF o" arents/guardians+
and to ta'e into a22ount t)at t)e "a(ily 2ould itsel" 3e 3roadly de"ined to
in2lude t)ose 3eyond t)e guardians/arents o" t)e 2)ild& T)e eAtended
"a(ily itsel" )as a Irig)tF to ro!ide Iaroriate dire2tion and guidan2e
in t)e eAer2ise 3y t)e 2)ild o" t)e rig)ts re2ognised in t)e resent
Con!entionF&
li
Arti2le 4 t)us re2ognises in a slig)tly di""erent 9ay t)at t)e rig)ts o" t)e
2)ild are -uali"ied 3y t)e rig)ts o" t)ose 9)o )a!e resonsi3ility "or t)e
2)ild&
Art!$% @ reeats t)e 'ey )u(an rig)ts rin2ile t)at t)e 2)ild )as an
Kin)erent rig)t to li"eK+ and t)e "ollo9ing arti2les+ in returning to rig)ts
9it) 9)i2) 9e are already "a(iliar+ ela3orate 9)at t)e rig)t to li"e
(eans in ter(s o" a 2i!il and legal identity& It 2ould 3e said+ t)en+ t)at
t)e Con!ention is not just 2on2erned 9it) 3are li"e+ 3ut 9it) a li"e t)at is
de"ined and deter(ined 3y t)e la9& T)us+ Art!$% A is a rig)t to
registration CeAanded 3y Art!$% BD 9)i2) is lin'ed to t)e rig)t to a
na(e and a nationality and t)e rig)t to 3e nurturedE a rig)t to K'no9 and
3e 2ared "or 3y )is or )er arentsK& On2e again+ t)oug)+ t)is rig)t is
otentially -uali"ied 3y t)e se2ond aragra)+ 9)i2) lea!es t)e
i(le(entation o" t)e rig)ts in t)e "irst aragra) to Inational la9F&
Arti2le 0 2ould 3e read alongside Arti2le .2+ 9)i2) 2ould 3e seen as a
due ro2ess rig)t+ or a guarantee o" a rig)t to a )earing "or a 2)ild 9)o is
K2aa3le o" "or(ing )is or )er o9n !ie9sK&
Art!$% C ro!ides detail to t)e general rin2ile t)at t)e 2)ild is to 3e
2ared "or 3y and 9it)in t)e "a(ily& T)e "irst aragra) la2es a duty on
states arties to (a'e sure t)at a 2)ild is not Ksearated "ro( )is or )er
arents against t)eir 9illK& T)at t)is rin2ile addresses t)e 9ill o" t)e
arents+ rat)er t)an o" t)e 2)ild+ s)o9s t)at 2)ildrenFs rig)ts are
deendent on t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ildKs arents& Ho9e!er+ t)is rin2ile is
also -uali"ied7 a 2)ild 2an 3e re(o!ed against t)e 9ill o" )is or )er
arents 9)en 2o(etent aut)orities su3je2t to judi2ial re!ie9 deter(ine+
in a22ordan2e 9it) ali2a3le la9 and ro2edures+ t)at su2) searation
is ne2essary "or t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ildK& T)us+ t)e state is a3le to
a2t in 2ir2u(stan2es 9)en a 2o(etent agen2y eAternal to t)e "a(ily
deter(ines t)at t)e arentFs rig)ts s)ould 3e o!er6ridden& Ho9e!er+ su2)
is t)e seriousness o" su2) a de2ision+ t)at it is rote2ted 3y due ro2ess
guarantees& T)e re"eren2e to judi2ial re!ie9 a3o!e suggests t)at any
de2ision to re(o!e a 2)ild "ro( its arents (ust 3e oen to re!ie9 3y a
2ourtE t)e se2ond aragra) gi!es a di""erent due ro2ess guaranteeE t)e
rig)t o" Kinterested artiesF to 3e in!ol!ed in any ro2eedings& S)ould a
2)ild 3e re(o!ed "ro( its arents+ t)en t)ere is a residual rig)t to
K(aintain ersonal relations and dire2t 2onta2t 9it) 3ot)&&& on a regular
3asisF& Burt)er(ore+ t)e state )as a duty to ro!ide in"or(ation
2on2erning t)e 9)erea3outs o" a arent+ i" searation )as 3een a result
o" Kany a2tion initiated 3y a state arty+ su2) as t)e detention+
i(rison(ent+ eAile+ deortation or deat) Cin2luding deat) arising "ro(
any 2ause 9)ile t)e erson is in t)e 2ustody o" t)e stateDF& Art!$% .9
"urt)er ela3orates t)is rig)t+ relating it to t)e rig)t o" (o!e(ent o"
"a(ily (e(3ers 3et9een states&
lii
Art!$% .. ro)i3its t)e Iilli2it trans"er and non6return o" 2)ildren
a3roadF&
Arti2les .@ to .< relate t)e 2lassi2 2i!il li3erties to t)e 2)ild& T)us+
Art!$% ./ 2on2erns t)at rig)t to "reedo( o" eAressionE Art!$% .4
guarantees t)e rig)t to "reedo( o" t)oug)t+ 2ons2ien2e and religionE
alt)oug) t)e rig)ts and duties o" arents to Iro!ide dire2tionF to t)e
2)ild are also guaranteedE Art!$% .0 re2ognises t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild to
"reedo( o" asso2iation and to "reedo( o" ea2e"ul asse(3lyE Art!$% .@
2on2erns rig)ts to ri!a2y and Art!$% .AF t)e rig)t to a22ess o"
in"or(ation "ro( t)e (edia&
As ointed out a3o!e+ 2)ildrenFs rig)ts are inseara3le "ro( t)e rig)ts
and duties o" arents+ and t)ese are gi!en "urt)er 2onsideration in Arti2le
.=+ T)is Arti2le gi!es 3ot) arents and guardians K2o((on
resonsi3ilities "or t)e u3ringing and de!elo(ent o" t)e 2)ildFE and
t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild is to t)e 3asi2 standard in any
understanding o" 9)at u3ringing and de!elo(ent (ean+ States )a!e to
(a'e sure t)at arents are 9ell6 suorted in t)eir arenting role+ and
t)is eAtends to ta'ing aroriate (easures Ito ensure t)at 2)ildren o"
9or'ing arents )a!e t)e rig)t to 3ene"it "ro( 2)ild62are ser!i2es and
"a2ilities "or 9)i2) t)ey are eligi3leF+
Art!$% .C is at t)e 2ore o" t)e Con!ention& It la2es a duty on state
arties to (a'e sure t)at legislati!e and ad(inistrati!e (easures are
underta'en to ensure t)at t)e 2)ild is rote2ted "ro( )ysi2al and (ental
a3use+ Inegle2t or negligent treat(ent+ (altreat(ent or eAloitation+
in2luding seAual a3use+ 9)ile in t)e 2are o" arentCsD+ legal guardianCsD
or any ot)er erson 9)o )as t)e 2are o" t)e 2)ildK& Arti2le .; t)us relates
3a2' to Arti2le ;&
Toget)er t)ese Arti2les se2i"y t)e o3ligations o" t)e state+ and t)ose
instan2es 9)ere state a2tion is in t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild+ e!en i"
t)e arents/guardians 3elie!e ot)er9ise& On2e a 2)ild is in t)e 2are o"
t)e state+ Arti2le 2: 9ould aly& T)is grants se2ial rote2tion to a
2)ild Kderi!ed o" )is or )er "a(ily en!iron(entK and 2o!ers+ K"oster
la2e(ent+ afalah o" Isla(i2 la9+ adotion or i" ne2essary la2e(ent in
suita3le institutions "or t)e 2are o" 2)ildrenK& Arrange(ents "or t)e 2are
o" t)e 2)ild )a!e to ta'e into a22ount t)e 2)ildKs et)ni2+ 2ultural+
religious and linguisti2 3a2'ground&
Arti2le 2. to 2@ relate to 2)ildren in 2ertain se2ial situations&
Art!$% 2. alies to t)ose state arties t)at er(it or re2ognise
adotion& It lays do9n a series o" duties t)at are (eant to sa"eguard t)e
3est interests o" t)e 2)ild in su2) a situation& Arti2le 22 la2es a duty on
liii
state arties in relation to t)e re"ugee status o" 2)ildren and Arti2le 2@
&relates to t)e rig)ts o" (entally or )ysi2ally disa3led 2)ildren&
T)e neAt grou o" Arti2les+ 2462= ela3orate 2ertain so2ial and e2ono(i2
rig)ts as t)ey ertain to 2)ildren+ Art!$% 24 re2ognises t)e rig)t to It)e
)ig)est attaina3le standard o" )ealt) and to "a2ilities "or t)e treat(ent o"
illness and re)a3ilitation o" )ealt)F+ T)is translates into a series o"
se2i"i2 duties& State arties (ust ta'e a2tion to7 di(inis) in"ant and
2)ild (ortality ratesE to (a'e sure 2)ildren re2ei!ed )ealt) 2are+ 9it) an
e()asis on ri(ary )ealt) 2areE to alle!iate disease and (alnutrition
t)roug) t)e ro!ision o" "ood and 2lean 9ater and to ro!ide re6 and
ost6 natal )ealt) 2are7 $aragra) @ lays do9n an o3ligation to Ita'e all
e""e2ti!e and aroriate (easures 9it) a !ie9 to a3olis)ing traditional
ra2ti2es rejudi2ial to t)e )ealt) o" 2)ildrenF+ Arti2le 24 ela3orates
t)ese rig)ts e!en "urt)er and relates to a rig)t to 2o(etent )ealt) 2are&
Art!$% 2@ 2)anges t)e "o2us "ro( )ealt) 2are to t)e Irig)t to 3ene"it
"ro( so2ial se2urity+ in2luding so2ial insuran2eK and la2es a duty on
states to ensure t)e realisation o" t)is rig)t&
Art!$% 2A 2ould 3e read as a 2lassi2 arti2ulation o" a so2ial and
e2ono(i2 rig)t& It ro!ides t)at state arties s)ould re2ognise t)e 2)ildKs
rig)t to Ia standard o" li!ing ade-uate "or t)e 2)ildFs )ysi2al+ (ental+
siritual+ (oral and so2ial de!elo(entF& T)e Iri(ary resonsi3ilityF
"or t)e deli!ery o" t)ese ends lies 9it) t)e arentsE 3ut arents (ust 3e
assisted in t)ese duties 3y t)e state 9)i2) (ust Kro!ide (aterial
assistan2e and suort rogra((es+ arti2ularly 9it) regard to nutrition+
2lot)ing and )ousingK& T)is duty eAtends to ta'ing (easures to se2ure
"inan2ial suort "or a 2)ild "ro( arents&
Art!$% 2B 2on2ern t)e rig)t to edu2ation& T)e rig)t to edu2ation+ on t)e
3asis o" e-ual oortunity+ 2ontains a list o" (ore se2i"i2 duties7 t)e
state (ust ro!ide general and 2o(ulsory ri(ary edu2ationE it (ust
also Ien2ourageF t)e ro!ision o" a22essi3le general se2ondary and
!o2ational edu2ation& Wit)in edu2ation+ t)e state (ust dis2ourage dro6
outs+ and ensure t)at dis2iline is 2onsistent 9it) ot)er )u(an rig)ts&
Art!$% 2C (andates t)e "or( o" edu2ation& It (ust address+ a(ongst
ot)er (atters+ It)e de!elo(ent o" t)e 2)ildKs ersonality+ talents and
(ental and )ysi2al a3ilities to t)eir "ullest otentialKE rese2t "or )u(an
rig)ts+ "or )is or )er o9n 2ulture and ot)er 2ultures+ and+ a3o!e all+
reare t)e 2)ild "or Kresonsi3le li"e in a "ree so2ietyF&
li!
Art!$% /9 relates to t)e rig)t o" t)e 2)ildren o" (inorities to 3e
edu2ated in su2) a 9ay as to Ienjoy )is or )er o9n 2ulture+ to ro"ess
and ra2tise )is or )er o9n religion+ or to use )is or )er o9n languageF&
Art!$% /.+ t)e rig)t o" t)e 2)ild to rest and leisure+ 2learly eAtends
3eyond edu2ation and lin's t)roug) to Arti2le @2& Art!$% /2 is anot)er
'ey ro!ision in t)at it ro)i3its t)e e2ono(i2 eAloitation o" t)e 2)ildE
t)e ro)i3ition o" eAloitation eAtends to any 9or' t)at Kis li'ely to 3e
)aHardous or to inter"ere 9it) t)e 2)ildKs edu2ation+ or to 3e )ar("ul to
t)e 2)ildKs )ealt)K and state arties (ust ta'e 3ot) legislati!e and
edu2ational (easures to a2)ie!e t)is end& More se2i"i2ally state arties
(ust (andate a (ini(u( e(loy(ent ageE regulation o" t)e )ours and
2onditions o" e(loy(entE ensure t)at t)ese standards are e""e2ti!ely
alied&
Art!$% // lin's toget)er a rig)t to )ealt) 2are+ and a rig)t to rote2tion
3y ro!iding t)at state arties (ust ta'e (easures to ensure t)at 2)ildren
do not use illi2it drugs and are not in!ol!ed in eit)er t)e rodu2tion or
tra""i2'ing o" illegal drugs&
Art!$% /4 rote2ts 2)ildren "ro( IseAual eAloitation and seAual a3useF&
State arties are gi!en a nu(3er o" duties to ensure t)at 2)ildren do not
ta'e art in Iunla9"ul seAual a2ti!ityF and are not in!ol!ed in
rostitution or ornogra)y&
Art!$% /0 ro)i3its tra""i2'ing in 2)ildren&
Art!$% /@ is a general ro!ision re-uiring state arties to rote2t
2)ildren "ro( Kall ot)er "or(s o" eAloitationK t)at Kare rejudi2ialK to
t)eir I9el"are&F
Art!$% /A relates !arious due ro2ess guarantees t)at 2on2ern
senten2ing and 2ri(inal la9 to 2)ildren& As 9ell as restating t)e generi2
rig)ts Cro)i3ition on torture and ar3itrary arrestE guarantee o" a rig)t o"
a22ess to t)e 2ourtsD it arti2ulates a 'ey $rin2ile7 2)ildren s)ould 3e
treated as su2) in t)e 2ri(inal justi2e Syste(& Bor instan2e7 Ie!ery 2)ild
deri!ed o" li3erty s)all 3e 2 searated "ro( adults unless it is
2onsidered in t)e 2)ildFs 3est interest not to do so and s)all )a!e t)e
rig)t to (aintain 2onta2t 9it) )is or )er "a(ily t)roug) 2orresonden2e
and !isits+ sa!e in eA2etional 2ir2u(stan2esF& T)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild in
t)e 2ri(inal justi2e syste( are eAanded at (u2) greater lengt) in
Arti2le 4:&
Art!$% /B 2on2erns ar(ed 2on"li2t& In 'eeing 9it) general
)u(anitarian nor(s t)at relate to non62o(3atants+ states (ust guarantee
l!
t)at 2)ildren under t)e age o" .4 do not ta'e art in 9ar"areE and t)us
(ust not 3e re2ruited into t)e ar(ed "or2es&
Art!$% /C also relates ar(ed 2on"li2ts+ 3ut is (u2) 3roader& State
arties (ust (a'e sure o" t)e )ysi2al and sy2)ologi2al re2o!ery o"
2)ild !i2ti(s o" Inegle2t+ eAloitation+ or a3useE torture or any ot)er
"or( o" 2ruel+ in)u(an or degrading treat(ent or unis)(entFE or ar(ed
2on"li2ts&
P#rt II
In loo'ing at $art II o" t)e Con!ention+ 9e 9ill 2on2entrate on t)ose
Arti2les t)at set u t)e Co((ittee on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild+ 9)i2) is
set u 3y Arti2le 4@& T)e Co((ittee 2onsists o" ten eAerts ele2ted 3y
state arties 3ut ser!ing in t)eir ersonal 2aa2ity& Under Arti2le 44+
state arties are under a duty to su3(it to t)e Co((ittee reorts on t)e
stes t)ey )a!e ta'en to i(le(ent Con!ention rig)ts& Reorts (ust 3e
su3(itted 9it)in t9o years o" t)e Con!ention entering into "or2e+ and
t)erea"ter e!ery "i!e years& Arti2le 44 ro!ides t)at t)e se2ialised UN
Agen2ies+ su2) as t)e C)ildrenKs Bund+ )a!e a rig)t to reresentation
3e"ore t)e Co((ittee to ro!ide ad!i2e on t)e i(le(entation o" t)e
Con!ention& T)is Arti2le also states t)at t)e Co((ittee 2an (a'e
re2o((endation to t)e General Asse(3ly 9)i2) re-uest t)at t)e
Se2retary6General underta'es studies on se2i"i2 issues rele!ant to
2)ildrenKs rig)ts& T)e Co((ittee 2an (a'e suggestions and general
re2o((endations 3ased on in"or(ation re2ei!ed ursuant to Arti2les 44
and 44& T)ese 2an 3e addressed to any State $arty and also reorted to
t)e General Asse(3ly+ toget)er 9it) 2o((ents+ i" any+ "ro( States
$arties t)e(sel!es&
$art III o" t)e Con!ention 2ontains !arious te2)ni2al ro!isions t)at 9e
9ill not 2onsider&
Not%7 T)e Co((ittee 2annot 2onsider indi!idual 2o(laints& Ho9e!er+
it 9ould 3e ossi3le to raise a 2on2ern a3out 2)ildrenKs rig)ts 3e"ore
ot)er 2o((ittees 9it) t)e jurisdi2tion to )ear indi!idual 2o(laints&
.& W)i2) ot)er 2o((ittees (ig)t 3e in!ol!ed in )earing su2)
2o(laintsJ
2& W)at are t)e General rin2iles o" t)e Con!entionJ
@& Ho9 does t)e Con!ention rote2t t)e )u(an rig)ts o" 2)ildrenJ
4& Are t)ere any nations t)at )a!e not rati"ied t)e Con!entionJ
Turning no9 to a3uses o" 2)ildrenFs rig)ts+ 9e s)i"t our "o2us "ro( t)e
la9 to -uestions o" )o9 t)e la9 is alied& To so(e eAtent+ it is slig)tly
l!i
(isleading to la3el t)e "ollo9ing areas Ka3uses o" 2)ildrenFs rig)tsF&
Alt)oug) t)ey 2learly s)o9 t)at 2)ildren are not 3eing rese2ted+ t)ey
2ould e-ually 3e seen+ (ore generally+ as ro3le(s o" stru2tural and
ende(i2 o!erty+ t)e so2ial dislo2ations 3roug)t a3out 3y ar(ed 2on"li2t
or issues o" national de!elo(ent& One (ust 'ee t)is in (ind7 it is t)e
essential 2onteAt o" t)e a3use o" all )u(an rig)ts&
/8/ C"!$d L#(our
C)ildren ro!ide a signi"i2ant ortion o" t)e 9orldKs 9or'"or2e& Bigures
"ro( t)e International La3or Organisation CILOD suggest t)at in t)e
de!eloing 9orld as (any as 24: (illion 2)ildren are in e(loy(ent+
9it) a little less t)an )al" o" t)is "igure 9or'ing "ull6 ti(e& Regionally+
t)is 3rea's do9n in t)e "ollo9ing 9ay7 0. er 2ent o" 9or'ing 2)ildren
are in Asia+ @2 er 2ent in A"ri2a+ and < er 2ent in Latin A(eri2a&
$ri(ary se2tors o" e(loy(ent are agri2ulture and do(esti2 la3our+
alt)oug) t)ere is also so(e e(loy(ent in trade and ser!i2es+ and a
s(all a(ount in (anu"a2turing and t)e 2onstru2tion industry& T)is is not
to 2onde(n all "or(s o" 2)ild la3ourE )o9e!er+ it is ne2essary to loo' at
t)e 2onteAt and eAa(ine t)e 2onditions o" e(loy(ent and t)e
edu2ational oortunities a!aila3le to t)e 2)ild& Hu(an Rig)ts grous
)a!e dra9n attention to t)e 9orst areas o" e(loy(ent "or 2)ildren7
arti2ular areas o" 2on2ern are sil' rodu2tion in India+ and t)e an
layed 3y 2)ildren in t)e sugar industry in #l Sal!ador+ 3ut 2on2erns
9ere also dra9n to ra2ti2es in t)e Middle #ast and t)e US& A3uses o"
2)ildrenKs rig)ts in2lude 3onded la3our+ oor and dangerous 9or'ing
2onditions and t)e denial o" t)e "reedo( o" (o!e(ent&
C)tt7//999&)r9&org/2)ildren/la3or&)t(D
/8/8. :ond%d L#(our
I,onded la3or ta'es la2e 9)en a "a(ily re2ei!es an ad!an2e ay(ent
Cso(eti(es as little as US S.4D to )and a 2)ild63oy or girl o!er to an
e(loyer& In (ost 2ases t)e 2)ild 2annot 9or' o"" t)e de3t+ nor 2an t)e
"a(ily raise enoug) (oney to 3uy t)e 2)ild 3a2'& T)e 9or'la2e is
o"ten stru2tured so t)at KeAensesK and/or IinterestF are dedu2ted "ro( a
2)ildKs earnings in su2) a(ounts t)at it is al(ost i(ossi3le "or a 2)ild
to reay t)e de3t& In so(e 2ases+ t)e la3our is generational 6t)at is+ a
2)ildFs grand"at)er or great6grand"at)er 9as ro(ised to an e(loyer
(any years earlier+ 9it) t)e understanding t)at ea2) generation 9ould
ro!ide t)e e(loyer 9it) a ne9 9or'er 6o"ten 9it) no ay at
all&K C)tt7//999&)r9&orgE2)ildren/.a3or&)t(D&
T)e issue o" 3onded la3our ta'es us to t)e 2ore o" t)e ro3le(& T)is is
not t)e 2ase o" a 2)ild ta'ing aart6ti(e jo3 to assist t)e "a(ilyKs in2o(e&
Rat)er+ it is a "or( o" sla!ery t)at re"le2ts 2onditions o" eAtre(e o!erty
l!ii
t)at 3lig)ts generations& T)e 2)ild is e""e2ti!ely o9ned 3y t)e e(loyer&
,onded la3our (ay 3e a "eature o" t)ose so2ieties t)at are (ar'ed 3y
o!erty+ 3ut o!erty (ust 3e understood in a 3road sense& T)us+ 3onded
la3our tends to o22ur 9)en eole generally la2' resour2es7 t)is 2an
(ean a "ailure o" a22ess to 2redit and 9el"are+ la2' o" e(loy(ent "or
adults+ 3ut 2ould also in2lude dis2ri(ination against grous t)at
eAa2er3ate t)is general la2' o" so2ial 2aital& As t)e -uotation a3o!e
suggests+ t)e ro3le( is also generational& T)e 2)ildren o" t)ose 9)o
eAerien2ed 3onded la3our are li'ely to 3e2o(e 3onded la3ourers
t)e(sel!es& W)at also 2ontri3utes to t)e ro3le( are ressures t)at 'ee
9ages lo9+ so t)at eole are "or2ed to 3orro9 "ro( t)eir e(loyers+
and t)en ledge t)eir 2)ildrenKs la3our as a (eans o" reaying t)e de3t&
In t)is sense+ 3onded la3our 2reates a !i2ious 2ir2le7 3e2ause t)ere is a
suly o" C)ea 3onded la3our+ 9ages "or adults are also suressed&
,onded la3our is t)us a sel"6sustaining so2ial and e2ono(i2
)eno(enon& So(e resear2)ers )a!e also suggested t)at 3onded la3our
is (ore li'ely in t)ose la2es 9)ere so2ial and e2ono(i2 relations are
(ar'ed 3y 2aste and )ierar2)y&
W"#t #n (% don% to #$$%*!#t% t"% 7ro($%'D
T)e la9 relating to 3onded la3our is not just to 3e "ound in t)e
Con!ention& It 9as (ade illegal 3y t)e UN Sule(entary
Con!ention on t)e A3olition o" Sla!ery+ t)e Sla!e Trade+ and
Institutions and $ra2ti2es Si(ilar to Sla!ery in .;40& So(e ot)er
i(ortant sour2es in2lude Arti2le = o" t)e ICC$R+ 9)i2) eAli2itly
ro)i3its sla!ery and ser!itude and Arti2le < o" t)e IC#SCR 2ontains
a guarantee o" la3our rig)ts t)at are in2onsistent 9it) 3onded la3our&
T)e ILO ro(ulgated in .;;; a Worst Bor(s o" C)ild La3our
Con!ention+ a Con!ention on Mini(u( Age and a re2o((endation
"or eli(inating t)e 9orst "or(s o" 2)ild la3our&
/8/82 C"!$d L#(our !n Ind!#
T)ere is 2learly a 3ody o" international la9 t)at ro)i3its t)e 9orst
"or(s o" t)e ra2ti2e+ or at least atte(ts to regulate C)ild la3our& Is t)e
ro3le( t)at 2ertain nations )a!e not rati"ied t)is la9J Consider t)e 2ase
o" India7 I9it) 2redi3le esti(ates ranging "ro( 0: to ..4 (illion+ India
)as t)e largest nu(3er o" 9or'ing 2)ildren in t)e 9orldK& CHu(an Rig)ts
Wat2) Reort7 T)e S(all Hands o" Sla!eryE 3onded 2)ild la3our in
India )rt7//999&)r9&org/reorts/.;;0/lndia@&)t(D& We 2an gain a sense
o" t)e ro3le( and an indi2ation o" t)e e2ono(i2 i(ortan2e o"
2)ildrenF la3our "ro( t)e "ollo9ing eAtra2t7
IAart "ro( agri2ulture+ 9)i2) a22ounts "or 04 er 2ent o" all la3or in
India+ 3onded 2)ild la3orers "or( a signi"i2ant art o" t)e 9or' "or2e in
l!iii
a (ultitude o" do(esti2 and eAort industries& T)ese in2lude+ 3ut are not
li(ited to+ t)e rodu2tion o" sil' and sil' saris+ 3eedi C)and6 rolled
2igarettesD+ sil!er je9elry+ synt)eti2 ge(stones+ leat)er rodu2ts
Cin2luding "oot9ear and sorting goodsD+ )and9o!en 9ool 2arets+ and
re2ious ge(stones and dia(onds& Ser!i2es 9)ere 3onded 2)ild la3or is
re!alent in2lude rostitution+ s(all restaurants+ tru2' stos and tea s)o
ser!i2es+ and do(esti2 ser!itude&F Ci3id7 art .7 su((aryD
C)ildrenFs la3our is not restri2ted to one area o" e2ono(y+ alt)oug)
agri2ulture a22ounts "or t)e greater roortion o" 2)ild la3ourersE it is
t)us general and not lo2al and sread t)roug)out di""erent se2tors+ "ro(
t)e rodu2tion o" leisure goods to rostitution&
India is a arty to and )as rati"ied all t)e Con!entions (entioned a3o!e
eA2et t)e RLO on t)e Worst Bor(s o" C)ild La3our+ and Indian
do(esti2 la9 does 2ontain ro)i3itions on 3onded la3our+ in2luding t)e
,onded La3our Syste( CA3olitionD A2t .;<0 and regulations in relation
to t)e e(loy(ent o" 2)ildren& Moreo!er+ 3onded la3our is in 3rea2) o"
2enain 2onstitutional rig)ts& T)ere )as also 3een litigation in Indian
2ourts t)at )as su22ess"ully led to o3ligations on states to identi"y t)e
illegal e(loy(ent o" 2)ildren and unis) e(loyers&
So+ 9)y does 3onded la3our ersist to su2) a degree in IndiaJ
Co((entators )a!e identi"ied t)e la2' o" oliti2al 9ill as one o" t)e
(ajor issues& Alt)oug) t)ere )as 3een a )ig) le!el o" 2o((it(ent to
a2tion at t)e oli2y le!el+ t)ese oli2ies )a!e not+ on t)e 9)ole+ 3een
translated into (eaning"ul rogra((es o" a2tion& T)ere are t9o ri(ary
"ailures o" go!ern(ent7 a "ailure to en"or2e t)e C)ild La3our
C$ro)i3ition and RegulationD A2t .;=0 and t)e ,onded La3our Syste(
CA3olitionD A2t .;<0& Bor instan2e+ t)ere )as 3een no 2onsistent and
2on2erted atte(t to rodu2e go!ern(ent "igures on 2)ild la3our& Su2)
"igures t)at 2an 3e 2olle2ted s)o9 t)at+ "or instan2e+ "ro( .;;: to .;;@+
only < rose2utions 9ere (ade o" e(loyers under t)e C)ild La3our
C$ro)i3ition and RegulationD A2t+ and t)ese led to lig)t "inesE in t)e
ro!in2e o" Ta(il Nadu t)ere )ad 3een Cat t)e ti(e o" t)e reortD no
i(rison(ents under t)e C)ild La3our Cro)i3ition and RegulationD
A2t& T)e last date "or 9)i2) "igures 9ere a!aila3le under t)e ,onded
La3our Syste(s A2t s)o9 t)at o!er 24:+::: 3onded la3ourers )ad 3een
released+ 3ut it is not ossi3le to 'no9 )o9 (any o" t)ese 9ere 2)ildren&
So(e states si(ly 'et no re2ords at allE and so(e o""i2ials 3elie!ed
t)e A2t did not aly to 2)ildren&
Ot)er o3sta2les to en"or2e(ent in2lude 2orrution and negle2t o" duty
a(ong o""i2ials& T)e reort suggests t)at o""i2ials are 2o((itted to
(aintaining t)e status -uo+ and s)o9 little regard "or t)e 9ell63eing o"
liA
3onded la3ourers& Bor instan2e+ t)e C)ild La3our C$ro)i3ition and
RegulationD A2t .;=0 re-uires states to dra9 u i(le(entation
ro2edures& ,y .;;0+ a (ajority o" states )ad not 2o(lied 9it) t)is
o3ligation& *istri2t (agistrates 9ere also not arti2ularly 2on2erned
9it) t)e ro3le(+ 9it) e!iden2e t)at+ in ter(s o" a list o" riorities (ade
a!aila3le to a journalist+ 2)ild la3our aeared 9ell 3elo9 t)e need to
in!est in te2)nology& A senior o""i2ial in t)e Ministry o" La3our stated
in an inter!ie97
ILa9s donKt (atter& #2ono(i2s doK& T)ere 9as no oint atte(ting to
en"or2e la3our standards unless rural o!erty 9as ta2'led&
1igilan2e Co((ittees+ re-uired under t)e ,onded La3our Syste(
CA3olitionD A2t+ 9ere not oerational in any art o" t)e 2ountry&
#!iden2e also s)o9s t)at (any 3ond (asters are t)e(sel!es
go!ern(ent e(loyees7
,e2ause o" t)eir steady in2o(e+ t)ese eole are (ore li'ely to o9n
land 69)i2) t)ey need so(eone to 2ulti!ate 6and are (ore li'ely to )a!e
(oney a!aila3le "or lending uroses& T)ey are also (ore li'ely to 3e
lo2al leaders and to )a!e ties to t)e lo2al and distri2t ad(inistration+
3ot) "a2tors 9)i2) tend to in)i3it rose2utionF&
T)ere are t)us Io3!ious li(itationsF in (a'ing I)ig)62aste and lo2al
lando9ning o""i2ialsF t)e 'ey layers in t)e identi"i2ation o" 3onded
la3our and t)e en"or2e(ent o" standards& Signi"i2ant ro3le(s relating
to t)e 3ri3ery o" lo2al o""i2ials are also re!alent& ,ri3ery is ende(i2
"ro( to o""i2ials t)roug) to (agistrates and judges& It also )as to 3e
ointed out t)at 3onded la3our is dra9n "ro( arti2ular se2tors o" Indian
so2iety7
Nation9ide+ t)e !ast (ajority o" 3onded la3orers are *alitsE al(ost all
3onded 2)ildren inter!ie9ed "or t)is reort 9ere *alit or Musli(& *alits
are generally in a state o" e2ono(i2 deenden2y t)at+ 9)en 2o(3ined
9it) t)e t)reat o"+ or a2tual+ !iolen2e re!ents t)e( "ro( reorting
a3uses against t)e( 6in2luding 3eing )eld in 3ondage 6or "ro( getting
justi2e i" t)ey do&
)tt7//999&)r9&orgleditoriaRs/2::@/india/indiaO.@.:@&)t(T$.0;6
2:<=0
Wit)in t)e Indian 2aste syste(+ t)e *alits+ or t)e untou2)a3les+ are t)e
lo9est (e(3ers o" so2iety& $er"or(ing t)e (ost (enial o" jo3s+ t)ey are
2onde(ned to o!erty and so2ial eA2lusion& *esite t)e "a2t t)at India is
a de(o2rati2 nation+ t)e 2aste syste( and t)e o!erty and eA2lusion
asso2iated 9it) it ersist& It is 9ort) noting t)at 2aste syste(s eAist
t)roug)out t)e 9orld& A *alit rig)ts 9e3 site argues t)at Kt)oug) t)e
lA
2o((unities t)e(sel!es (ay 3e indistinguis)a3le in aearan2e "ro(
ot)ers+ unli'e 9it) ra2e or et)ni2ity+ so2io6e2ono(i2 disarities are
glaring+ as are t)e e2uliar "or(s o" dis2ri(ination ra2ti2ed against
t)e(& It is aroAi(ated t)at around 24:6@:: trillion eole a2ross t)e
9orld su""er "ro( 2aste+ or 9or'6 and des2ent63ased dis2ri(ination+ a
"or( o" dis2ri(ination t)at i(inges on t)eir 2i!il+ oliti2al+ religious+
so2io6e2ono(i2 and 2ultural rig)ts+ and t)eir rig)t to "reedo( o" 2)oi2e
to de!elo as indi!iduals and as a 2o((unity 9it) dignity&K
)tt7//999&dalits&orgiglo3al2astesyste(s&)t(&
Alt)oug) it is di""i2ult to (a'e generaliHations a3out t)e status o" t)e
Musli( oulation o" India+ it is "air to say t)at in 2ertain states Indian
Musli(s are su""ering dis2ri(ination "ro( t)e Hindu (ajority+ 9)i2)
(eans t)at (any Musli(s su""er "ro( une(loy(ent+ restri2ted jo3
rose2ts+ dis2ri(ination and o!erty&
/8/8/ Ind!#=& R%7ort& to t"% Co''!tt%%
T)e initial reort o" India stressed t)e 2ountryKs 2o((it(ent to
2)ildrenFs rig)ts+ and stated t)at t)e in"rastru2ture 9as no9 in la2e to
(a'e a di""eren2e& Moreo!er+ t)ere 9as a National $lan o" A2tion and a
2o((ittee to (onitor rogress& T)e reort also ointed out t)at t)e
rig)ts o" 2)ildren 9ould i(ro!e i" t)e general rig)ts o" "a(ilies also
i(ro!ed&
C)tt7//999&un)2)r&orgi)uri2anei)uri2ane&ns"iO/=0*,,O#0B2=,
l#I0=:240=0@::4B#<A;Joendo2u(entD
S%ond 7%r!od! r%7ort o2 Ind!# 2994
T)e se2ond eriodi2 reort la2ed 2)ildrenKs rig)ts in t)e general 2onteAt
o" t)e 3attle against o!erty and ointed out t)at )ig) (ortality rates+
(alnutrition and il.itera2yre(ain ro3le(s& It also )ig)lig)ted t)at
India )as o!er 4:: (illion 2)ildren 3elo9 t)e age o" .= years& T)is
reresents t)e largest 2)ild oulation in t)e 9orld& T)e reort stressed
t)e 2o((ittee to (a'ing ele(entary edu2ation uni!ersal+ 3ut+ as yet t)e
National Co((ission "or C)ildren )ad not 3een esta3lis)ed&
C)tt7//999&un)2)r&org/)uri2anei)uri2ane&ns"lO/#0*,;,=4AA@
A.@:4C.240#2@::@44.*=Joendo2u(entD
T)ese reorts suggest t)at ad!an2es are 3eing (ade+ 3ut signi"i2ant
ro3le(s still re(ain&
lAi
.& ,onded la3our 2ontinues to lay a signi"i2ant role in t)e Indian
e2ono(y desite t)e nationKs 2o((it(ent to )u(an rig)ts
standardsK+ *is2uss&
/84 C"!$d So$d!%r&
C)ild soldiers are art o" ar(ies and (ilitias in (any nations o" t)e
9orld& So(e 2)ild soldiers are a3du2ted and "or2ed to "ig)tE ot)ers join
to es2ae o!erty or a3use& ,ot) girls and 3oys are in!ol!ed in 2o(3at+
alt)oug) girls are also ta'en as K9i!esK 3y 2o((anders and seAually
a3used Ct)e eAtent o" seAual a3use o" 3oys re(ains un'no9nD& T)e
ro3le( is arti2ularly a2ute in arts o" A"ri2a+ (ost nota3ly in t)e 9ar
Hones in t)e Congo+ Li3eria and Sierra Leone& T)e LordKs Re!olutionary
Ar(y+ a guerrilla organiHation in t)e nort) o" Uganda+ is also notorious
"or its use o" 2)ild soldiers& C)ild soldiers are also art o" ar(ies in
Colo(3ia and t)e Le3anon& In Colo(3ia+ 3ot) go!ern(ent and re3el
"or2es (a'e& use o" signi"i2ant nu(3ers o" 2)ildrenE in Le3anon+
2)ildren )a!e 3een "or2ed to join t)e Sout) Le3anon Ar(y& C)ild
soldiers are not only su3je2ted to t)e trau(as o" 2o(3atE t)ey )a!e ta'en
art in 9ar 2ri(es and (assa2res& A"ter 2on"li2t is o!er+ 2)ild soldiers
are not re6trained+ and re(ained trau(atiHedE indeed+ ea2e treaties o"ten
do not e!en re2ogniHe t)at 2)ild soldiers )a!e 3een in!ol!ed in t)e
"ig)ting& C)tt7//999&)r9&org/2a(aigns/2r/indeA&)t(D &
As 9it) 3onded la3our+ a legal "ra(e9or' eAists to ro)i3it t)e use o"
2)ild soldiers& In 2::2 t)e Otional $roto2ol to t)e Con!ention on t)e
Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild on 2)ildren in ar(ed 2on"li2t 2a(e into "or2e& T)is
outla9s t)at use o" 2)ildren under .= in ar(ed "or2es+ 9)et)er state6run
or irregular& Con!ention C.=2D o" t)e ILO also ro)i3its t)e re2ruit(ent
o" 2)ildren under .=& Burt)er(ore+ under t)e Ro(e Statute o" t)e
International Cri(inal Court+ re2ruit(ent o" 2)ildren under .4 is to 3e
2onsidered a 9ar 2ri(e& T)e .;;; A"ri2an C)arter on t)e Rig)ts and
Wel"are o" t)e C)ild also a22ords 9it) t)ese international standards&
Under t)e A"ri2an C)arter+ .= is also t)e (ini(u( age "or re2ruit(ent
into ar(ed "or2es& CC)ild Soldier Use 2::@7 A ,rie"ing "or t)e 4t) UN
Se2urity Coun2il Oen
*e3ate on C)ildren and A(.ed Con"li2t7 Introdu2tion+
)tt7//)r9&org/reorts/2::4/2)iIdsoldiers:.:4/.&)t(D
To understand t)e role o" 2)ild soldiers in t)e Congo 9ar+ it is ne2essary
to )a!e a 3asi2 understanding o" t)e 2auses o" 2on"li2t in t)is 2ountry& A
o9er struggle 9it)in t)e *e(o2rati2 Reu3li2 o" t)e Congo C*RCD
in!ol!ing neig)3oring 2ountries triggered t)e Birst Congo War in .;;=&
Bor2es loyal to t)e resident o" t)e Congo+ Laurent 5a3ila+ o!ert)re9
t)e di2tatorial regi(e o" Mo3utu Sese Se'o in .;;<& T)e 9ar 3egan a
lAii
year later+ 9)en 5a3ila a2ted against R9andan "or2es 9)o )ad aided
)i( in )is 2ou& ,urundi+ R9anda and Uganda+ all s)are a 3order 9it)
t)e *RC and relied on t)e resen2e o" R9andan troos "or t)eir o9n
se2urity& At t)e sa(e ti(e as t)ese nations 3e2a(e e(3roiled in t)is
2on"li2t+ ot)er neig)3ouring nations+ Oi(3a39e+ Angola+ C)ad and
Na(i3ia (o3ilised to assist "or2es loyal to 5a3ila& Con"li2t in t)e Congo
is also dri!en 3y atte(ts to 2ontrol t)e nationKs natural resour2es+ and
tensions 3et9een t)e et)ni2 grous t)at (a'e u t)is (assi!e nation&
It is against t)is 3a2'dro o" regional 2on"li2t+ t)at 9e )a!e to are2iate
t)e issue o" (o3ilisation o" 2)ild soldiers& So(e e""orts )a!e ro!ed
su22ess"ul in de6(o3ilising 2)ild soldiers+ 9it) inuts "ro( lo2al NGOs+
t)e UN*$ and UNIC#B& Ho9e!er+ all "a2tions in t)e 2on"li2t 2ontinue
to rely on 2)ild soldiers& As "ar as go!ern(ent "or2es are 2on2erned+ t)e
Congolese A(.ed Bor2es C$ACD still )a!e 2)ild soldiers& T)ey )a!e
(ade ro(ises to de(o3ilise+ 3ut t)is ro2ess is ro2eeding !ery
slo9ly& T)e ro3le( is not as si(le as t)is+ 3e2ause t)e Congolese
go!ern(ent also suorts (ilitias t)at (a'e use o" 2)ild soldiers+ su2)
!ai-!ai and t)e Rassa(3le(ent 2ongolais our Ia de(o2ratie6
(ou!e(ent de li3eration CRC*6MLD&
T)e allian2e o" grous oosed to t)e go!ern(ent also re2ruit 2)ild
soldiers& T)ere is e!iden2e t)at one o" t)ese grous+ t)e "nion des
patriotes congolais CU$CD )as (ade use o" 2)ildren as young as se!enE
"or2ed 2ons2ritions )a!e ta'en la2e& A se2ond (ilitia grou+ 9)i2)
re2ei!es aid "ro( R9andan go!ern(ent+ )as 2on"ir(ed t)at it too
re2ruits 2)ild soldiers& Ot)er lo2al (ilitia grous )a!e organised to
de"end t)eir land and !illages "ro( oosition (ilitias& T)ese lo2al
grous also rely on 2)ild soldiers& T)e ro3le( is eAa2er3ated 3y t)e
inter!ention o" ot)er #ast A"ri2an nations in t)e Congolese 9ar&
R9andan and ,urundian ar(ed "or2es (a'e signi"i2ant use o" 2)ild
soldiers&
T)e ot)er region 9e 9ill study is West A"ri2a 9)ere t)ere )a!e 3een
2on"li2ts in Cote dKl!oire+ Li3eria and Sierra Leone& #sta3lis)ing t)e
2auses o" t)e 9ar in t)is region is also di""i2ult+ as t)ere are (any
"a2tors& Order in Sierra Leone )ad 3een under(ined "or a long eriod
3e"ore 2i!il 9ar 3ro'e out in .;;.& Ba2tions engaged in 2i!il 2on"li2t in
neig)3ouring Li3eria 3egan to inter!ene in t)e "ig)ting in Sierra Leone 6
"urt)er 2o(li2ating t)e situation& Unli'e t)e situation in t)e Congo+
t)ere is+ at resent+ a ea2e and re2on2iliation ro2ess under9ay in
Sierra Leone& I#sti(ates o" 9ar6 related deat)s sin2e .;;. !ary 9idely 6
"ro( 2:+::: to <4+:::& AroAi(ately )al" t)e oulation o" 4&4 (illion
is internally disla2ed+ or li!ing as re"ugees outside t)e 2ountryF
)tt7//999&a"rol&2o(/ne9s/sil::<U2i!ilU9ar&)t(
lAiii
To date+ t)e Se2ial Court in Sierra Leone )as indi2ated a nu(3er o"
"or(er leaders o" ar(ed guerrilla grous "or 2ons2riting 2)ild soldiers&
C)arles Taylor+ t)e "or(er resident o" Li3eria+ aeared 3e"ore t)e
Se2ial Court "or Sierra Leone in Aril 2::0& He 9as 2)arged 9it) 9ar
2ri(es t)at in2luded resonsi3ility "or (ilitias 9)o (ade use o" 2)ild
2o(3atants& Li3erian and Li3erian6 2ontrolled "or2es 9ere arti2ularly
a2ti!e in re2ruit(ent in Monro!ia+ arti2ularly in t)e eriod 3e"ore
Taylor steed do9n as $resident t)at 9as (ar'ed 3y an intensi"i2ation
o" t)e "ig)ting& It 9as alleged t)at Taylor sonsored Ks(all 3oys unitsK&
T)e degree o" (ilitarisation o" t)ese young 2o(3atants 2an 3e
e!iden2ed in a22ounts t)at reort a (ilitary K2areerK t)at 3egan 9it)
"ig)ting as a young 2)ild in Li3eria+ t)en Sierra Leone+ and t)en 3eing
2ontra2ted to "ig)t in Togo&
C)tr7/ /)r9 &orgireorts/2::4/2)ildsoldiersOl:4/< &)t(T UTo24;=<
2;2@D
T)e Li3erian go!ern(ent 2lai(ed t)at t)e young soldier )ad
!olunteered to "ig)t out o" a sense o" atrioti2 duty& Ho9e!er+ oular
de(onstrations in Monro!ia in 2::@ s)o9ed t)at t)is 9as not t)e 2ase&
Grous "ig)ting against t)e Li3erian go!ern(ent+ and allegedly 3a2'ed
3y Sierra Leone and t)e US+ 9ere also "ound to 3e using 2)ild soldiers
and la3ourer+ arti2ularly in t)e nort)ern art o" Li3eria& #ye9itness
a22ounts reorted 2)ild soldiers a2ti!ely ta'ing art in "ig)ting+ 3ut also
2arrying a((unition and sulies& Ot)er grous re2ruited in t)e Cote
dKl!oire "or soldier to "ig)t in Li3eria&
C)arles Taylor )as leaded not guilty to t)e 2)arges+ and )is trial is
ongoing in t)e Hague&
As (entioned a3o!e+ t)e 2i!il 9ar in Sierra Leone )as 2o(e to an end&
UN (issions to t)e 2ountry in 2::@ said t)at rogress )ad 3een (ade in
de(o3ilising 2)ild soldiers+ and re6integrating t)e( into so2iety& T)ere
9ere serious ro3le(s 9it) "unding+ and t)e s2ale o" t)e tas' t)at is
eAa2er3ated 3y t)e re"ugee ro3le( and t)e e2ono(i2 and so2ial
ro3le(s o22asioned 3y t)e 2i!il 9ar7 )tr7/ /)r9 &orgireorts/2::4/
2)ildsoldiers:l :4/0&)t(
.& W)at 2o((on "a2tors 2an you see in t)e use o" 2)ild soldiersJ
/80 C"!$dr%nF H%#$t"#r% #nd HIV6AIDS
HI1/AI*S is a glo3al ro3le(7
lAi!
HI1/AI*S 2ontinued to ose an a2ute t)reat to 2)ildrenKs )u(an
rig)ts in general& Unli'e (any !irulent eide(i2s in )istory t)at
)a!e 'illed (ainly young 2)ildren and t)e elderly+ AI*S "or t)e
(ost art in"e2ts and 'ills adults aged eig)teen to "orty years+ in or
near t)e (ost rodu2ti!e years o" t)eir li!es& Glo3ally+ (ost ersons
in t)is age grou are arents& T)us+ "or 2)ildren+ t)e eide(i2 too
o"ten reresents 3ot) t)e loss o" a arent or arents and eAosure to
t)e stig(a and dis2ri(ination t)at go )and in )and 9it) AI*S
t)roug)out t)e 9orld&F
C)tt7//999&)r9&orgE9r2'2/2)ildren&)t(lTHN/AI*sG2:and
G2OC )ildrenKsG2:Rig)ts
HI1/AI*S is e2uliar in t)at (ortality rates are 3orne
disroortionately 3y young eole at t)e age 9)ere t)ey are eit)er
starting a "a(ily+ or )a!e a young "a(ily& Bro( a 2)ildrenKs rig)ts
erse2ti!e+ it is t)is ase2t o" t)e disease t)at is (ost de!astating as it
destroys t)e 'ey stru2ture in t)e nurturing and rote2tion o" t)e 2)ild&
T)ere are ot)er 2onse-uen2es t)at "ollo9 "ro( t)e deat) o" a arent or
arents& It o"ten (eans t)at older 2)ildren 9ill )a!e to 2are "or t)eir
younger 3rot)ers and sisters+ 9it) t)e negati!e i(a2t t)is )as on t)eir
edu2ation or e(loy(ent oortunities& Burt)er(ore+ 2)ildren in"e2ted
9it) AI*S/HI1 are o"ten "or2ed into la3ouring "or oor 9ages or
rostitution+ t)e latter adding to t)e sread o" t)e disease& A reort )as
also dra9n attention to a ro3le( o" disin)eritan2e in 5enya& A"ter a
deat) o" a arent "ro( AI*S/HI1+ 2)ildren )a!e 3een deri!ed o"
roerty 3y distant relati!es eAloiting t)e la9 and t)e stig(a atta2)ed
to t)e disease& Binally+ t)ere is also e!iden2e to suggest t)at 2)ildren do
not )a!e a22ess to su""i2ient in"or(ation a3out AI*S/HI1& O"ten
resistan2e "ro( religious leaders and institutions to ro!iding 2)ildren
9it) in"or(ation on rerodu2ti!e )ealt) )as )andi2aed e""orts to
in"or( 2)ildren a3out )ealt) 2are issues&
T)e s2ale o" t)e disease is s)o2'ing7
IIn su36Sa)aran A"ri2a 6t)e (ost )ea!ily AI*S6a""e2ted region o"
t)e 9orld 6AI*S L)asM or)aned 2)ildren at a rate unre2edented in
)istory& T)e United Nations 2onser!ati!ely esti(ated t)at 3y
*e2e(3er 2:::+ a3out .@ (illion 2)ildren under age "i"teen in su36
Sa)aran A"ri2a )ad lost t)eir (ot)er or 3ot) arents to AI*S& In %uly
2:::+ t)e United States ,ureau o" t)e Census+ 9)i2) 'ees data on
AI*S indeendent o" t)e United Nations+ esti(ated t)at t)ere 9ere
a3out .4 (illion 2)ildren under age "i"teen 9)o )ad lost at least one
arent to AI*S in A"ri2a and t)at 3y 2:.: t)is nu(3er 9ould 3e at
least 2= (illion+ in2luding o!er @: er 2ent o" all 2)ildren under age
"i"teen in "i!e 2ountries o" eastern and sout)ern A"ri2a&F

lA!
CC)ildrenFs Rig)ts+ World Reort+ 2::2D
C)tt7//999&)r9&orgE9r2'2/2)ildren&)t(lTHN/AI*sG2:andG2:C
)ildrenKsG2:Rig)ts
T)e A"ri2an 2ontinent is not t)e only area a""e2ted& T)ailand )as seen
aroAi(ately @::+::: deat)s 9it) t)e asso2iated or)aning o" 2)ildrenE
t)e Cari33ean 3asin )as also 3een 3adly a""e2tedE )o9e!er+ at resent+
t)e disease is sreading (ost raidly in t)e "or(er So!iet Union and
#astern #uroe+ 9)ere drug use a(ong 2)ildren is eAa2er3ating
in"e2tion rates&
In .;;2+ at t)e International Su((it on T)e Rig)ts o" C)ildren in Sout)
A"ri2a+ 2)ildren aged .26.0 "ro( allo!er t)e 2ountry 2a(e toget)er and
dre9 u t)e C)ildrenKs C)arter o" Sout) A"ri2a& In itsel" t)is suggests t)e
s)ared er2etion t)at t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild in Sout) A"ri2a are not
ade-uately rote2ted& We 9ill no9 eAa(ine t)is arti2ular issue+
"o2using on t)e rig)t to )ealt) 2are&
On2e again+ 9e 9ill see t)at t)e ro3le(s in t)is area are not ne2essarily
lin'ed 9it) t)e legal "ra(e9or'& T)e Sout) A"ri2an Constitution
2ontains a rig)t to )ealt) 2are and t)e 2ountry is a signatory to t)e
Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild&
KSout) A"ri2a rati"ied t)e Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild
CICRCFD+ s)ortly a"ter t)e ad!ent o" de(o2rati2 rule+ in %une .;;4& In t)e
ro2ess leading to t)e "or(ulation o" t)e National $rogra((e o" A2tion
t)at "ollo9ed rati"i2ation+ t)e (atter o" la9 re"or( "or 2)ildren 9as
identi"ied as an i(ortant riority& T)e (ost ressing reason "or t)is 9as
t)e need to eli(inate o!en dis2ri(ination+ ese2ially ra2ial
dis2ri(ination+ "ro( t)e statute 3oo'+ 3ut t)ere were ot)er 2o(elling
"a2tors as 9ell& Not t)e least o" t)ese 9as t)e need to )ar(onise t)e la9s
o" t)e so6 2alled Kindeendent ,antustansK 2reated under aart)eid 9it)
t)ose o" t)e rest o" Sout) A"ri2a+ and t)e desire to ta'e legislati!e
a22ount o" t)e ro!isions o" t)e Con!ention itsel"& Sin2e t)e CRC 9as
t)e "irst international 2on!ention to 3e rati"ied 3y Sout) A"ri2a+
re!iously denied a22ession to UN treaties+ t)e re!ie9 o" legislation
ertaining to 2)ildren enjoyed )ig) oliti2al ro"ile and suort&F
C)ildrenFs Rig)ts in Sout) A"ri2a7 An Udate C)tt7//999&d2i6
au&org/)t(%/sa&)t(lD
Birst it is ne2essary to disa3use onesel" o" t)e idea t)at AI*S/HI1 is
so(e)o9 a Iunis)(entF "or seAual ro(is2uity& T)is aroa2) to aids
)as in"luen2ed go!ern(ent oli2y& Ho9e!er+ as 9e 9ill see 3elo9+ a
large roortion o" AI*S/HI1 su""erers are t)e !i2ti(s o" seAual
lA!i
!iolen2e& Arguing t)at seAual a3stinen2e 9ill ta2'le t)e ro3le( o"
AI*S/HI1 is t)us utterly (is2on2ei!ed&
Birst o" all+ 9e need to understand t)e 3asi2 legal osition o" t)e 2)ild in
Sout) A"ri2a& At 2o((on la9+ 2onsent "ro( eit)er a arent+ guardian or
t)e Hig) Court is ne2essary 3e"ore a 2)ild 2an re2ei!e (edi2al
treat(ent& T)e C)ild Care A2t o" .;=@ er(its 2)ildren o!er .4 to
2onsent to treat(ent t)e(sel!es+ and t)ere are ot)er (e2)anis(s to
o3tain 2onsent for 2)ildren under .4 i" t)e 2onsent or a arent or a
guardian is not a!aila3le& $er(ission (ay 3e soug)t "ro( t)e Minister
o" So2ial *e!elo(ent+ or+ in e(ergen2y 2ases+ a )osital
suerintendent&
T)ese legal (e2)anis(s )a!e to 3e la2ed in t)e 2onteAt o" t)e
HI1/AI*S eide(i2& W)en t)e .;=@ A2t 9as assed+ t)e s2ale o" t)e
ro3le( )ad not 3een anti2iatedE neit)er )ad oli2y (a'ers understood
t)e lin' 3et9een seAual !iolen2e and AI*S& Indeed+ t)e reort "ro(
9)i2) 9e are -uoting tal's o" Kt)e dual eide(i2s o" HI1/AI*S and
seAual !iolen2e6in2luding a !irtually unre2edented eide(i2 o" 2)ild
raeK& T)e 2onsent to treat(ent ro2edures under statute and at 2o((on
la9 are not no9 ro3ust enoug) to deal 9it) t)ese ro3le(sE ese2ially
sin2e a large nu(3er o" 2)ildren )a!e no arent or guardian7 2)ildren
)a!e 3een Ior)aned or a3andonedF& T)us+ in t)e oinion o" Sout)
A"ri2an Hu(an Rig)ts a2ti!ists+ t)e la9 on 2onsent does not rote2t
2)ildren+ 3ut la2es Iserious 3arriersF in t)e 9ay o" t)eir )ealt) 2areE
3arriers t)at 2ontradi2t 3ot) t)e SA 2onstitution+ and international
)u(an rig)ts la9&
T)ere 9as also a(3iguity in t)e la9& Bor instan2e+ one ressing issue
9as 9)et)er testing "or HI1/AI*S 2onstitutes (edi2al treat(ent& Many
2)ildren )ad 3een re"used )el until a legal ruling 2lari"ied t)at testing
did 2ount as treat(ent&
T)e struggle against HI1/AI*S in SA )as also 3een )a(ered 3y t)e
go!ern(entKs relu2tan2e to (a'e t)e ne2essary drugs a!aila3le&
Alt)oug) t)is )as re2ently 2)anged+ t)e legal en!iron(ent is not
2ondu2i!e to e""e2ti!e )ealt) 2are i(le(entation& Litigation )as 3een
atte(ted to o3tain antiretro!iral treat(ent and drugs "or 2)ildren li!ing
9it) HI1/AI*S& #$ Parte %igel &edman %'( 4D+ 2on2erned "our
or)aned 2)ildren 9it) HI1 . AI*S& As t)e 2)ildren )ad not yet )ad
legal guardians aointed+ it 9as not ossi3le to o3tain t)e 2onsent o"
legal guardians& T)e 2onsent o" t)e rele!ant Minister 9as also not
"ort)2o(ing& An ali2ation 9as t)us (ade to t)e Hig) Court+ and t)is
9as su22ess"ul& W)ilst t)is s)o9s t)at 2ourts 9ill inter!ene+ ali2ations
(ade to t)e Minister o" So2ial *e!elo(ent )a!e 3een ti(e62onsu(ing
and not entirely su22ess"ul& Bor 2)ildren li!ing 9it) a li"e6t)reatening
lA!ii
illness+ su2) rotra2ted ro2edures are eAtre(ely o3stru2ti!e+ and (ay
e!en ro!e "atal& T)e s2ale o" t)e ro3le( (eans t)at+ i" AI*S is to 3e
2ontrolled+ "ar (ore e""i2ient legal (e2)anis(s are ne2essary& It is
si(ly not ossi3le to (a'e ali2ations to t)e Hig) Court e!ery ti(e a
2)ild needs treat(ent+ or to 9ait "or t)e ruling o" t)e Minister o" So2ial
*e!elo(ent&
T)e C)ildrenFs A2t C2::4D goes a long 9ay to re2ti"y t)e situation&
Se2tion @2 rela2es t)e eAisting la9 9it) a ne9 set o" de"inition t)at
des2ri3e a 2)ildKs 2are gi!erE 2are gi!ers are eole 9)o assu(e 2are "or
a 2)ild+ 3ut ot)er9ise are not arents& A 2are gi!er (ay gi!e 2onsent to
Kany (edi2al eAa(ination or treat(ent o" t)e 2)ild i" su2) 2onsent
2annot reasona3ly 3e o3tained "ro( t)e arent or ri(ary 2are6gi!er o"
t)e 2)ildK& T)is se2tion s)ould (a'e o3taining treat(ent and 2are "or
2)ildren (u2) (ore straig)t "or9ard& Ho9e!er+ unless t)e A2t also
allo9s (edi2al ra2titioners to aut)oriHe treat(ent+ !i2ti(s o" seAual
!iolen2e 9ould not o3tain t)e ne2essary anti AI*S/HI1 drugs& T)is is
3e2ause go!ern(ent guidelines re-uire t)ese (edi2ines to 3e
ad(inistered 9it)in <2 )ours o" t)e seAual assault ra'ing la2e& In rural
areas+ 2)ildren (ay )a!e to tra!el a great distan2e to a )osital+ ossi3ly
9it)out arents or 2areersE t)e osition o" re"ugee or street 2)ildren is
si(ilar& Unless t)e (edi2al ra2titioner 9)o treats t)e( 2an aut)oriHe
treat(ent )i(sel" or )ersel"+ it is !ery unli'ely t)at t)e ne2essary
2onsent 9ould 3e "ort)2o(ing&
)tt7//)r9&org/englis)/do2s/2::4/:</2</sa"ri2;.4:&)t( CSout) A"ri2a7
Sa"eguarding C)ildrenKs Rig)ts to Medi2al CareK+ LiseR Gernt)oltH+
2::4&D
Sout" A2r!# #nd It& R%7ort& to t"% CRC
Sout) A"ri2aKs "irst reort to t)e Co((ittee "or t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild
stressed t)at t)e )ealt) 2are syste( )ad 3een in)erited "ro( t)e
Aart)eid regi(e& *esite t)is )istori2al ro3le(+ t)e ANC go!ern(ent
)as us)ed "or9ard 9it) t)e i(le(entation o" a "ree )ealt) 2are ser!i2e
"or all 2)ildren under 0 years oldE alt)oug) ro3le(s still re(ain in
relation to disarities o" ro!ision in rural and ur3an areas& As 9ell as
dra9ing attention to in"ant (ortality rates+ t)e reort also (entioned t)e
ro3le( o" IST*/HI1 in"e2tion in adoles2entsK+ HI1/AI*S and stated
t)at it 9as a a Inational 2)ild )ealt) rioritLyMF A nu(3er o" "urt)er
issues o" se2ial 2on2ern are identi"ied& T)e reort also ut t)e )ealt)
2are syste( into 2onteAt& Sout) A"ri2a is a de!eloing nation+ and
oerates under di""i2ult "inan2ial 2onditionsE )ealt) 2are and 9el"are
2on2erns need to 3e assessed "ro( t)is erse2ti!e&
C)tt7//999&2o((unityla92entre&org&Ha/ser/esr.;;;/.;;;julU2)arter&)
D&
lA!iii
.& AI*S/HI1 treat(ent is a 2)ildrenKs rig)ts issue& *is2uss
/8@ C"!$dr%n !n t"% Cr!'!n#$ S-&t%'
In turning to 2onsider ju!eniles in t)e justi2e syste(+ 9e are ri(arily
2on2erned 9it) (atters o" 2ri(inal justi2e& T)e guiding rin2iles o"
2)ildrenKs rig)ts in t)is area+ resting on notions o" t)e in)erent dignity
and rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild+ stress re)a3ilitation rat)er t)an unis)(ent& We
9ill see+ t)oug)+ t)at (any 2ountries ersist in treating 2)ildren as
adults+ and 3rea2)ing t)ese guiding rin2iles&
T)e "unda(ental rin2iles 2ontained in t)e ,eijing Rules are 3ased on
se2uring t)e 9ell63eing o" t)e ju!enile in t)e 2ri(inal justi2e syste(&
$oli2y initiati!es are re2o((ended 9)i2) Kredu2e t)e need "or
inter!ention under t)e la9F+ and ju!enile justi2e needs to 3e t)oug)t o"
as art o" a K2o(re)ensi!e "ra(e9or' o" so2ial justi2eK& Rule 4&.
se2i"ies t)at (easures ta'en in relation to a ju!enile o""ender are
roortionate to 3ot) t)e 2ir2u(stan2es o" t)e Ko""ender and t)e o""en2eK&
T)is is ese2ially ertinent in t)ose Kstatus o""en2esK under national legal
syste(s 9)ere t)e 3e)a!iour attra2ting 2ri(inal san2tion is 9ider t)an
t)at "or adults& T)e eAa(les gi!en are Ktruan2y+ s2)ool and "a(ily
diso3edien2e LandM u3li2 drun'ennessK& T)e rin2iles go on to
re2ognise and 2on"ir( t)e rele!an2e o" due ro2ess guarantees "or
ju!eniles& CUnited Nations Standard Mini(u( Rules "or t)e
Ad(inistration o" %u!enile %usti2e CT)e ,eijing RulesKD+ GA& res& 4:/@@+
anneA+ 4: U&N& GAOR Su& CNo& 4@D&at 2:<+ U&N& *o2& %)*+,-
C.;=4D&D
As 9ell as stressing t)e general rin2iles 2ontained in t)e ,eijing rules+
t)e United Nations Rules "or t)e $rote2tion o" %u!eniles
*eri!ed o" t)eir Li3erty+ LG&A& res& 44/..@+ anneA+ 44 U&N& GAOR
Su& CNo& 4;AD at 2:4+ U&N& *o2& %),+). C.;;:DM stress t)at detention
"or ju!eniles s)ould only e!er 3e a unis)(ent o" Klast resortK and any
rison senten2e or deri!ation o" li3erty (ust 3e K"or t)e (ini(u(
eriod ossi3leK& $er)as t)e (ost use"ul state(ent o" oli2ies regarding
ju!enile justi2e are ro!ided 3y t)e Riyad) Guidelines+ t)e United
Nations Guidelines "or t)e $re!ention o" %u!enile *elin-uen2y+ G&A&
res& 44/..2+ anneA+ 44 U&N& GAOR Su& CNo& 4;AD at 2:.+ UN *o2&
lAiA
%),+). C.;;:D& T)ese guidelines stress t)e i(ortan2e o" integrating
young adults into so2iety7 K,y engaging in la9"ul+ so2ially use"ul
a2ti!ities and adoting a )u(anisti2 orientation to9ards so2iety and
outloo' on li"e+ young ersons 2an de!elo non62ri(inogeni2 attitudesK&
T)us+ t)e resonse o" any 2ri(inal justi2e syste( s)ould 3e to
understand t)e reasons "or de!ian2e& $unis)(ent (ay 3e ne2essary+ 3ut
t)e e()asis is on understanding 9)y an o""en2e )as ta'en la2e+ and
re6orientating indi!iduals to less anti6so2ial attitudes&
,rea2)es o" t)ese standards 2an 3e "ound a2ross t)e se2tru( o" la9
en"or2e(ent and in all 2ountries o" t)e 9orld+ 3ut 9e 9ill 2onsider so(e
eAa(les dra9n "ro( Latin A(eri2a and t)e United States& A3uses
3egin on2e 2)ildren are under t)e 2ontrol o" t)e oli2e& One arti2ularly
eAtre(e eAa(le+ as reorted 3y t)e United Nations se2ial raorteur
on eAtrajudi2ial eAe2utions+ 9as e!iden2e t)at+ sin2e .;;=+ u to =::
2)ildren )ad 3een (urdered 3y t)e $oli2e in Honduras& Also in Latin
A(eri2a+ t)e Inter6 A(eri2an Court o" Hu(an Rig)ts (ade an order
against Guate(ala relating to t)e (urder o" street 2)ildren 3y t)e $oli2e&
In $araguay+ a Hu(an Rig)ts grou also reorted t)at 2)ildren 9ere
3eing )eld 9it) adults in o!er2ro9ded risons and 9ere !i2ti(s o" ill6
treat(ent+ in2luding unis)(ent 3y solitary 2on"ine(ent&
T)e re2ord o" t)e United States is also not arti2ularly good in t)is area&
Alt)oug) t)ere is a ju!enile justi2e syste( in t)e US+ 2on2ern )as 3een
dra9n to t)e "a2t t)at t)e US 2ri(inal justi2e syste( tries 2)ildren as
adults in a nu(3er o" 2ases 9)ere se2ial ju!enile ro2esses 9ould 3e
(ore suita3le& It is a general rin2ile o" 2)ildrenKs rig)ts t)at t)ere
s)ould 3e a (ini(u( age "or 2ri(inal resonsi3ility& An A(nesty
International reort s)o9s t)at (ore t)an )al" o" all US states )a!e
2ri(es "or 9)i2) any 2)ild 2an 3e rose2uted in an adult 2ourtE t)ere are
also in2onsisten2ies 3et9een di""erent states as to t)e age at 9)i2) a
2)ild 2an 3e tried in a ju!enile 2ourt& Bor instan2e+ in Nort) Carolina t)e
(ini(u( age is siAE in Maryland+ Massa2)usetts and Ne9 ?or'+ t)e
(ini(u( age is se!en& T)e Reort goes on to state t)at7
&&,et9een .;=0 and .;;4+ t)e nu(3er o" 2)ildren 2on"ined in 2ustody
3e"ore t)eir 2ases 9ere )eard or "ollo9ing 2on!i2tion gre9 3y (ore t)an
@: er 2ent& ). (any jurisdi2tions+ t)e in2rease in t)e nu(3er o"
2)ildren 9)o are )eld in 2ustody )as outstried t)e in2rease in
resour2es t)at are a!aila3le to )ouse t)e 2)ildren and ro!ide ser!i2es
"or t)e(& T)e (ost re2ent sur!ey "ound t)at 4: er 2ent o" "a2ilities
around t)e USA )oused (ore 2)ildren t)an t)ey 9ere designed to
a22o((odate&
C,etraying t)e ?oung7 C)ildren in t)e US Cri(inal %usti2e Syste(
)tt7//999&a(nesty&org/li3rary/indeA/#NGAMR4.:0:.;;=D
lAA
,rea2)es o" international standards t)us 2on2ern t)e eA2essi!e use o"
in2ar2eration+ 3ot) 3e"ore "or(al 2on!i2tion+ and as a (eans o"
unis)(ent a"ter 2on!i2tionE and t)e in2ar2eration o" 2)ildren in
"a2ilities t)at are not e-uied 9it) resour2es t)at are suita3le to
ju!eniles+ or to t)ose 9it) (ental )ealt) ro3le(s& Ho9e!er+ se2ial
2ensure 9as due to t)e "a2t t)at t)e US i(oses deat) senten2es on
t)ose 2on!i2ted o" 2ri(es 2o((itted 9)en t)ey 9ere 2)ildren7
W)en it rati"ied t)e ICC$R+ t)e US go!ern(ent reser!ed t)e rig)t to
i(ose t)e deat) enalty "or 2ri(es 2o((itted 3y t)ose under .=& In
.;;4 t)e UN Hu(an Rig)ts Co((ittee+ t)e 3ody o" eAerts set u to
(onitor 2o(lian2e 9it) t)e ICC$R+ said t)at t)e US reser!ation 9as
in2o(ati3le 9it) t)e o3je2t and urose o" t)e ICC$R and s)ould 3e
9it)dra9n& Ho9e!er+ sin2e rati"i2ation+ US state aut)orities )a!e
eAe2uted siA risoners "or 2ri(es 2o((itted 9)en t)ey 9ere under .=+
in2luding t9o in .;;=& In %une .;;=+ t)ere 9ere <: su2) risoners
a9aiting t)is "ate on US deat) ro9s&
In .;;=+ t9enty6"our US states er(it t)e use o" t)e deat) enalty
against t)ose under .= at t)e ti(e o" t)e 2ri(e& Bourteen states )a!e
legislation en"or2ing .= as t)e (ini(u( age& Ci3idD
A(nesty International goes on to oint out t)at t)e "ederal go!ern(ent
)as se2i"ied .= as t)e (ini(u( age o" 2ri(inal resonsi3ility+ and t)us
s)ould 3e o3liged to ensure ea2) state 2o(lies 9it) t)is rule& T)e
"ederal go!ern(ent is resonsi3le "or (a'ing sure t)at state
go!ern(ents a3ide 3y t)eir international o3ligations& Alt)oug) t)e US
)as not rati"ied t)e Con!ention+ 9)i2) sets .= as t)e age o" 2ri(inal
resonsi3ility+ t)e "a2t t)at t)e (ajority o" nations in t)e 9orld )a!e+
suggests t)at t)ere is (ore or less uni!ersal 2onsensus on t)e age o"
2ri(inal resonsi3ility& T)e Sure(e Court )as also s)o9n t)at it is not
9illing to a22et t)is 2onsensus+ )olding t)at .0 s)ould 3e t)e rele!ant
ageE it )as also )eld t)at t)e eAe2ution o" ju!eniles aged .0 or .< at t)e
ti(e o" t)e o""en2e does not !iolate t)e 2onstitution&
.& W)y is t)ere resistan2e to 2)ildrenFs rig)ts standards in t)e US
2ri(inal justi2e syste(J
2& Alt)oug) t)e Con!ention on 2)ildrenFs rig)ts is des2ri3ed as t)e
(ost rati"ied o" international )u(an rig)ts instru(ents+ a3uses o"
2)ildrenKs rig)ts are still 9idesread& Ho9 2an t)is situation 3e
a22ounted "orJ *is2uss&
lAAi
Any ans9er to t)is -uestion 9ould do 9ell to agree 9it) all arts o" t)is
state(ent& It is indeed a22urate to des2ri3e t)e Con!ention in t)is 9ay&
T)at it )as 3een so 9idely a22eted does suggest a general le!el o"
a22etan2e o" t)e rin2iles t)at it 2ontains+ and a 2oule o" aragra)s
o" t)e essay s)ould outline t)e 'ey rin2iles o" t)e Treaty+ and outline
t)e "un2tions o" t)e Co((ittee& T)e 'ey to t)e Co((itteeKs role is its
2o((it(ent to 2onstru2ti!e dialogue 9it) state arties& T)is aroa2)
(ay also en2ourage a 3road engage(ent 9it) t)e rin2iles o" t)e
Treaty at a6national le!el& T)e se2ond art o" t)e -uotation is also
a22urate& T)e essay s)ould outline t)e degree o" a3use and !iolation o"
2)ildrenKs rig)ts+ er)as 2)oosing to "o2us on one o" t)e areas outlined
a3o!e& T)e t)ird art o" t)e state(ent is ossi3ly t)e (ost di""i2ult art
o" t)e -uestion& T)e reasons 9)y 2)ildrenKs rig)ts 2ontinue to 3e a3used
are 2o(leA& Ho9e!er+ it (ig)t 3e ossi3le to suggest t)at t)e (ain
ro3le(s relate to t)e 3rea'do9n o" 2i!il institutions t)at 2ould rote2t
rig)ts in instan2es o" ar(ed 2on"li2t+ t)e 3roader 2onteAt o" ende(i2
o!erty+ and t)e ersisten2e o" 2ultural and e2ono(i2 atterns t)at 9ill
ta'e a long ti(e to 2)angeE i" t)ey 2)ange at all&
At!*!t- A8. 4#5 T)e Con!ention is 3uilt on "our general rin2iles t)at
are arti2ulated in arti2les 2+ @+ 0 and .2& Arti2le 2 ro!ides a ro)i3ition
on dis2ri(ination against 2)ildren+ a ositi!e state(ent o" e-ual
oortunity& Arti2le @ 2on2erns t)e K3est interests o" t)e 2)ildK& I" a
u3li2 aut)ority a2ts in relation to a 2)ild+ t)at aut)ority (ust a3ide 3y
t)is test& Arti2le 0 states t)at rig)t to li"e+ sur!i!al and de!elo(ent& It is
eAressed so(e9)at di""erently "ro( t)e *e2laration 3e2ause t)is rig)t
alies se2i"i2ally to 2)ildrenE de!elo(ent (ust 3e understood in a
3road sense to in2lude e(otional+ )ysi2al+ (ental and 2ultural
de!elo(ent& Arti2le .2 se2i"ies t)at 2)ildren s)ould 3e allo9ed to
)a!e oinions+ and t)at t)ese oinions (ust 3e 2onsidered in (atters
t)at 2on2ern t)e 2)ild& T)is 9ould o" 2ourse in2lude judi2ial and -uasi6
judi2ial )earings&
4(5 T)e Con!ention is a state(ent o" general rin2iles and ro!ides a
re"eren2e oint "or )u(an rig)ts standards as "ar as t)ey relate to
2)ildren& On2e a go!ern(ent )as 3e2o(e a signatory to t)e Con!ention+
it (ust (a'e sure t)at it )onours t)e rin2iles 2ontained 9it) t)e
Con!ention+ to t)e eAtent t)at it legislates or ro!ides rogra((es o"
a2tion to a2)ie!e t)e goals o" t)e Treaty& Go!ern(ents (ust su3(it
eriodi2 reorts to t)e Co((ittee+ 9)i2) 2an t)en (a'e
re2o((endations to t)e General Asse(3ly& T)ese re2o((endations
(ig)t re-uest t)at t)e Se2retary6General underta'es studies on se2i"i2
issues rele!ant to 2)ildrenKs rig)ts& T)e Co((ittee 2an also (a'e
suggestions and general re2o((endations 3ased on in"or(ation
lAAii
re2ei!ed in t)e eriodi2 reorts+ and also 2all "or assistan2e "ro( ot)er
se2ialist international organisations&
45 As (entioned a3o!e+ t)e Con!ention on t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild is t)e
(ost 9idely rati"ied o" international )u(an rig)ts instru(ents& T9o
nations )a!e not rati"ied t)e Con!ention7 So(alia and t)e USA& T)e
"or(er )as not 3een a3le to rati"y t)e Con!ention+ 3e2ause its
go!ern(ent is not internationally re2ognised& T)e USA )as signed t)e
Con!ention+ 3ut )as not yet rati"ied it& T)ere are se!eral reasons "or non6
rati"i2ation7 it )as 3een t)e ra2ti2e o" t)e US go!ern(ent to 2on2entrate
on rati"ying one treaty at a ti(eE and 2urrently t)is is t)e Con!ention on
t)e #li(ination o" All Bor(s o" *is2ri(ination against Wo(en& T)e
reason gi!en "or t)is is t)at it is ne2essary to (a'e sure national and
"ederal la9 is 2o)erent 9it) t)e TreatyKs o3ligations& Ho9e!er+ t)ere
(ay also 3e a degree o" oliti2al relu2tan2e to rati"y& As 9e 9ill see
3elo9+ t)ere are (any i(ortant areas 9)ere state la9 in t)e USA
re(ains 2ontrary to t)e Con!ention&
At!*!t- A82 T)is -uotation is an a22urate des2rition o" t)e ersisten2e
o" 3onded la3our in India& T)e 2ountryFs go!ern(ent )as 2o((itted
itsel" to international )u(an rig)ts standards+ and do(esti2 la9 is+ "or
t)e (ost art in line 9it) t)ese standards& T)e go!ern(ent )as also
s)o9n itsel"+ at a oli2y le!el+ to 3e 2o((itted to t)e struggle against
t)e e2ono(i2 eAloitation o" 2)ildren& Ho9e!er+ t)e ersisten2e o"
3onded la3our 2an eAlained 3y t)e "ailure to ut eit)er la9 or oli2y
into e""e2t at a grass roots le!el& T)e reasons "or t)is "ailure are 2o(leA+
3ut 2an 3e (entioned in
UNIT / THE RIGHTS OF REFUGEES
lAAiii
CONTENTS
0& Introdu2tion
<& O3je2ti!es
=& Main Content
@&. T)in'ing a3out t)e Rig)ts o" t)e Re"ugee
@&2 T)e re2ent History o" t)e Re"ugee
@&2&. Measures to $rote2t Re"ugees
@&2&2 W)at is a Re"ugeeJ
@&@ T)e Con!ention relating to t)e Status o" re"ugees and t)e
.;0< $roto2ol
@&@&. *e"inition o" a re"ugee
@&@&2 O3ligations on States and Re"ugees
@&4 Wo(en and Girls as re"ugees
@&4 T)e Con!ention and National La9
@&4&. #nglis) Courts and t)e Con!ention
@&4&2 Re"ugees+ Asylu( and I((igration in t)e U5
@&0 T)e Crisis in t)e SudanE Oil+ $o9er and re"ugees
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
T)e rig)ts o" re"ugees raise in a arti2ularly a2ute "or( one o" t)e (ain
issues t)at )as 2on2erned us t)roug)out t)is su3je2t guide&
T)e re"ugee is a erson 9)o )as )ad to lea!e t)e 2ountry o" )is or )er
3irt) or do(i2ile t)roug) a "ear o" erse2ution& Ho9 are )u(an rig)ts to
rote2t t)is (ost !ulnera3le grouJ As 9e )a!e seen+ international la9
la2es o3ligations on so!ereign states& Ho9 2an re"ugees rely on a state
to rote2t t)eir rig)ts 9)en it is t)e state itsel" t)at is erse2uting t)e(J
It is in t)e area o" re"ugeesF rig)ts t)at t)e o3ligations o" t)e
international 2o((unity are er)as t)e (ost (eaning"ul& Could 9e
sea' o" an international duty to rote2t t)ose "leeing erse2utionE or o"
t)ose 9)o )a!e 3een (ade state6less and rig)t6 lessJ We 9ill see t)at
t)e UN )as atte(ted to (a'e a duty to re"ugees a reality 3ut+ t)at t)ere
is still a great resistan2e to oen6 ended resonsi3ility to re"ugees in
(ost nations o" t)e 9orld&
Re"ugee la9 is a 2o(leA and e!er62)anging 3ody o" do2trine and
rin2ile& Li'e all )u(an rig)ts la9+ it is also an intensely oliti2al
su3je2t& In t)is 2)ater+ 9e 9ill see )o9 an are2iation o" t)e ro3le(s
"a2ed 3y re"ugees )as trans"or(ed itsel" "ro( a #uroean to a 9orld
lAAi!
issue& T)e UN+ its agen2ies and ot)er INGOs and ressure grous are
er)as resonsi3le "or t)is in2reased a9areness o" t)e issue 6and 9e
9ill "o2us on t)e role o" t)e .;4. Con!ention and t)e .;0< $roto2ol&
Ho9e!er+ 9e need to are2iate t)at re"ugeesK rig)ts are in2reasingly
3eing 2riti2ised&
T)e Con!ention and t)e 2on2et o" re"ugeesK rig)ts are 2titi2ised 3y
oliti2ians in t)e de!eloing and de!eloed 9orld& Bor instan2e+ in 2::.
t)e t)en Ho(e Se2retary o" t)e U5+ %a2' Stra9+ argued t)at t)e
Con!ention 9as in need o" re!ision as t)e ten6"old in2rease in asylu(
see'ers in t)e U5 suggested t)at e2ono(i2 (igrants 9ere ta'ing
ad!antage o" a stateKs resonsi3ility to re"ugees& Certain oliti2ians and
irresonsi3le journalists also ortray t)e asylu( see'er as a erson
see'ing to 2lai( 3ene"its and ri!ileges t)at t)ey do not deser!e&
,ut to 9)at eAtent are t)ese !ie9s a22urateJ
)D T9o 2ountries in sout)9est Asia+ Iran and $a'istan+ )ost t9i2e as
(any re"ugees as do all t)e 2ountries o" Western #uroe
2o(3ined& ?et in 2:::+ t)e 9orldFs 9ealt)iest nations
2ontri3uted less t)an S. 3i.lion6one6tent) t)e a(ount t)ey sent
on (aintaining t)eir o9n asylu( syste(s66to "und UNHCRFs
rote2tion 9or' around t)e 9orld& L)tt7//999&un)2r&org/2gi63in/
teAis/!tA/rote2tM&
T)is aut)oritati!e -uotation suggests t)at t)e real ro3le( (ig)t rest
9it) t)e "ailure o" o9er"ul nations to 2o((it t)e(sel!es to a
(eaning"ul and 2o)erent international syste( "or t)e rote2tion o" t)e
rig)ts o" re"ugees&
We t)us need to la2e re"ugeesF rig)ts in t)eir oliti2al as 9ell as t)eir
legal 2onteAt& It is 9ort) also noting at t)is stage t)at t)ere is a
distin2tion 3et9een t)e re"ugee and t)e asylu( see'er& Indeed+ alt)oug)
t)ere are re"eren2es to asylu( in t)e $rea(3le to t)e Con!ention+ t)e
granting o" asylu( is not dealt 9it) in t)e .;4. Con!ention or t)e .;0<
$roto2ol&
289 O:;ECTIVES
,y t)e end o" t)is 2)ater and t)e rele!ant readings you s)ould 3e a3le
to7
des2ri3e t)e oliti2al and so2ial 2onteAt o" re"ugeesF rig)ts
eAlain t)e legal t)eoreti2al issues raised 3y re"ugeesK rig)ts
su((arise t)e 3asi2 ro!isions o" t)e .;4. Con!ention relating to
t)e Status o" Re"ugees and t)e .;0< $roto2ol
lAA!
understand t)e ro3le(s in)erent in t)e test "or deter(ining re"ugee
status identi"y t)e ro!isions t)at relate to 9o(en and girls as
re"ugees and to "a(ily reuni"i2ation
des2ri3e t)e resonse o" t)e #nglis) 2ourts to t)e test "or t)e
deter(ination o" re"ugee status
outline re"or(s to i((igration and asylu( oli2y in t)e U5 and t)e
oliti2al issues t)ese re"or(s raise
)a!e a 3asi2 understanding o" t)e re"ugee 2risis in t)e Sudan&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. T"!n+!n, #(out t"% R!,"t& o2 t"% R%2u,%%
As suggested in t)e introdu2tion a3o!e+ t)e 2on2et o" t)e re"ugee "ug
ro3le(s in )u(ans rig)ts la9& T)e "ollo9ing assage 2ontains an
engaging analysis o" so(e o" t)e 'ey issues7
Re"uges (o!e(ent 2alled into -uestion t)e organisation o" t)e 9orld
into distin2t "oreign territories to 9)i2) indi!iduals 9ere allied 3y
3irt)>sin2e t)e essen2e o" t)e )eno(enon o" re"ugee)ood is t)at
an indi!idual is le"t 9it)out t)e rote2tion o" )is or )er state+ t)e
re"ugee ro3le( 9as seen 3y (any to 3e a "unda(ental ro3le( o"
(odern oliti2al organisation& T)e oliti2al t)eorist+ Hanna) Arendt+
9as one o" t)e earliest 9riters to see arti2ulated in t)e re"ugee
2ondition t)e in)erently !iolent and dis2ri(inatory nature o" t)e
West)alian state syste(& A22ording to Arendt+ )u(an rig)ts+ e!en
t)ose o" t)e (ost 3asi2 and "unda(ental 'ind+ su2) as t)e rig)t to li"e
and "reedo( "ro( in)u(an or degrading treat(ent or unis)(ent+ +
do not de!ol!e to t)e )u(an su3je2t t)roug) (ere i(ulsi!e
eAisten2e in t)e 9orld+ 3ut due rat)er to atta2)(ent to t)e so2ial and
oliti2al organisation 'no9n as t)e state& T)ose 9it)out t)e
rote2tion o" t)e state 6t)e re"ugee 3eing t)e aradig(ati2 instan2e V
IeAist 9it)out t)e rig)t to )a!e rig)tsF& W)ilst Arendt and ot)ers
2alled "or a 2orre2ti!e Cto t)e state syste(+ so t)at "alling states
a22ord roer rote2tion to its 2itiHensD ot)ers !ie9ed t)e re"ugee
2ondition as otentially rodu2ti!e o" a ne9 oliti2al 2ons2iousness
a3le to 2)allenge t)e neAus o" state+ territory and identity t)at )as
resulted in t)e disin"ran2)is(ent o" (illions o" re"ugees t)roug)out
t)e ages>indeed+ Gorgio Aga(3en+ 9)ose 9or' )as 3een )ig)ly
in"luential+ sea's o" re"ugee)ood as t)e Ionly t)in'a3le 2ategory "or
t)e eole o" our ti(e&F
Tuitt argues t)at t)e status o" t)e re"ugee ro!ides an insig)t into t)e
nature o" )u(an rig)ts& T)e re"ugee 2)allenges t)e !ery notion o" a
syste( o" "or(ally e-ual so!ereign states Ct)e West)alian state
syste(D& ,e2ause t)e re"ugee is a stateless erson+ )e resents a ro3le(
lAA!i
to a syste( o" )u(an rig)ts t)at deends on t)e so!ereign state&
A22ording to t)e Ger(an )iloso)er Hanna) Arendt+ t)e re"ugee
2)ara2terises t)e (ode( oliti2al 2ondition7 t)e in)erently !iolent
nature o" t)e state t)at 2an 3ot) grant and deri!e 2itiHens o" rig)ts& In
ArendtFs oinion+ )u(an rig)ts are not t)e rodu2t o" in)erent dignity+
3ut eAist urely 3e2ause a state (ig)t grant and re2ognise t)e(& A
nu(3er o" 2on2lusions 2an 3e dra9n "ro( t)is oint& One is t)at it is
ne2essary to )a!e a sura6go!ern(ental syste( t)at guarantees )u(an
rig)tsE anot)er sees t)e !ery 2ondition o" t)e re"ugee as rele!ant to a
ne9 oliti2al 2ons2iousness t)at ta'es t)e re"ugee as t)e rig)t6less
erson as t)e aradig( o" (odern oliti2s+ rat)er t)an t)e (odel o" t)e
2itiHen 9it) rig)ts&
TuittFs analysis also suggests t)at t)e re"ugee needs to 3e ut into a
)istori2al 2onteAtE and so 3e"ore 9e 2an t)in' 2riti2ally a3out t)e issued
raised+ 9e need to eAa(ine 3rie"ly t)e (ode( ro3le( o" t)e re"ugee&
Su''#r-
T)e "o2us o" t)is 2)ater 9ill 3e on t)e .;4. Con!ention and t)e .;0<
$roto2ol& *esite t)ese international agree(ents+ t)oug)+ t)e )u(an
rig)ts o" re"ugees are o"ten negle2ted& T)is is 3e2ause 3y 3eing state6
less+ re"ugees "all outside t)e )u(an rig)ts syste( as rig)ts o3ligations
rest 9it)in nation states& Anot)er 2entral ro3le( is t)e de(onisation o"
re"ugees and asylu( see'ers+ and t)e "ailure o" o9er"ul 2ountries to
ledge a signi"i2ant le!el o" "inan2ial suort to t)e syste( "or t)e
rote2tion o" re"ugees&
.8.T"% R%%nt H!&tor- o2 t"% R%2u,%%
.8.8. M%#&ur%& to Prot%t R%2u,%%&
T)e roots o" t)e (ode( la9 relating to t)e rote2tion o" t)e re"ugee 2an
3e "ound in t)e i((ediate a"ter(at) o" t)e Se2ond World War& T)e
United Nations Relie" and Re)a3ilitation Agen2y CUNRRAD and t)e
International Re"ugee Organisation CIROD 9ere in!ol!ed in aiding t)e
)undreds o" t)ousands o" disla2ed eole in #uroe& Ho9e!er+ t)ere
9as not+ as yet+ a 2o)erent 3ody o" re"ugee la9& T)ere 9ere t9o rele!ant
instru(ents7 t)e .;@@ League o" Nations Con!ention relating to t)e
International Status o" Re"ugees and t)e .;@= Con!ention 2on2erning
t)e Status o" Re"ugees 2o(ing "ro( Ger(any& Alt)oug) t)e .;@@
Con!ention 2ontained rin2iles t)at+ as 9e 9ill see+ 9ent on to in"or(
t)e Con!ention relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees+ t)ese do2u(ents
2annot 3e seen as ro!iding a 2o)erent "ra(e9or' "or t)e rote2tion o"
t)e )u(an rig)ts o" re"ugees& Indeed+ alt)oug) t)e .;@@ Con!ention
la2ed duties on signatories to a22et re"ugees+ and ro)i3ited t)eir
lAA!ii
eAulsion+ t)e e""e2t o" t)is treaty 9as se!erely li(ited 3y t)e "a2t t)at
t)ose "e9 nations 9)o did sign i(osed li(itations on its in"luen2e&
In t)e ost69ar eriod+ t)e 2ontinuing nature o" t)e re"ugee ro3le( in
#uroe+ and t)e are2iation t)at t)e re"ugee 2risis raised )u(anitarian
and )u(an rig)ts issues+ (ade t)e UN 'een to i(ro!e t)e international
rote2tion o" disla2ed ersons& T)e UNHCR 9as 2reated in .;4: 3y
t)e UN General Asse(3ly and gi!en a re(it t)at 2o!ered t)e rote2tion
o" re"ugees 9orld9ide&
One year a"ter t)e 2reation o" t)e UNHCR+ t)e Con!ention relating to
t)e Status o" Re"ugees 9as adoted 3y t)e UN& One o" t)e (ain reasons
"or t)e Con!ention is outlined 3y t)e UNHCR Hand3oo'7
Instead o" ad hoc agree(ents adoted in relation to se2i"i2 re"ugee
situations+ t)ere 9as a 2all "or an instru(ent 2ontaining a general
de"inition o" 9)o 9as to 3e 2onsidered a re"ugee&
T)e nature o" t)e Con!ention re"le2ts t)e "a2t t)at it 9as largely a
2o(ro(ise a22eta3le to t)e arties resent 9)en it 9as dra9n u& As
9it) all international )u(an rig)ts+ re"ugee rig)ts la2e o3ligations on
so!ereign states+ and state arties 9ere relu2tant to 2o((it to
o3ligations t)at 9ere too 3road or inter"ered too dra(ati2ally 9it) t)eir
o9n internal a""airs& T)us+ as 9e 9ill see+ t)e !ery de"inition o" t)e
re"ugee status )as a te(oral li(it& It alies to t)ose 9)o 3e2a(e
re"ugees Kas a result o" e!ents o22urring 3e"ore . %anuary .;4. K& T)ere is
also an otion to li(it t)e geogra)i2al rea2) o" t)e treaty to e!ents
)aening in #uroe&
,ot) li(itations re"le2t t)e "a2t t)at so!ereign states 9ere un9illing to
adot oen6ended resonsi3ilities in t)is area& Ho9e!er+ t)e .;0<
$roto2ol relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees re(o!ed t)e geogra)i2al
and te(oral.i(its o" t)e Con!ention&
T)e .;0< $roto2ol also 2reated a duty "or national aut)orities to 2o6
oerate 9it) t)e UN in t)e KeAer2ise o" its "un2tionsF+ and in t)e
2olle2tion o" statisti2al data relating to t)e 2ondition o" re"ugees and t)e
status o" la9s relating to re"ugees in t)e signatory state& A "u..list o"
arties to t)e $roto2ol and t)e Con!ention 2an 3e "ound at7
)tt7//999&un)2r&org/2gi6 3in/teAis/!tA/rote2t/ oendo2& d"lt3l W
$ROT#CTIONXid W @3<@3Od0@
T)e Con!ention is i(ortant "ro( a legal erse2ti!e 3e2ause it
2ontains a general de"inition o" t)e re"ugee+ and also grants t)e( so(e
rig)ts& T)e 2ore o" t)e Con!ention is t)e rin2ile t)at a nation (ust not
eAel or return a re"ugee Cre"oule(entD& T)is rin2ile 9as 2ontentious
lAA!iii
at t)e ti(e o" t)e dra"ting o" t)e Con!ention+ and re(ains so today&
Go!ern(ents 9ere 2on2erned t)at t)ey 9ere under an o3ligation to
allo9 unli(ited nu(3ers o" ersons to 2lai( status as re"ugees on2e
t)ey )ad 2rossed a national 3order& Misgi!ings a3out a nationFs
o3ligations to re"ugees is re"le2ted in t)e "a2t t)at t)e Con!ention also
i(oses o3ligations on re"ugees to t)e nation t)at is rote2ting t)e(& In
t)is sense+ re"ugeeFs rig)ts 2learly 2orrelate 9it) re"ugeeKF duties&
T)e Con!ention is sule(ented 3y ot)er international instru(ents+
in2luding t)e International Co!enant on Ci!il and $oliti2al Rig)ts
C.;00D+ t)e Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild C.;=;D and t)e
Con!ention Against Torture and Ot)er Cruel+ In)u(ane and *egrading
Treat(ent or $unis)(ent C.&;=4D& T)ere are also ot)er+ regional
instru(ents t)at relate to re"ugees& Bor eAa(le in Latin A(eri2a+ t)ere
are a nu(3er o" rele!ant international statutes& A(ongst t)ese
do2u(ents are7
t)e Treaty on International $enal La9 CMonte!ideo+ .==;D
t)e Agree(ent on #Atradition CCara2as+ .;..D
t)e Con!ention on Asylu( CHa!ana+ .;2=D
t)e Con!ention on $oliti2al Asylu( CMonte!ideo+ .;@@D
t)e Con!ention on *ilo(ati2 Asylu( CCara2as+ .;44D
t)e Con!ention on Territorial Asylu( CCara2as+ .;44D&
T)ere is also t)e Con!ention Go!erning t)e Se2i"i2 Ase2ts o" Re"ugee
$ro3le(s in A"ri2a& T)is 9as adoted 3y t)e Organisation o" A"ri2an
Unity in .;0;& We s)all eAa(ine t)is treaty in a later C)ater&
.8.82 W"#t !& # R%2u,%%D
,e"ore 9e eAa(ine t)e Re"ugee Con!ention in det)+ it is 9ort)
t)in'ing in a little (ore detail a3out t)e !ery idea o" t)e re"ugee& T)e
distin2tion 3et9een a re"ugee and a erson see'ing entry to a 2ountry "or
ot)er uroses o" (igration is rat)er ar3itrary& Bro( a )istori2al
erse2ti!e+ "or instan2e+ it 9as not until t)e late eig)teent) 2entury in
#ngland t)at t)e 9ord Ire"ugeeF 9as used to des2ri3e an indi!idual
es2aing erse2utionE su2) Ire"ugeesF 9ere t)en 2onsidered IaliensF&
More re2ently+ 9e 2an see t)at t)e 9ord+ and indeed t)e legal 2on2et+
)as 3een used rat)er loosely& In .;0=+ a large grou o" 5enyan 2itiHens
o" Asian dissent 9ere "a2ing dis2ri(ination in 5enya and soug)t to
enter t)e U5E later in .;<2 a grou o" IUgandan AsiansF also soug)t
entry into t)e U5& Alt)oug) a 2ase 2ould 3e (ade t)at t)ese eole
9ere re"ugees "leeing erse2ution+ it 9as not t)e 9ay t)at t)ey 9ere
2onsidered 3y i((igration la9& T)e treat(ent o" t)is grou 2an 3e
2o(ared 9it) t)e later treat(ent o" Al3anians "leeing 5oso!o in t)e
.;;:s& T)ese eole 9ere treated as asylu( see'ers C"or t)e distin2tion
lAAiA
3et9een re"ugees and asylu( see'ers+ lease see 3elo9D& One (ore
eAa(le is ertinent& Bro( No!e(3er 2::2, all 2lai(s "or asylu( to t)e
U5 "ro( 2ountries a22eding to t)e #U are to 3e treated as un"ounded&
Ho9e!er+ "ro( May 2::4, nationals "ro( t)ese sa(e 2ountries 2an enter
t)e U5 as 2itiHens o" t)e #U7 t)us+ deending on 9)et)er+ "or eAa(le+
a $olis) national enters t)e U5 3e"ore or a"ter t)e May 2::4 deadline+
)e 9ill eit)er 3e regarded as eit)er a #uroean 9or'er or as a "ailed
asylu( see'er& T)ese eAa(les suggest t)at t)e di!iding lines 3et9een
i((igrant or e2ono(i2 (igrant and asylu( see'er or re"ugee are rat)er
3lurred Csee Clayton+ G& /e$t0oo on Immigration and Asylum 1aw.
COA"ord7 ,la2'stone $ress+ 2::4 &@446S LIS,N7 .=4.<4.==4MDD&
R%2u,%%& or A&-$u' S%%+%r&D
T)e ter( re"ugee is so(e9)at !ague+ and 9e (ust distinguis) 3et9een
a re"ugee and an asylu( see'er& Birst+ t)e 2on2et o" asylu(+ )istori2ally
at least+ 9as a ri!ilege o" so!ereign states& Bro( an international la9
erse2ti!e+ t)is is still ro3a3ly t)e 2ase7 it is a state t)at )as t)e rig)t to
grant asylu(& W)at does t)is (eanJ A state 2an only de(and t)e return
o" its nationals in "or(al eAtradition ro2eedings+ and anot)er state (ay
2)oose to grant asylu(& T)is notion t)at t)e Irig)t to asylu( arises
3et9een statesK CClayton+ &@4SD+ )as 3een -uali"ied 3y t)e Uni!ersal
*e2laration+ as Arti2le .4 states t)e rig)t to Ksee' and enjoyK asylu(&
Ho9e!er+ it )as 3een argued t)at t)is does not a2tually (ean t)at one
)as a rig)t to asylu(& T)is 9ould (ean+ t)ere"ore+ t)at a state is not
under an o3ligation to grant asylu(&
Ho9 does t)is relate to t)e Con!ention relating to t)e Status o"
Re"ugeesJ As argued a3o!e+ t)e 2ore o" t)e Con!ention is t)e
ro)i3ition on re"oule(ent& T)is (eans t)at a state 2annot return
re"ugees& An o3ligation not to return re"ugees does not ne2essarily
e-uate to a rig)t to asylu(& Also note t)at re"oule(ent relates to
re"ugees already on t)e territory o" t)e state7 it does not re!ent a state
"ro( stoing re"ugees rea2)ing its 3orders in t)e "irst la2e CClayton+ &
@40D&
.& IAlt)oug) one )as to distinguis) 3et9een re"ugees+ asylu(
see'ers and e2ono(i2 (igrants+ t)ere is no 2lear 3oundary
3et9een t)e ter(s&F *is2uss&
2& W)at does TuittFs analysis o" t)e re"ugee suggest a3out t)e nature
o" re"ugee la9J
Su''#r-
lAAA
T)is se2tion )as dealt 9it) t)e )istori2al and 2on2etual stru2ture o" t)e
idea o" t)e re"ugee& We )a!e re!ie9ed t)e 9or' o" Arendt+ Aga(3en
and Tuitt 9)o suggest+ in di""erent 9ays+ t)at t)e re"ugee is a K"igureK o"
our ti(es& We )a!e also loo'ed at t)e )istori2al de!elo(ent o" re"ugee
la9 9)i2) too' la2e i((ediately a"ter t)e Se2ond World War in
#uroe& Alt)oug) t)e United Nations Relie" and Re)a3ilitation Agen2y
CUNRRAD and t)e International Re"ugee OrganiHation CIROD ro!ided
assistan2e "or disla2ed eoles+ a 2o)erent 3ody o" re"ugee la9 9as
only a2)ie!ed 9it) t)e Con!ention relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees in
.;4.& Alt)oug) t)e Con!ention 2ould 3e seen as a 2o(ro(ise+ 3e2ause
states 9ere not 'een to assu(e 3road resonsi3ilities "or re"ugees+ it
does 2ontain so(e i(ortant ro!isions& T)e Con!ention ro!ides a
general de"inition o" t)e re"ugee and a 3asi2 set o" rig)ts& T)e
Con!ention states t)at a nation (ust not eAel or return a re"ugee
Cre"oule(entD& Burt)er ad!an2es (ean t)at t)ere are no9 a nu(3er o"
(easures t)at relate to t)e international rote2tion o" re"ugees rig)ts&
.82T"% Con*%nt!on R%$#t!n, to t"% St#tu& o2 r%2u,%%&
#nd t"% .C@A Protoo$
.828. D%2!n!t!on o2 # R%2u,%%
T)e Con!ention Relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees 9as adoted in .;4.
3y t)e United Nations and 2a(e into "or2e in Aril .;44& T)e $rea(3le
states t)at t)e Con!ention Ire!ises and 2onsolidatesF t)e re!ious
do2u(ents t)at relate to t)e status o" re"ugees&
C)ater I o" t)e Treaty 2ontains general ro!isions& Art!$% . 2ontains a
de"inition o" re"ugee& It is+ in art+ a te2)ni2al de"inition t)at re"ers 3a2'
to re!ious do2u(ents& T)us+ a re"ugee is so(eone 9)o )as 3een
2onsidered a re"ugee under Kt)e Arrange(ents o" .2 May .;20 and @:
%une .;2= or under t)e Con!entions o" 2= O2to3er .;@@ and .:
Be3ruary .;@=+ t)e $roto2ol o" .4 Sete(3er .;@; or t)e Constitution o"
t)e International Re"ugee OrganiHationK& W)y are t)ese dates
signi"i2antJ
T)e a3o!e enu(eration is gi!en in order to ro!ide a lin' 9it) t)e ast
and to ensure t)e 2ontinuity o" international rote2tion o" re"ugees 9)o
3e2a(e t)e 2on2ern o" t)e international 2o((unity at !arious earlier
eriods t)ese instru(ents )a!e 3y no9 lost (u2) o" t)eir signi"i2an2e+
and a dis2ussion o" t)e( )ere 9ould 3e o" little ra2ti2al !alue&
Ho9e!er+ a erson 9)o )as 3een 2onsidered a re"ugee under t)e ter(s
o" any o" t)ese instru(ents is auto(ati2ally a re"ugee under t)e .;4.
Con!ention& CUNHCR Hand3oo' ara& @@D
lAAAi
T)is aragra) t)us tells us )o9 t)e .;4. Con!ention is 2o)erent 9it)
ot)er+ earlier Con!entions&
$aragra) C2D adds signi"i2antly to t)is de"inition7
As a result o" e!ents o22urring 3e"ore I %anuary .;4. and o9ing to a
9ell6"ounded "ear o" 3eing erse2uted "or reasons o" ra2e+ religion+
nationality+ (e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular so2ial grou or oliti2al oinion+
is outside t)e 2ountry o" )is nationality and is una3le+ or o9ing to su2)
"ear+ is un9illing to a!ail )i(sel" o" t)e rote2tion o" t)at 2ountryE or
9)o+ not )a!ing a nationality and 3eing outside t)e 2ountry o" )is
"or(er )a3itual residen2e as a result o" su2) e!ents+ is una3le or+ o9ing
to su2) "ear+ is un9illing to return to it&
T)ere are a nu(3er o" ele(ents to t)is de"inition& Birst+ it is ne2essary to
eAlain t)e i(ortan2e o" t)e date . %anuary .;4.& As eAlained a3o!e+
t)e date is signi"i2ant 3e2ause it s)o9s t)at t)e state arties 9)o 9ere
in!ol!ed in t)e early stages o" (a'ing t)e Con!ention la9 9ere 'een to
li(it t)eir lia3ility to eole 9)o )ad 3een (ade re"ugees during t)e
Se2ond World War+ and so in2lude only e!ents t)at )ad already
)aened& States did not 9ant t)e Con!ention to 2reate an oen6ended
resonsi3ility "or re"ugees t)at 9ould 3e a 3urden on national
go!ern(ents& Ho9e!er+ as t)e UNHCR Hand3oo' eAlains+ 9it) t)e
signing o" t)e .;0< Con!ention+ t)is de"inition )as lost (ost o" its
signi"i2an2e& It is rele!ant (ainly to t)ose states t)at )a!e signed t)e
Con!ention+ 3ut not t)e $roto2ol&
T)e 2ore sense o" t)e de"inition is a I9ell6"ounded "ear o" erse2utionFE
t)e reasons "or t)e erse2ution relate to a 3road list o" "a2tors t)at
in2lude et)ni2ity+ 3ut also 2ultural and oliti2al 2on2erns& O9ing to t)is
"ear o" erse2ution+ t)e erson 2lai(ing re"ugee status is eit)er Ioutside
t)e 2ountry o" )is nationalityF and una3le or un9illing to return or+ in
2ases 9)ere t)e indi!idual )as no nationality+ is una3le or un9illing to
return to t)e la2e o" I"or(er )a3itual residen2eF& A re"ugee is t)us a
IstatelessF ersonE so(eone 9)o 2annot 2all on a state to rote2t )i( or
)er&
It is also 9ort) noting t)at an indi!idual 2an lose re"ugee status&
T)ere are a nu(3er o" grounds under 9)i2) t)is 2ould )aen+ "or
instan2e i" )e or s)e I!oluntarily re6a!ails )i(sel" o" t)e rote2tion o"
t)e 2ountry o" )is nationalityF or t)e reasons "or t)e "ear o" rose2ution
no longer eAist& T)e 2o((ission o" 2ertain 2ri(es 2an also deri!e an
indi!idual o" re"ugee status& In2luded in t)is list 9ould 3e 9ar 2ri(es
and 2ri(es against )u(anityE Inon6oliti2alF 2ri(es 2o((itted in t)e
lAAAii
2ountry "ro( 9)i2) s/)e )as "led+ or i" t)e erson )as 3een Iguilty o"
a2ts 2ontrary to t)e uroses and rin2iles o" t)e United NationsF&
,e"ore 9e (o!e on+ 9e need to eAa(ine in detail t)e (eaning o" t)ese
'ey9ords in t)e Con!ention& Later in t)is 2)ater+ 9)en 9e loo' at t)e
resonse o" t)e #nglis) Courts to t)e Con!ention+ 9e 9ill see t)at t)eir
(eaning is "ar "ro( straig)t"or9ard&
T)e )rase I9ell6"ounded "ear o" 3eing erse2utedF rela2es t)e earlier
(et)od o" de"ining re"ugees 3y 2ategories Ci&e& ersons o" a 2ertain
origin not enjoying t)e rote2tion o" t)eir 2ountryD 3y t)e general
2on2et o" K"earK "or a rele!ant (oti!e& Sin2e "ear is su3je2ti!e+ t)e
de"inition in!ol!es a su3je2ti!e ele(ent in t)e erson alying "or
re2ognition as a re"ugee& *eter(ination o" re"ugee status 9ill t)ere"ore
ri(arily re-uire an e!aluation o" t)e ali2antKs state(ents &rat)er t)an
a judg(ent on t)e situation re!ailing in )is 2ountry o" origin& ("%H2&
Hand0oo ara& @<D&
Ho9e!er+
To t)e ele(ent o" "ear 6a state o" (ind and a su3je2ti!e 2ondition 6 8is
added t)e -uali"i2ation I9ell6"oundedF& T)is i(lies t)at it is not only
t)e "ra(e o" (ind o" t)e erson 2on2erned t)at deter(ines )is re"ugee
status+ 3ut t)at t)is "ra(e o" (ind (ust 3e suorted 3y an o3je2ti!e
situation& ("%H2& Hand0oo ara& @=D&
T)ere are t)us 3ot) su3je2ti!e and o3je2ti!e ele(ents to t)e test "or
re"ugee status& T)e Hand3oo' eAlains t)at t)e general test "or re"ugee
status rela2ed t)e re!ious aroa2) 9)i2) )ad 3een to deter(ine
re"ugee status 3y re"eren2e to 2ategories o" erson& T)e Con!ention test
)as 3ot) a su3je2ti!e and an o3je2ti!e ele(ent7 t)e de2ision6(a'er (ust
as' "irst o" all 9)et)er or not a erson alying "or re"ugee status is in
"ear& T)is is a su3je2ti!e test+ and relates to t)e ali2antKs o9n
understanding o" t)e t)reat t)at )e or s)e "a2es& Ho9e!er+ t)is (ust 3e
K9ell6"oundedFE and t)is re-uires an o3je2ti!e ele(ent& T)ere (ust 3e
o3je2ti!e reasons "or t)e indi!idualFs "ear& Note also t)at t)e UNHCR
Hand3oo' stresses t)at+ "or t)e uroses o" t)e Con!ention+ 3eing t)e
!i2ti( o" a natural disaster does not+ in itsel"+ -uali"y a erson "or
re"ugee status&
As "ar as t)e su3je2ti!e ele(ent is 2on2erned+ t)e Hand3oo' ro!ides
"urt)er use"u. 2lari"i2ation o" t)e 9ay in 9)i2) it is to 3e understood7
*ue to t)e i(ortan2e t)at t)e de"inition atta2)es to t)e su3je2ti!e
ele(ent+ an assess(ent o" 2redi3ility is indisensa3le 9)ere t)e 2ase is
not su""i2iently 2lear "ro( t)e "a2ts on re2ord& It 9ill 3e ne2essary to
ta'e into a22ount t)e ersonal and "a(ily 3a2'ground o" t)e ali2ant+
lAAAiii
)is (e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular ra2ial+ religious+ national+ so2ial or
oliti2al grou+ )is o9n interretation o" )is situation+ and )is ersonal
eAerien2es 6in ot)er 9ords+ e!eryt)ing t)at (ay ser!e to indi2ate t)at
t)e redo(inant (oti!e "or )is ali2ation is "ear& Bear (ust 3e
reasona3le& #Aaggerated "ear+ )o9e!er+ (ay 3e 9ell6 "ounded i"+ in all
t)e 2ir2u(stan2es o" t)e 2ase+ su2) a state o" (ind 2an 3e regarded as
justi"ied& L42M
T)e su3je2ti!e ele(ent de(ands t)at t)e de2ision6(a'er ta'es into
a22ount t)e 2redi3ility o" t)e ali2antE ese2ially 9)en t)e "a2ts as
resented are not t)e(sel!es 2lear& T)e de2ision6(a'er (ust assess t)e
su3je2ti!e "ear o" t)e ali2ant as an indi!idual+ ta'ing into a22ount )is
or )er 3elie"s+ status and et)ni2ityE and gi!e due 9eig)t to t)e
indi!idualKs o9n are2iation o" t)e "a2ts o" t)e situation& *eter(ining
t)e o3je2ti!e ele(ent is e-ually as di""i2ult& Alt)oug) t)e de2ision6
(a'er is not 2alled uon to Iass judg(ent on 2onditions in t)e
ali2antKs 2ountry o" originF+ it is i(ossi3le to 2onsider t)e ali2antKs
state(ents in t)e Ia3stra2tF and t)e de2ision (ust 3e related to Kt)e
2onteAt o" t)e&&&3a2'ground situationK& T)us+ 9)ilst a 'no9ledge o" t)e
situation in t)e 2ountry o" t)e ali2ant is not a ri(ary 2onsideration+ it
is Ian i(ortant ele(ent in assessing t)e ali2antFs 2redi3ilityF& L4@M
T)e ali2antFs o9n eAerien2es are i(ortant in assessing t)ese issues+
3ut so too are t)e eAerien2es o" )is "a(ily+ "riends+ or t)e et)ni2 or
religious grou "ro( 9)i2) )e originates& Also i(ortant are t)e la9s o"
t)e rele!ant 2ountry+ and t)e 9ay in 9)i2) t)ey are alied&
In t)is 2onteAt it is also i(ortant to note t)at+ alt)oug) t)e Con!ention
en!isages t)at re"ugee status is nor(ally deter(ined on an indi!idual
3asis+ t)ere is t)e ossi3ility o" 2ases 9)ere 9)ole grous o" eole
)a!e 3een disla2ed& In su2) 2ir2u(stan2es it is not ossi3le to (a'e
indi!idual deter(ination o" re"ugee status "or ea2) erson in t)e grou&
In t)is situation it is $ossi3le to (a'e a Igrou deter(inationF o" re"ugee
status7 Iea2) (e(3er o" t)e grou is regarded ri(a "ade Ci&e& in t)e
a3sen2e o" e!iden2e to t)e 2ontraryD as a re"ugeeF&
An e-ually i(ortant issue is t)e (eaning o" t)e 9ord erse2ution& At
resent t)ere is no single a22eted de"inition o" t)is 9ord&
Interretations are t)us t)ro9n 3a2' to t)e Con!ention itsel"& Bro(
Arti2le @@+ it is ossi3le to Iin"erF t)at erse2ution (eans Ia t)reat to li"e
or "reedo( on a22ount o" ra2e+ religion+ nationality+ oliti2al oinion or
(e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular so2ial grou&&& Ot)er seriousK !iolations o"
)u(an rig)ts 6"or t)e sa(e reasons 69ould also 2onstitute erse2ution&F
Alt)oug) t)is aears a reasona3ly 9ide de"inition+ it 3egs t)e -uestion
o" 9)et)er ot)er a2ts 2ould a(ount to erse2ution& T)is 9ould deend
on I2ir2u(stan2es o" ea2) 2aseF& It 9ould 3e ne2essary to ta'e into
lAAAi!
a22ount t)e su3je2ti!e and o3je2ti!e ele(ents o" t)e test as analysed
a3o!e&
Anot)er issue t)at s)ould 3e 2onsidered )ere is t)e ro3le(ati2
distin2tion 3et9een e2ono(i2 (igrants and re"ugees& T)e UNHCR
Hand3oo' de"ines a (igrant as7 I>& a erson 9)o&&&!oluntarily lea!es
)is 2ountry in order to ta'e u residen2e else9)ereF& In t)is sense+ an
e2ono(i2 (igrant is not a re"ugeeE )o9e!er+ in 2ertain 2ir2u(stan2es+
an e2ono(i2 (igrant (ay 3e 2onsidered a re"ugee& Bor instan2e+
uniti!e e2ono(i2 (easures C"or eAa(le+ ro)i3iting eole "ro(
ta'ing 2ertain jo3s/ raising le!els o" taAation t)at aly to 2ertain grous
o" eoleD (ay lead to a erson lea!ing a 2ountry& T)is 3egs t)e
-uestion7 9)en is an e2ono(i2 (igrant a re"ugeeJ
&&&O3je2tions to general e2ono(i2 (easures are not 3y t)e(sel!es
good reasons "or 2lai(ing re"ugee status& On t)e ot)er )and+ 9)at
aears at "irst sig)t to 3e ri(arily an e2ono(i2 (oti!e "or
dearture (ay in reality also in!ol!e a oliti2al ele(ent+ and it (ay
3e t)e oliti2al oinions o" t)e indi!idual t)at eAose )i( to serious
2onse-uen2eRE rat)er t)an )is o3je2tions to t)e e2ono(i2 (easures
t)e(sel!es& CUNHCR )and3oo' ara& 04D
An e2ono(i2 (igrant (ay 3e a re"ugee+ deending on t)e "a2ts o" t)e
2ase& O3!iously+ t)e ot)er ele(ents o" t)e de"inition a3o!e 9ould )a!e
to aly&
.& W)at is t)e nature o" t)e test to deter(ine re"ugee statusJ
.8282 O($!,#t!on on St#t%& #nd r%2u,%%&
T)e Con!ention goes on to list 2ertain o3ligations t)at aly to 3ot)
state arties+ and re"ugees&
Art!$% 2 arti2ulates a set o" Igeneral o3ligationsF t)at t)e re"ugee o9es
to t)e 2ountry o" re"uge& T)ese re-uire t)at s)e or )e 2on"or(s Kto its
la9s and regulations+ as 9ell as to (easures ta'en "or t)e (aintenan2e
o" u3li2 orderK& It is er)as 3est to !ie9 t)is arti2le as asirational& As
t)e Con!ention is an international treaty+ and+ as t)e indi!idual )as+ at
3est+ a ro3le(ati2 status in international la9+ it is )ard to see )o9 t)is
duty 2ould 3e en"or2ed against indi!iduals& It is a 3road o3ligation to
rese2t not just t)e la9+ 3ut+ also general (easures ta'en to reser!e
u3li2 order&
lAAA!
Art!$% / is a duty la2ed on state arties& T)ey (ust aly t)e
Con!ention to re"ugees 9it)out any "or( o" dis2ri(ination& Moreo!er+
3y Arti2le 4+ state arties (ust a22ord to re"ugeesK treat(ent t)at is Ias
"a!oura3le as t)at a22orded to t)eir nationalsK in relation to t)e rig)t to
ra2ti2e a religion& T)ese duties are t)e (ini(al o3ligations t)at a state
o9es to re"ugees& Arti2le 4 stresses t)at not)ing in t)e Con!ention
s)ould 3e interreted as li(iting t)e K3ene"itsK t)at a 2ontra2ting arty
(ig)t grant to re"ugees&
T)e neAt set o" Arti2les relates to t)e e2uliar legal status o" t)e re"ugee
as a disla2ed ersonE an indi!idual in a "or( o" legal li(3o&
Art!$% A o3ligates a state arty to treat t)e re"ugee in t)e sa(e 9ay t)at
it treats Ialiens generallyF+ i&e& not as a 2itiHen o" t)e state in 9)i2) t)e
erson is in residen2e& On2e a re"ugee )as 3een resident "or t)ree years+
s)e or )e is eAe(ted "ro( re2iro2ity arrange(ents t)at eAist 3et9een
)is 2ountry o" re"uge and t)e nation "ro( 9)i2) )e "led& T)ere are
"urt)er ro!isions in t)is Arti2le t)at rote2t t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees in t)e
a3sen2e o" re2iro2ity arrange(ents& Burt)er(ore+ Arti2le = ro!ides
t)at i" a state arty ta'es KeA2etional (easuresK against a "oreign state+
any re"ugees "ro( t)at state already 9it)in t)e territory o" t)e state
arty+ s)ould not 3e treated as su3je2t to t)ose se2ial (easures& T)us+
t)e re"ugee is+ as "ar as se2ial (easures are 2on2erned+ already
searated "ro( and treated di""erently "ro( )is "ello9 nationals&
Arti2le ; is a -uali"i2ation o" t)is rin2ile& A 2ontra2ting state 2an+ in
Iti(es o" 9ar or ot)er gra!e and eA2etional 2ir2u(stan2esK+ ta'e
(easures to rote2t Knational se2urityK in relation to t)e deter(ination o"
re"ugee status& Art!$% .9 2an 3e read as art o" t)is grou o" Arti2les+
3ut it relates to se2i"i2 2ir2u(stan2es7 t)ose disla2ed in t)e Se2ond
World War and resident in t)e territory o" a 2ontra2ting arty are to 3e
2onsidered la9"ul residents "or t)e eriod o" t)eir settle(ent& .:C2D
2ontain so(e "urt)er ro!isions "or deter(ining a eriod o" 2ontinuous
residen2e+ and Arti2le .. ro!ides se2ial ro!isions "or re"ugee
sea(en&
.& W)at are t)e (ain areas o" 2on2ern o" Arti2les 26.. o" t)e
Con!entionJ
C"#7t%r II
C)ater II "urt)er ela3orates t)e juridi2al nature o" t)e re"ugee&
Art!$% .2 ro!ides t)at t)e ersonal status o" t)e re"ugee is deter(ined
3y t)e la9 o" t)e 2ountry in 9)i2) s)e or )e is do(i2iled& Bor t)ose
lAAA!i
9it)out a 2ountry o" do(i2ile+ ersonal status is ro!ided 3y t)e 2ountry
in 9)i2) t)e erson )as residen2e& Any rig)ts 9)i2) t)e indi!idual
re"ugee (ig)t )a!e a2-uired+ su2) as rig)ts a2-uired on (arriage+ in t)e
2ountry in 9)i2) )e 9as a national (ust 3e rese2ted 3y t)e 2ountry o"
re"uge+ su3je2t to 9)ate!er "or(alities t)at 2ountry o" re"uge i(oses&
T)e eA2etion to t)is rin2ile is t)at t)e state 9ould )a!e re2ognised
t)e rig)t )ad t)e indi!idual not 3een a re"ugee&
Art!$% ./ ro!ides t)at t)e re"ugee (ust )a!e rig)ts at least as
"a!oura3le as t)ose a22orded to aliens in relation to t)e o9ners)i o"
(o!a3le and i((o!a3le roerty+ and 2ontra2tual or roerty la9
related rig)ts&
Art!$% .4 relates to artisti2 rig)ts and rig)ts o!er industrial roerty&
Arti2les .4 and .0 (o!e "ro( roerty rig)ts to u3li2 rig)ts& Art!$%
.0 ro!ides t)at a re"ugee )as a rig)t o" asso2iation in Knon6oliti2al and
non6ro"it6(a'ing asso2iations and trade unionsF t)at are t)e sa(e as
t)ose gi!en to nationals o" a "oreign 2ountry t)at (ay 3e in t)e territory
o" t)e state arty& Art!$% .@ addresses due ro2ess and "air trial rig)ts&
T)e Arti2le states t)at a re"ugee )as to )a!eF "ree a22ess to t)e 2ourts o"
la9 on t)e territory o" t)e state arty&
.& W)at are t)e (ain "eatures o" C)ater IIJ
C"#7t%r III
C)ater III o" t)e Con!ention sets out e(loy(ent rig)ts o" t)e re"ugee&
Art!$% .A ro!ides t)at a state arty (ust allo9 re"ugees 9)o are
la9"ully in its territory I(ost "a!oura3le treat(entF in relation to 9age6
earning e(loy(ent as t)ey 9ould allo9 to nationals o" a "oreign
2ountry 9)o 9ere resident in t)eir territory& Ho9e!er+ a state is allo9ed
to ut in la2e restri2tions to rote2t national la3our (ar'ets& T)ese
restri2tions 9ould not aly to a re"ugee "ro( a nation 9)ose nationals
9ould )a!e 3een eAe(t "ro( su2) restri2tionsE or+ a re"ugee 9)o )as
3een resident "or t)ree years in t)e territory o" t)e state arty 9)o )as
granted )i( re"ugee status& A re"ugee (arried to a souse 9)o is a
national o" t)e state arty 9ould also 3e eAe(tE as 9ould a re"ugee
)a!ing one or (ore 2)ildren ossessing t)e nationality o" t)e state arty&
T)ere is also a general duty at Art& .<C@D t)at is 9ort) 2onsidering in
"ull7
lAAA!ii
T)e Contra2ting States s)all gi!e sy(at)eti2 2onsideration to
assi(ilating t)e rig)ts o" all re"ugees 9it) regard to 9age6earning
e(loy(ent to t)ose o" nationals+ and in arti2ular o" t)ose re"ugees
9)o )a!e entered t)eir territory ursuant to rogra((es o" la3our
re2ruit(ent or under i((igration s2)e(es&
In relation to sel"6e(loy(ent+ Art!$% .B alies t)e general rin2ile
t)at a re"ugee s)ould 3e treated as "a!oura3ly as ossi3le& T)e (ini(u(
standard is t)at t)e re"ugee (ust not 3e treated less "a!oura3ly t)an
Ialiens generally in t)e sa(e 2ir2u(stan2es&F As "ar as t)e Ili3eral
ro"essionsF are 2on2erned+ Art!$% .C ro!ides t)e sa(e rin2ile to
t)ose re"ugees 9)o )old Kdilo(as re2ognised 3y t)e 2o(etent
aut)orities o" t)at State&F
C"#7t%r IV
Art!$% 29 ro!ides t)at re"ugees s)all enjoy t)e sa(e rig)ts 9it) regard
to entitle(ents under a rationing syste( as nationals& In relation to rig)ts
to )ousing+ t)e state (ust treat re"ugees as "a!oura3ly as ossi3le+ and
no less "a!oura3ly t)an aliens 9)o are la9"ully in t)e 2ontra2ting
artiesF territory&
,y !irtue o" Art!$% 22+ re"ugees enjoy t)e sa(e rig)ts to ele(entary
edu2ation as nationals& Wit) regard to edu2ational (atters ot)er t)an
ele(entary s2)ooling+ a re"ugee (ust 3e treated as "a!oura3ly as
ossi3le+ and not less "a!oura3ly t)an an alien la9"ully resident in t)e
rele!ant 2ountry& Arti2le 2@ ro!ides re"ugees 9it) t)e sa(e rig)ts to
u3li2 relie" as nationals&
Arti2le 24 eAtends to la3our legislation and so2ial se2urity& It is an
arti2le t)at )as !erti2al e""e2t against t)e state& T)us+ t)e 2ontra2ting
arty (ust underta'e to a""ord re"ugees t)e sa(e rote2tion as nationals
in 2ertain areas relating to e(loy(ent and 9el"are+ to t)e eAtent t)at
Ksu2) (atters are go!erned 3y la9s or regulations or are su3je2t to t)e
2ontrol o" ad(inistrati!e aut)oritiesK& T)us+ to t)e eAtent t)at t)ese
(atters are entirely in t)e )ands o" ri!ate arties+ it 9ould "all outside
t)e re(it o" t)e Con!ention& T)e Arti2le also re2o((ends t)at t)ere 3e
Karoriate arrange(entsK to deal 9it) t)e a2-uisition o" rig)ts in t)is
area&
T)is Arti2le+ t)en+ rese(3les t)e ones a3o!e+ in t)at it understands t)e
re"ugee to 3e a3le to a2-uire rig)ts in t)e 2ountry o" re"uge& So(eti(es+
t)oug)+ and "or justi"ia3le reasons+ t)ese rig)ts or entitle(ents (ust "all
3elo9 t)ose enjoyed 3y nationals& Bor instan2e+ Arti2le 24 allo9s
re"ugee status to 3e ta'en into a22ount in assessing 3ene"its or ension
rig)ts& It (ay o" 2ourse 3e 3y !irtue o" re"ugee status t)at a erson )as
lAAA!iii
not (ade su""i2ient ay(ents to re2ei!e eit)er "ull 9el"are or ension
entitle(ents&
C"#7t%r V
C)ater 1 in2ludes i(ortant ad(inistrati!e (easures relating to
re"ugee status& T)ese (easures )a!e to ta'e into a22ount t)e ro3le(s a
re"ugee (ig)t 3e eAerien2ing due to disla2e(ent or "lig)t "ro( t)e
2ountry 9)ere )e )ad residen2e or 9as do(i2iled& Bor instan2e+ t)e
indi!idual (ig)t not 3e a3le to lo2ate do2u(ents to ro!e identity and
entitle(ent& In t)is sense+ la2'ing aers and una3le to ro!e )is
identity+ a re"ugee 3e2o(es a legal Knon6ersonF&
Art!$% 20 ta'es t)is into a22ount& I" a re"ugee 2annot rely on t)e
ad(inistrati!e suort o" t)e aut)orities in t)e 2ountry )e )as le"t+ t)en
t)e state arty in 9)ose territory t)e re"ugee is in residen2e (ust a""ord
t)e ne2essary assistan2e& T)e rele!ant aut)orities (ust Kdeli!er or 2ause
to 3e deli!ered&&& su2) do2u(ents or 2erti"i2ations as 9ould nor(ally 3e
deli!ered to aliens 3y or t)roug) t)eir national aut)oritiesK& T)ese
do2u(ents (ust t)en 3e treated as o""i2ial&
Arti2les 20 to 2= 2on2ern "reedo( o" (o!e(ent& Art!$% 2@ grants
"reedo( o" (o!e(ent to re"ugees+ and Art!$% 2A ro!ides t)at a state
(ust issue t)e rele!ant do2u(ents to ena3le "ree (o!e(ent 9it)in t)e
territory& Art!$% 2B relates to tra!el do2u(ents "or (o!e(ent outside
t)e 2ountry& Unless reasons o" national se2urity or u3li2 order aly+
tra!el do2u(ents (ust 3e issued&
Art!$% 2C states t)at re"ugees 2annot 3e taAed in a 9ay t)at is di""erent
"ro( nationals in t)e sa(e situationE 3ut t)is rin2ile does not aly to
re2o!ery o" 2osts relating to t)e issuing o" rele!ant do2u(ents&
Art!$% /9 la2es a duty on a state arty to allo9 re"ugees to trans"er
assets 9)i2) t)ey )a!e 3roug)t into a stateKs territory to anot)er 2ountry
9)ere t)ey (ay 3e resettled&
Art!$% /. relates to re"ugees unla9"ully in t)e 2ountry o" re"uge&
$ro!iding t)at su2) ersons reort to t)e rele!ant aut)orities+ and s)o9
t)at t)ey )ad good 2ause to enter t)e 2ountry in -uestion illegally+ t)e
state arty 2annot i(ose enalties uon t)e(& Su2) ersons 9ould also
)a!e to s)o9+ )o9e!er+ t)at t)ey tell 9it)in t)e de"inition o" Arti2le .+
and t)at Kt)eir li"e or "reedo( 9as t)reatenedF&
A22ording to Art!$% /2+ on2e a re"ugee is la9"ully in a territory+ t)e
state arty 2annot eAel t)at erson+ unless t)ere are grounds o" national
se2urity or u3li2 order& T)e de2ision to eAel (ust 3e (ade in
a22ordan2e 9it) t)e due ro2ess o" la9& #A2et in eAtre(e situations+ a
lAAAiA
re"ugee (ust 3e allo9ed to su3(it e!iden2e to I2lear )i(sel"F and (ust
3e a22orded 2ertain due ro2ess rig)ts& T)ere (ust 3e t)e ossi3ility o"
aeal and reresentation 3e"ore t)e 2o(etent aut)ority& Moreo!er+ t)e
2ontra2ting state (ust allo9 a erson "a2ing eAulsion a Kreasona3le
eriodF to Isee' legal ad(ission into anot)er 2ountry&F Arti2le @2 is
3a2'ed u 3y Art!$% //+ 9)i2) ro)i3its Ire"oule(entF& Re"oule(ent is
t)e return o" re"ugees to t)e K"rontiers o" territories 9)ere )is li"e or
"reedo( 9ould 3e t)reatened on a22ount o" )is ra2e+ religion+
nationality+ (e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular so2ial grou or oliti2al oinionK&
T)e eA2etion to t)is rule is ro!ided at @@C2D& Re"oule(ent does not
aly to a re"ugee 9)o resents a t)reat to se2urity+ or+ )a!ing 3een
2on!i2ted o" a serious 2ri(e+ reresents a KdangerK to t)e 2ountry t)at is
eAelling )i(&
Art!$% /4 (o!es "ro( eAulsion to naturalisation& State arties s)ould
ensure t)at re"ugees are naturalised and assi(ilated&
We 2an eAa(ine so(e o" t)e (ore i(ortant Arti2le in C)ater 1I&
Art!$% /0 ro!ides t)at 2ontra2ting arties (ust 2o6oerate 9it) t)e
O""i2e o" t)e United Nations Hig) Co((issioner "or Re"ugees& T)e
2ontra2ting arties underta'e to ro!ide t)e UN 9it) reorts relating to
t)e 2ondition o" re"ugees in t)eir territories& T)e reort (ust also 2o!er
t)e i(le(entation o" t)e Con!ention and t)e rele!ant la9s and
regulations t)at relate to re"ugees& Arti2le @4 ro!ides t)at t)e
2ontra2ting states (ust in"or( t)e Se2retary6General o" t)e la9s and
regulations t)at )a!e 3een ena2ted or assed to ensure t)at t)e
Con!ention alies in national la9&
Su''#r-
C)ater III lays out t)e e(loy(ent rig)ts o" re"ugeesE C)ater I1
2ontains a grou o" Arti2le relating to 9el"are and outlines t)e legal
status o" t)e re"ugee in relation to !arious so2ial and e2ono(i2 rig)ts&
C)ater 1 2ontains t)e i(ortant rule against re"oule(ent+ as 9ell as
(ajor ad(inistrati!e ro!isions& T)e Arti2le 9e 2onsidered in C)ater
1I 2on2erns t)e duty o" state arties to r 2olla3orate 9it) t)e UNHCR&
.& W)at are t)e (ain ro!isions in t)e Con!ention and t)e .;0<
$roto2olJ
.8/Wo'%n #nd G!r$& #& r%2u,%%&
A2
Bigures (ade a!aila3le 3y t)e UNHCR in 2::4 s)o9 t)at nearly )al" t)e
9orldKs oulation o" re"ugees is "e(ale& Ho9e!er+ t)e roortion o"
"e(ale re"ugees !aries deending on region and t)e re2ise nature o" t)e
ro3le(s t)at )a!e gi!en rise to a re"ugee situation& Mass re"ugee
situations tend to rodu2e re"ugee oulations 9)ere around )al" t)e
total nu(3ers are 9o(en&
Asylu( 2lai(s+ on t)e ot)er )and+ tend to 3e (ade 3y (en rat)er t)an
9o(en& 4< er 2ent o" t)e total nu(3ers o" re"ugees are 2)ildren under
t)e age o" .=+ 9it) a little o!er .: er 2ent 3eing 2)ildren under t)e age
o" "i!e& Ho9e!er+ t)ese "igures tend not to 3e reresentati!e+ as t)e
"igures 2o(e ri(arily "ro( t)e de!eloing+ rat)er t)an t)e de!eloed
9orld& It is esti(ated t)at in A"ri2a and CASWANAM# CNort) A"ri2a&
T)e Middle #ast& Sout)6West Asia& Central AsiaD o!er )al" t)e total
nu(3ers o" re"ugees are 2)ildren under .=+ 9)ilst t)is "igure is
signi"i2antly lo9er "or ot)er regions o" t)e 9orld C"or instan2e+ #uroe7
2@ er 2entE Asia and t)e $a2i"i27 @< er 2entD& CUNHCR 2::4 Glo3al
re"ugee trends &<D
In .;=4 t)e #Ae2uti!e Co((ittee o" t)e UNHCR adoted a 2on2lusion+
#Ae2uti!e Co((ittee Con2lusion No& @;6=4 on Re"ugee Wo(en and
International $rote2tion+ 9)i2) stated t)at re"ugee 9o(en and girls
2o(ose t)e (ajority o" re"ugees+ and t)at t)is leads to se2ial 2on2erns
a3out )o9 3est to rote2t t)eir )u(an rig)ts& T)is 9as 3a2'ed u 3y
#Ae2uti!e Co((ittee Con2lusion No& 0: CYYYD on Re"ugee Wo(en
t)at 2alled on t)e Hig) Co((issioner to re!ie9 t)e de!elo(ent o"
oli2y in t)is area&
Ot)er UN 3odies )a!e also 3een 2on2erned 9it) t)e "ate o" "e(ale
re"ugees& ln .;;:+ t)e #2ono(i2 and So2ial Coun2il 2alled on
go!ern(ents and NGOs to 'ee t)is issue 2urrent+ and to in2rease t)eir
e""orts to rote2t t)ese arti2ularly !ulnera3le grous& It is 9ort)
re(e(3ering t)at t)e Con!ention on t)e #li(ination o" All Bor(s o"
*is2ri(ination Against Wo(en is also rele!ant )ereE in arti2ular
Arti2le @ stresses t)e o3ligation to ensure t)e ad!an2e(ent o" 9o(en
and t)e rote2tion o" t)eir rig)ts& $oli2y =Iso "eeds into t)e
interretation o" t)ese instru(ents& T)e UN is 2o((itted to t)e goals set
out in t)e Nairo3i Bor9ard Loo'ing Strategies on t)e Status o" Wo(en
t)at stress t)e in2lusion o" 9o(en into rogra((es t)at are eAe2uted in
t)eir na(e&
T)e "unda(ental rin2iles on 9)i2) t)is la9 and oli2y are (ade t)us
re"le2t t)e in)erent dignity o" 9o(en+ and t)eir e-uality 9it) (en& In
order to a2)ie!e t)ese ends it is ne2essary to ta'e into a22ount t)e "a2t
t)at 9o(en re-uire se2ial rote2tion&
A2i
W)en analysing t)e ro3le(s "a2ed 3y re"ugee 9o(en+ t)ese are o"ten
"ound to 3e si(ilar+ i" not identi2al+ to t)ose "a2ed 3y 9o(en generally&
Se!eral "or(s o" )ysi2al !iolen2e and dis2ri(ination against 9o(en+
"or eAa(le+ are ende(i2 in (ost+ i" not all+ 2ountries& T)e arti2ularity
o" t)e situation o" re"ugee 9o(en is not si(ly 3e2ause t)ey are su3je2t
to su2) !iolations o" t)eir rig)ts+ 3ut also t)at t)ey are ese2ially
!ulnera3le to t)ese !iolations "or a nu(3er o" reasons7 t)ey are "leeing
erse2utionE t)e so2ial disrution 2aused 3y "lig)tE so(eti(es 3e2ause
t)ey )a!e 3e2o(e deta2)ed "ro( t)eir "a(ilies and t)e rote2tion
ro!ided 3y t)eir 2o((unitiesE and 2ertainly 3e2ause t)ey are
"oreigners in an alien en!iron(ent&
It is ne2essary t)en to ro!ide (e2)anis(s t)at re2ognise t)at 9o(en
"a2e t)ese gender6se2i"i2 "or(s o" !iolen2e and a3use&
T)ere are (any 9ays in 9)i2) t)is 2ould 3e a2)ie!ed& Gi!en t)e
di""i2ulty o" tal'ing a3out seAual !iolen2e and a3use+ "or eAa(le+ it
9ould 3e ne2essary "or a state arty to ensure t)at 9o(en re"ugees
2lai(ing a3use are inter!ie9ed 3y 9o(en o""i2ersE i" t)ey are indeed
!i2ti(s o" su2) !iolen2e+ 2ounseling s)ould 3e ro!ided& Go!ern(ents
s)ould 3e a9are o" t)e need to en2ourage re"ugee 9o(en to organise
t)eir o9n asso2iations and to dra9 t)e( into t)e ro2ess o" lanning and
ad(inistering re"ugee 2o((unities& T)ere s)ould 3e sensiti!ity to t)e
needs o" 9o(en in lanning a22o((odation in re"ugee 2a(s+ and
ensuring 9o(enKs sa"ety&
T)e se2ial needs o" 9o(en and girls in ter(s o" edu2ation+ )ealt) 2are
and ro!ision o" "ood and 9ater s)ould also 3e (ade a riorityE "or
instan2e+ it is ne2essary to 3e a9are t)at7
iD #!en in Su2) re2arious situations+ "ood distri3ution t)roug)
(ale net9or's )as 3een di!erted to resistan2e "or2es or "or sale
on 3la2' (ar'ets 9it) re"ugee 9o(en and 2)ildren su""ering as a
result& In ot)er instan2es+ (ale distri3utors o" "ood and ot)er
relie" goods )a!e re-uired seAual "a!ours in eA2)ange "or relie"
goods& L@.M
C)tt7//999&un)2r&2)/2gi63in/teAis/1tA/)o(e/oendo2&)t(Jt3lW
#YCOMXid W @ae0=22d OXage W eAe2D
Burt)er in"or(ation on t)is toi2 is 2ontained in t)e Guidelines on K&t)e
$rote2tion o" Re"ugee Wo(en+ UNHRC+ .;;.& T)e Guidelines 2all "or
Kintegrating t)e resour2es and needs o" re"ugee 9o(en into all ase2ts o"
rogra((ing so as to assure e-uita3le rote2tion and assistan2e
a2ti!ities&K CUNHCR 3uidelines on the Protection of &efugee Women,
.&4&D
F#'!$- r%un!2!#t!on
A2ii
Alt)oug) t)e .;4. Con!ention did not ro!ide "or t)e reser!ation o"
"a(ily reuni"i2ation+ t)e Binal A2t o" t)e Con"eren2e t)at adoted t)e
Con!ention did address t)e issue& T)e .;4. United Nations Con"eren2e
2alled on go!ern(ents7
to ta'e t)e ne2essary (easures "or t)e rote2tion o" t)e re"ugeeFs
"a(ily ese2ially 9it) t)e !ie9 to7
.& ensuring t)at t)e unity o" t)e re"ugeeKs "a(ily is
(aintained arti2ularly in 2ases 9)ere t)e )ead o" t)e
"a(ily )as "ul"illed t)e ne2essary 2onditions "or ad(ission
to a arti2ular 2ountyE
2& t)e rote2tion o" re"ugees 9)o are (inotS+ in arti2ular
una22o(anied 2)ildren and girls 9it) se2ial re"eren2e to
guardians)i and adotion&
T)is rin2ile )as 3een adoted in UNHCR #Ae2uti!e Co((ittee
Con2lusions and in t)e UNHCR Hand3oo' on $ro2edures and Criteria
"or *eter(ining Re"ugee Status&
T)e 'ey $rin2ile is t)at i" t)e )ead o" t)e "a(ily is granted re"ugee
status+ t)en "a(ily deendants are a22orded si(ilar status&
.& W)at is t)e status o" t)e rin2iles t)at relate to t)e rote2tion o"
9o(en and 2)ildren 9)o are re"ugeesJ Are there si(ilar
2onsiderations in relation to "a(ily reuni"i2ationJ
Su''#r-
We )a!e 3een 2onsidering t9o areas in 9)i2) t)e Con!ention does not
go into great detail7 t)e rote2tion o" 9o(en and girls and "a(ily
reuni"i2ation& We )a!e seen t)at 2ertain #Ae2uti!e Co((ittee
Con2lusions )a!e ela3orated t)e rin2iles t)at are i(ortant in t)is
area&
.84T"% Con*%nt!on #nd N#t!on#$ L#3
.848. En,$!&" Court& #nd t"% Con*%nt!on
Re"ugee la9 raises a great (any issues t)at i(a2t on national legal
syste(s& Li(itations o" sa2e (ean t)at 9e 2an only "o2us on a 2oule
o" 2on2erns& In t)is se2tion+ 9e 9ill eAa(ine t)e 9ay in 9)i2) #nglis)
2ourts )a!e interreted t)e Con!ention& We 9ill study a line o" 2ases7 &
A2iii
! Secretary of State for the Home Department, #$ parte Si4aumaran
L.;==M . All #R .;@ HL+
5aranaaran ! Secretary of State for the Home Department CCA (2i4
*i!DD C2:::M I(( AR 2<. and 5aja ! Secretary of State for the Home
Department C.;;4M InI( AR .&
T)ese 2ases s)o9 )o9 t)e 2ourts aroa2)ed t)e issue o" t)e test "or
deter(ination o" re"ugee status+ and t)e standard o" e!iden2e re-uired
under t)e test&
In & ! Secretary of State for the Home Department, #$ parte
Si4aumaran C.;==M . All #R .;@ HL+ t)e House o" Lords )eld t)at t)e
-uestion o" 9)et)er or not t)ere 9as a I9ell6"ounded "earF o"
erse2ution 9it)in t)e (eaning o" Arti2le 6A(78 o" t)e Con!ention and
$roto2ol 9as to 3e deter(ined 3y an o3je2ti!e test&
T)is )ad to ta'e into a22ount t)e 2ir2u(stan2es eAisting in t)e 2ountry
o" t)e re"ugeeKs nationality& Burt)er(ore+ t)e ali2ant )ad to s)o9 t)at
t)ere Was a reasona3le degree o" li'eli)ood t)at )e or s)e 9ould 3e
erse2uted "or one o" t)e reasons re"erred to in arti2le .AC28 i" s/)e 9ere
returned to t)at 2ountry& On t)e "a2ts+ t)ere 9as no real ris' o"
erse2ution i" t)e ali2ants 9ere returned to Sri Lan'a+ and t)eir
asylu( 2lai( 9as unsu22ess"ul&
So(e )a!e argued t)at t)is is a !ery stringent test& Bor instan2e+ t)e
Court o" Aeal itsel" re"erred a di""erent interretation o" t)e
Con!ention in t)is 2ase& T)is is )o9 t)e Court o" AealFs argu(ent
9as understood 3y t)e House o" Lords7
T)e Court o" AealKs "or(ulation 9ould a22ord re"ugee status to one
9)ose "ears+ t)oug) genuine+ 9ere o3je2ti!ely de(onstrated to )a!e
3een (is2on2ei!ed+ t)at is to say one 9)o 9as at no a2tual ris' o"
erse2ution "or a Con!ention reason& T)e Court o" Aeal 9ould -uali"y
t)is 3y denying re"ugee status to one 9)o+ 9)ile )olding a genuine "ear+
9as not a erson o" reasona3le 2ourage+ so t)at )is "ears 9ere not su2)
as a erson o" t)at degree o" 2ourage 9ould entertain& T)e
di""erentiation (eans t)at t)e "ears o" so(e+ 3ut not t)ose o" ot)ers+
9ould 3e allayed+ and it (ig)t 3e 3y no (eans easy to de2ide 9)at
degree o" 2ourage a erson o" ordinary "ortitude (ig)t 3e eAe2ted to
dislay& Burt)er+ t)e 2ourtKs illustration o" t)e 3an' 2as)ier t)reatened 3y
an i(itation "irear( does not truly suort t)e t)esis "or 9)i2) it is
rayed in aid& An o3je2ti!e o3ser!er o" t)e s2ene 9ould agree t)at at t)e
ti(e t)e i(itation "irear( 9as resented t)e 2as)ierKs "ear 9as 9ell
"ounded& ,ut on2e it 3e2a(e 2lear t)at t)e "irear( 9as an i(itation t)e
"ear+ i" it 2ontinued to eAist+ 9ould no longer 3e 9ell "ounded& Bear o"
erse2ution+ in t)e sense o" t)e Con!ention+ is not to 3e assi(ilated to a
A2i!
"ear o" instant ersonal danger arising out o" an i((ediately resented
redi2a(ent& T)e 2lai(ant to re"ugee status is not i((ediately
t)reatened 9it) danger arising out o" a situation t)en 2on"ronting )i(&
T)e -uestion is 9)at (ig)t )aen i" )e 9ere to return to t)e 2ountry o"
)is nationality& He "ears t)at )e (ig)t 3e erse2uted t)ere& W)et)er t)at
(ig)t )aen 2an only 3e deter(ined 3y eAa(ining t)e a2tual state o"
a""airs in t)at 2ountry& I" t)at eAa(ination s)o9s t)at erse2ution (ig)t
indeed ta'e la2e t)en t)e "ear is 9ell6"ounded& Ot)er9ise it is not&
Ho9 are t)e interretations o" t)e test 3y t)e t9o 2ourts di""erentJ T)e
test re"erred 3y t)e Court o" Aeal 9ould allo9 a re"ugee 9)o )ad
genuine "ears+ e!en t)oug) o3je2ti!ely t)ese "ears 2ould 3e s)o9n to 3e
un"ounded+ to 2lai( re"ugee status& Ho9e!er+ t)e Court o" Aeal did
(a'e a signi"i2ant -uali"i2ation to t)is test& T)e genuine "ear 9ould )a!e
to 3e t)at o" a erson o" reasona3le 2ourage& T)is does i(ose
so(et)ing o" a li(it on t)e degree o" "ear t)at 9ould )a!e to 3e s)o9n&
?et it is argua3ly a less stringent test t)an t)at re"erred 3y t)e House o"
Lords+ e!en t)oug) t)ere (ay 3e ro3le(s in its ali2ationE "or
instan2e+ deter(ining 9)at are t)e reasona3le "ears o" a erson o"
reasona3le 2ourage& T)e -uestion raised 3y t)e House o" Lords+ in
-uestioning t)e analogy t)at t)e Court o" Aeal 9as using+ is
interesting 3e2ause it s)o9s )o9 t)e 2ourt is aroa2)ing t)e issue o"
"ear o" erse2ution& T)e Court o" Aeal )ad used t)e analogy o" a 3an'
2ler' t)reatened in a ro33ery 9it) an i(itation gun& An o3je2ti!e
o3ser!er 9ould 2on2lude t)at in t)e (o(ent t)at t)e gun is rodu2ed+
and t)e 2ler' t)reatened+ t)ere is a 9ell6"ounded "ear& Ho9e!er+ i" and
9)en it 3e2o(es o3!ious t)at t)e 9eaon is an i(itation+ t)en t)e "ear
9ould not 3e o3je2ti!ely 9ell6"ounded& T)e House o" Lords is 2riti2al o"
t)is analogy+ 3e2ause t)e 2lai(ant is not i((ediately t)reatened 9it)
erse2utionE rat)er t)e issue is 9)at (ig)t )aen 9ere )e or s)e to go
3a2' to t)e 2ountry o" )is or )er nationality& It (ay 3e t)at+ o3je2ti!ely+
t)ere is no ossi3ility o" erse2ution+ in 9)i2) 2ase an o3je2ti!e
o3ser!er 9ould )a!e to assu(e t)at t)e "ear 9as un"ounded& T)e House
o" Lords 9ent on to argue t)at7
It is a reasona3le in"eren2e t)at t)e -uestion o" 9)et)er t)e "ear o"
erse2ution )eld 3y an ali2ant "or re"ugee status is 9ell6"ounded is
li'e9ise intended to 3e o3je2ti!ely deter(ined 3y re"eren2e to t)e
2ir2u(stan2es at t)e ti(e re!ailing in t)e 2ountry o" t)e ali2antFs
nationality>>&
T)is in"eren2e is "orti"ied 3y t)e re"le2tion t)at t)e general urose o"
t)e Con!ention is surely to a""ord rote2tion and "air treat(ent to t)ose
"or 9)o( neit)er is a!aila3le in t)eir o9n 2ountry+ and does not eAtend
to t)e allaying o" "ears not o3je2ti!ely justi"ied+ )o9e!er reasona3le
A2!
t)ese "ears (ay aear "ro( t)e oint o" !ie9 o" t)e indi!idual in
-uestion&
T)e argu(ent o" t)e House o" Lords is suorted 3y t)eir interretation
o" t)e Con!ention& It is 2ontended t)at t)e urose o" t)e Con!ention as
a 9)ole is to a""ord rote2tion to t)ose in genuine "earE a "ear t)at 2an 3e
o3je2ti!ely de(onstrated& Bro( t)e !ie9oint o" t)e indi!idual 2lai(ing
re"ugee status+ t)e "ear (ig)t 3e real+ 3ut t)is is not t)e a2id test& In
stressing t)e o3je2ti!e test+ t)e House o" Lords t)us (a'e it (ore
di""i2ult to 2lai( re"ugee status&
As Clayton eAlains+ it is no9 Isettled la9F C@4@D t)at an asylu( see'er
(ust s)o9+ o3je2ti!ely+ t)at t)ere is a reasona3le degree to T)at )e
9ould "a2e erse2ution& ,ut 9)at standard o" roo" s)ould 3e usedJ
S)ould it 3e a lo9er standard o" roo" t)an a 2i!il 2aseJ
T)is issue+ a(ongst ot)ers+ 9as eAa(ined in 5aranaaran ! Secretary
of State for the Home Department CCA CCi! *i!DD L2:::M I(( AR 2<.&
T)e "a2ts 2on2erned a Ta(il re"ugee7
T)e aellant is a young Ta(il "ro( t)e %a""na eninsula 9)ose
2o((unity 9as destroyed 3y t)e 2i!il 2on"li2t and 9)o "led "ro( )is
)o(e area in "ear o" 3ot) t)e go!ern(ent "or2es and t)e terrorist
(o!e(ent& All t)is 9as "ound as "a2t& So 9as t)e 2onse-uent )istory o"
"lig)t+ "irst to Colo(3o and ulti(ately to t)e United 5ingdo(& It
"ollo9ed t)at Cunless t)ere 9ere a "inding t)at "lig)t 9as not a logi2al
rea2tion to t)e erse2ution 6a ossi3ility in 2ertain 2ases 3ut not in t)is
oneD t)e aellant 9as outside t)e 2ountry o" )is nationality o9ing to a
9ell6"ounded "ear o" 3eing erse2uted "or reasons o" ra2e& He 9as
t)ere"ore entitled 3y !irtue o" Arti2le . CAD C2D o" t)e .;4.
Gene!a Con!ention to asylu( ro!ided t)at+ in addition+ it 2ould 3e
esta3lis)ed t)at )e 9as Kuna3le or+ o9ing to su2) "ear+ >&un9illing to
a!ail )i(sel" o" t)e rote2tionK o" )is )o(e state& T)e latter6
un9illingness t)roug) "ear 6is 9)at t)is aeal is+ at least initially+
a3out&
In allo9ing t)e lainti""s aeal+ 5aranaaran 3uilds on t)e issues in
Si4aumaran. Lord %usti2e Sedley+ in )is su((ary o" t)e "a2ts o" t)e
2ase Si4aumaran, returns to t)e issue o" t)e 9ell6"ounded "ear o"
erse2ution& T)e issue )ere+ )o9e!er+ is t)at t)e aellant )ad 3een
internally disla2ed "ro( )is )o(e on t)e %a""na eninsula to t)e 2ity o"
Colu(3o& Alt)oug) t)e 9ell6"ounded "ear o" erse2ution 2ould 3e
s)o9n on t)ese "a2ts+ an asso2iated issue )ad also to 3e deter(ined7 t)at
t)e "ear o" erse2ution (eant t)at )e 9as Kun9illing to a!ail )i(sel" o"
t)e rote2tionF o" )is )o(e state& T)e Ho(e Se2retary 9as arguing t)at
A2!i
5arana'aran s)ould 3e returned to Colu(3o+ and t)at+ as )e 9as not
"earing erse2ution t)ere+ t)is 9ould not 3e in 3rea2) o" t)e Con!entionE
t)e aellant a22eted t)is oint+ 3ut 9as arguing t)at it 9as
unreasona3le to send )i( t)ere as )e )ad no 9or'+ no )ousing and no
"riends or "a(ily in t)at 2ountry& T)e 2ase t)us raises t)e issue o" I)o9 a
de2ision6(a'er+ a tri3unal or a 2ourt is to gauge 9)et)er internal
relo2ation is a legiti(ate alternati!e to asylu( "or a erson 9)o
ot)er9ise ran's as a Con!ention re"ugeeF Cara& <D& It raises a -uestion
o" e!iden2e+ and )o9 t)at e!iden2e is to 3e judged7
Is t)e 9ant o" su2) an otion i&e& internal relo2ation is not an otionM
to 3e ro!ed 3y t)e asylu( see'er Cin 9)i2) 2ase it is 2o((on
ground t)at roo" 9ould not )a!e to go as )ig) as a 3alan2e o"
ro3a3ilityDE or disro!ed 3y t)e Ho(e Se2retary Cin 9)i2) 2ase it
9ould "ollo9 t)at t)e standard eA2eeds a 3are 3alan2e o"
ro3a3ilityDE or si(ly gauged on t)e e!iden2eJ
I" t)e asylu( see'er )ad to ro!e t)at internal relo2ation 9as not an
otion+ t)en t)e standard o" roo" is )ig)er t)an it 9ound 3e i" it )ad to
3e disro!ed 3y t)e Ho(e Se2retary& T)e t)ird otion suggests a
di""erent standard& Ho9+ t)en+ s)ould t)e 2ourt ro2eedJ Sedley L& %
3egins 3y ointing out t)at t)e tas' "a2ing t)e de2ision6 (a'er under t)e
Con!ention is an issue o" Ie!aluationF Cara& .4D& T)e ali2ant 9ill lead
e!iden2e on issues su2) as t)at o" "ear o" rose2utionE and t)e de2ision6
(a'er (ust e!aluate -uestions su2) as t)e one in t)e resent aeal7 is
Colu(3o sa"er t)an t)e ali2antKs )o(eJ or is it unduly )ars) to eAe2t
t)is ali2ant to sur!i!e in a ne9 and strange la2eJK Cara& .4D& T)is
(ust 3e la2ed in 2onteAt7
W)at (atters t)roug)out is t)at t)e ali2antKs auto3iogra)i2al
a22ount is only art o" t)e i2ture& $eole 9)o )a!e not yet su""ered
a2tual erse2ution Cone t)in's o" (any %e9s 9)o "led NaHi Ger(any
just in ti(eD (ay )a!e a !ery 9ell6"ounded "ear o" erse2ution
s)ould t)ey re(ain& $eole 9)o )a!e su""ered aalling erse2ution
(ay "or one reason or anot)er not 2o(e 9it)in t)e rote2tion o" t)e
Con!ention&
Sedley L& % t)en goes on to argue t)at a 2lai( to asylu( 9as not li'e a
2lai( (ade in 2i!il litigation+ 9)ere a judge (ust a2t as u(ire 3et9een
t9o 2o(eting !ersions o" e!ents& It is in "a2t an ad(inistrati!e ro2ess,
and t)us 2annot 3e (odeled on 2i!il litigation& Rat)er t)an treat "a2ts as
esta3lis)ed on a 2i!il standard+ t)e e!iden2e o""ered (ust 3e treated as a
9)ole7
T)e -uestion 9)et)er an ali2ant "or asylu( is 9it)in t)e rote2tion o"
t)e .;4. Con!ention is not a )ead6to6)ead litigation issue& Testing a
A2!ii
2lai( ordinarily in!ol!es no 2)oi2e 3et9een t9o 2on"li2ting a22ounts
3ut an e!aluation o" t)e intrinsi2 and eAtrinsi2 2redi3ility+ and ulti(ately
t)e signi"i2an2e+ o" t)e ali2antFs 2ase& Binally+ and i(ortantly+ t)e
Con!ention issues "ro( "irst to last are e!aluati!e+ not "a2tual& T)e "a2ts+
so "ar as t)ey 2an 3e esta3lis)ed+ are signosts on t)e road to a
2on2lusion on t)e issuesE t)ey are not t)e(sel!es 2on2lusions& Ho9 "ar
t)is ro2ess truly di""ers "ro( 2i!il or 2rirnina. litigation need not detain
us no9&
His argu(ent 2on2ludes t)at t)e -uestion to 3e deter(ined is 9)et)er+
Ita'ing a.% rele!ant (atters into a22ount+ it 9ound 3e unduly )ars) to
return t)e ali2ant to Colo(3oF&
T)is issue 9as "urt)er eAlored in 5aja ! Se2retary o" State "or t)e
Ho(e *eart(ent L.;;4M I(( AR .& O+ a national o" Oaire+ )ad
aealed against a de2ision to re"use )i( entry to t)e U5& T)e de2ision
(a'er )ad stated t)at )e did not 3elie!e OFs e!iden2e+ rat)er t)an
(a'ing re"eren2e to a standard o" roo". He aealed on a nu(3er o"
oints+ 3ut t)e one 9e 9ill eAa(ine is t)e 2lai( t)at t)e de2ision6(a'er
)ad to (a'e a re"eren2e to a standard o" roo". T)e Tri3unal a22eted
t)is argu(ent& It 9as ne2essary to (a'e re"eren2e to a standard o" roo"+
and t)at t)e lo9er standard set out in Si!a'u(aran alies to a
deter(ination o" t)e li'eli)ood t)at 3ot) a "uture e!ent 9ill )aen+ and
t)at a ast e!ent )as )aened&
T)ese 2ases as a 9)ole s)o9 t)at t)e 2ourts aroa2) t)e issue o" t)e
deter(ination o" re"ugee status as a u3li2 la9 in-uiry into t)e rele!ant
e!iden2e& T)e ro2ess is not to 3e t)oug)t o" as (odeled on 2i!il
litigationE rat)er t)e de2ision6(a'er (ust e!aluate all t)e e!iden2e to t)e
standard o" roo" arti2ulated in Si4aumaran. Clayton o3ser!es t)at t)is
(eans t)at de2ision6(a'ers s)ould not aroa2) t)eir tas' in a
K(e2)anisti2 (annerK and t)e asylu( see'er does not )a!e to 3ear a
3urden o" roo" to t)e standard o" reasona3le ro3a3ility& Assessing an
asylu( 2lai( is ulti(ately a (atter o" e!aluation7 KLIMt (ust 3e
aroa2)ed as a 9)ole+ as a u3li2 la9 eAer2ise in t)e need "or
rote2tion rat)er t)an as an eAer2ise in ro!ing "a2ts to a standardK&
CClayton+ &@44D&
.& W)at is t)e rele!ant standard o" roo" "or an asylu( 2lai(J
Su''#r-
We )a!e 3een studying R ! Secretary of State for the Home
Department, eA parte Si4aumaran L.;==M 5aranaaran ! Secretary of
State for the Home Department L2:::M and 5aja ! Secretary of State for
A2!iii
the Home Department L.;;4M& In t)e "irst 2ase t)e 2ourt deter(ined t)e
nature o" t)e test "or re"ugee statusE in t)e se2ond t9o t)e issue o" t)e
standard o" roo" re-uired in an asylu( )earing 9as addressed& T)e
)earing is to 3e aroa2)ed in a di""erent 9ay to 2i!il litigation& T)e
2orre2t aroa2) 9as one o" e!aluation+ rat)er t)an 2)oosing l4et9een
t)e e!iden2e resented 3y t9o arties&
.8482 R%2u,%%&F #&-$u' #nd I''!,r#t!on !n
t"% U>
Asylu( and i((igration are ro(inent on t)e oliti2al agenda in t)e
U5& Many NGOs and ressure grous )a!e 3een 2riti2al o" go!ern(ent
oli2y+ 9)i2) aears to 3e restri2ting t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees+ and
rede"ining t)e U5Ks o3ligations under t)e Con!ention& We 9ill loo' at
t9o (ain issues7 t)e I((igration+ Asylu( and Nationality A2t C9)i2)
re2ei!ed Royal assent on @: Mar2) 2::0D and t)e U5Fs roosals "or a
re"or(ed asylu( syste(&
Birst 9e need to t)in' a3out t)e relations)i 3et9een re"ugee la9 and
t)e la9 o" i((igration& W)ilst t)e de"inition o" re"ugee status (ay 3e
deter(ined 3y t)e Con!ention+ as t)e Con!ention uts in la2e an
indi!idual ali2ation ro2ess+ t)e di""erent 9ays in 9)i2) national legal
syste(s )a!e dealt 9it) ali2ations 3y re"ugees (eans t)at re"ugee la9
is inti(ately 3ound u 9it) national la9& In t)e U5+ t)e resonsi3ility
"or o!erseeing t)is area o" la9 rests 9it) t)e Ho(e O""i2e+ 9)i2) also
deals 9it) i((igration& T)is )as led to i((igration and re"ugee la9
3e2o(ing 3ound u toget)er at 3ot) t)e le!el o" legal do2trine and
institution& T)us+ t)e Aliens A2t .;:4 allo9ed t)e 2ourts to deter(ine
9)et)er or not an indi!idualKs 2lai( to asylu( 9ould ro!ide grounds to
re!ent deortation&
W)en t)is A2t 9as rela2ed 9it) t)e Aliens Restri2tion A2ts o" .;.4
and .;.;+ t)e deter(ination o" re"ugee status 9as gi!en to t)e Se2retary
o" State& It 9as not until t)e Asylu( and I((igration Aeals A2t o"
.;;@ t)at a 2lai( "or asylu( 9as resented as 2onsistent 9it) t)e U5Fs
o3ligations under t)e Con!ention7 KLtM)is re"ers to t)e non6re"oule(ent
o3ligation under Arti2le @@+ and ga!e a statutory (eaning to an asylu(
2lai(K C@4;D&
In do(esti2 oliti2s+ t)e issue o" re"ugee rig)ts )as long 3een oen to
2riti2al s2rutiny& T)e $ri(e Minister )as 3een -uoted as saying t)at it
9as ti(e to Kstand 3a2' and 2onsider its Lt)e Con!entionFsM ali2ations
in todayKF 9orldF&
So+ 9)at re"or(s are 2urrently 3eing (ade to t)e asylu( and
i((igration syste(J
A2iA
T"% I''!,r#t!onF A&-$u' #nd N#t!on#$!t- :!$$
Birst 9e 9ill 2onsider t)e I((igration+ Asylu( and Nationality A2t
2::0& T)e A2t 2reates a single tier Asylu( and I((igration Tri3unal&
T)is 3ody 2onsiders aeals against i((igration and asylu( de2isions&
Only in li(ited 2ases 2an t)e Tri3unalFs de2ision 3e re!ie9ed 3y t)e
Hig) Court on t)e grounds t)at t)e Tri3unal (ade an error o" la9&
A(ongst ot)er (easures are7 t)e re(o!al o" rig)ts o" aeal against
re"usal o" entry or lea!e to enter "or students Cs&4D and li(ited rig)ts o"
aeal "or "a(ily !isitors& It also ai(s to strea(line ost6entry rig)ts o"
aeal& Se2tion .4 2reates 2i!il enalties "or e(loyers o" illegal
9or'ers and s&2. (a'es it a 2ri(inal o""en2e to 'no9ingly e(loy an
illegal 9or'er&
Ho9 )as t)is A2t+ and t)e oli2y 3e)ind it 3een resented 3y t)e
go!ern(entJ We 9ill 2onsider t)e "ollo9ing eAtra2t7
T)e urose o" t)e L,ill and t)e go!ern(entKs i((igrationM strategy is
to (a'e (igration 9or' "or ,ritain& It in2ludes (easures to (a'e our
i((igration syste( si(ler+ 2learer and (ore ro3ust& T)e re"or(ed
syste( 9ill eAlain u3li2ly and 2learly 9)o 9e 9ill ad(it to t)e U5
and 9)y+ and 9)o 9e 9ill allo9 to stay in t)e U5 and 9)y& It 9ill also
s)o9 t)at 9e en"or2e t)e rules rigorously in e!ery rese2t& T)e U5
needs e2ono(i2 (igration& We 9el2o(e eole 9)o (igrate )ere to
9or' and study 6t)ey are an essential art o" our so2iety and e2ono(y&
Anyone 9)o loo's 3a2' o!er t)e re2ent years and de2ades 9ill 3e a3le
to gi!e testi(ony to t)e (ajor 2ontri3ution t)at t)ey )a!e (ade to t)e
li"e o" t)is 2ountry& We need (igration to "ill t)e gas in our la3our
(ar'et t)at 2annot 3e "illed "ro( t)e do(esti2 9or'"or2e& O" 2ourse+ t)e
go!ern(ent 9ill 2ontinue to 9el2o(e eole 9)o are genuinely "leeing
erse2ution& Ho9e!er+ as 9e do so 9e 9ill not6 and 2annot6tolerate
a3use o" t)e syste(& T)at eAlains 9)y t)e "i!e& year strategy 2ontains
"our (ajor 9or' strea(s+ in ea2) o" 9)i2) 9e 9or' 9it) a range o"
ot)er 2ountries to i(ro!e t)e e""e2ti!eness o" our syste(&F CC)arles
Clar'e+ "or(er Horne Se2retary+ introdu2ing t)e I((igration+ Asylu(
and Nationality ,ill to $arlia(entD
T)is de"en2e o" t)e A2t suggests t)at it 9ill stri'e a 3alan2e 3et9een t)e
need "or e2ono(i2 (igrants+ and t)e need to oli2e i((igration& Indeed+
asylu( see'ers see( to 3e ri(arily 2onsidered+ at least in t)e see2)
a3o!e+ as e2ono(i2 (igrants+ rat)er t)an t)ose "or 9)o( t)e U5 )as
resonsi3ilities under international la9& Ho9e!er+ (any NGOs and
ressure grous )a!e 3een !ery 2riti2al o" t)e A2t& Criti2s )a!e ointed
out t)at t)e li(itations on t)e rig)t to aeal are against t)e rule o" la9+
and t)at t)e A2t e""e2ti!ely 2ri(inalises re"ugees and re(o!es state
2
suort "ro( t)e(& It )as to 3e seen in t)e 2onteAt o" ot)er initiati!es to
re"or( U5 asylu( and i((igration la9&
T)e I((igration+ Asylu( and Nationality A2t (ust 3e seen in t)e
2onteAt o" an ongoing dri!e to us) t)roug) "ar6rea2)ing re"or(s o" t)e
international o3ligations t)at t)e U5 )as entered into under t)e
Con!ention& To get a sense o" t)e dire2tion o" t)ese re"or(s+ 9e 9ill
loo' at t)e roosals "or a re"or(ed asylu( syste(+ and t)e resonse to
t)e #uroean Co((ission in t)e aer7 9/owards a more accessi0le,
e:uita0le and managed asylum system9.
Pro7o&%d A&-$u' R%2or'&
T)e re"or(s roosed are essentially "o2used on 2reating transit 2entres
eit)er in #uroe+ at its 3order+ or in nations outside o" #uroe& T)ese
Ktransit ro2essing 2entresF 9ould deal 9it) t)e 2lai(s o" asylu( see'ers
9)o 9ere intending to enter t)e U5E on2e t)e 2lai(s )ad 3een ro2essed
outside t)e U5+ so(e 9ould 3e er(itted to enter& T)ese 2entres 9ould
allo9 a K(ore e-uita3le (anage(entK o" t)e Kirregular (igrantsK 9)o
9ant to enter #uroe& A syste( o" regional 2entres also in2ludes a
roosal "or Kregional rote2tion areasK 9)ere t)ose asylu( see'ers 9)o
)a!e "ailed to 3e a22eted 2an 3e a22o((odated instead o" 3eing
returned to t)e 2ountries "ro( 9)i2) t)ey )a!e "led&
T)ere are !arious "a2tors dri!ing t)ese re"or(s& T)e go!ern(ent )as
2ited one 2o(elling reason to 3e t)e 2osts o" running t)e resent
asylu( syste(& Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) )a!e 2riti2ised t)is argu(ent and
)a!e a22used t)e go!ern(ent o" ignoring ot)er 9ays o" redu2ing t)e
2osts o" t)e syste(& Bor instan2e+ 2osts o" detention 2entres+ and t)e
ra2ti2e o" detaining asylu( see'ers+ 2ould 3e de2reased 3y allo9ing
asylu( see'ers to 9or'& T)e go!ern(ent )ad 9it)dra9n t)e K9or'
2on2essionK arrange(ent 9)ere3y asylu( see'ers 9ere issued 9it) 9or'
er(its a"ter a 2ertain eriod& T)is (eans t)at asylu( see'ers are
entirely deendent on go!ern(ent "unding& Bigures 9ere 2ited t)at
s)o9ed t)at t)e 2ost o" detention )ad risen "ro( Z@02 to Z.+02: er
9ee' (Hansard, House o" Co((ons *e3ates+ 24 O2to3er 2::.+ C @@@
WD& T)is is 3a2'ed u 3y in"or(ation "ro( t)e UNHCR 9)i2) s)o9s
t)at t)e U5 detains (ore asylu( see'ers t)an any ot)er #uroean
nation CUNHCR+ 2:::D&
$roosals "or regional 2entres and transit ro2essing 2entres )a!e also
3een en2ouraged 3y argu(ents a3out t)e s2ale o" t)e illegal entry o"
asylu( see'ers to t)e U5& Ho9e!er+ t)is is not a reasona3le aroa2) to
t)e ro3le(+ as t)e !ery "a2t t)at an asylu( see'er is "leeing erse2ution
(ay (ean t)at an illegal entry is )is or )er only otion C)o9 2an one
enter a 2ountry legally i" one is deri!ed o" a assort+ "or instan2eJD&
Moreo!er+ su2) argu(ents also 2ontradi2t t)e Con!ention 9)i2) states
2i
t)at t)ose arri!ing illegally s)ould not 3e enalised& A si(ilar analysis
2an 3e (ade o" ot)er go!ern(ent argu(ents& T)e go!ern(ent )as
alleged t)at t)e nu(3er o" "ailed asylu( see'ers s)o9 t)at (ost (a'e
3ogus ali2ations& Ho9e!er+ t)is 2annot 3e used as a relia3le indeA o"
t)e status o" asylu( see'ersE it re"le2ts e-ually on t)e "ailings o" t)ose
9)o are (a'ing t)e de2ision on status and t)e ro2edures t)ey are
alying&
Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) 2ite as e!iden2e a re2ent reort t)at s)o9s t)at in
ro2edures alied in 0: er 2ent o" 2lai(s in t)e Net)erlands+
ali2ants 9ere deri!ed o" "unda(ental )u(an rig)ts& T)e )ig) 2ourt
itsel" )as )eld t)at deri!ing asylu( see'ers o" 3asi2 so2ial suort
a(ounted to a 3rea2) o" t)e #uroean Con!ention& #!iden2e "or t)e
9ea'ness o" t)e go!ern(entFs argu(ents is also suggested 3y t)e "a2t
t)at IaroAi(ately one6-uarter o" t)ose asylu( see'ers 9)o aeal
t)eir reje2tion in t)e U5 are su22ess"ully granted asylu(K CI((igration
and Nationality *ire2torate+ 2::2D&
T)e U5Ks o3ligations under international la9 (ust also 3e ta'en into
a22ount& Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) argue t)at t)ese roosals are 2ontrary to
t)e sirit and t)e letter o" t)e Con!ention t)at I2alls uon state arties to
engage in international 2o6oeration to a(eliorate t)e lig)t o" t)e
9orldKs re"ugeesF& T)e roosals e""e2ti!ely s)i"t t)e 3urden o" asylu(
to 2ountries t)at do not )a!e t)e e2ono(i2 resour2es o" t)e U5&
Burt)er(ore+ t)e roosals 2o(e 2lose to 3ot) t)reatening t)e rig)t to
asylu( in t)e *e2laration and t)e "unda(ental rin2ile o" non6
re"oule(ent& Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) )a!e also argued t)at t)ere is a
otential 3rea2) o" Arti2le @.+ 9)i2) states t)at re"ugees s)ould only 3e
detained in eA2etional 2asesE t)e re(o!al and detention o" t)ose 9)o
arri!e illegally in t)e U5 to transit 2entres outside t)e U5 argua3ly
3rea2)es t)is rig)t& T)ere is also t)e ris' t)at t)e roosals are
dis2ri(inatory& T)e lans "or t)e 2onstru2tion o" regional 2entres
suggest t)at t)ese (ig)t 3e geogra)i2ally roAi(al to areas 9)i2)
rodu2e large nu(3ers o" re"ugees& I" t)ose in t)e regional 2entres
enjoyed "e9er rig)ts t)an t)ose in t)e U5+ t)en Arti2le @ o" t)e
Con!ention is also !iolated&
.& Re"or(s in i((igration and asylu( la9 in t)e U5 s)o9 an
in2reasing disregard "or t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees& *is2uss&
Su''#r-
Re"ugee la9+ and t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees+ are 3ound u 9it) national la9&
We )a!e eAa(ined )o9 re"or(s in t)e U5 i((igration syste( are
2ii
dri!en 3y a need to strea(line a (eans o" oli2ing re"ugees and
ensuring t)at t)e nu(3er o" re"ugees entering t)e U5 is 'et to a
(ini(u(&
.80T"% Cr!&!& !n t"% Sud#n: O!$F Po3%r #nd R%2u,%%&
T)is "inal se2tion 9ill study t)e 2risis in t)e Sudan+ so t)at 9e 2an
are2iate )o9 t)e re"ugee ro3le( (ust 3e seen in t)e 2onteAt o"
3roader oliti2al 2on2ernsE in t)is sense t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees 2an
er)as 3e seen as less i(ortant to 2ertain go!ern(ents t)an t)e need
to 2ontrol territory and re!enue& Re"ugee 2rises also arise as a result o"
t)e "ailure to gal!anise a2tion 3y t)e international 2o((unity& So(e
(ig)t see t)is as a "ailure o" states to inter!ene in regions or 2ountries
desite t)e e!iden2e o" t)e (ass a3use o" )u(an rig)ts&
UNIC#B des2ri3es t)e situation in 9estern Sudan as Kone o" t)e 9orldKs
9orst )u(anitarian 2risesK& UNIC#BKs "igures s)o9 t)at nearly .&=
(illion eole )a!e 3een internally disla2edE and t)e situation )as 3een
eAa2er3ated 3y s)ortages o" "ood and 9ater and 3y o!er62ro9ding o"
re"ugee 2a(s& Bor instan2e+ 5al(a 2a(+ 9)i2) originally
a22o((odated @:+:::+ 2urrently )as to 2oe 9it) .4:+::: eole&
T)ere are nearly 20:+::: eole "ro( t)e *ar"ur region in 2a(s in t)e
neig)3ouring C)ad& ,ut 9)at are t)e 2auses o" t)is 2risisJ
T)e A"ri2an non6Musli( 2itiHens 9)o oulate t)e sout) )a!e 3een at
9ar 9it) t)e 2entral go!ern(ent+ do(inated 3y Ara3ised Musli( elite+
sin2e indeenden2e in .;40& State o9er re(ains in t)e )ands o" t)ese
elite+ 9)i2) do(inates t)e o""i2er 2ors o" t)e ar(y+ se2urity agen2ies+
and ot)er agen2ies 9ielding o9er&
Alt)oug) t)ere 9as a de2ade o" ea2e and sout)ern autono(y in
.;<26=@ a"ter t)e searatist sout)ern re3els laid do9n t)eir ar(s+ it 2a(e
to an end 9)en t)e 2entral go!ern(ent a3olis)ed t)e sout)ern
autono(ous region and (ade Shariah CIsla(i2 la9D t)e la9 o" t)e land
in .;=@& T)e 2i!il 9ar "lared u again+ 3ut 9it) a di""erent oliti2al
agenda& W)ile sout)ern senti(ent re(ained strongly searatist+ *r %o)n
Garang+ t)e leader o" t)e (ain re3el "or2e+ t)e S$LM/ A 2alled "or a
Kunited+ se2ular Sudan&K
T)e 3a2'ground reasons "or t)e 9ar are 2o(leA+ 3ut+ as t)e assage
a3o!e suggests+ t)ey relate to et)ni2 tensions 9it)in t)e 2ountry& T)ese
are re"le2ted in t)e "a2t t)at an KAra3ised Musli( eliteK )as 2ontrolled t)e
2ountry sin2e indeenden2e+ and )as 'et o9er and resour2es "ro(
2iii
Kso2ially (arginalised se2tions o" t)e oulationK in t)e K9est and east+
nort) and sout)K o" t)e 2ountry& T)at t)ere 9as a eriod o" ea2e
suggests t)at t)ese tensions did not ne2essarily lead to 9arE )o9e!er+ t)e
(ost i((ediate 2auses 2an 3e "ound in t)e 2entral go!ern(entKs (o!e
to in2rease its 2ontrol o!er t)e 2ountry+ and t)e su3se-uent resistan2e 3y
t)e S$LM/A&
Anot)er 2entral "a2tor in t)e Sudanese 2i!il 9ar 2an 3e tra2ed to t)e
dis2o!ery o" oil in .;<=& T)e Autono(ous Sout)ern Region rotested
against t)e Nort)ern go!ern(entKF lans "or t)e eAloitation o" t)ese oil
reser!es& Alt)oug) t)e oil "ields are lo2ated in t)e sout)+ t)e
go!ern(entFs lans la2ed t)e in"rastru2tures and re"ineries in t)e
Nort)& 1arious "oreign oil 2o(anies )a!e 3een in!ol!ed in t)e Sudan+
and )a!e turned a 3lind eye to t)e ongoing )u(an rig)ts a3uses&
*eter(ined to 2ontrol t)e eAloitation o" t)ese natural resour2es+ t)e
Nort)ern go!ern(ent engaged in se2i"i2 oli2ies ai(ed at su3jugating
t)e sout) o" t)e 2ountry7
In order to 2ontrol t)e rodu2tion o" oil+ t)e unele2ted go!ern(ent o"
%a"aKar Ni(eiri C.;0;6=4D adoted a t9o6ronged strategy+ di!ision
and disla2e(ent o" t)e sout)ern oulation& It )as ta'en al(ost t9o
de2ades and !arious go!ern(ents to de!elo and re"ine t)is strategy+
3ut t)e di!ision and disla2e(ent strategy )as a22o(lis)ed 9)at
dire2t (ilitary a2tion "ro( t)e 2entral go!ern(ent alone 2ould ne!er
a2)ie!e7 2lear 2ontrol o" 2ertain oil areas in sout)ern Sudan&
Go!ern(ent oli2y )as 3een to sonsor and en2ourage !arious KroAiesK
to atta2' t)ose eoles 9)o li!e in t)e areas o" t)e oil
W)at )as 3een t)e resonse o" t)e international 2o((unity to t)is
2risisJ As 9as ointed out in t)e Washington $ost+ Kon t)e .:t)
anni!ersary o" t)e R9andan geno2ide+ t)e 9orld 2o((unity again
2)osen to 9at2)+ 9ait and+ so "ar+ do not)ingK& Alt)oug) international aid
agen2ies are a2ti!e in t)e region+ and dilo(ati2 e""orts are ongoing to
ro(ote and sustain ea2e+ (any )a!e a22used t)e international
2o((unity o" doing too little& T)e UN )as issued t9o Resolutions
2alling on t)e Nort)ern go!ern(ent to dis3and its (ilitias+ 3ut t)ese
)a!e 3een ignored& T)e A"ri2an Union )as troos in t)e region+ 3ut
see(s to la2' t)e 9ill to inter!ene& T)e United States )as (ade
dilo(ati2 initiati!es+ 3ut also la2's t)e oliti2al 9ill to inter!ene (ore
ro3ustly& T)e #U )as also stood 3y& It 9ould aear t)at t)e geno2ide in
Sudan is o"" t)e 9orldKs oliti2al agenda&
.& KT)e situation in t)e Sudan suggests t)at re"ugee rig)ts and
)u(an rig)ts )a!e !ery little (eaning at all
2i!
Su''#r-
T)is "inal se2tion )as 2onsidered t)e oliti2al reality o" )u(an rig)ts in
t)e re"ugee 2risis in t)e Sudan& W)ile t)e need to rote2t re"ugee rig)ts
(ay 3e art o" t)e genuine )u(anitarian desire to rote2t t)ose
disla2ed 3y t)e 2on"li2t+ it 9ould see( t)at t)e s2ale o" t)e ro3le( )as
not (et 9it) a suita3le resonse "ro( t)e 9orld )u(an rig)ts lo33y&
489 CONCLUSION
089 SUMMARY
.& I*esite t)e i(ortan2e o" t)e . ;4. Con!ention+ t)e rig)ts o"
re"ugees see( to 3e in2reasing li(ited in 2onte(orary oliti2sF&
*is2uss&
5jaeru(+ M& KRe"ugee rote2tion 3et9een state interests and )u(an
rig)ts7 2ontains t)e arti2les 3y 9)ere is #uroe )eadingJK Human &ights
;uarter 24 2::2+ &4.@64@0& T)is& R d essay re!ie9s dire2tions in
re"ugee oli2y in di""erent #uroean nations and 5%aeru( and
Hat)a9ay& ea argues t)at t)ere is a de!eloing tension 3et9een t)ese
oli2ies and )u(an t)e( no9& rig)ts la9& As su2)+ 5jaeru( 3uilds on
t)e erse2ti!e o" Tuitt and ot)ers t)at t)ere is a serious disjun2ture
3et9een t)e re"ugee la9 and a (eaning"ul realisation o" t)e rig)ts o"
re"ugees&
Hat)a9ay+ %& C& KRe2on2ei!ing re"ugee la9 as )u(an rig)ts rote2tionK+
<ournal of &efugee Studies, 4C2D .;;.+ &..@6.@.& Hat)a9ayKs arti2le
also relates to a 2entral set o" t)e(es in t)is 2)ater& I" t)ere are
signi"i2ant ro3le(s 9it) t)e
T)is -uestion is 2alling "or a dis2ussion o" t)e Con!ention in its oliti2al
2onteAt& T)e essay s)ould 3egin 3y o""ering a dire2t resonse to t)e
-uotation& It 9ould 3e reasona3le to agree 9it) t)e state(ent7 t)e
Con!ention is undou3tedly i(ortant+ 3ut t)ere are nu(erous eAa(les
2!
o" re"ugeeKs rig)ts 3eing atta2'ed or li(ited in re2ent ti(es& T)e
di""i2ulty 9it) t)is -uestion is li(iting oneKs ans9er to illustrati!e
eAa(lesE o3!iously+ one 2ould not )oe to 2o!er all o" 2onte(orary
oliti2s in an eAa( ans9er&
T)e state(ent "alls into t9o artsE one )as to assess t)e Con!ention+
t)en turn oneKs attention to t)e issue o" t)e oliti2s o" re"ugeeKs rig)ts&
T)e stru2ture o" t)e essay s)ould re"le2t t)e "a2t t)at t)e state(ent raises
t9o (ain issues& T)us+ t)e "irst art o" t)e essay s)ould outline t)e
i(ortan2e o" t)e Con!ention in ro!iding a 2o)erent state(ent o"
re"ugees rig)tsE t)e se2ond art s)ould engage 9it) t)e li(itations on or
2)allenges to t)e rig)ts o" t)e re"ugee& In illustrating t)is oint+ one
2ould dra9 in"or(ation "ro( t)is 2)ater+ and er)as "o2us on t)e
re2ent re"or(s to asylu( and i((igration la9 in t)e U5 and s)o9 )o9
t)ey e""e2ti!ely li(it t)e rote2tion t)at re"ugees enjoy& Ot)er eAa(les
2ould 3e dra9n "ro( t)e 2risis in t)e Sudan& T)is suggests a "ailure o"
t)e international 2o((unity to resond at t)e ne2essary le!el& T)e
2on2lusion o" t)e essay s)ould re6state t)e (ain t)esis+ t)at one is in
3road agree(ent 9it) t)e state(ent in t)e title+ and o""er a 3rie" re2a o"
t)e (ost salient t)e(es in t)e essay&
At!*!t- C8. T)is state(ent is an a22urate des2rition o" a ro3le( t)at
underlies re"ugee la9& Birst+ it 9ould 3e 9ort) as'ing 9)y t)e -uestion
asserts t)at it is ne2essary to distinguis) 3et9een t)ese t)ree ter(s& It is
resu(a3ly 3e2ause t)e la9 itsel" 2reates distin2tions 3et9een t)ese
2ategories o" erson+ and a22ords t)e( di""erent rig)ts and o3ligations&
A re"ugee is rat)er narro9ly de"ined and 2annot 3e seen as an e2ono(i2
(igrant& A re"ugee (ay 3e 2onsidered an asylu( see'er+ 3ut+ it is
suggested+ t)ere is no auto(ati2 rig)t to asylu(& So+ it 9ould aear t)at
t)e la9 does dra9 a s)ar distin2tion 3et9een t)ese 2lasses o" erson&
Ho9e!er+ i" 9e loo' at t)e ro3le( in a slig)tly di""erent 9ay+ 9e 2o(e
to a di""erent 2on2lusion& Again+ t)is suggests t)at t)e state(ent a3o!e is
a22urate+ as it suggests t)at desite t)e 3oundaries t)at t)e la9 dra9s+
t)e 2on2et o" t)e re"ugee re(ains so(e9)at "luid& Bor instan2e+ t)e
IUgandanF and I5enyanF Asians 9)o soug)t entry to t)e U5 in t)e
.;<:s 9ere not treated as re"ugees+ alt)oug) argua3ly t)ey 9ere& T)e
Al3anian 5oso!ans arri!ing in t)e U5 in t)e .;;:s 9ere treated as
re"ugees see'ing asylu(& Su2) distin2tions suggest a great deal a3out
t)e oliti2al 2li(ate o" t)e ti(es&
At!*!t- C82 Tuitt suggests t)at t)e (e2)anis(s o" )u(an rig)ts+ 9)i2)
tend to address and la2e duties on t)e so!ereign state in 9)i2) a erson
)as nationality or residen2e+ )a!e already 3ro'en do9n "or t)e re"ugee&
In t)is sense t)e re"ugee is+ 3y 3eing stateless+ an international 2on2ern&
A re"ugee (ay 3e see'ing re"uge in a 2ountry o" 9)i2) )e does not )a!e
nationality& T)e international 2o((unity (ust a2t in unison to relie!e
2!i
2!ii
indi!idual 2ountries o" t)e additional duties t)at a22o((odating
re"ugees la2es uon t)e(&
At!*!t- C8/ We need to 3egin 3y se2i"ying t)e 'ey "eatures o" t)e test&
As t)e (ain issue relates to t)e su3je2ti!e and o3je2ti!e "eatures o" t)e
test+ 9e do not need to outline t)e 9)ole de"inition& T)e 'ey "eatures o"
t)e test "or t)e uroses o" t)is -uestion are t)at a erson )as a K9ell6
"ounded "ear o" 3eing erse2utedKE and t)at t)is erse2ution is "or
Kreasons o" ra2e+ religion+ nationality+ (e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular so2ial
grou or oliti2al oinionK& T)is 9ell6"ounded "ear (eans t)at a erson
)as la2ed )i(sel" Koutside t)e 2ountry o" )is nationality and is una3le+
or o9ing to su2) "ear+ is un9illing to a!ail )i(sel" o" t)e rote2tion o"
t)at 2ountryF& As "ear is su3je2ti!e+ t)e de"inition in2ludes a su3je2ti!e
ele(ent& *eter(ination o" re"ugee status re-uires an e!aluation o" t)e
ali2antKs state(ents& To assess t)e su3je2ti!e ele(ent+ t)e de2ision6
(a'er (ust ta'e into a22ount t)e indi!idualKs ersonal and "a(ily
3a2'ground+ )is (e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular ra2ial+ religious+ national+
so2ial or oliti2al grou and )is o9n interretation o" )is situation& T)e
ali2antKs "ear (ust 3e reasona3leE eAaggerated rear+ 2an 3e 9ell6
"ounded i"+ in all t)e 2ir2u(stan2es o" t)e 2ase+ su2) a state o" (ind 2an
3e regarded as justi"ied& Ho9e!er+ t)e "ear (ust also 3e K9ell6"oundedK+
and t)is (eans t)at t)e test also )as an o3je2ti!e ele(ent&
2!iii
Course Code LAW 242
Course Title Hu(an Rig)ts La9 II
Course Writer Ayodeji Ige
Course #ditor $ro"essor %ustus A& So'e"un
$rogra((e Leader G& I& Oya')iro(en $)&*+ ,L
Course Coordinator Ayodeji Ige
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
2iA
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CONTENTS PAGE
Modu$% . GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG888 .
Unit . T)e Hu(an Rig)t o" 9o(an& >>>>&>&>&> .
Unit 2 T)e Rig)t o" t)e C)ildren >>>>&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& 2=
Unit @ T)e Rig)ts o" Re"ugees >>>>>>>>>>& 42
Unit 4 #t)ni2 Nationals in Nigeria and t)e Rig)t to
Sel" *eter(ination >>>>>>>>>>>> =4
Modu$% 2 GGGGGGGGGGGGGG8GGGG88888 C0
Unit . T)e #uroean Syste( "or t)e $rote2tion o"
Hu(an Rig)ts>>>>>&>>>>>&&>>>>& ;4
Unit 2 T)e Inter6A(eri2an Syste( "or t)e
$rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts>>>>>>>&&>& ..0
Unit @ Hu(an and $eoleFs Rig)ts in t)e A"ri2an Syste(> .4:
Modu$% / GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG8 .A.
Unit . Rig)t to Re(edy>>>>>>>>>>>>&&& .<.
Unit 2 #n"or2e(ent o" Hu(an Rig)ts>>>>>&>&> .<<
Unit @ Lo2us Standi >>>>>>>>>>>>&>&&& .=4
Modu$% 4 GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG888 .C0
Unit . T)e Role and Bun2tions o" t)e National
Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts>>>>&&>&&> .;4
Unit 2 T)e $u3li2 Co(laint Co((ission >>>&>&&& 2::
Unit @ T)e Role and Bun2tion o" t)e A"ri2an
Co((ission on Hu(an and $eoleFs Rig)ts>& 2:0
Modu$% 0 GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG88GGG8 2.A
Unit . T)e Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(ent
$ro2edureD Rules>>>>>>>>>>>>& 2.<
Unit 2 Relie"s A!aila3le Uon an Ali2ation "or
%udi2ial Re!ie9>>>>>>>>>>>>&&& 22<
Unit @ Oerati!e Conditions "or $rerogati!e Orders>& 2@@
Unit 4 Originating Noti2e o" Motion>>>>>>&>& 2@;
2Ai
MODULE .
Unit . T)e Hu(an Rig)ts o" Wo(en
Unit 2 T)e Rig)ts o" T)e C)ild
Unit @ T)e Rig)ts o" Re"ugees
UNIT . THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF WOMEN
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. T)e C)allenge o" IWo(enFs Rig)tsF
@&.&. An O!er!ie9
@&.&2 Case Study7 $roerty Rig)ts o" Wo(en in 5enya
@&.&@ A Note on Wo(enFs Rig)ts and International La9
@&2 T)e Con!ention on t)e #li(ination o" All Bor(s o"
*is2ri(ination Against Wo(en CC#*AWD
@&2&. An O!er!ie9 o" C#*AW
@&2&2 Content o" C#*AW
@&2&@ Additional #n"or2e(ent Me2)anis(s
@&2&4 Analysis o" Rig)ts in C#*AW and ot)er Hu(an
Rig)ts Instru(ents
@&2&4 Be(inist Criti2is(s o" C#*AW
@&@ T)e Otional $roto2ol
@&@&. W)y 9as t)ere a Need "or an Otional $roto2olJ
@&@&2 W)at is t)e Role o" t)e Otional $roto2olJ
@&@&@ Case Study7 Nigeria
@&4 *e2laration on t)e #li(ination o" 1iolen2e Against
Wo(en
@&4 T)e Se2ial Raorteur on 1iolen2e Against Wo(en
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
0&: Tutor6Mar'ed Assign(ent
.89 INTRODUCTION
Wo(enFs rig)ts are an integral art o" )u(an rig)ts& T)e 2entrality o"
9o(enFs rig)ts to )u(an rig)ts+ and indeed+ t)e inter6lin'ed nature o"
all )u(an rig)ts+ 9as a""ir(ed 3y t)e .;;@ 1ienna World Con"eren2e&
T)e 1ienna *e2laration and $rogra((e o" A2tion stated t)at IT)e
)u(an rig)ts o" 9o(en and t)e girl 2)ild are an inaliena3le+ integral+
.
and indi!isi3le art o" uni!ersal )u(an rig)tsF& T)e rote2tion and
en)an2e(ent o" 9o(enFs rig)ts ensures7
t)e "ull and e-ual arti2iation o" 9o(en in oliti2al+ 2i!il+
e2ono(i2+ so2ial and 2ultural li"e+ at t)e national+ regional+ and
international le!els+ and t)e eradi2ation o" all "or(s o" dis2ri(ination
on t)e grounds o" seA are riority o3je2ti!es o" t)e international
2o((unity&
289 O:;ECTIVES
,y t)e end o" t)is unit and t)e rele!ant readings+ you s)ould 3e a3le to7
eAlain t)e nature o" 9o(enKs rig)ts as )u(an rig)ts in2luding
"e(inist 2riti-ues o" international la9
outline t)e Arti2le o" t)e Con!ention "or t)e #li(ination o" All
Bor(s o" *is2ri(ination Against Wo(en CC#*AWD
eAlain t)e oeration o" t)e Otional $roto2ol to C#*AW
des2ri3e t)e role o" t)e Co((ission on t)e Status o" Wo(en CCSWD
and gender (ainstrea(ing
su((arise t)e *e2laration on t)e #li(ination o" 1iolen2e against
Wo(en
eAlain t)e role o" t)e Se2ial Raorteur on 1iolen2e against
Wo(en
eAlain t)e 2ultural issues relating to t)e en"or2e(ent o" 9o(enFs
rig)ts&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. T"% C"#$$%n,% o2 Wo'%n=& R!,"t&
/8.8. An O*%r*!%3
Wo(enFs rig)ts see' to 2)allenge and 3rea' do9n t)e eA2lusion t)at
9o(en )a!e su""ered in all arts o" t)e 9orld& We 2ould relate 9o(enKs
rig)ts to "e(inis( as a 2ultural and oliti2al "or2e& Be(inis( 2an 3e
understood as a 3road63ased and di!erse (o!e(ent t)at see's to rote2t
and ro(ote t)e interests o" 9o(en& Be(inists are also a2ti!e in lin'ing
9o(enFs rig)ts to t)e eradi2ation o" o!ertyE a "a2tor t)at in2reasingly
dri!es "or9ard t)e rig)ts agenda& A re2ent UN reort ro!ides so(e
details& $o!erty )as to 3e understood in a 9ide sense+ as in2luding not
just a la2' o" "inan2ial and so2ial resour2es+ 3ut an eA2lusion "ro( )ealt)
2are+ legal ser!i2es and 2i!i2 li"e& On t)e 9)ole+ 9o(en 9or' longer
)ours t)an (en+ 9it) at least )al" t)e total ti(e sent in unre(unerated
la3our& T)is in!isi3ility leads to Klo9er so2ial entitle(ents to 9o(en as
2
2o(ared to &(en& T)is ine-uity in turn eretuates t)e gender ga in
a22essing needed resour2esF&
Rerodu2ti!e )ealt) ro3le(s also i(a2t negati!ely on 9o(en&
$oor 9o(en (ay 3e "or2ed to )a!e (ore 2)ildren t)an t)ey 9ant&
In"e2tion rates o" AI*S/HI1 and ot)er SI*s are also )ig)er "or 9o(en
t)an (en 3e2ause gender ine-uality o"ten deri!es 9o(en o" t)e a3ility
to re"use ris'y ra2ti2es+ 9)i2) leads to 2oer2ed seA and seAual
3e)a!iour& &&Wo(en reresented )al" o" all HI16ositi!e adults in 2::.+
u "ro( 4. er 2ent in .;;<&
So2ial and e2ono(i2 de!elo(ent re-uires t)e e(o9er(ent o"
9o(en& T)ose 2ountries t)at )a!e s)o9n good de!elo(ent rates )a!e
also in!ested in uni!ersal )ealt) 2are and edu2ation&
Burt)er(ore+ su22ess"ully de!eloing nations )a!e assed la9s and
ta'en oli2y initiati!es to end dis2ri(ination and ensure t)at 9o(en
lay a "ull art in t)e so2ial and e2ono(i2 li"e o" a 2ountry& Ho9e!er+
t)ese initiati!es )a!e to 3e dri!en "ro( t)e grass roots& T)ere is no oint
i(osing )ealt) 2are rogra((es i" t)ey do not deal 9it) t)e ro3le(s
t)at 9o(en are eAerien2ing& $oli2ies s)ould t)us 3e dri!en 3y
2onsultati!e ro2esses t)at ta'e t)e ro3le(s o" 3ot) rural and ur3an
9o(en seriously& I" a nation is a3le to i(ro!e t)e oortunities oen to
9o(en+ t)ere are ot)er ositi!e 2onse-uen2es7
I(ro!ing 9o(enKs edu2ation )as ro!ed to 2ontri3ute t)e (ost to
redu2ing t)e rate o" 2)ild (alnutrition+ e!en (ore i(ortant t)an
i(ro!e(ents in "ood a!aila3ility& Mot)ersK edu2ation deli!ers
i(ro!ed nutrition& Closing t)e gender ga in edu2ation also )els
9o(en to redu2e "ertility and i(ro!e 2)ild sur!i!al&

We 9ill no9 eAa(ine in (ore detail one arti2ular area o"
dis2ri(ination against 9o(en&
/8.82 C#&% Stud-: Pro7%rt- R!,"t& o2 Wo'%n !n >%n-#
We 2an 3rie"ly eAa(ine a Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) Reort on $roerty
Rig)ts in 5enya& $roerty rig)ts o" 9o(en in 5enya are 3ound u 9it)
t)e stru2ture o" t)e 2ountryKs land la9& W)at tended to )a!e 3een dri!ing
re"or( sin2e indeenden2e C.;02D )as 3een t)e need to ensure an
e-uita3le di!ision o" land 3et9een t)e di""erent et)ni2 grous 9it)in
5enya& A related ro3le( )as 3een t)e di""erent 2usto(ary jurisdi2tions+
9it) "re-uent 2ontradi2tory ro!isions and t)e )istori2al stru2ture o" title
in)erited "ro( 2olonial ti(es 9)i2) "a!oured (ale o9ners)i o" land&
Re"or(s )a!e 3een (ade in t)e la9 o" su22ession and "a(ily la9+ 3ut
@
gender i(3alan2e in land o9ners)i re(ains& At resent+ "i!e di""erent
legal syste(s t)at aly to (arriage& T)ese are7
2i!il Cunder t)e Marriage A2tD
C)ristian Cunder t)e A"ri2an C)ristian Marriage and *i!or2e A2t and
t)e Marriage A2tD
Isla(i2 Cunder t)e Mo)a((edan Marriage+ *i!or2e and Su22ession
A2tD
Hindu Cunder t)e Hindu Marriage and *i!or2e A2tD and
Custo(ary Cunder 2usto(ary la9sD&
At a 2onstitutional+ le!el dis2ri(ination on t)e 3asis o" seA is ro)i3ited+
3ut t)ere are eA2etions 9)i2) allo9 dis2ri(ination in ersonal and
2usto(ary la9& T)oug) t)ere is an ongoing ro2ess o" 2onstitutional
re"or(+ it is )oed t)at t)is 9ill en)an2e 9o(enKs rig)ts&
T)e "ailure to e""e2ti!ely rote2t 9o(en is one reason t)ey re(ain
I9orse o"" t)an (enF7
=y just a0out any measure, women in 5enya are worse off
than men. /heir a4erage earnings are less than half those
of men. 'nly 7. per cent of those engaged in formal wage
employment are women, lea4ing most to wor in the
informal sector with no social security and little income.
/he num0ers of women in formal employment are
decreasing. Women head -> per cent of all households in
5enya, a num0er liely to grow as AIDS claims more
4ictims. #ighty per cent of female-headed households are
either poor or 4ery poor, in part due to their limited
ownership of and access to land. 3irls recei4e less
education than 0oys at e4ery le4el, and women9s literacy
rate (>? per cent8 is lower than men9s (@. per
cent8.Aiolence against women is commonplaceB ?* per
cent of married women reported in a 7**7 study that they
were 4ictims of domestic a0use. In another study
pu0lished in 7**7, @- per cent of women reported
physical a0use in childhood and nearly ?6 per cent
reported physical a0use as adults. According to women9s
rights ad4ocates, there is only one shelter for 0attered
women and their children in the entire country.
A si(ilar attern 2an 3e o3ser!ed in relation to land )olding7
WomenCs land ownership is miniscule despite their
enormous contri0ution to agricultural production. Women
account for only , per cent of registered landholders
4
nationally. /he agricultural sector contri0utes o4er @* per
cent of employment and ?* per cent of national income.
Women constitute o4er @* per cent of the agricultural
la0our force, often woring on an unpaid 0asis, and ?)
per cent of su0sistence farmers are women. Women
pro4ide appro$imately ?* per cent of farm-deri4ed
income, yet female-headed households on a4erage own
less than half the amount of farm e:uipment owned 0y
male-headed households. &ural women wor an a4erage
of nearly three hours longer per day than rural men. With
so many women woring in the agricultural sector and so
few in formal employment, it is all the more de4astating
when women lose their land. (i0id8
Custo(ary la9 deri!es "ro( 2usto( and ra2ti2e+ 3ut is also "or(ally
re2ognised 3y legislation and t)e 5enyan legal syste(& T)e tenden2y
to9ards a 2o(leA atterning o" 2usto(ary la9 re"le2ts t)e "a2t t)at
ea2) et)ni2 or tri3al grouing (ay )a!e its o9n la9&
Custo(ary la9 is en"or2ed 3y tri3al leaders or elders+ 3ut (ay also 3e
alied in 2ourt ro2eedings& Custo(ary la9s t)at relate to roerty 2an
3e tra2ed 3a2' to t)e re62olonial eriod& $re2isely 3e2ause 2usto(ary
la9 is "luid+ and 2)anges as 2usto( 2)anges+ it is not ne2essarily
resistant to so2ial 2)ange& Ho9e!er+ 9)at is ro3le(ati2 is t)e "a2t t)at
t)e nor(s o" 2usto(ary la9 are rooted in 2usto(s t)at (ay t)e(sel!es
3e dee6seated and )ard to 2)ange& Consider t)e ra2ti2e o" 9i"e
in)eritan2e t)at is ra2tised in so(e arts o" 5enya& Alt)oug) t)ere are
(any di""erent er(utations to t)is ra2ti2e+ so(e 2o((on "eatures 2an
3e suggested& In t)e ast+ t)is 2usto( 9as one 9ay o" ensuring a degree
o" so2ial rote2tion "or 9ido9s& Wido9s 9ere not t)e(sel!es a3le to
in)erit land+ so+ ro!iding t)at t)e 9ido9 )ersel" 9as in)erited 9ent
so(e 9ay to (a'ing sure t)at t)e 9ido9 and )er deendents 9ould 3e
suorted& T)e rituals asso2iated 9it) 9i"e in)eritan2e in!ol!ed t)e
I2leaningF o" t)e 9ido9& T)ere 9as a "ear t)at s)e 9ould 3e
2onta(inated 9it) )er )us3andKs sirit& In one arti2ular ritual+ t)e
9ido9 9ould )a!e to )a!e seAual inter2ourse 9it) a so2ial out2ast7
Wo(enFs roerty rig)ts 2losely relate to 9i"e in)eritan2e and
2leansing rituals in t)at (any 9o(en 2annot stay in t)eir )o(es or
on t)eir land unless t)ey are in)erited or 2leansed& A22ording to one
9o(enKs rig)ts ad!o2ate+ Wo(en )a!e to 3e in)erited to 'ee any
roerty a"ter t)eir )us3ands die& T)ey )a!e a22ess to roerty
3e2ause o" t)eir )us3and and lose t)at rig)t 9)en t)e )us3and dies&K
Wo(en 9)o eAerien2ed t)ese ra2ti2es told Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2)
t)ey )ad (iAed "eelings a3out t)e(& Most said t)e 2leansing and
4
in)eritan2e 9ere not !oluntary+ 3ut t)ey su22u(3ed so t)at t)ey
2ould 'ee t)eir roerty and stay in t)eir 2o((unities& Ci3idD
SELF ASSESSMENT E?ERCISE .
.& W)at are t)e in)erent ro3le(s 9it) t)e stru2ture o" 5enyan
so2iety and la9 t)at tend to (ilitate against 9o(enKs roerty
rig)tsJ
2& W)at do t)e "igures -uoted a3o!e suggest a3out t)e so2ial and
e2ono(i2 osition o" Wo(en in 5enyaJ
@& W)at is 2usto(ary la9J Are t)ere any arti2ular ro3le(s 9it)
2usto(ary la9 as "ar as 9o(enKs rig)ts are 2on2ernedJ
Cu&to'#r- L#3
See Steiner and Alston C2::: $$&42:642.D on )o9 2usto(ary ra2ti2es
2an 2)ange& T)e eAa(le 2on2erns t)e Sa3iny eole in eastern Uganda&
It s)o9s t)at t)e nor(s o" 2usto(ary la9 2an 2)ange to reje2t ra2ti2es
t)at are una22eta3le "ro( a )u(an rig)ts erse2ti!e&
SELF ASSESSMENT E?ERCISE 2
Read Steiner and AlstonFs su((ary o" t)e arti2le 3y An6NaFi( on $&
420642=& T)is ie2e 2on2erns state resonsi3ility under international
)u(an rig)ts la9 to 2)ange religious and 2usto(ary ra2ti2es& An6
NaFi( 2on2erns )i(sel" 9it) t)e 9ay in 9)i2) 2usto(ary la9 2an
2)ange&
W)at does An6NaFi( suggest in relation to t)e aut)ority o" 2usto(ary
la9J W)y is an understanding o" t)e 3asis o" 2usto(ary la9 i(ortant
Cor a )u(an rig)ts la9yer or a2ti!istDJ
Su''#r-
Wo(enFs rig)ts are an integral art o" )u(an rig)ts& Wo(enFs rig)ts
guarantee t)e in)erent dignity o" 9o(en+ 3ut are also rele!ant to t)e
struggle against o!erty& Wo(en "a2e stru2tured disad!antage in (any
i" not all 2ountries o" t)e 9orld+ alt)oug) 9e 2on2entrated on t)e
de!eloing 9orld in t)is unit& We )a!e also seen t)at "urt)ering t)e
rote2tion o" 9o(enKs rig)ts in!ol!es 2o(leA issues o" so2ial 2)ange&
It is ne2essary t)at ad!o2ates o" )u(an rig)ts do not aroa2) 2ultures
in a )ig)6)anded 9ay+ 3ut see' to engage in 2onstru2ti!e and sensiti!e
2ross62ultural dialogues in order to 3rea' do9n resistan2es to t)ose
2)anges t)at are ne2essary to e(o9er 9o(en&
0
/8.8/ A Not% on Wo'%n=& R!,"t& #nd Int%rn#t!on#$ L#3
T)ere are ot)er ie2es t)at dra9 insiration "ro( "e(inis( in Steiner
and AlstonKs 2olle2tion& $lease read t)e su((ary o" C)arles9ort) and
C)in'inFs arti2le+ &2.=622:& C)arles9ort) is 2riti2al o" t)e 2entrality
o" t)e state to international la9 in t)e "irst eAtra2t& In t)e se2ond eAtra2t+
9riting 9it) C)ristine C)in'in+ s)e turns )er attention to t)e
international la9 do2trine o" jus cogens. T)is is related to argu(ents
a3out )u(an rig)ts& Alt)oug) )u(an rig)ts are seen as a radi2al
inter!ention in international la9+ t)ese inter!entions are not radi2al
enoug) "ro( t)e !ie9oint o" 9o(en& Alt)oug) de!elo(ents in
)u(an rig)ts la9 )a!e 3ro'en do9n a traditional di!ide 3et9een u3li2
and ri!ate+ t)ese !alues )a!e 3een re6ins2ri3ed in a 9ay t)at re"le2ts
(ale interests& Hu(an rig)ts 2atalogues tend to re"le2t t)e u3li2 )ar(s
t)at (en "ear (ost7 )ar(s t)at 2o(e out o" a "ear t)at go!ern(ent 9ill
a2t in 2ertain unrestrained 9ays& T)e sa(e restige )as not 3een gi!en
to so2ial and e2ono(i2 rig)ts t)at a""e2t t)e ri!ate s)ereE a s)ere
asso2iated (ore 9it) 9o(en t)an (en&
T)is is not to say t)at 9o(en do not su""er "ro( t)e rig)ts lin'ed to t)e
u3li2 s)ere+ 3ut t)e 9ay in 9)i2) Irig)ts )a!e 3een 2onstru2ted
o3s2ures t)e (ore er!asi!e )ar(s done to 9o(enK Ci3id&+ &.<4D&
Consider Arti2le 0 o" t)e ICC$R+ t)e rig)t to li"e+ a rig)t 2on2erned 9it)
u3li2 a2tions t)at Iar3itrarilyF deri!e indi!iduals o" t)eir li"e& T)is
ignores t)e ri!ate 9ay in 9)i2) 9o(en (ay su""er )ar( in t)e ri!ate
s)ereE "ro( t)e a3ortion o" "e(ale "oetuses and "e(ale in"anti2ide to
t)e re"eren2e gi!en to (ale o!er "e(ale 2)ildrenE a oint t)at 2ould 3e
lin'ed to !iolen2e against 9o(en in t)e "a(ily& To ta'e one "inal
eAa(le+ e!en t)e "unda(ental rig)t to sel"6deter(ination asserts t)e
rig)t o" grous o" eole to deter(ine t)eir oliti2al statusE it does not
aly to 9o(en 9it)in t)ose grous&
SELF ASSESSMENT E?ERCISE /
Re"res) your (e(ory o" 9)at jus cogens (eans+ and reare a s)ort
so'en state(ent 9)i2) you 2ould use to eAlain it to ot)ers& In2lude
one or t9o eAa(les o" 9)ere it (ig)t aly&
T)e eAtra2t "ro( #ngleFs arti2le+ &2.=622:+ is a slig)tly di""erent
2riti-ue o" t)e "oundational u3li2 ri!ate distin2tion in international
la9& Criti2iHing t)e di""erent 2riti-ues o" t)is notion+ #ngle argues t)at
t)e Iri!ateF+ or at least t)e legal rote2tion o" ri!a2y+ 2an 3e 3ene"i2ial
"or 9o(en& T)e ie2e suggests t)at it is ne2essary to re62onsider so(e
o" t)e 'ey ter(s used 3ot) 3y 2riti2s and aologists in de3ates o!er t)e
nature o" )u(an rig)ts and international la9&
<
Su''#r-
T)is 3rie" se2tion )as loo'ed at "e(inist 2riti-ues o" international la9&
T)ese 2riti-ues are i(ortant as suggesting a di""erent and alternati!e
erse2ti!e on t)e "oundational 2on2ets o" t)e su3je2t& I" t)ere are
9ea'nesses in t)e international rote2tion o" Wo(enKs )u(an rig)ts+
(ig)t it 3e t)at t)e su3je2t itsel" is 3iased against t)e identi"i2ation and
e""e2ti!e rote2tion o" t)ose rig)tsJ
/82 T"% Con*%nt!on on t"% E$!'!n#t!on o2 A$$ For'& o2
D!&r!'!n#t!on A,#!n&t Wo'%n 4CEDAW5
/828. An O*%r*!%3 o2 CEDAW
C#*AW results "ro( t)e 9or' o" t)e Co((ission on t)e Status o"
&Wo(en CCSWD&
T)e CCSWD 9as esta3lis)ed 3y a resolution o" t)e #2ono(i2 and So2ial
Coun2il 3y Coun2il resolution in .;40& T)e CSW 9as+ at "irst only a
su362o((ission o" t)e Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts+ 3ut its role 9as
en)an2ed as t)e UN 3egan to are2iate t)at t)e ,ill o" Rig)ts 9as not
e""e2ti!e in ro(oting 9o(enFs rig)ts& Bro( .;4; to .;4;+ t)e CSW
2reated a nu(3er o" do2u(ents t)at 2o!ered 9o(enKs rig)ts in !arious
areas+ it 9as in2reasingly "elt t)at t)ere 9as a need "or a 2o)erent and
2onsistent aroa2) to t)e issue& T)e *e2laration on t)e #li(ination o"
*is2ri(ination against Wo(en 9as adoted in .;0<& Ho9e!er+ t)e
su3ordinate status o" 9o(enFs rig)ts 9as aarent in t)e "or( o" t)e
do2u(ent& T)e *e2laration 9as a state(ent o" rin2ile+ and did not
)a!e t)e "or2e o" a treaty& In t)e early .;<:s+ )o9e!er+ as t)e a9areness
o" t)e s2ale o" dis2ri(ination against 9o(en 3e2a(e in2reasingly
o3!ious+ t)e CSW argued t)at a treaty 9as ne2essary& T)e Con!ention
on t)e #li(ination o" All Bor(s o" *is2ri(ination against Wo(en 9as
adoted in .;<;& We 9ill eAa(ine its en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s 3elo9&
C#*AW 3egins 9it) a re"eren2e to t)e C)arter o" t)e United Nations+
t)us 2onne2ting t)e idea o" t)e rig)ts o" 9o(en 9it) t)e "unda(ental
ideas o" dignity and )u(an 9ort) t)at underlie t)at do2u(ent& T)e
aragra) goes on to (a'e re"eren2e to t)e Uni!ersal *e2laration o"
Hu(an Rig)ts and t)e 2entral ro)i3ition o" dis2ri(ination& T)e
ro)i3ition on dis2ri(ination 2learly underlies t)e idea t)at (en and
9o(en are e-ual in 9ort) and dignity& Ho9e!er+ desite state arties
su3s2ri3ing to t)e standards set out in t)e *e2laration+ and underta'ing
t)e o3ligations 2ontained in t)e International Co!enants+ IeAtensi!e
dis2ri(ination against 9o(en 2ontinues to eAistF& T)is (eans t)at
9o(en are not enjoying )u(an rig)ts+ and are not arti2iating in
so2iety on e-ual ter(s as (en& Moreo!er+ t)e 3urden o" o!erty resses
=
unduly on 9o(en 9)o (ay not )a!e less a22ess to "ood, )ealt)+
edu2ation+ and e(loy(ent oortunities t)an (en& C#*AW t)en
(a'es a re"eren2e to t)e ne9 international e2ono(i2 order& T)is UN
initiati!e 9as an atte(t 3y de!eloing nations to redress t)e ine-uities
o" t)e 9orld e2ono(y& T)e Con!ention asserts t)at t)is 9ill I2ontri3ute
signi"i2antly to9ards t)e ro(otion o" e-uality 3et9een (en and
9o(enF+ and t)us asso2iates t)e struggle "or 9o(enFs rig)ts 9it) t)e
3roader struggle "or e2ono(i2 justi2e&
Ot)er re"eren2e oints are se2i"ied+ and t)us t)e 2)a(ioning o" t)e
rig)ts o" 9o(en is inseara3le "ro( t)e struggle against Iaart)eid+ all
"or(s o" ra2is(+ ra2ial dis2ri(ination+ 2olonialis(+ neo62olonialis(+
aggression+ "oreign o22uation and do(inationK& T)is is in turn lin'ed to
t)e !alorisation o" state so!ereignty& One 2an are2iate t)at+ in t)e
2onteAt o" 2olonialis(+ t)e need to ri!ilege t)e nation state 9as
i(ortantE indeed+ Iso2ial rogressF is eAli2itly lin'ed to t)e rig)t to
sel"6deter(ination and international rese2t "or t)e so!ereignty o" t)ose
ne9 states e(erging "ro( 2olonial do(ination&
T)e introdu2tion t)en turns to address t)e se2i"i2 role t)at 9o(en lay&
C#*AW states t)at 9o(en (a'e a Igreat 2ontri3ution&&&to t)e 9el"are
o" t)e "a(ily and to t)e de!elo(ent o" so2ietyF& T)eir role+ )o9e!er+
)as not 3een re2ognised+ and t)e Kso2ial signi"i2an2e o" (aternity and t)e
role o" 3ot) arents in t)e "a(ily and in t)e u3ringing o" 2)ildrenF )as
3een insu""i2iently rote2ted& It is i(ortant to note+ t)oug)+ t)at t)is
Ise2ial roleF t)at .in's 9o(en to t)e "a(ily and t)e )o(e+ Ks)ould not
3e a 3asis "or dis2ri(ination 3ut t)at t)e u3ringing o" 2)ildren re-uires
a s)aring o" resonsi3ility 3et9een (en and 9o(en and so2iety as a
9)oleK& T)e 3urdens and resonsi3ilities o" t)e "a(ily+ t)en+ s)ould not
"all disroortionately on 9o(en7 so2iety as a 9)ole s)ould 3e
organised in su2) a 9ay as to in!ol!e (en and 9o(en in e-ual
(easures in t)e tas's asso2iated 9it) t)e "a(ily& T)e ro3le(ati2 nature
o" t)is goal is arti2ulated !ery 2learly 3y t)e neAt aragra)7
Ia 2)ange in t)e traditional role o" (en as 9ell as t)e role o" 9o(en
in so2iety and in t)e "a(ily is needed to a2)ie!e "ull e-uality
3et9een (en and 9o(enK& It is easy to are2iate t)at t)is o3je2ti!e
(ay lead to 2las)es 3et9een )u(an rig)ts and 2ultures t)at see' to
reser!e t)e ItraditionalF role o" 9o(en&
@8282 Cont%nt o2 CEDAW
P#rt .
Art!$% . 2ontains a de"inition o" dis2ri(ination against 9o(en7 t)e
ter( Ks)all (ean any distin2tion+ eA2lusion or restri2tion (ade on t)e
;
3asis o" seA 9)i2) )as t)e e""e2t or urose o" i(airing or nulli"ying
t)e re2ognition+ enjoy(ent or eAer2ise 3y 9o(en+ irrese2ti!e o" t)eir
(arital status+ on a 3asis o" e-uality o" (en and 9o(en+ o" )u(an rig)ts
and "unda(ental "reedo(s in t)e oliti2al+ e2ono(i2+ so2ial+ 2ultural+
2i!il or any ot)er "ieldK&
T)is de"inition o" dis2ri(ination 9ould resu(a3ly 2o!er 3ot) dire2t
and indire2t dis2ri(ination& T)is distin2tion is 2)ara2teristi2 o" U5 anti6
dis2ri(ination legalisation& *ire2t dis2ri(ination is an o!ert a2t o"
dis2ri(inationE indire2t dis2ri(ination in a little )arder to de"ine& It 2an
3e understood as t)e i(osition o" a standard or a rule t)at is not
eAli2itly dis2ri(inatory+ 3ut+ t)e roortion o" t)ose in t)e
dis2ri(inated grou 9)o 2an 2o(ly 9it) it is (u2) s(aller t)an t)ose
not in t)at grou& T)us+ a jo3 re-uire(ent se2i"ying t)at an e(loyee
)as to 3e a9ay "ro( )o(e "or long eriods (ay 3e seen as indire2tly
dis2ri(inatory to 9o(en loo'ing a"ter 2)ildren& T)e 2ondition does not
eAli2itly state t)at 9o(en 2aring "or 2)ildren 2annot aly+ 3ut t)e
roortion t)at 9ould 3e a3le to 2o(ly is resu(a3ly (u2) s(aller
t)an t)ose not loo'ing a"ter 2)ildren&
It is 9ort) noting t)at dis2ri(ination on t)e 3asis on (arital status is
dire2tly ro)i3ited Ci&e& any re-uire(ent t)at a erson s)ould 3e (arried+
or not (arriedD&
Art!$% 2 (o!es "ro( a general de"inition to 2o!er t)e 9ays in 9)i2)
dis2ri(ination is to 3e 2o(3ated& Note )o9 t)e o3ligation rests 9it) t)e
state arty to7
in2ororate anti6dis2ri(ination rin2iles in t)e 2onstitution and in
legislation
deloy san2tions i" ne2essary to a2)ie!e t)e goal o" e-uality re-uire
u3li2 aut)orities to a2t in a non6dis2ri(inatory 9ay and
reeal enal legislation t)at is dis2ri(inatory&
Arti2le @ 2an 3e read alongside Arti2le 2& It states t)at Iall aroriate
(easuresF 9ill 3e ta'en to "urt)er t)e "unda(ental rig)ts and "reedo(s
o" 9o(en& Arti2le 4 states an i(ortant 2a!eat7 (easures ro(oting
9o(enFs rig)ts s)all not t)e(sel!es 3e 2onsidered dis2ri(inatory&
Moreo!er+ t)ey (ust not a(ount to t)e I(aintenan2e o" une-ual or
searate standardsF+ as t)ese are in t)e(sel!es dis2ri(inatory& Ho9e!er+
adotion o" se2ial (easures to rote2t (aternity is not to 3e 2onsidered
dis2ri(inatory&
Arti2le 4 la2es "urt)er duties on state arties& Birst o" all+ t)e arti2le
la2es an o3ligation to7
.:
Dmodify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men
and women, with a 4iew to achie4ing the elimination of
prejudices and customary and all other practices which
are 0ased9 on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority
of either of the se$es or on stereotyped roles for men and
women.C
T)is is a22o(anied 3y a duty to ensure t)at "a(ily edu2ation in2ludes a
roer understanding o" (aternity as a so2ial "un2tion and t)e
re2ognition o" t)e 2o((on resonsi3ility o" (en and 9o(en in t)e
u3ringing and de!elo(ent o" t)eir 2)ildren& Underlying t)is
o3ligation is t)e assertion t)at t)e 3est interest o" t)e 2)ildren is t)e
ri(ary 2onsideration in all 2ases&
Arti2le 4 t)us re-uires a signi"i2ant inut "ro( t)e state in 2reating t)e
2onditions "or a so2ial re6align(ent t)at 3rea's do9n t)ose 2onditions
t)at )a!e 'et 9o(en out o" u3li2 li"e+ or treated t)e( as se2ond 2lass
2itiHens& T)is re-uires a2tion on stereotyi2al ideas o" t)e roles o"
9o(en and (enE and a signi"i2ant rogra((e o" edu2ation in relation
to t)e role o" t)e "a(ily& Couled 9it) t)e earlier arti2le o" se2tion .+
t)is 3road set o" goals 2ould 3e a2)ie!ed t)roug) legislation+ 3ut+ to 3e
su22ess"ul+ su2) a rogra((e 9ould )a!e to 3e a22o(anied 9it)
edu2ation&
Art!$% @ is 3rie"& It (o!es "ro( a 2onsideration o" t)e "a(ily to t9o
ot)er areas 9)ere 9o(en )a!e 3een oressed& It la2es a duty on state
arties to Kta'e all aroriate (easures&&&to suress all "or(s o" tra""i2
in 9o(en and eAloitation o" rostitution o" 9o(enF&
P#rt II
$art II o" C#*AW ela3orates on t)e rig)ts 2ontained in $art I&
Art!$% A 2on2erns !oting rig)ts and u3li2 arti2iation& State arties
underta'e to ensure t)at 9o(en+ li'e (en+ 2an I!ote in all ele2tions and
u3li2 re"erenda &&&and 3e eligi3le "or ele2tion to all u3li2ly6ele2ted
3odiesK& State arties (ust also guarantee t)at 9o(en 2an Karti2iate in
t)e "or(ulation o" go!ern(ent oli2yK and its i(le(entation and )old
u3li2 o""i2e& Wo(en (ust also 3e allo9ed to Karti2iate in non6
go!ern(ental organiHations and asso2iations 2on2erned 9it) t)e u3li2
and oliti2al li"e o" t)e 2ountryKF
Art!$% B ela3orates t)ese ro!isions to an international le!el+ la2ing an
o3ligation on state arties to ensure t)at 9o(en )a!e It)e oortunity to
reresent t)eir go!ern(ents at t)e international le!el and to arti2iate
in t)e 9or' o" international organiHationsF&
..
Art!$% C (o!es on to a di""erent 3ut related 2on2ern& C#*AW la2es
t)e rig)t o" nationality in t)e 2onteAt o" t)e ro3le(s "a2ed 3y 9o(en&
T)e rig)t to Ia2-uire+ 2)ange or retain>nationalityK s)ould 3e enjoyed
e-ually 3y (en and 9o(en& Ho9e!er+ in relation to 9o(en+ state
arties (ust ensure t)at Kneit)er (arriage to an alien nor 2)ange o"
nationality 3y t)e )us3and during (arriageK s)ould Kauto(ati2ally
2)ange t)e nationality o" t)e 9i"e+ render )er stateless or "or2e uon )er
t)e nationality o" t)e )us3andK& In t)e se2ond aragra)+ state arties
grant 9o(en e-ual rig)ts 9it) (en I9it) rese2t to t)e nationality o"
t)eir 2)ildrenF&
P#rt III
Art!$% .9 relates to t)e rig)t to edu2ation& It addresses !arious issues
t)at )a!e tended to restri2t t)e rig)ts o" 9o(en to enjoy e-ual
oortunities in t)is area 9it) (en& $aragra) CaD 2on2erns itsel" 9it)
2onditions "or 2areer and !o2ational guidan2e+ 9it) arti2ular re"eren2e
to ro(oting t)e oortunities o" 9o(en in rural as 9ell as ur3an
en!iron(ents& T)e Arti2le is detailed+ as it ela3orates an edu2ational
2ulture t)at does not oerate on t)e ro!ision o" une-ual and searate
standards& $aragra) C3D t)us se2i"ies t)at 9o(en (ust )a!e a22ess to
t)e sa(e re(ises+ "a2ilities+ tea2)ers and 2urri2ula as (enE later
aragra)s stress t)at t)ere (ust also 3e e-ual a22ess to grants+ and
oortunities "or )ysi2al edu2ation& Arti2le .: also ela3orates t)e need
to 3rea' do9n stereotyi2al ideas a3out t)e role o" 9o(en in edu2ation&
T)us+ state arties (ust 9or' to9ards7
IT)e eli(ination o" any stereotyed 2on2et o" t)e roles o" (en and
9o(en at all le!els and in all "or(s o" edu2ation 3y en2ouraging
2oedu2ation and ot)er tyes o" edu2ation 9)i2) 9ill )el to a2)ie!e t)is
ai( and+ in arti2ular+ 3y t)e re!ision o" teAt3oo's and s2)ool
rogra((es and t)e adatation o" tea2)ing (et)ods+F
Anot)er 3road oli2y goal is se2i"ied at ara& C"D& State arties (ust
9or' to9ards t)e Kredu2tion o" "e(ale student dro6out rates and t)e
organisation o" rogra((es "or girls and 9o(en 9)o )a!e le"t s2)ool
re(aturelyF& In ot)er 9ords+ states (ust (a'e a se2ial e""ort to
2ounter t)e ressures on girls to lea!e edu2ation& Ba(ily lanning is also
(ade art o" t)is general aroa2) to edu2ation in aragra) C)D&
Art!$% .. (o!es "ro( edu2ation rig)ts to e(loy(ent rig)ts& T)e
Arti2le re6states t)e 3asi2 ro)i3ition on dis2ri(ination+ and t)en goes
on+ at . CaD to assert t)e rig)t to 9or' as Ian inaliena3le rig)t o" all
)u(an 3eingsF& T)is assertion relies on t)e "a2t t)at 9or' is itsel" t)e
a22ess to 2i!i2 status+ and a 9age in turn s)ould allo9 t)e generation o"
ersonal resour2es& To 3e "or2e"ully deri!ed o" t)e oortunity to 9or'
.2
is to 3e deri!ed o" t)e 3ene"its t)at 2o(e 9it) 9or'ing& Histori2ally+
and in t)e resent day+ re!enting 9o(en "ro( 9or'ing+ or "ro(
9or'ing in se2i"i2 se2tors or "ields+ 9as and is e""e2ti!e in li(iting li"e
oortunities and (aintaining t)e su3ordinate status o" 9o(en& Arti2le
.. is t)en se2i"i2 a3out )o9 e(loy(ent rig)ts are to 3e rote2ted&
T)ese (et)ods in2lude Kt)e ali2ation o" t)e sa(e 2riteria "or sele2tion
in (atters o" e(loy(ent+ and at C2D+ t)e rig)t to 2)oi2e o" ro"ession+
ro(otion+ jo3 se2urity and all t)e 3ene"its in2idental to e(loy(ent&
#(loy(ent rig)ts are "urt)er se2i"ied to in2lude t)e rig)t to e-ual
re(uneration CdD+ t)e rig)t to so2ial se2urity CeD+ and t)e rig)t to sa"e
9or'ing 2onditions CtD& T)e se2ond art o" t)e Arti2le 2on2erns t)e
e(loy(ent rig)ts o" regnant 9o(en& $aragra) 2CaD ro)i3its
dis2ri(ination on t)e grounds o" regnan2y or (aternity lea!eE C3D
(a'es it a duty o" state arties to ro!ide Kt)e ne2essary suorting
so2ial ser!i2es to ena3le arents to 2o(3ine "a(ily o3ligations 9it)
9or' resonsi3ilities and arti2iation in u3li2 li"eF& $aragra) CdD
states t)at se2ial rote2tion (ust 3e ro!ided "or regnant 9o(en at
9or'& T)e t)ird art o" t)e Arti2le (andates a re!ie9 o" legislation in
t)e Kt)e lig)t o" s2ienti"i2 and te2)nologi2al 'no9ledgeF&
Art!$% .2 guarantees e-ual a22ess to )ealt) 2are "or 9o(en and (en+
as 9ell as re-uiring state arties to Iensure to 9o(en aroriate
ser!i2es in 2onne2tion 9it) regnan2y+ 2on"ine(ent and t)e ost6natal
eriod+ granting "ree ser!i2es 9)ere ne2essary+ as 9ell as ade-uate
nutrition during regnan2y and la2tationF&
Wo(enFs rig)ts are distin2ti!e to t)e eAtent t)at t)ey re2ognise t)e
se2ial )ealt) 2are needs o" 9o(enE indeed+ t)is is one i(ortant area
9)ere 9o(en di""er "ro( (en& T)ese are outlined as t)e 3iologi2al
"a2tors t)at relate to 9o(enKs rerodu2ti!e role+ and also t)e K)ig)er ris'
o" eAosure to seAually trans(itted diseases t)at 9o(en "a2eK& ,ut t)ese
di""eren2es are not just 3iologi2al&
So2io6e2ono(i2 "a2tors !ary "or 9o(en in general and so(e grous o"
9o(en in arti2ular& Bor eAa(le+ une-ual o9er relations)is 3et9een
9o(en and (en in t)e )o(e and 9or'la2e (ay negati!ely a""e2t
9o(enKs nutrition and )ealt)& T)ey (ay also 3e eAosed to di""erent
"or(s o" !iolen2e 9)i2) 2an a""e2t t)eir )ealt)& Girl 2)ildren and
adoles2ent girls are o"ten !ulnera3le to seAual a3use 3y older (en and
&"a(ily (e(3ers+ la2ing t)e( at ris' o" )ysi2al and sy2)ologi2al
)ar( and un9anted and early regnan2y& So(e 2ultural or traditional
ra2ti2es su2) as "e(ale genital (utilation also 2arry a )ig) ris' o" deat)
and disa3ility&
It (ay also 3e t)e 2ase t)at 9o(en (ay 3e deterred "ro( see'ing
(edi2al ad!i2e in relation to 2ontra2etion+ a3ortion or 9)en !i2ti(s o"
.@
seAual or )ysi2al !iolen2e+ 3e2ause o" t)e stig(a so(eti(es atta2)ed to
su2) (atters&
Art!$% ./ "urt)er ela3orates t)e ro)i3ition on dis2ri(ination in
relation to Ke2ono(i2 and so2ial li"eK& More se2i"i2ally+ 9o(en and (en
(ust )a!e e-ual a22ess to7 "a(ily 3ene"its+ t)e rig)t to 3an' loans and
2redit+ and t)e rig)t to arti2iate in 2ultural li"e& T)is Arti2le see(s
so(e9)at underde!eloed& T)e a22ess to "inan2e+ loan "a2ilities and
2redit is in2reasingly i(ortant to t)e stru2ture o" t)e 2onte(orary
so2ial 9orld in 3ot) t)e de!eloed and t)e de!eloing 9orld& Bor
instan2e+ one 2an only run a 3usiness i" one 2an a22ess 2redit "a2ilities& It
is so(e9)at strange t)at t)e rig)t to 9or'+ and t)e rig)t to edu2ation
C"or eAa(leD are so eAli2itly resented+ 9)ereas t)e rig)t to "inan2ial
ser!i2es is so under6 de!eloed& $er)as t)is re"le2ts t)e situation at t)e
ti(e o" t)e dra"ting o" t)e Arti2leE t)is is one area 9)ere a (ore
t)oroug) arti2ulation o" t)e rig)t (ay 3e use"ul&
Art!$% .4 er)as addresses a reality t)at is (ore ressing in t)e li"e o"
9o(en in t)e de!eloing 9orld t)an t)e de!eloed 9orld+ as e2ono(ies
in t)e "or(er are less deendent on (ass e(loy(ent in agri2ulture t)an
t)e latter& T)e Arti2le la2es a duty on state arties to ta'e into a22ount
t)e Iarti2ular ro3le(s "a2ed 3y rural 9o(en and t)e signi"i2ant roles
9)i2) rural 9o(en lay in t)e e2ono(i2 sur!i!al o" t)eir "a(iliesF& T)is
(eans t)at se2ial regard (ust 3e )ad to 9o(enKs 9or' in t)e Inon6
(onetised se2tors o" t)e e2ono(yK& In ot)er 9ords+ 9o(en are
disroortionately reresented in in"or(al and unregulated areas o"
e2ono(y as a result o" t)eir su3ordinate status& T)e Arti2le goes on to
se2i"y o3je2ti!es t)at (ust 3e addressed& States $arties (ust 2o(3at
dis2ri(ination in rural areas+ and ensure t)at 9o(en K3ene"it "ro( rural
de!elo(entK& More se2i"i2ally+ 9o(en (ust 3e en2ouraged Kto
arti2iate in t)e ela3oration and i(le(entation o" de!elo(ent
lanning at all le!elsK& T)e rig)ts 2o!ered a3o!e in relation to edu2ation
and training are t)en re6iteratedE 3ut+ ot)er areas o" arti2iation are also
ela3orated& Bor instan2e+ 9o(en (ust 3e ena3led to Iorganise sel"6)el
grous and 2o6oerati!es in order to o3tain e-ual a22ess to e2ono(i2
oortunities t)roug) e(loy(ent or sel" e(loy(entF& Arti2le .@ is
t)en reeated in a slig)tly re!ised !ersion7 9o(en (ust 3e ena3led to
K)a!e a22ess to agri2ultural 2redit and loans+ (ar'eting "a2ilities+
aroriate te2)nology and e-ual treat(ent in land and agrarian re"or(
as 9ell as in land resettle(ent s2)e(esF& T)e "inal aragra) se2i"ies
t)at 9o(en (ust also Ienjoy ade-uate li!ing 2onditions+ arti2ularly in
relation to )ousing+ sanitation+ ele2tri2ity and 9ater suly+ transort
and 2o((uni2ationsF&
.4
P#rt IV
$art I1 addresses t)e legal and so2ial status o" 9o(en&
Art!$% .0 addresses t)e e-uality o" (en and 9o(en 3e"ore t)e la9&
T)e se2ond aragra) re-uires state arties to ro!ide identi2al legal
2aa2ity to 9o(en and (en in 2i!il (atters7 Kin arti2ular+ t)ey s)all
gi!e 9o(en e-ual rig)ts to 2on2lude 2ontra2ts and to ad(inister
roerty and s)all treat t)e( e-ually in all stages o" ro2edure in 2ourts
and tri3unalsK& As a 2orollary o" t)is+ state arties (ust ensure t)at all
2ontra2ts and ot)er ri!ate legal do2u(ents t)at deri!e 9o(en o"
2aa2ity are null and !oid+ and (ust ensure t)at (en and 9o(en )a!e
t)e sa(e rig)ts o" (o!e(ent+ residen2e and do(i2ile& T)is oint )as
3een (ade 3e"ore+ 3ut it is 9ort) reeating& T)e guarantee o" lega.
2aa2ity is a 2entra. )u(an rig)tE indeed+ a 2ase 2ould 3e (ade "or it
3eing t)e essentia. )u(an rig)t& I" anyt)ing+ a )u(an rig)t eAresses
t)e 2onjun2tion o" )u(anity 9it) lega. 2aa2ity& To 3e deri!ed o"
)u(anity is to 3e2o(e rig)t6less+ to )a!e no lega. 2aa2ity& T)us+
)u(an rig)ts (ust+ at 3ase+ assert an essentia. 2onne2tion 3et9een
)u(an 3eing and t)e 2i!i2 identity t)at t)e la9 ena3les&
Art!$% .@ ela3orates t)is notion o" e-ua. rig)ts and legal 2aa2ity in
relation to a se2i"i2 area o" la97 (arriage and di!or2e&
*is2ri(ination against 9o(en (ust 3e eli(inated in t)ese areas 3y
ro!iding 9o(en and (en 9it) t)e sa(e rig)ts to enter into (arriage
9it) "ree 2onsent and 3y (aintaining a legal syste( t)at gi!es (en and
9o(en t)at sa(e rig)ts during (arriage and in t)e e!ent o" its
dissolution& T)is 9ould a.so 2o!er rig)ts o!er 2)ildren+ irrese2ti!e o"
(arita. status+ in2luding rig)ts o!er guardians)i+ 9ard6s)i+ trustees)i
and adotion o" 2)ildren& T)e last aragra) o" t)e Arti2le is interesting
as it suggests an essentia.lin' 3et9een t)e rig)ts o" 9o(en and
2)ildren7 Kt)e 3etrot)al and t)e (arriage o" a 2)ild s)a.l )a!e no lega.
e""e2t+ and a.l ne2essary a2tion+ in2luding legislation+ s)a.l 3e ta'en to
se2i"y a (ini(u( age "or (arriage and to (a'e t)e registration o"
(arriages in an o""i2ial registry 2o(ulsoryF&
P#rt V
$art 1 o" C#*AW (o!es "ro( su3stanti!e rig)ts to 2ertain institutiona.
and ro2edura. 2on2erns&
Art!$% .A sets u t)e Co((ittee on t)e #li(ination o" *is2ri(ination
against Wo(en sta""ed 3y KeAerts o" )ig) (ora. standing and
2o(eten2e in t)e "ield 2o!ered 3y t)e Con!entionK& #le2ted 3y states
arties "ro( a(ong t)eir nationa.s in a se2ret 3a.lot+ and ser!ing in a
ersona. 2aa2ity C2onsideration 3eing& gi!en to 3ot) geogra)i2a.
.4
distri3ution and to t)e reresentation o" Idi""erent "or(s o" 2i!iliHation
as 9ell as t)e rin2iallega. syste(sFD+ t)e (e(3ers o" t)e Co((ittee
are e(o9ered+ 3y
Art!$% .B+ to 2onsider reorts su3(itted to t)e( 3y t)e Se2retary6
Genera. o" t)e United Nations& T)ese reorts (ust 2o!er It)e
legislati!e+ judi2ia.+ ad(inistrati!e or ot)er (easuresF t)at states arties
K)a!e adoted to gi!e e""e2t to t)e ro!isions o" t)e resent Con!entionK&
States arties (ust also reort on t)e rogress t)ey )a!e (ade in
i(le(enting t)e C#*AW&
Art!$% 2. goes on to detail t)e o9ers and duties o" t)e Co((ittee&
Reorting annua.ly t)roug) t)e #2ono(i2 and So2ial Coun2il to t)e
Genera. Asse(3ly+ t)e Co((ittee (a'es re2o((endations 3ased on
t)e reorts t)at )a!e 3een su3(itted 3y states arties& In turn+ t)e
Se2retaty6Genera. trans(its t)e reorts o" t)e Co((ittee to t)e
Co((ission on t)e Status o" Wo(en "or its in"or(ation&
Art!$% 22 e(o9ers It)e se2ialised agen2iesF to (a'e reorts to t)e
Co((ittee&
$art 1I o" C#*AW 2on2erns itsel" 9it) a nu(3er o" te2)ni2a. (atters
9)i2) 9ill not 3e dis2ussed )ere&
Under Art!$% 2C o" C#*AW+ t9o or (ore state arties 2an re"er
disutes a3out t)e interretation and i(le(entation o" C#*AW to
ar3itration+ and i" t)e disute is not settled+ it 2an 3e re"erred to t)e
International Court o" %usti2e& T)is ro2edure is su3je2t to a large
nu(3er o" reser!ations and )as ne!er 3een used&
@828/ Add!t!on#$ En2or%'%nt M%"#n!&'&
In .;;4+ t)e Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts 2reated+ 3y resolution
.;;4/44+ t)e ost o" se2ial raorteur on 1iolen2e Against Wo(en+
and 2reated ro2edures 9)ere3y in"or(ation 2ould 3e o3tained "ro(
go!ern(ents on 2ases 2on2erning alleged !iolen2e against 9o(en&
It is also 9ort) re(e(3ering t)at (e2)anis(s under di""erent treaties
(ay 3e e(loyed& Co((uni2ations 2ould 3e (ade under t)e "irst
Otional $roto2ol to t)e ICC$R& Co((uni2ations 2on2erning la9s t)at
dis2ri(inate against 9o(en 2ould 3e (ade under t)is $roto2ol and 3y
re"eren2e to Arti2le 20 o" t)e ICC$R&
T)is ro!ides t)at (en and 9o(en are e-ual 3e"ore t)e la9+ and t)at t)e
la9 (ust guarantee e""e2ti!e rote2tion against dis2ri(ination& T)is
ro2edure 9as used in ,roe's ! Net)erlands .<2/.;=49)ere a *ut2)
.0
Une(loy(ent ,ene"its A2t 9as su22ess"ully 2)allenged on grounds o"
dis2ri(ination&
T)e (e2)anis( t)at 9e 2onsidered in C)ater 4+ t)e .4:@
$ro2edure o" t)e Co((ission o" Hu(an Rig)ts+ (ay also 3e used&
*is2ri(ination or !iolen2e against 9o(en (ay also "all under Arti2le
.4 o" T)e Con!ention on t)e #li(ination o" All Bor(s o" Ra2ial
*is2ri(ination+ or Arti2le 22 o" t)e Con!ention Against Torture and
Ot)er Cruel+ In)u(an or *egrading Treat(ent or $unis)(ent&
@8284 An#$-&!& o2 R!,"t& !n CEDAW #nd Ot"%r Hu'#n R!,"t&
In&tru'%nt&
It is 9ort) noting t)at (ore states )a!e (ade reser!ations to t)is treaty
t)an to any ot)er )u(an rig)ts treaty& W)at does t)is suggest a3out t)e
resistan2e to 9o(enKs rig)ts at a state le!elJ
T)e 2o((ent on t)e state duties oints out t)at )u(an rig)ts la9 )as
(ade a distin2tion 3et9een ositi!e and negati!e rig)ts& It is 9ort)
re(e(3ering t)at all rig)ts 2orrelate 9it) duties to (a'e sense o" t)is
analysis& 9)ere 9e Negati!e rig)ts la2e a duty on t)e state not to
inter"ere in 2ertain areas 9)ere indi!iduals )a!e rig)ts& $ositi!e rig)ts
la2e a ositi!e duty on t)e state7 t)e duty to do so(et)ing+ su2) as
ro!iding "ood& So2ial and e2ono(i2 rig)ts "ell into t)is latter 2ategory&
T)e 2lassi2 2i!il li3erties+ "or t)e (ost art+ "all into t)e "or(er 2ategory&
Ho9e!er+ to 9)at eAtent is t)is distin2tion use"ulJ I" one re(e(3ers t)at
rig)ts de!elo o!er ti(e+ t)en a negati!e duty (erely not to inter"ere
2an 3e2o(e a ositi!e duty to "a2ilitate an area o" a2ti!ity7 to en2ourage
"ree see2)+ "or instan2e&
R%&7%t 2or t"% R!,"t& o2 Ot"%r&
T)is 9as a good eAa(le o" a 3asi2 negati!e duty la2ed on t)e state& It
is a 3asi2 )u(an rig)ts notion+ laying do9n a "unda(ental standard t)at
2ould e!en eAtend 3eyond t)e state to ri!ate arties& To t)e eAtent t)at
a state s)ould ensure ri!ate arties rese2t t)e rig)ts o" ot)ers+ a
negati!e duty )as turned into a ositi!e duty&
T"% Cr%#t!on o2 In&t!tut!on#$ M#"!n%r-
T)ere are (any ro!isions in 3ot) t)e *e2laration and C#*AW t)at
re-uire t)e ro!ision o" 2ertain institutions7 a !oting syste(+ or an
indeendent legal syste(+ "or instan2e& T)is is a ositi!e duty la2ed on
a stateE it 9ould 3e )ard to t)in' o" it as a negati!e duty si(ly not to
inter"ere&
.<
T"% Dut- to Prot%t R!,"t& #nd Pr%*%nt V!o$#t!on&
On2e again t)e stri2t negati!e/ositi!e distin2tion tends to 3rea' do9n
)ere& T)e duty to rote2t rig)ts (eans t)at a state (ust not inter"ere+ i&e&
)as a negati!e dutyE 3ut t)e duty to re!ent !iolations is ositi!e as it
re-uires t)e 2reation o" a oli2e "or2e and a legal syste(&
Pro*!d% Good& #nd S%r*!%& to S#t!&2- R!,"t&
Wel"are rig)ts 9)i2) in!ol!e state eAenditure are good eAa(les o"
ositi!e duties7 t)e state )as to ro!ide institutions and resour2es+ a
)ealt) ser!i2e+ "or instan2e&
Pro'ot!on o2 R!,"t&
Anot)er ositi!e duty "or reasons si(ilar to t)ose stated a3o!e&
It 9ould see(+ t)en+ t)at a stri2t distin2tion 3et9een ositi!e and
negati!e rig)ts is not use"ul& Indeed+ t)e eAtra2t "ro( t)e arti2le 3y
Ni2'el+ suggests t)at one needs a (ore so)isti2ated 9ay o"
understanding t)e 2o(leA nature o" rig)ts& Consider t)e ro)i3ition o"
torture Cor indeed+ t)e ro)i3ition o" dis2ri(ination in t)e 2onteAt o"
C#*AWD& T)e duty to re"rain "ro( an a2t is uni!ersal and general6 it is
addressed to 3ot) state and non6state 3odies& Ho9e!er+ an Kade-uate
resonse to t)e 2lai( to "reedo( "ro( torture also re-uires "inding
indi!iduals or institutions t)at 2an rote2t eole against tortureF& T)is
ositi!e duty is not ne2essarily uni!ersal& It is only 3inding on t)ose
states or institutions t)at 2an (o3iliHe t)e ne2essary resour2es&
T)us+ t)e eole at large in a 2ountry+ and also international agen2ies+
are se2ondary addressees 3e2ause t)ey o9e duties to assist+ en2ourage
and ressure go!ern(ents to re"rain "ro( torture C.=0D& T)e oint o" t)is
analysis is to 2lari"y t)e sense in 9)i2) rig)ts are al9ays lin'ed 9it)
dutiesE and duties 2an "all on di""erent 3odies&
In 9)at 9ays 2ould C#*AW 3e en"or2edJ
@8280 F%'!n!&t Cr!t!!&'& o2 CEDAW
Be(inist 2riti-ues o" t)e Uni!ersal *e2laration )a!e (ade a nu(3er o"
oints& T)ere )a!e 3een 2riti2is(s o" Arti2le .0 3e2ause it !alorises a
notion o" t)e "a(ily t)at is 3ot) un2lear+ and+ in relation to Arti2le 24C2D+
ill t)oug)t out& One issue t)at t)e *e2laration does not 2o!er ade-uately
is t)e rig)ts o" t)e a3used 2)ild+ or e!en t)e a3used 9i"e against t)e
.=
"a(ily& Ot)er 2riti2is(s o" t)e ICC$R raise t)e issue t)at t)e reorting
syste( does not deal roerly 9it) !iolations o" 9o(enKs rig)ts&
Criti2is(s o" C#*AW address t)e "a2t t)at it )as led to a Ig)ettoisationF
o" 9o(enKs rig)ts issues& Burt)er(ore+ in 2o(arison 9it) ot)er )u(an
rig)ts 3odies+ t)e en"or2e(ent (e2)anis( under C#*AW is oorly
"unded&
Are t)ese 2riti2is(s "airJ Clearly any assess(ent o" t)ese 2lai(s 9ould
deend on a derailed study o" t)e reorts under t)e ICC$RE it 9ould also
3e ne2essary& to loo' at t)e "igures "or t)e 3udget o" !arious UN
agen2ies 3e"ore one 2ould assess t)e 2lai( t)at C#*AW is under6
"unded& One 9ould also )a!e to 3ear in (ind gender (ainstrea(ing+ and
ot)er re2ent de!elo(ents 3e"ore one 2ould (a'e an o!erall assess(ent
o" t)ese 2lai(s&
Su''#r-
In t)is se2tion 9e )a!e loo'ed at t)e su3stanti!e rig)ts 2ontained in
C#*AW& We )a!e also 2onsidered t)e en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s t)at
eAist under t)e treaty& We t)en turned to a (ore "or(al analysis o"
rig)ts+ and atte(ted to analyse t)e 2o(leA interlay 3et9een rig)ts
and duties&
@8/ T"% O7t!on#$ Protoo$
C#*AW also )as an otional roto2ol& Its Arti2les+ so "ar as t)ey
2on2ern us+ are eAlained 3elo9&
/8/8. W"- 3#& t"%r% # N%%d 2or #n O7t!on#$ Protoo$D
T)e Otional $roto2ol to C#*AW 9as 3ased on 2o((it(ents (ade in
t)e 1ienna *e2laration in .;;@ and t)e .;;4 Bourt) Con"eren2e on
Wo(en& It 9as 2reated 3y a resolution o" t)e General Asse(3ly& T)e
roto2ol 3egins 3y asserting t)e 2o(eten2e o" t)e Co((ittee on t)e
#li(ination o" *is2ri(ination against Wo(en to re2ei!e and 2onsider
2o((uni2ations in a22ordan2e 9it) Art!$% 2&
Art!$% 2 ro!ides t)at 2o((uni2ations (ay 3e su3(itted 3y or on
3e)al" o" indi!iduals or grous o" indi!iduals 9)o are 2lai(ing to 3e
!i2ti(s o" a !iolation o" Con!ention rig)ts& Art!$% / se2i"ies t)at
2o((uni2ations (ust 3e in 9riting and 2annot 3e anony(ous&
Co((uni2ation 2an only 3e re2ei!ed 3y t)e Co((ittee i" t)e
2o((uni2ation 2on2erns a state arty t)at is a signatory to t)e $roto2ol&
In ot)er 9ords+ t)e Co((ittee 9ould not 3e a3le to 2onsider a
2o((uni2ation i" it 2a(e "ro( an indi!idual or a grou "ro( a state
arty t)at 9as a signatory to t)e Con!ention+ 3ut not t)e $roto2ol&
.;
Art!$% 4 states t)at t)e Co((ittee 9ill only 2onsider a 2o((uni2ation
i" it 2an (a'e sure t)at all a!aila3le do(esti2 re(edies )a!e 3een
eA)austed& T)ere is an eA2etion to t)is rule& A 2o((uni2ation 2ould 3e
2onsidered i" all do(esti2 re(edies )ad not 3een eA)austed+ 3ut+ t)e
ali2ation o" su2) re(edies 9as su3je2t to an unreasona3le delayE or
indeed+ it 9as unli'ely t)at t)e a!aila3le re(edy 9ould 3e e""e2ti!e&
T)ere are ot)er grounds o" inad(issi3ility7
T)e Co((ittee s)all de2lare a 2o((uni2ation inad(issi3le 9)ere7
CaD T)e sa(e (atter )as already 3een eAa(ined 3y t)e Co((ittee or
)as 3een or is 3eing eAa(ined under anot)er ro2edure o"
international in!estigation or settle(entE
C3D It is in2o(ati3le 9it) t)e ro!isions o" t)e Con!entionE
C2D It is (ani"estly ill6"ounded or not su""i2iently su3stantiatedE CdD It
is an a3use o" t)e rig)t to su3(it a 2o((uni2ationE
CeD T)e "a2ts t)at are t)e su3je2t o" t)e 2o((uni2ation o22urred
rior to t)e entry into "or2e o" t)e resent $roto2ol "or t)e State
$arty 2on2erned unless t)ose "a2ts 2ontinued a"ter t)at date&
Art!$% 0 e(o9ers t)e Co((ittee to re-uest a state arty to ta'e
interi( (easures 9)ilst a 2o((uni2ation is 3eing 2onsidered& T)ese
(easures (ust re!ent Kirreara3le da(age to t)e !i2ti( or !i2ti(s o"
t)e alleged !iolationK& T)is does not aly+ )o9e!er+ 9)en t)e
Co((ittee is (erely 2onsidering t)e ad(issi3ility o" a 2o((uni2ation&
Interi( (easures t)us only 3e2o(e a!aila3le on2e a 2o((uni2ation )as
3een de2lared ad(issi3le&
Art!$% @ (a'es it a 2ondition o" t)e Co((ittee 3ringing a
2o((uni2ation to t)e attention o" t)e state arty 2on2erned
C2on"identiallyD t)at t)e 2o(lainants 2onsent to t)e dis2losure o" t)eir
o9n identity& On2e t)e state arty )as re2ei!ed t)e 2o((uni2ation+ it
)as siA (ont)s to su3(it to t)e Co((ittee I9ritten eAlanations or
state(ents 2lari"ying t)e (atter and t)e re(edy+ i" any+ t)at (ay )a!e
3een ro!ided 3y t)at State artyF&
Art!$% A stresses t)e 2on"idential nature o" t)e ro2eedings 3e"ore t)e
Co((ittee& Arti2le < ara& 4 ro!ides t)at on2e t)e state arty )as
re2ei!ed t)e !ie9s o" t)e Co((ittee+ it )as siA (ont)s to ro!ide a
9ritten resonse+ t)at se2i"ies any a2tion ta'en in t)e lig)t o" t)e !ie9s
and re2o((endations o" t)e Co((ittee&
Art!$% B allo9s t)e Co((ittee to 2ondu2t an in-uiry and to reort
urgently to t)e Co((ittee 9)ere t)ere is e!iden2e o" Igra!e or
syste(ati2 !iolations 3y a State artyF& Su2) an in-uiry (ay in!ol!e a
!isit to t)e territory o" t)e state arty 2on2erned+ and results in a reort
2:
to t)e Co((ittee+ 9)o in turn+ trans(its t)ese "indings to t)e State&
On2e t)e state arty )as re2ei!ed t)is reort+ it )as siA (ont)s to su3(it
its o3ser!ations to t)e Co((ittee& $aragra) C4D ro!ides t)at t)ese
in-uiries are 2on"idential+ and 2onsensual&
Art!$% C se2i"ies t)at a reort to t)e Co((ittee (ay 2ontain details o"
t)e (easures ta'en to resond to t)e issues raised 3y t)e in-uiry&
Art!$% .9 ro!ides t)at it is ossi3le to derogate Arti2les = and ;&
Art!$% .. is !ery ne2essary& It la2es a duty on state arties to ta'e Kall
aroriate stesK to (a'e sure t)at t)ose 2o((uni2ating 9it) t)e
Co((ittee are not ill6treated&
/8/82 W"#t !& t"% Ro$% o2 t"% O7t!#$ Protoo$D
T)e Otional $roto2ol in2ludes t9o ro2edures7 t)e 2o((uni2ation
ro2edure and t)e in-uiry ro2edure& T)e 2o((uni2ation ro2edure
allo9s indi!iduals and grous to 2o(lain to t)e Co((ittee a3out
!iolations o" rig)ts& T)e in-uiry ro2edure ena3les in-uiries to 3e (ade
into gra!e or syste(ati2 a3uses o" )u(an rig)ts 3y eAerts&
Read Steiner and Alston+ &.==6.=;& T)is is an eAtra2t "ro( an arti2le
3y ,yrnes t)at atte(ts to assess t)e 9or' o" t)e Co((ittee&
.& W)at are ,yrnesF (ain 2on2ernsJ
Steiner and Alston )a!e su((arised 2on2luding o3ser!ations "ro( t)e
Co((itteeKs t)ird and "ourt) eriodi2 reorts on C)ina on &.;.6.;4&
T)ere are also su((arised General Re2o((endations on & .;462:2&
2& *o you t)in' t)at t)ey s)o9ed t)at t)e Co((ittee engaged in
2onstru2ti!e dialogueJ
A Not% on G%nd%r M#!n&tr%#'!n,
As 9e sa9 a3o!e+ t)e Co((issionKs (andate 9as to ro(ote t)e
rin2ile t)at (en and 9o(en )a!e e-ual rig)ts& Its role 9as to reare
re2o((endations and reorts "or t)e Coun2il on ro(oting 9o(enKs
rig)ts and to (a'e re2o((endations on urgent ro3le(s&
T)e Co((issionKs role 9as eAanded in .;=<+ and again in .;;4
"ollo9ing t)e Bourt) World Con"eren2e on Wo(en in ,eijing& T)e
Co((ission 9as tas'ed 9it) 3uilding on t)e ,eijing *e2laration and
2.
t)e 2on2erns eAressed in t)e P$#t2or' 2or A2tion+ in2luding t)e
(ainstrea(ing o" gender erse2ti!es in t)e 9or' o" all UN agen2ies&
We need to 2onsider t)e $lat"or( "or A2tion+ and t)e idea o" gender
(ainstrea(ing in greater detail&
T)e $lat"or( "or A2tion 3uilds on t)e reort o" t)e .;=4 Nairo3i
2on"eren2e on Wo(en& It 2alls "or a 2on2erted international e""ort to
ad!an2e t)e )u(an rig)ts o" 9o(en+ and a so2ial justi2e agenda+ 9)i2)
in turn re6a""ir(s t)e 2entral rin2ile o" t)e 1ienna *e2laration and
$rogra((e o" A2tion t)at 9o(enFs and girlsF rig)ts are 2entral to
)u(an rig)ts& T)e $lat"or( "or A2tion also re2ognises t)at (en and
9o(en s)ould 9or' toget)er to a2)ie!e t)ese ends&
T)e $lat"or( "or A2tion is lin'ed to t)e ra2ti2e o" gender
(ainstrea(ing& Ho9 2an one understand t)is latter ter(J
Mainstrea(ing a gender erse2ti!e is t)e ro2ess o" assessing t)e
i(li2ations "or 9o(en and (en o" any lanned a2tion+ in2luding
legislation+ oli2ies or rogra((es+ in all areas and at all le!els& It is a
strategy "or (a'ing 9o(enKs as 9ell as (enKs 2on2erns and eAerien2es
an integral di(ension o" t)e design+ i(le(entation+ (onitoring and
e!aluation o" oli2ies and rogra((es in all oliti2al+ e2ono(i2 and
so2ietal s)eres so t)at 9o(en and (en 3ene"it e-ually and ine-uality is
not eretuated& T)e ulti(ate goat is to a2)ie!e gender e-uality&
T)e General Asse(3ly 9as en2ouraged to dire2t t)e 3odies and
2o((ittees o" t)e UN syste( to (a'e a gender erse2ti!e art o" all
t)eir 9or'& $arti2ular attention 9as dra9n to (a2roe2ono(i2 issues+
de!elo(ent a2ti!ities+ o!erty eradi2ation+ )u(an rig)ts+ )u(anitarian
assistan2e and legal and oliti2al (atters&
On2e 9e turn "ro( t)e la9 o" t)e treaties to t)e issue o" t)e
i(le(entation o" 9o(enKs rig)ts+ 9e 2an are2iate t)e 2o(leA issues
o" 2ulture and tradition t)at t)is raises& We 9ill no9 loo' at t9o initial
2ountry reorts in an atte(t to deter(ine 9)at is at sta'e in t)e
i(le(entation o" 9o(enKs rig)ts&
So+ in su((ary+ gender (ainstrea(ing ai(s to (a'e gender issues "ar
(ore 2entral to t)e 9or' o" t)e UN Cand 9it)in t)e UN itsel"D&
/8/8/ C#&% Stud-: N!,%r!#
I" 9e turn to NigeriaKs 2ountry reort+ 9e 2an see t)at t)e issues raised
3y 9o(enKs rig)ts in A"ri2aKs (ost oulous nation are so(e9)at
di""erent "ro( t)ose in t)e Reu3li2 o" Singaore& Note+ "irst o" all+ t)at
22
9e are 2onsidering )ere t)e 2o(3ined "ourt) and "i"t) eriodi2 reorts
Cdo2u(ent C#*AW/C/NGN4:4D+ not t)e interi( reort+ as 9e did
a3o!e& In ot)er 9ords+ Nigeria )as 3een a signatory to C#*AW "or
longer t)an Singaore&
Nigeria )as rati"ied 3ot) C#*AW Cin .;=4D and t)e Otional $roto2ol
C.;;;D&
T)ere 9as general raise "or t)e ad!an2es t)at 9ere 3eing (ade in t)e
rote2tion and en)an2e(ent o" 9o(enKs rig)ts& #Aerts dre9 attention
to state la9s t)at )a!e ro)i3ited "e(ale genital (utilation+ early
(arriage and tra""i2'ing in 9o(en and 2)ildren& Legal aid ro!ision
9as also raisedE in arti2ular as it allo9ed one 9o(an+ Sa"iya Hussein+
9)o )ad 3een senten2ed to deat) 3y stoning "or adultery+ to aeal to
t)e So'oto State S)aria o" Aeal+ 9)i2) o!erturned t)e senten2e o" t)e
lo9er 2ourt& A (ajor oli2y initiati!e 9as also 2o(ing to t)e "ore& T)e
National $oli2y on Wo(en 9as intended to i(ro!e t)e ro"ile o"
9o(en in u3li2 li"e&
Ho9e!er+ t)ere 9ere ro"ound (isgi!ings a3out t)e oeration o" a
triartite legal syste( and a go!ernan2e ro2ess t)at i(eded t)e
i(le(entation o" oli2y& In Nigeria t)ere are t)ree legal syste(s in
oeration7 Isla(i2 S)aria la9+ 2usto(ary la9 and 2o((on la9&
T)e reason "or t)is is in art )istori2al+ 3ut ro3le(s o" 2o)eren2e
a(ong t)ese t)ree jurisdi2tions+ (a'e "or di""i2ulties in setting a
2o((on standard& T)e Nigerian Constitution does ro!ide "or "reedo(
"ro( dis2ri(ination+ 3ut+ (any states in t)e Nigerian "ederation re(ain
2o((itted to traditional gender roles t)at are "ro( t)e erse2ti!e o"
C#*AW& Moreo!er+ t)ere are in2onsisten2ies 9it)in legal traditions&
Bor instan2e+ 9)ilst so(e ro!isions o" S)aria la9 ra2tised in t)e
nort)ern states o" Nigeria are not 2o(ati3le 9it) C#*AW+ 3ut ot)er
ro!isions are& An eAa(le 9ould 3e se2tion 2@; o" t)e Oa("ara State
S)aria $enal Code La9 2:::& T)is unis)es t)e tra""i2'ing in 9o(en&
As "ar as 2usto(ary la9 is 2on2erned+ eAa(les o" ra2ti2es in t)e
Sout)ern states+ in2lude 9ido9)ood rites and in)eritan2e rig)ts 9)i2)
re(ain dis2ri(inatory& T)ese ro3le(s are eAa2er3ated 3y so2ial
attitudes7
In (ost 2o((unities>& a di!or2ed or searated 9o(an is desised
regardless o" t)e 2ir2u(stan2es& T)e 9o(an is stig(atised and
3e2o(es so2ially !ulnera3le+ ese2ially in t)e eastern art o" t)e
2ountry& In nort)ern Nigeria+ searated or di!or2ed 9o(en 2an
(arry a"ter t)ree (ont)s and usually do& W)ile t)e (arriage age in
sout)ern Nigeria is 3et9een t)e ages o" .= and 2.+ in t)e nort) it is
3et9een t)e ages o" .2 and .4& In t)e Nort)ern art o" t)e 2ountry+
2@
girls as young as nine+ deending on t)e onset o" u3erty+ are
allo9ed to (arry&
T)ere 9ere also ro3le(s 9it) roerty rig)ts& T)e reort details t)at
around ;: er 2ent o" registered land and roerties re(ain in (enKs
na(es& $roerty rig)ts are also 2o(li2ated 3y t)e triartite legal
syste(+ and 3y general ignoran2e o" t)e eAisten2e o" rig)ts and so2ial
eA2lusion&
So(e states in t)e sout) o" t)e 2ountry do not e!en allo9 9o(en to o9n
land and ot)er roerties7
Under 2usto(ary la9+ )o9e!er+ 9i!es re(ain as sla!es to t)eir
)us3ands and in6la9s& Wido9s in sout)ern and eastern arts o"
Nigeria )a!e no rote2tion+ and t)eir rig)ts are seriously a3used&
Under t)e S)aria legal syste(+ 9ido9s are a22orded (ore rig)ts& I"
t)eir )us3ands die+ t)ey are allo9ed an in6)ouse 2o(ulsory
(ourning eriod o" "our (ont)s and .: days to deter(ine 9)et)er
t)ey are regnant& A"ter t)e 2o(ulsory (ourning eriod+ i" "ound
not regnant+ 9o(en are "ree to re(arry& Wido9s under t)e S)aria
la9 in)erit t)eir )us3andKs roerties toget)er 9it) t)eir 2)ildren&
SELF ASSESSMENT E?ERCISE @
W)at general i(ressions o" t)e en"or2e(ent o" 9o(enFs rig)ts are
suggested 3y t)e reort "ro( NigeriaJ
/84 D%$#r#t!on on t"% E$!'!n#t!on o2 V!o$%n% #,#!n&t
Wo'%n
C#*AW is silent on an eAli2it 2onde(nation o" !iolen2e against
9o(en+ alt)oug) t)e 2ore rin2iles o" t)e Treaty 2learly ro)i3it it&
T)e need to 2o(3at su2) ra2ti2es led to t)e General Asse(3ly
resolution in .;;@& It 9as "elt t)at t)is 9as ne2essary to 3uild on t)e
rogra((e announ2ed in Nairo3i+ to 2ounter t)e 9idesread use o"
!iolen2e against 9o(en and to rodu2e a 2lear state(ent o" 9o(enKs
rig)ts in t)is area& T)e resolution o" t)e General Asse(3ly t)at
ro2lai(ed t)e *e2laration e""e2ti!ely ut t)e 9)ole issue o" !iolen2e in
2onteAt& It asserted t)at K!iolen2e against 9o(en is a (ani"estation o"
)istori2ally une-ual o9er relations 3et9een (en and 9o(enK+ and Kis
one o" t)e 2ru2ial so2ial (e2)aniHed 3y 9)i2) 9o(en are "or2ed into a
su3ordinate osition 2o(ared 9it) (enK& 1iolen2e against 9o(en is
all6er!asi!e& It (ay 3e t)at 2ertain grous o" 9o(en su2) as t)ose
K3elonging to (inority grous+ indigenous 9o(en+ re"ugee 9o(en+
24
(igrant 9o(en+ 9o(en li!ing in rural or re(ote 2o((unities+ destitute
9o(en+ 9o(en in institutions or in detention+ "e(ale 2)ildren+ 9o(en
9it) disa3ilities+ elderly 9o(en and 9o(en in situations o" ar(ed
2on"li2t+ are ese2ially !ulnera3le to !iolen2eK+ 3ut t)e issue o" !iolen2e
against 9o(en K2ut a2ross lines o" in2o(e+ 2lass and 2ultureK&
We 2an eAa(ine so(e o" t)e 'ey Arti2les&
Art!$% . 3egins 9it) a de"inition7 K!iolen2e against 9o(en (eans any
a2t o" gender63ased !iolen2e t)at results in+ or is li'ely to result in+
)ysi2al+ seAual or sy2)ologi2al )ar( or su""ering to 9o(en+ in2luding
t)reats o" su2) a2ts+ 2oer2ion or ar3itrary deri!ation o" li3erty+ 9)et)er
o22urring in u3li2 or in ri!ate li"eK& 1iolen2e is &t)us understood in a
3road sense 6it 2o!ers sy2)ologi2al as 9ell as )ysi2al )ar(+ and
in2ludes t)reats o" !iolen2e as 9ell& Note t)at it 2o!ers 3ot) u3li2 and
ri!ate li"e+ and so 9ould aly to do(esti2 !iolen2e as 9ell as !iolen2e
ta'ing la2e in t)e u3li2 s)ere& T)e de"inition is eAanded 3y arti2le
2E t)e "irst aragra) alies to !iolen2e ra2tised against 9o(en in
9)at 2ould 3e seen as a ri!ate or at least "a(ily6oriented 2onteAt& T)us+
!iolen2e against 9o(en in2ludes7
DPhysical, se$ual and psychological 4iolence occurring in
the family, including 0attering, se$ual a0use of female
children in the household, dowry-related 4iolence, marital
rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional
practices handful to women, non-spousal 4iolence and
4iolence related to e$ploitation.C
T)e se2ond aragra) (o!es a9ay "ro( t)is 2onteAt+ to 2onsider
!iolen2e in a 9ider Kso2ialK sense7
F$)ysi2al+ seAual and sy2)ologi2al !iolen2e o22urring 9it)in t)e
general 2o((unity+ in2luding rae+ seAual a3use+ seAual )arass(ent
and inti(idation at 9or'+ in edu2ational 6institutions and else9)ere+
tra""i2'ing in 9o(en and "or2ed rostitution&F
T)at !iolen2e 2an in2lude I)arass(ent and inti(idationK 3uilds on t)e
de"inition o" Arti2le .& T)us rostitution+ to t)e eAtent t)at it is "or2ed+
9ould 2onstitute !iolen2e against 9o(en& Consensual rostitution+ in
itsel"+ 9ould resu(a3ly not 2onstitute !iolen2e against 9o(en& T)e
t)ird aragra) addresses !iolen2e 2ondoned 3y t)e state7
I$)ysi2al+ seAual and sy2)ologi2al !iolen2e eretrated or
2ondoned 3y t)e State+ 9)ere!er it o22urs& A"ter Arti2le @+ 9)i2)
stresses t)e 2o)eren2e o" t)e *e2laration 9it) t)e International ,ill
o" Rig)ts+ Arti2le 4 returns to t)is 2on2ern 9it) t)e state&F
24
Art!$% 4 states t)at nations t)at are signatories to t)e *e2laration
s)ould 2onde(n !iolen2e against 9o(en+ and s)ould not use F2usto(+
tradition or religious 2onsiderationF to a!oid t)eir o3ligations 9it)
rese2t to its eli(ination& T)is duty eAtends "ar a 3eyond (erely
legislating against !iolen2e& One o" t)e ro3le(s 9it) en"or2e(ent o"
)u(an rig)ts nor(s is t)at (erely legislating is ne!er enoug)+ as
atterns o" so2ial 3e)a!iour )a!e to 3e 2)anged& T)us+ t)e Arti2le
ro!ides t)at states (ust7
I#Aer2ise due diligen2e to re!ent+ in!estigate and+ in a22ordan2e
9it) national legislation+ unis) a2ts o" !iolen2e against 9o(en+
9)et)er t)ose a2ts are eretrated 3y t)e State or 3y ri!ate
ersons&F
T)is in2ludes legislation+ resear2) and oli2y initiati!es&
A2'no9ledging t)e need "or a 2on2erted international e""ort+ Art!$% 0
2on2erns t)e UN+ and ro!ides t)at it s)ould en2ourage 2o6oerati!e
regional 2ooeration+ using t)e UN syste( to ad!an2e 2o6ordinated
rogra((es 3ot) to set standards and ta'e a2tion against !iolent
ra2ti2es&
T)e "a2t t)at t)e *e2laration does not 2ontain an en"or2e(ent
(e2)anis( 9as re(edied to so(e eAtent 3y t)e aoint(ent o" t)e
se2ial raoneur on !iolen2e against 9o(en
/80 T"% S7%!#$ R#7ort%ur on V!o$%n% A,#!n&t Wo'%n
In .;;4+ T)e United Nations Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts aointed a
se2ial raorteur on !iolen2e against 9o(en+ in2luding its 2auses and
2onse-uen2es& T)e (andate o" t)e Se2ial Raorteur allo9s )er to
re2ei!e indi!idual 2o(laints+ to (a'e 2ountry !isits and to su3(it
annual t)e(ati2 reorts to t)e Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts&
SELF ASSESSMENT E?ERCISE A
.& W)at does t)e reort suggest a3out t)e nature o" !iolen2e against
9o(enJ
2& W)at is t)e role o" t)e *e2laration on t)e #li(ination o"
1iolen2e against Wo(enJ
489 CONCLUSION
$er)as one o" t)e de"ining "eatures o" 9o(enFs rig)ts is t)eir relati!e
su3ordination to a suosedly (ore uni!ersal idea o" )u(an rig)ts&
A22ounting "or t)is ta'es us to t)e 2ore o" t)e ro3le(& W)y is it t)at
20
t)e International ,ill o" Rig)ts is relati!ely silent on t)e a3uses o"
9o(enFsF rig)tsJ One reason (ay 3e t)at e!en 9it)in t)e UN t)e
i(ortan2e o" 9o(enFs rig)ts )as 3een layed do9n and e!en t)oug)
t)is is er)as 2)anging+ t)ere is still t)e sense t)at en"or2e(ent
(e2)anis(s re(ain 9ea'er in relation to 9o(enFs rig)ts+ and t)at
atriar2)al 2ultural attitudes re(ain ingrained and resistant to 2)ange& In
t)is 2)ater 9e )a!e eAa(ined C#*AW and itFs Otional $roto2olE 9e
)a!e also loo'ed at t)e *e2laration on t)e #li(ination o" 1iolen2e
against Wo(en and t)e role o" t)e Se2ial Raoneur& We )a!e seen
t)at t)ese institutions and treaties reresent a (ajor de!elo(ent in
rote2ting 9o(enFs rig)ts+ 3ut t)at a great deal (ust still 3e done&
089 SUMMARY
T)e lin' 3et9een 9o(enFs rig)t and )u(an rig)t )as 3een asserted 3y
nu(erous do2u(ents& T)e rea(3le to C#*AW+ "or eAa(le+ or !iena
de2laration 9ould 3e ger(ane to all dis2uss in t)is unit
Wo(enFs rig)ts are )u(an rig)tsJ *is2uss
Merry+ S&A+ KWo(en+ 1iolen2e and t)e Hu(an Rig)ts Syste(K+ in
Agosin+ M+ Ced+D Women, 3ender and Human &ights. CNe9
%ersey7 Rutgers Uni!ersity $ress+ 2::.D &=@6;=+ MerryKs 9or'
ro!ides an argu(ent t)at t)e )u(an rig)ts syste( is a P-uasi6
legal syste(Q C&=4D+ and eAlores 9)at t)is (eans 9it) re"eren2e
to re!enting 1iolen2e Against Wo(en&
Wrig)t+ S& KHu(an Rig)ts and Wo(enKs Rig)ts7 An Analysis o" t)e UN
Con!ention on t)e #li(ination o" all Bor(s o" *is2ri(ination
Against Wo(enK+ in Ma)oney+ 5& and $& Ma)oney CedsD Human
Eights in the /wenty-Eirst 2entury. C*ordre2)t7 Martinus
Nij)o""+ .;;@D &J46=;+ Wrig)t resents an o!er!ie9 o" t)e
ideas t)at stru2ture t)e Con!ention+ and lo2ates it in t)e struggle
against o!erty and so2ial eA2lusion&
A& Lirarey7 International $rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)t7 Uni!ersity o"
London $ress7 2::0&
UNIT 2 THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD
2<
CONTENTS
.&:Introdu2tion
2&:O3je2ti!es
@&:Main Content
@&. T)e Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild
@&2 An O!er!ie9 o" t)e Arti2les o" t)e Con!ention
@&@ C)ild La3our
@&@&. ,onded La3our
@&@&2 C)ild La3our in India
@&@&@ IndiaFs Reorts to t)e Co((ittee
@&4 C)ild Soldiers
@&4 C)ildren+ Healt)2are and HI1/AI*S
@&0 C)ildren in t)e Cri(inal %usti2e Syste(
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
C)ildrenFs rig)ts are not so(e)o9 IadditionalF to )u(an rig)tsE rat)er+
li'e 9o(enKs rig)ts t)ey are t)e ali2ation o" t)e 'ey rin2iles o"
)u(an rig)ts to a se2tor o" )u(anity t)at deser!es se2ial rote2tion&
We 9ill see t)at t)e (ain treaty in t)is area is t)e Con!ention on t)e
Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild+ and 9e s)all re!ie9 t)e o9ers o" t)e Co((ittee
on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild in o!erseeing t)e i(le(entation o" t)e
Treaty& ,ut+ 9e 9ill also 2o(e to understand t)at 2)ildrenKs rig)ts raise
arti2ular ro3le(s+ and 2annot 3e understood urely in t)e a3stra2t&
Alt)oug) t)e Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild is t)e (ost 9idely
adoted o" international )u(an rig)ts instru(ents Ce!en )a!ing 3een
adoted 3y t)e Sudan $eoleKs Li3eration Ar(yD 9e need to are2iate
t)at so(e o" t)e (ost a2ute ro3le(s 2o(e out o" situations 9)ere+
eit)er t)roug) o!erty+ 9ar+ or ot)er "a2tors+ 2i!il so2iety and its
institutions )a!e 3ro'en do9n& Ho9 are )u(an rig)ts to 3e sa"eguarded
in situations 9)ere t)e institutions t)at are (eant to rote2t rig)ts are
not "un2tioningJ We 9ill also eAa(ine situations 9)ere rig)ts are not
rote2ted t)roug) a la2' o" oliti2al 9ill+ or 3e2ause 2ultural "or2es are
deely e(3edded and resistant to 2)ange&
289 O:;ECTIVES
2=
des2ri3e t)e 3asi2 ro!isions o" t)e Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e
C)ild
eAlain t)e "un2tions o" t)e Co((ittee on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild
eAlain t)e (ain issues relating to 3onded la3our
eAlain t)e (ain issues relating to 2)ild soldiers
eAlain t)e (ain issues relating to t)e rig)t to )ealt) 2are and t)e
ro3le( o" HI1/AI*S
outline t)e (ain issues relating to ju!enile justi2e&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. T"% Con*%nt!on on t"% R!,"t& o2 t"% C"!$d
C)ildrenFs rig)ts are at t)e 2ore o" t)e UN syste(& In Arti2le 24 t)e
*e2laration itsel" (a'es re"eren2e to t)e Kse2ial 2are and assistan2eK t)at
is due to (ot)ers and 2)ildren and 2learly+ t)e rig)t to edu2ation in
Arti2le 20 is o" arti2ular rele!an2e to 2)ildren& Arti2le 24 o" ICC$R
and Arti2le .: o" t)e IC#SC Rig)ts are also o" rele!an2e in t)is 2onteAt&
T)ese do2u(ents 3uild on earlier state(ents su2) as t)e Gene!a
*e2laration o" t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild o" .;24 and t)e General
Asse(3ly Resolution o" .;4;& T)ere are t)ree ot)er re2ent do2u(ents o"
international i(ortan2e t)at "eed into t)e rin2iles t)at underlie t)e
Con!ention7
t)e *e2laration on So2ial and Legal $rin2iles relating to t)e
$rote2tion and Wel"are o" C)ildren+ .;=0+
t)e United Nations Standard Mini(u( Rules "or t)e Ad(inistration
o" %u!enile %usti2e CT)e ,eijing Rules .;=4D
t)e *e2laration on t)e $rote2tion o" Wo(en and C)ildren in
#(ergen2y and Ar(ed Con"li2t&
*esite t)e eAisten2e o" t)ese do2u(ents+ t)e need "or a 2o)erent and
2o(re)ensi!e state(ent o" t)e la9 re(ained& T)is 9as 3e2ause t)ere
9ere 9idesread and ongoing a3uses o" 2)ildrenFs rig)ts& Hig) (ortality
rates+ oor a22ess to )ealt) 2are and edu2ation+ t)e e2ono(i2
eAloitation o" 2)ildren and t)e a3use o" 2)ildren in ar(ed 2on"li2t
de(anded international a2tion&
T)e Con!ention 9as dra"ted 3y a 9or'ing grou set u 3y t)e UN
Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts and 2onsisted o" go!ern(ent and UN
reresentati!es+ (e(3ers o" NGOs and delegates "ro( t)e International
La3our Organisation CILOD+ t)e United Nations C)ildrenFs Bund
CUNIC#BD and t)e World Healt) OrganiHation CWHOD& T)e Con!ention
2;
on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild 9as adoted 3y a General Asse(3ly
Resolution in No!e(3er .;=;+ and 2a(e into "or2e in Sete(3er .;;:&
T"% C"!$d #nd t"% F#'!$-
T)e rea(3le to t)e Con!ention in2ludes a aragra) t)at a""ir(s t)e
"a(ily as Ias t)e "unda(ental grou o" so2ietyF and asserts t)at It)e
natural en!iron(ent "or t)e gro9t) and 9ell63eing o" all its (e(3ers
and arti2ularly 2)ildren s)ould 3e a""orded t)e ne2essary rote2tion
and assistan2e so t)at it 2an "ully assu(e its resonsi3ilities 9it)in t)e
2o((unityF& We )a!e already read 2riti2is( "ro( a "e(inist erse2ti!e
on t)e e()asis on t)e "a(ily& Be(inists argue t)at t)e "a(ily 2an itsel"
3e a la2e o" oressionE and 9e 9ill return to t)is issue as 9e 2ontinue
to 2onsider 2)ildrenKs rig)tsE 3ut it is 9ort) ointing out at t)is stage t)at
t)ere are (any 2onne2tions 3et9een 9o(enKs rig)ts and 2)ildrenKs
rig)ts& In arti2ular+ one o" t)e (ajor ro3le(s is t)at 2ultures o"ten
2ontain 2usto(s and 3elie"s a3out 2)ildren t)at+ li'e t)ose t)at relate to
9o(en+ see a 2)ild as under t)e 2are and rote2tion o" a '#$% adult&
T)us+ any uni!ersal state(ent o" t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild (ust ta'e
a22ount o" Kt)e i(ortan2e o" t)e traditions and 2ultural !alues o" ea2)
eoleK& We are a9are t)at t)ere are ro3le(s 9)en su2) 2usto(s are
in2onsistent 9it) )u(an rig)ts+ and resistant to 2)ange Csee Arti2le
24C@D in t)is 2onteAtD& I" 9e are a9are t)at 2)ildrenKs rig)ts raise si(ilar
ro3le(s to 9o(enKs rig)ts+ 9e also )a!e to ta'e into a22ount t)e "a2t
t)at 2)ildrenKs rig)ts raise a se2i"i2 set o" issues&
One o" t)e ro3le(s "or 2)ildrenFs rig)ts is t)at i" one asserts t)at t)e
"a(ily is a Inatural en!iron(entF+ it 3e2o(es di""i2ult to understand t)at
t)e "a(ily (ay also 3e t)e sour2e o" t)e ro3le( o" 2)ildrenKs
oression and a3use& T)is is a 2o(leA argu(ent& It is not suggesting
t)at t)e "a(ily s)ould so(e)o9 3e Kre"or(edK or a3olis)edE rat)er+ it
atte(ts to oint out a 'ey issue "or 2)ildrenFs rig)tsE an issue t)at is
in)erent in t)e !ery notion o" t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild& $re2isely 3e2ause
t)e 2)ild is not (ature+ it is deendent on 2are in t)e 9ay t)at a3le6
3odied adults are not& As t)e rea(3le goes on to state7

the child, 0y reason of his physical and mental immaturity
needs special safeguards and care, including appropriate
legal protection, 0efore as well as after 0irth.C
How does one ensure that the career does not 0ecome an
a0userF 3i4en that the care relationship in4ol4es une:ual
power, and a0use is always a :uestion of a stronger party
imposing its will on a weaer party, it would seem that
there is an inescapa0le pathology to the family. /he
2on4ention must, then, assert that it is concerned with
nurturing a Dfamily en4ironmentC that has an Datmosphere
@:
of happiness, lo4e and understandingCG moreo4er, it
recognises that a0uses of childrenCs rights are a glo0al
pro0lem in 0oth the de4eloping and the de4eloped worldB
Din all countries in the world, there are children li4ing in
e$ceptionally difficult conditions.
/82 An O*%r*!%3 o2 t"% Art!$%& o2 t"% Con*%nt!on
P#rt I
Art!$% . ro!ides a de"inition7 Ia 2)ild (eans e!ery )u(an 3eing
3elo9 t)e age o" eig)teen yearsF& A 2)ild is t)us de"ined 3y a la2' o"
(ajorityE in t)is sense+ t)e 2)ild is outside o" t)e la9+ deri!ed o" legal
status and so(et)ing less t)an an adult& T)e eA2etion to t)is rule+ t)at
I(ajorityF 2an 3e attained KearlierK t)an eig)teen i" a national la9 so
allo9s+ does not a""e2t t)is general rin2ile t)at a 2)ild la2's (ajority&
In t)is sense+ 2)ildrenKs rig)ts 3elong to t)ose t)at are ot)er9ise
deri!ed o" "ull legal 3eing&
Art!$% 2 la2es 9)at 9e 2ould 2all 3ot) a negati!e and a ositi!e duty
on state arties Csee C)ater 4D& State arties (ust 3ot) rese2t and
ensure 2o(lian2e 9it) t)e rig)ts 2ontained in t)e Con!ention 9it)out
any "or( o" dis2ri(ination to9ards a 2)ild or t)e 2)ildKs arents or
guardians& Burt)er(ore+ 2)ildren (ust 3e rote2ted "ro( t)e
dis2ri(ination or Kunis)(entK t)at is in"li2ted uon t)e 2)ildKs arents or
guardians& Arti2le 2 t)us re!eals anot)er 'ey t)e(e in t)e stru2ture o"
2)ildrenKs rig)ts7 gi!en t)at t)e 2)ild is lin'ed to t)e "a(ily+ to rote2t
t)e 2)ild+ it is ne2essary to rote2t )er arents or guardians&
Art!$% / arti2ulates a 'ey rin2ile7 Kt)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ildK& T)is
rin2ile is to go!ern all dealings 9it) 2)ildren 9)et)er 3y u3li2 or
ri!ate a2torsE )o9e!er+ it is i((ediately -ua.i"ied&
T)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild+ or at least as it relates to Krote2tion and
2areF (ust ta'e into a22ount It)e rig)ts and duties o" )is or )er arents+
legal guardians+ or ot)er indi!iduals legally resonsi3le "or )i( or )erF&
$resu(ing t)at it is ossi3le to deter(ine t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild+F
t)ese 3est interests+ i" deter(ined 3y a u3li2 or ri!ate agen2y+ 2ould
easily 2on"li2t 9it) t)e Irig)tF o" t)e arents 3e or guardians to
deter(ine t)e(sel!es 9)at is 3est "or It)eirF 2)ild& We 9ill see t)at
ot)er Arti2les 3elo9 Cse2i"i2ally+ ; and .;D are intended to resol!e
so(e o" t)ese di""i2ult 2on2erns&
T)e t)ird aragra) o" Arti2le @ outlines a ositi!e duty t)at la2es inR
an o3ligation on a state arty to ensure t)at agen2ies and institutions
resonsi3le "or t)e 9ell63eing o" 2)ildren 2on"or( to standards
@.
Iesta3lis)ed 3y 2o(etent aut)oritiesK& T)is is ela3orated (- Art!$% 4+
9)i2) goes on to se2i"y t)at states (ust ensure t)at so2ial+ e2ono(i2
and 2ultural rig)ts are en"or2ed to Kt)e (aAi(u( eAtent o" t)eir
a!aila3le resour2esF& O" 2ourse+ t)e o9er to deter(ine t)at eit)er no or
"e9 resour2es are a!aila3le (eans t)at a state arty 2ould al9ays
dra(ati2ally li(it t)e e""e2ti!eness o" t)is Arti2le&
Art!$% 0 returns to anot)er 'ey 2on2ern7 t)e lo2ation o" t)e 2)ild in t)e
"a(ily+ and t)e need "or a 2ultural sensiti!ity to 2)ildrenKs rig)ts gi!en
t)e 2usto(s t)at ertain to "a(ily li"e& T)us+ state arties are ordered to
Irese2tF t)e Iresonsi3ilities+ rig)ts and dutiesF o" arents/guardians+
and to ta'e into a22ount t)at t)e "a(ily 2ould itsel" 3e 3roadly de"ined to
in2lude t)ose 3eyond t)e guardians/arents o" t)e 2)ild& T)e eAtended
"a(ily itsel" )as a Irig)tF to ro!ide Iaroriate dire2tion and guidan2e
in t)e eAer2ise 3y t)e 2)ild o" t)e rig)ts re2ognised in t)e resent
Con!entionF&
Arti2le 4 t)us re2ognises in a slig)tly di""erent 9ay t)at t)e rig)ts o" t)e
2)ild are -uali"ied 3y t)e rig)ts o" t)ose 9)o )a!e resonsi3ility "or t)e
2)ild&
Art!$% @ reeats t)e 'ey )u(an rig)ts rin2ile t)at t)e 2)ild )as an
Kin)erent rig)t to li"eK+ and t)e "ollo9ing arti2les+ in returning to rig)ts
9it) 9)i2) 9e are already "a(iliar+ ela3orate 9)at t)e rig)t to li"e
(eans in ter(s o" a 2i!il and legal identity& It 2ould 3e said+ t)en+ t)at
t)e Con!ention is not just 2on2erned 9it) 3are li"e+ 3ut 9it) a li"e t)at is
de"ined and deter(ined 3y t)e la9& T)us+ Art!$% A is a rig)t to
registration CeAanded 3y Art!$% BD 9)i2) is lin'ed to t)e rig)t to a
na(e and a nationality and t)e rig)t to 3e nurturedE a rig)t to K'no9 and
3e 2ared "or 3y )is or )er arentsK& On2e again+ t)oug)+ t)is rig)t is
otentially -uali"ied 3y t)e se2ond aragra)+ 9)i2) lea!es t)e
i(le(entation o" t)e rig)ts in t)e "irst aragra) to Inational la9F&
Arti2le 0 2ould 3e read alongside Arti2le .2+ 9)i2) 2ould 3e seen as a
due ro2ess rig)t+ or a guarantee o" a rig)t to a )earing "or a 2)ild 9)o is
K2aa3le o" "or(ing )is or )er o9n !ie9sK&
Art!$% C ro!ides detail to t)e general rin2ile t)at t)e 2)ild is to 3e
2ared "or 3y and 9it)in t)e "a(ily& T)e "irst aragra) la2es a duty on
states arties to (a'e sure t)at a 2)ild is not Ksearated "ro( )is or )er
arents against t)eir 9illK& T)at t)is rin2ile addresses t)e 9ill o" t)e
arents+ rat)er t)an o" t)e 2)ild+ s)o9s t)at 2)ildrenFs rig)ts are
deendent on t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ildKs arents& Ho9e!er+ t)is rin2ile is
also -uali"ied7 a 2)ild 2an 3e re(o!ed against t)e 9ill o" )is or )er
arents 9)en 2o(etent aut)orities su3je2t to judi2ial re!ie9 deter(ine+
in a22ordan2e 9it) ali2a3le la9 and ro2edures+ t)at su2) searation
is ne2essary "or t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ildK& T)us+ t)e state is a3le to
@2
a2t in 2ir2u(stan2es 9)en a 2o(etent agen2y eAternal to t)e "a(ily
deter(ines t)at t)e arentFs rig)ts s)ould 3e o!er6ridden& Ho9e!er+ su2)
is t)e seriousness o" su2) a de2ision+ t)at it is rote2ted 3y due ro2ess
guarantees& T)e re"eren2e to judi2ial re!ie9 a3o!e suggests t)at any
de2ision to re(o!e a 2)ild "ro( its arents (ust 3e oen to re!ie9 3y a
2ourtE t)e se2ond aragra) gi!es a di""erent due ro2ess guaranteeE t)e
rig)t o" Kinterested artiesF to 3e in!ol!ed in any ro2eedings& S)ould a
2)ild 3e re(o!ed "ro( its arents+ t)en t)ere is a residual rig)t to
K(aintain ersonal relations and dire2t 2onta2t 9it) 3ot)&&& on a regular
3asisF& Burt)er(ore+ t)e state )as a duty to ro!ide in"or(ation
2on2erning t)e 9)erea3outs o" a arent+ i" searation )as 3een a result
o" Kany a2tion initiated 3y a state arty+ su2) as t)e detention+
i(rison(ent+ eAile+ deortation or deat) Cin2luding deat) arising "ro(
any 2ause 9)ile t)e erson is in t)e 2ustody o" t)e stateDF& Art!$% .9
"urt)er ela3orates t)is rig)t+ relating it to t)e rig)t o" (o!e(ent o"
"a(ily (e(3ers 3et9een states&
Art!$% .. ro)i3its t)e Iilli2it trans"er and non6return o" 2)ildren
a3roadF&
Arti2les .@ to .< relate t)e 2lassi2 2i!il li3erties to t)e 2)ild& T)us+
Art!$% ./ 2on2erns t)at rig)t to "reedo( o" eAressionE Art!$% .4
guarantees t)e rig)t to "reedo( o" t)oug)t+ 2ons2ien2e and religionE
alt)oug) t)e rig)ts and duties o" arents to Iro!ide dire2tionF to t)e
2)ild are also guaranteedE Art!$% .0 re2ognises t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild to
"reedo( o" asso2iation and to "reedo( o" ea2e"ul asse(3lyE Art!$% .@
2on2erns rig)ts to ri!a2y and Art!$% .AF t)e rig)t to a22ess o"
in"or(ation "ro( t)e (edia&
As ointed out a3o!e+ 2)ildrenFs rig)ts are inseara3le "ro( t)e rig)ts
and duties o" arents+ and t)ese are gi!en "urt)er 2onsideration in Arti2le
.=+ T)is Arti2le gi!es 3ot) arents and guardians K2o((on
resonsi3ilities "or t)e u3ringing and de!elo(ent o" t)e 2)ildFE and
t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild is to t)e 3asi2 standard in any
understanding o" 9)at u3ringing and de!elo(ent (ean+ States )a!e to
(a'e sure t)at arents are 9ell6 suorted in t)eir arenting role+ and
t)is eAtends to ta'ing aroriate (easures Ito ensure t)at 2)ildren o"
9or'ing arents )a!e t)e rig)t to 3ene"it "ro( 2)ild62are ser!i2es and
"a2ilities "or 9)i2) t)ey are eligi3leF+
Art!$% .C is at t)e 2ore o" t)e Con!ention& It la2es a duty on state
arties to (a'e sure t)at legislati!e and ad(inistrati!e (easures are
underta'en to ensure t)at t)e 2)ild is rote2ted "ro( )ysi2al and (ental
a3use+ Inegle2t or negligent treat(ent+ (altreat(ent or eAloitation+
in2luding seAual a3use+ 9)ile in t)e 2are o" arentCsD+ legal guardianCsD
@@
or any ot)er erson 9)o )as t)e 2are o" t)e 2)ildK& Arti2le .; t)us relates
3a2' to Arti2le ;&
Toget)er t)ese Arti2les se2i"y t)e o3ligations o" t)e state+ and t)ose
instan2es 9)ere state a2tion is in t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild+ e!en i"
t)e arents/guardians 3elie!e ot)er9ise& On2e a 2)ild is in t)e 2are o"
t)e state+ Art!$% 29 9ould aly& T)is grants se2ial rote2tion to a
2)ild Kderi!ed o" )is or )er "a(ily en!iron(entK and 2o!ers+ K"oster
la2e(ent+ afalah o" Isla(i2 la9+ adotion or i" ne2essary la2e(ent in
suita3le institutions "or t)e 2are o" 2)ildrenK& Arrange(ents "or t)e 2are
o" t)e 2)ild )a!e to ta'e into a22ount t)e 2)ildKs et)ni2+ 2ultural+
religious and linguisti2 3a2'ground&
Arti2les 2. to 2@ relate to 2)ildren in 2ertain se2ial situations&
Art!$% 2. alies to t)ose state arties t)at er(it or re2ognise
adotion& It lays do9n a series o" duties t)at are (eant to sa"eguard t)e
3est interests o" t)e 2)ild in su2) a situation& Art!$% 22 la2es a duty on
state arties in relation to t)e re"ugee status o" 2)ildren and Art!$% 2/
&relates to t)e rig)ts o" (entally or )ysi2ally disa3led 2)ildren&
T)e neAt grou o" Arti2les+ 2462= ela3orate 2ertain so2ial and e2ono(i2
rig)ts as t)ey ertain to 2)ildren+ Art!$% 24 re2ognises t)e rig)t to It)e
)ig)est attaina3le standard o" )ealt) and to "a2ilities "or t)e treat(ent o"
illness and re)a3ilitation o" )ealt)F+ T)is translates into a series o"
se2i"i2 duties& State arties (ust ta'e a2tion to7 di(inis) in"ant and
2)ild (ortality ratesE to (a'e sure 2)ildren re2ei!ed )ealt) 2are+ 9it) an
e()asis on ri(ary )ealt) 2areE to alle!iate disease and (alnutrition
t)roug) t)e ro!ision o" "ood and 2lean 9ater and to ro!ide re6 and
ost6 natal )ealt) 2are7 $aragra) @ lays do9n an o3ligation to Ita'e all
e""e2ti!e and aroriate (easures 9it) a !ie9 to a3olis)ing traditional
ra2ti2es rejudi2ial to t)e )ealt) o" 2)ildrenF+ Art!$% 20 ela3orates
t)ese rig)ts e!en "urt)er and relates to a rig)t to 2o(etent )ealt) 2are&
Art!$% 2@ 2)anges t)e "o2us "ro( )ealt) 2are to t)e Irig)t to 3ene"it
"ro( so2ial se2urity+ in2luding so2ial insuran2eK and la2es a duty on
states to ensure t)e realisation o" t)is rig)t&
Art!$% 2A 2ould 3e read as a 2lassi2 arti2ulation o" a so2ial and
e2ono(i2 rig)t& It ro!ides t)at state arties s)ould re2ognise t)e 2)ildKs
rig)t to Ia standard o" li!ing ade-uate "or t)e 2)ildFs )ysi2al+ (ental+
siritual+ (oral and so2ial de!elo(entF& T)e Iri(ary resonsi3ilityF
"or t)e deli!ery o" t)ese ends lies 9it) t)e arentsE 3ut arents (ust 3e
assisted in t)ese duties 3y t)e state 9)i2) (ust Kro!ide (aterial
assistan2e and suort rogra((es+ arti2ularly 9it) regard to nutrition+
@4
2lot)ing and )ousingK& T)is duty eAtends to ta'ing (easures to se2ure
"inan2ial suort "or a 2)ild "ro( arents&
Art!$% 2B 2on2ern t)e rig)t to edu2ation& T)e rig)t to edu2ation+ on t)e
3asis o" e-ual oortunity+ 2ontains a list o" (ore se2i"i2 duties7 t)e
state (ust ro!ide general and 2o(ulsory ri(ary edu2ationE it (ust
also Ien2ourageF t)e ro!ision o" a22essi3le general se2ondary and
!o2ational edu2ation& Wit)in edu2ation+ t)e state (ust dis2ourage dro6
outs+ and ensure t)at dis2iline is 2onsistent 9it) ot)er )u(an rig)ts&
Art!$% 2C (andates t)e "or( o" edu2ation& It (ust address+ a(ongst
ot)er (atters+ It)e de!elo(ent o" t)e 2)ildKs ersonality+ talents and
(ental and )ysi2al a3ilities to t)eir "ullest otentialKE rese2t "or )u(an
rig)ts+ "or )is or )er o9n 2ulture and ot)er 2ultures+ and+ a3o!e all+
reare t)e 2)ild "or Kresonsi3le li"e in a "ree so2ietyF&
Art!$% /9 relates to t)e rig)t o" t)e 2)ildren o" (inorities to 3e
edu2ated in su2) a 9ay as to Ienjoy )is or )er o9n 2ulture+ to ro"ess
and ra2tise )is or )er o9n religion+ or to use )is or )er o9n languageF&
Art!$% /.+ t)e rig)t o" t)e 2)ild to rest and leisure+ 2learly eAtends
3eyond edu2ation and lin's t)roug) to Arti2le @2& Art!$% /2 is anot)er
'ey ro!ision in t)at it ro)i3its t)e e2ono(i2 eAloitation o" t)e 2)ildE
t)e ro)i3ition o" eAloitation eAtends to any 9or' t)at Kis li'ely to 3e
)aHardous or to inter"ere 9it) t)e 2)ildKs edu2ation+ or to 3e )ar("ul to
t)e 2)ildKs )ealt)K and state arties (ust ta'e 3ot) legislati!e and
edu2ational (easures to a2)ie!e t)is end& More se2i"i2ally state arties
(ust (andate a (ini(u( e(loy(ent ageE regulation o" t)e )ours and
2onditions o" e(loy(entE ensure t)at t)ese standards are e""e2ti!ely
alied&
Art!$% // lin's toget)er a rig)t to )ealt) 2are+ and a rig)t to rote2tion
3y ro!iding t)at state arties (ust ta'e (easures to ensure t)at 2)ildren
do not use illi2it drugs and are not in!ol!ed in eit)er t)e rodu2tion or
tra""i2'ing o" illegal drugs&
Art!$% /4 rote2ts 2)ildren "ro( IseAual eAloitation and seAual a3useF&
State arties are gi!en a nu(3er o" duties to ensure t)at 2)ildren do not
ta'e art in Iunla9"ul seAual a2ti!ityF and are not in!ol!ed in
rostitution or ornogra)y&
Art!$% /0 ro)i3its tra""i2'ing in 2)ildren&
Art!$% /@ is a general ro!ision re-uiring state arties to rote2t
2)ildren "ro( Kall ot)er "or(s o" eAloitationK t)at Kare rejudi2ialK to
t)eir I9el"are&F
@4
Art!$% /A relates !arious due ro2ess guarantees t)at 2on2ern
senten2ing and 2ri(inal la9 to 2)ildren& As 9ell as restating t)e generi2
rig)ts Cro)i3ition on torture and ar3itrary arrestE guarantee o" a rig)t o"
a22ess to t)e 2ourtsD it arti2ulates a 'ey $rin2ile7 2)ildren s)ould 3e
treated as su2) in t)e 2ri(inal justi2e syste(& Bor instan2e7 Ie!ery 2)ild
deri!ed o" li3erty s)all 3e searated "ro( adults unless it is 2onsidered
in t)e 2)ildFs 3est interest not to do so and s)all )a!e t)e rig)t to
(aintain 2onta2t 9it) )is or )er "a(ily t)roug) 2orresonden2e and
!isits+ sa!e in eA2etional 2ir2u(stan2esF& T)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild in t)e
2ri(inal justi2e syste( are eAanded at (u2) greater lengt) in Arti2le
4:&
Art!$% /B 2on2erns ar(ed 2on"li2t& In 'eeing 9it) general
)u(anitarian nor(s t)at relate to non62o(3atants+ states (ust guarantee
t)at 2)ildren under t)e age o" .4 do not ta'e art in 9ar"areE and t)us
(ust not 3e re2ruited into t)e ar(ed "or2es&
Art!$% /C also relates to ar(ed 2on"li2ts+ 3ut is (u2) 3roader& State
arties (ust (a'e sure o" t)e )ysi2al and sy2)ologi2al re2o!ery o"
2)ild !i2ti(s o" Inegle2t+ eAloitation+ or a3useE torture or any ot)er
"or( o" 2ruel+ in)u(an or degrading treat(ent or unis)(entFE or ar(ed
2on"li2ts&
P#rt II
In loo'ing at $art II o" t)e Con!ention+ 9e 9ill 2on2entrate on t)ose
Arti2les t)at set u t)e Co((ittee on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild+ 9)i2) is
set u 3y Arti2le 4@& T)e Co((ittee 2onsists o" ten eAerts ele2ted 3y
state arties 3ut ser!ing in t)eir ersonal 2aa2ity& Under Arti2le 44+
state arties are under a duty to su3(it to t)e Co((ittee reorts on t)e
stes t)ey )a!e ta'en to i(le(ent Con!ention rig)ts& Reorts (ust 3e
su3(itted 9it)in t9o years o" t)e Con!ention entering into "or2e+ and
t)erea"ter e!ery "i!e years& Arti2le 44 ro!ides t)at t)e se2ialised UN
Agen2ies+ su2) as t)e C)ildrenKs Bund+ )a!e a rig)t to reresentation
3e"ore t)e Co((ittee to ro!ide ad!i2e on t)e i(le(entation o" t)e
Con!ention& T)is Arti2le also states t)at t)e Co((ittee 2an (a'e
re2o((endation to t)e General Asse(3ly 9)i2) re-uest t)at t)e
Se2retary6General underta'es studies on se2i"i2 issues rele!ant to
2)ildrenKs rig)ts& T)e Co((ittee 2an (a'e suggestions and general
re2o((endations 3ased on in"or(ation re2ei!ed ursuant to Arti2les 44
and 44& T)ese 2an 3e addressed to any State $arty and also reorted to
t)e General Asse(3ly+ toget)er 9it) 2o((ents+ i" any+ "ro( States
$arties t)e(sel!es&
@0
$art III o" t)e Con!ention 2ontains !arious te2)ni2al ro!isions t)at 9e
9ill not 2onsider&
Not%7 T)e Co((ittee 2annot 2onsider indi!idual 2o(laints& Ho9e!er+
it 9ould 3e ossi3le to raise a 2on2ern a3out 2)ildrenKs rig)ts 3e"ore
ot)er 2o((ittees 9it) t)e jurisdi2tion to )ear indi!idual 2o(laints&
.& W)i2) ot)er 2o((ittees (ig)t 3e in!ol!ed in )earing su2)
2o(laintsJ
2& W)at are t)e General rin2iles o" t)e Con!entionJ
@& Ho9 does t)e Con!ention rote2t t)e )u(an rig)ts o" 2)ildrenJ
4& Are t)ere any nations t)at )a!e not rati"ied t)e Con!entionJ
Turning no9 to a3uses o" 2)ildrenFs rig)ts+ 9e s)i"t our "o2us "ro( t)e
la9 to -uestions o" )o9 t)e la9 is alied& To so(e eAtent+ it is slig)tly
(isleading to la3el t)e "ollo9ing areas Ka3uses o" 2)ildrenFs rig)tsF&
Alt)oug) t)ey 2learly s)o9 t)at 2)ildren are not 3eing rese2ted+ t)ey
2ould e-ually 3e seen+ (ore generally+ as ro3le(s o" stru2tural and
ende(i2 o!erty+ t)e so2ial dislo2ations 3roug)t a3out 3y ar(ed 2on"li2t
or issues o" national de!elo(ent& One (ust 'ee t)is in (ind7 it is t)e
essential 2onteAt o" t)e a3use o" all )u(an rig)ts&
/8/ C"!$d L#(our
C)ildren ro!ide a signi"i2ant ortion o" t)e 9orldKs 9or'"or2e& Bigures
"ro( t)e International La3or Organisation CILOD suggest t)at in t)e
de!eloing 9orld as (any as 24: (illion 2)ildren are in e(loy(ent+
9it) a little less t)an )al" o" t)is "igure 9or'ing "ull6 ti(e& Regionally+
t)is 3rea's do9n in t)e "ollo9ing 9ay7 0. er 2ent o" 9or'ing 2)ildren
are in Asia+ @2 er 2ent in A"ri2a+ and < er 2ent in Latin A(eri2a&
$ri(ary se2tors o" e(loy(ent are agri2ulture and do(esti2 la3our+
alt)oug) t)ere is also so(e e(loy(ent in trade and ser!i2es+ and a
s(all a(ount in (anu"a2turing and t)e 2onstru2tion industry& T)is is not
to 2onde(n all "or(s o" 2)ild la3ourE )o9e!er+ it is ne2essary to loo' at
t)e 2onteAt and eAa(ine t)e 2onditions o" e(loy(ent and t)e
edu2ational oortunities a!aila3le to t)e 2)ild& Hu(an Rig)ts grous
)a!e dra9n attention to t)e 9orst areas o" e(loy(ent "or 2)ildren7
arti2ular areas o" 2on2ern are sil' rodu2tion in India+ and t)e an
layed 3y 2)ildren in t)e sugar industry in #l Sal!ador+ 3ut 2on2erns
9ere also dra9n to ra2ti2es in t)e Middle #ast and t)e US& A3uses o"
2)ildrenKs rig)ts in2lude 3onded la3our+ oor and dangerous 9or'ing
2onditions and t)e denial o" t)e "reedo( o" (o!e(ent&
/8/8. :ond%d L#(our
@<
I,onded la3or ta'es la2e 9)en a "a(ily re2ei!es an ad!an2e ay(ent
Cso(eti(es as little as US S.4D to )and a 2)ild63oy or girl o!er to an
e(loyer& In (ost 2ases t)e 2)ild 2annot 9or' o"" t)e de3t+ nor 2an t)e
"a(ily raise enoug) (oney to 3uy t)e 2)ild 3a2'& T)e 9or'la2e is
o"ten stru2tured so t)at KeAensesK and/or IinterestF are dedu2ted "ro( a
2)ildKs earnings in su2) a(ounts t)at it is al(ost i(ossi3le "or a 2)ild
to reay t)e de3t& In so(e 2ases+ t)e la3our is generational 6t)at is+ a
2)ildFs grand"at)er or great6grand"at)er 9as ro(ised to an e(loyer
(any years earlier+ 9it) t)e understanding t)at ea2) generation 9ould
ro!ide t)e e(loyer 9it) a ne9 9or'er 6o"ten 9it) no ay at all&K
T)e issue o" 3onded la3our ta'es us to t)e 2ore o" t)e ro3le(& T)is is
not t)e 2ase o" a 2)ild ta'ing a art6ti(e jo3 to assist t)e "a(ilyKs
in2o(e& Rat)er+ it is a "or( o" sla!ery t)at re"le2ts 2onditions o" eAtre(e
o!erty t)at 3lig)ts generations& T)e 2)ild is e""e2ti!ely o9ned 3y t)e
e(loyer& ,onded la3our (ay 3e a "eature o" t)ose so2ieties t)at are
(ar'ed 3y o!erty+ 3ut o!erty (ust 3e understood in a 3road sense&
T)us+ 3onded la3our tends to o22ur 9)en eole generally la2'
resour2es7 t)is 2an (ean a "ailure o" a22ess to 2redit and 9el"are+ la2' o"
e(loy(ent "or adults+ 3ut 2ould also in2lude dis2ri(ination against
grous t)at eAa2er3ate t)is general la2' o" so2ial 2aital& As t)e
-uotation a3o!e suggests+ t)e ro3le( is also generational& T)e 2)ildren
o" t)ose 9)o eAerien2ed 3onded la3our are li'ely to 3e2o(e 3onded
la3ourers t)e(sel!es& W)at also 2ontri3utes to t)e ro3le( are ressures
t)at 'ee 9ages lo9+ so t)at eole are "or2ed to 3orro9 "ro( t)eir
e(loyers+ and t)en ledge t)eir 2)ildrenKs la3our as a (eans o"
reaying t)e de3t& In t)is sense+ 3onded la3our 2reates a !i2ious 2ir2le7
3e2ause t)ere is a suly o" C)ea 3onded la3our+ 9ages "or adults are
also suressed& ,onded la3our is t)us a sel"6sustaining so2ial and
e2ono(i2 )eno(enon& So(e resear2)ers )a!e also suggested t)at
3onded la3our is (ore li'ely in t)ose la2es 9)ere so2ial and e2ono(i2
relations are (ar'ed 3y 2aste and )ierar2)y&
W"#t #n (% don% to #$$%*!#t% t"% 7ro($%'D
T)e la9 relating to 3onded la3our is not just to 3e "ound in t)e
Con!ention& It 9as (ade illegal 3y t)e UN Sule(entary Con!ention
on t)e A3olition o" Sla!ery+ t)e Sla!e Trade+ and Institutions and
$ra2ti2es Si(ilar to Sla!ery in .;40& So(e ot)er i(ortant sour2es
in2lude Arti2le = o" t)e ICC$R+ 9)i2) eAli2itly ro)i3its sla!ery and
ser!itude and Arti2le < o" t)e IC#SCR 2ontains a guarantee o" la3our
rig)ts t)at are in2onsistent 9it) 3onded la3our& T)e ILO ro(ulgated in
.;;; a Worst Bor(s o" C)ild La3our Con!ention+ a Con!ention on
Mini(u( Age and a re2o((endation "or eli(inating t)e 9orst "or(s o"
2)ild la3our&
@=
/8/82 C"!$d L#(our !n Ind!#
T)ere is 2learly a 3ody o" international la9 t)at ro)i3its t)e 9orst
"or(s o" t)e ra2ti2e+ or at least atte(ts to regulate C)ild la3our& Is t)e
ro3le( t)at 2ertain nations )a!e not rati"ied t)is la9J Consider t)e 2ase
o" India7 I9it) 2redi3le esti(ates ranging "ro( 0: to ..4 (illion+ India
)as t)e largest nu(3er o" 9or'ing 2)ildren in t)e 9orldK& CHu(an Rig)ts
Wat2) Reort7 T)e S(all Hands o" Sla!eryE 3onded 2)ild la3our in
India )rt7//999&)r9&org/reorts/.;;0/lndia@&)t(D& We 2an gain a sense
o" t)e ro3le( and an indi2ation o" t)e e2ono(i2 i(ortan2e o"
2)ildrenF la3our "ro( t)e "ollo9ing eAtra2t7
Apart from agriculture, which accounts for ?) per cent of
all la0or in India, 0onded child la0orers form a
significant part of the wor force in a multitude of
domestic and e$port industries. /hese include, 0ut are not
limited to, the production of sil and sil saris, 0eedi
(hand- rolled cigarettes8, sil4er jewelry, synthetic
gemstones, leather products (including footwear and
sporting goods8, handwo4en wool carpets, and precious
gemstones and diamonds. Ser4ices where 0onded child
la0or is pre4alent include prostitution, small restaurants,
truc stops and tea shop ser4ices, and domestic ser4itude.
(i0idB part 6B summary8
C)ildrenFs la3our is not restri2ted to one area o" e2ono(y+ alt)oug)
agri2ulture a22ounts "or t)e greater roortion o" 2)ild la3ourersE it is
t)us general and not lo2al and sread t)roug)out di""erent se2tors+ "ro(
t)e rodu2tion o" leisure goods to rostitution&
India is a arty to and )as rati"ied all t)e Con!entions (entioned a3o!e
eA2et t)e ILO on t)e Worst Bor(s o" C)ild La3our+ and Indian
do(esti2 la9 does 2ontain ro)i3itions on 3onded la3our+ in2luding t)e
,onded La3our Syste( CA3olitionD A2t .;<0 and regulations in relation
to t)e e(loy(ent o" 2)ildren& Moreo!er+ 3onded la3our is in 3rea2) o"
2enain 2onstitutional rig)ts& T)ere )as also 3een litigation in Indian
2ourts t)at )as su22ess"ully led to o3ligations on states to identi"y t)e
illegal e(loy(ent o" 2)ildren and unis) e(loyers&
So+ 9)y does 3onded la3our ersist to su2) a degree in IndiaJ
Co((entators )a!e identi"ied t)e la2' o" oliti2al 9ill as one o" t)e
(ajor issues& Alt)oug) t)ere )as 3een a )ig) le!el o" 2o((it(ent to
a2tion at t)e oli2y le!el+ t)ese oli2ies )a!e not+ on t)e 9)ole+ 3een
translated into (eaning"ul rogra((es o" a2tion& T)ere are t9o ri(ary
"ailures o" go!ern(ent7 a "ailure to en"or2e t)e C)ild La3our
@;
C$ro)i3ition and RegulationD A2t .;=0 and t)e ,onded La3our Syste(
CA3olitionD A2t .;<0& Bor instan2e+ t)ere )as 3een no 2onsistent and
2on2erted atte(t to rodu2e go!ern(ent "igures on 2)ild la3our& Su2)
"igures t)at 2an 3e 2olle2ted s)o9 t)at+ "or instan2e+ "ro( .;;: to .;;@+
only < rose2utions 9ere (ade o" e(loyers under t)e C)ild La3our
C$ro)i3ition and RegulationD A2t+ and t)ese led to lig)t "inesE in t)e
ro!in2e o" Ta(il Nadu t)ere )ad 3een Cat t)e ti(e o" t)e reortD no
i(rison(ents under t)e C)ild La3our Cro)i3ition and RegulationD
A2t& T)e last date "or 9)i2) "igures 9ere a!aila3le under t)e ,onded
La3our Syste(s A2t s)o9 t)at o!er 24:+::: 3onded la3ourers )ad 3een
released+ 3ut it is not ossi3le to 'no9 )o9 (any o" t)ese 9ere 2)ildren&
So(e states si(ly 'et no re2ords at allE and so(e o""i2ials 3elie!ed
t)e A2t did not aly to 2)ildren&
Ot)er o3sta2les to en"or2e(ent in2lude 2orrution and negle2t o" duty
a(ong o""i2ials& T)e reort suggests t)at o""i2ials are 2o((itted to
(aintaining t)e status -uo+ and s)o9 little regard "or t)e 9ell63eing o"
3onded la3ourers& Bor instan2e+ t)e C)ild La3our C$ro)i3ition and
RegulationD A2t .;=0 re-uires states to dra9 u i(le(entation
ro2edures& ,y .;;0+ a (ajority o" states )ad not 2o(lied 9it) t)is
o3ligation& *istri2t (agistrates 9ere also not arti2ularly 2on2erned
9it) t)e ro3le(+ 9it) e!iden2e t)at+ in ter(s o" a list o" riorities (ade
a!aila3le to a journalist+ 2)ild la3our aeared 9ell 3elo9 t)e need to
in!est in te2)nology& A senior o""i2ial in t)e Ministry o" La3our stated
in an inter!ie97
ILa9s donKt (atter& #2ono(i2s doK& T)ere 9as no oint atte(ting to
en"or2e la3our standards unless rural o!erty 9as ta2'led&
1igilan2e Co((ittees+ re-uired under t)e ,onded La3our Syste(
CA3olitionD A2t+ 9ere not oerational in any art o" t)e 2ountry&
#!iden2e also s)o9s t)at (any 3ond (asters are t)e(sel!es
go!ern(ent e(loyees7
,e2ause o" t)eir steady in2o(e+ t)ese eole are (ore li'ely to o9n
land 69)i2) t)ey need so(eone to 2ulti!ate 6and are (ore li'ely to )a!e
(oney a!aila3le "or lending uroses& T)ey are also (ore li'ely to 3e
lo2al leaders and to )a!e ties to t)e lo2al and distri2t ad(inistration+
3ot) "a2tors 9)i2) tend to in)i3it rose2utionF&
T)ere are t)us Io3!ious li(itationsF in (a'ing I)ig)62aste and lo2al
lando9ning o""i2ialsF t)e 'ey layers in t)e identi"i2ation o" 3onded
la3our and t)e en"or2e(ent o" standards& Signi"i2ant ro3le(s relating
to t)e 3ri3ery o" lo2al o""i2ials are also re!alent& ,ri3ery is ende(i2
"ro( to o""i2ials t)roug) to (agistrates and judges& It also )as to 3e
4:
ointed out t)at 3onded la3our is dra9n "ro( arti2ular se2tors o" Indian
so2iety7
Nation9ide+ t)e !ast (ajority o" 3onded la3orers are *alitsE al(ost all
3onded 2)ildren inter!ie9ed "or t)is reort 9ere *alit or Musli(& *alits
are generally in a state o" e2ono(i2 deenden2y t)at+ 9)en 2o(3ined
9it) t)e t)reat o"+ or a2tual+ !iolen2e re!ents t)e( "ro( reorting
a3uses against t)e( 6in2luding 3eing )eld in 3ondage 6or "ro( getting
justi2e i" t)ey do&
Wit)in t)e Indian 2aste syste(+ t)e *alits+ or t)e untou2)a3les+ are t)e
lo9est (e(3ers o" so2iety& $er"or(ing t)e (ost (enial o" jo3s+ t)ey are
2onde(ned to o!erty and so2ial eA2lusion& *esite t)e "a2t t)at India is
a de(o2rati2 nation+ t)e 2aste syste( and t)e o!erty and eA2lusion
asso2iated 9it) it ersist& It is 9ort) noting t)at 2aste syste(s eAist
t)roug)out t)e 9orld& A *alit rig)ts 9e3 site argues t)at Kt)oug) t)e
2o((unities t)e(sel!es (ay 3e indistinguis)a3le in aearan2e "ro(
ot)ers+ unli'e 9it) ra2e or et)ni2ity+ so2io6e2ono(i2 disarities are
glaring+ as are t)e e2uliar "or(s o" dis2ri(ination ra2ti2ed against
t)e(& It is aroAi(ated t)at around 24:6@:: trillion eole a2ross t)e
9orld su""er "ro( 2aste+ or 9or'6 and des2ent63ased dis2ri(ination+ a
"or( o" dis2ri(ination t)at i(inges on t)eir 2i!il+ oliti2al+ religious+
so2io6e2ono(i2 and 2ultural rig)ts+ and t)eir rig)t to "reedo( o" 2)oi2e
to de!elo as indi!iduals and as a 2o((unity 9it) dignity&K
Alt)oug) it is di""i2ult to (a'e generaliHations a3out t)e status o" t)e
Musli( oulation o" India+ it is "air to say t)at in 2ertain states Indian
Musli(s are su""ering dis2ri(ination "ro( t)e Hindu (ajority+ 9)i2)
(eans t)at (any Musli(s su""er "ro( une(loy(ent+ restri2ted jo3
rose2ts+ dis2ri(ination and o!erty&
/8/8/ Ind!#=& R%7ort& to t"% Co''!tt%%
T)e initial reort o" India stressed t)e 2ountryKs 2o((it(ent to
2)ildrenFs rig)ts+ and stated t)at t)e in"rastru2ture 9as no9 in la2e to
(a'e a di""eren2e& Moreo!er+ t)ere 9as a National $lan o" A2tion and a
2o((ittee to (onitor rogress& T)e reort also ointed out t)at t)e
rig)ts o" 2)ildren 9ould i(ro!e i" t)e general rig)ts o" "a(ilies also
i(ro!ed&
S%ond P%r!od! R%7ort o2 Ind!# 2994
4.
T)e se2ond eriodi2 reort la2ed 2)ildrenKs rig)ts in t)e general 2onteAt
o" t)e 3attle against o!erty and ointed out t)at )ig) (ortality rates+
(alnutrition and il.itera2yre(ain ro3le(s& It also )ig)lig)ted t)at
India )as o!er 4:: (illion 2)ildren 3elo9 t)e age o" .= years& T)is
reresents t)e largest 2)ild oulation in t)e 9orld& T)e reort stressed
t)e 2o((ittee to (a'ing ele(entary edu2ation uni!ersal+ 3ut+ as yet t)e
National Co((ission "or C)ildren )ad not 3een esta3lis)ed&
T)ese reorts suggest t)at ad!an2es are 3eing (ade+ 3ut signi"i2ant
ro3le(s still re(ain&
,onded la3our 2ontinues to lay a signi"i2ant role in t)e Indian
e2ono(y desite t)e nationKs 2o((it(ent to )u(an rig)ts standards+
*is2uss&
/84 C"!$d So$d!%r&
C)ild soldiers are art o" ar(ies and (ilitias in (any nations o" t)e
9orld& So(e 2)ild soldiers are a3du2ted and "or2ed to "ig)tE ot)ers join
to es2ae o!erty or a3use& ,ot) girls and 3oys are in!ol!ed in 2o(3at+
alt)oug) girls are also ta'en as K9i!esK 3y 2o((anders and seAually
a3used Ct)e eAtent o" seAual a3use o" 3oys re(ains un'no9nD& T)e
ro3le( is arti2ularly a2ute in arts o" A"ri2a+ (ost nota3ly in t)e 9ar
Hones in t)e Congo+ Li3eria and Sierra Leone& T)e LordKs Re!olutionary
Ar(y+ a guerrilla organiHation in t)e nort) o" Uganda+ is also notorious
"or its use o" 2)ild soldiers& C)ild soldiers are also art o" ar(ies in
Colo(3ia and t)e Le3anon& In Colo(3ia+ 3ot) go!ern(ent and re3el
"or2es (a'e& use o" signi"i2ant nu(3ers o" 2)ildrenE in Le3anon+
2)ildren )a!e 3een "or2ed to join t)e Sout) Le3anon Ar(y& C)ild
soldiers are not only su3je2ted to t)e trau(as o" 2o(3atE t)ey )a!e ta'en
art in 9ar 2ri(es and (assa2res& A"ter 2on"li2t is o!er+ 2)ild soldiers
are not re6trained+ and re(ained trau(atiHedE indeed+ ea2e treaties o"ten
do not e!en re2ogniHe t)at 2)ild soldiers )a!e 3een in!ol!ed in t)e
"ig)ting&
As 9it) 3onded la3our+ a legal "ra(e9or' eAists to ro)i3it t)e use o"
2)ild soldiers& In 2::2 t)e Otional $roto2ol to t)e Con!ention on t)e
Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild on 2)ildren in ar(ed 2on"li2t 2a(e into "or2e& T)is
outla9s t)at use o" 2)ildren under .= in ar(ed "or2es+ 9)et)er state6run
or irregular& Con!ention C.=2D o" t)e ILO also ro)i3its t)e re2ruit(ent
o" 2)ildren under .=& Burt)er(ore+ under t)e Ro(e Statute o" t)e
International Cri(inal Court+ re2ruit(ent o" 2)ildren under .4 is to 3e
2onsidered a 9ar 2ri(e& T)e .;;; A"ri2an C)arter on t)e Rig)ts and
Wel"are o" t)e C)ild also a22ords 9it) t)ese international standards&
42
Under t)e A"ri2an C)arter+ .= is also t)e (ini(u( age "or re2ruit(ent
into ar(ed "or2es& CC)ild Soldier Use 2::@7 A ,rie"ing "or t)e 4t) UN
Se2urity Coun2il Oen&
To understand t)e role o" 2)ild soldiers in t)e Congo 9ar+ it is ne2essary
to )a!e a 3asi2 understanding o" t)e 2auses o" 2on"li2t in t)is 2ountry& A
o9er struggle 9it)in t)e *e(o2rati2 Reu3li2 o" t)e Congo C*RCD
in!ol!ing neig)3oring 2ountries triggered t)e Birst Congo War in .;;=&
Bor2es loyal to t)e resident o" t)e Congo+ Laurent 5a3ila+ o!ert)re9
t)e di2tatorial regi(e o" Mo3utu Sese Se'o in .;;<& T)e 9ar 3egan a
year later+ 9)en 5a3ila a2ted against R9andan "or2es 9)o )ad aided
)i( in )is 2ou& ,urundi+ R9anda and Uganda+ all s)are a 3order 9it)
t)e *RC and relied on t)e resen2e o" R9andan troos "or t)eir o9n
se2urity& At t)e sa(e ti(e as t)ese nations 3e2a(e e(3roiled in t)is
2on"li2t+ ot)er neig)3ouring nations+ Oi(3a39e+ Angola+ C)ad and
Na(i3ia (o3ilised to assist "or2es loyal to 5a3ila& Con"li2t in t)e Congo
is also dri!en 3y atte(ts to 2ontrol t)e nationKs natural resour2es+ and
tensions 3et9een t)e et)ni2 grous t)at (a'e u t)is (assi!e nation&
It is against t)is 3a2'dro o" regional 2on"li2t+ t)at 9e )a!e to are2iate
t)e issue o" (o3ilisation o" 2)ild soldiers& So(e e""orts )a!e ro!ed
su22ess"ul in de6(o3ilising 2)ild soldiers+ 9it) inuts "ro( lo2al NGOs+
t)e UN*$ and UNIC#B& Ho9e!er+ all "a2tions in t)e 2on"li2t 2ontinue
to rely on 2)ild soldiers& As "ar as go!ern(ent "or2es are 2on2erned+ t)e
Congolese A(.ed Bor2es C$ACD still )a!e 2)ild soldiers& T)ey )a!e
(ade ro(ises to de(o3ilise+ 3ut t)is ro2ess is ro2eeding !ery
slo9ly& T)e ro3le( is not as si(le as t)is+ 3e2ause t)e Congolese
go!ern(ent also suorts (ilitias t)at (a'e use o" 2)ild soldiers+ su2)
!ai-!ai and t)e Rassa(3le(ent 2ongolais our Ia de(o2ratie6
(ou!e(ent de li3eration CRC*6MLD&
T)e allian2e o" grous oosed to t)e go!ern(ent also re2ruit 2)ild
soldiers& T)ere is e!iden2e t)at one o" t)ese grous+ t)e "nion des
patriotes congolais CU$CD )as (ade use o" 2)ildren as young as se!enE
"or2ed 2ons2ritions )a!e ta'en la2e& A se2ond (ilitia grou+ 9)i2)
re2ei!es aid "ro( R9andan go!ern(ent+ )as 2on"ir(ed t)at it too
re2ruits 2)ild soldiers& Ot)er lo2al (ilitia grous )a!e organised to
de"end t)eir land and !illages "ro( oosition (ilitias& T)ese lo2al
grous also rely on 2)ild soldiers& T)e ro3le( is eAa2er3ated 3y t)e
inter!ention o" ot)er #ast A"ri2an nations in t)e Congolese 9ar&
R9andan and ,urundian ar(ed "or2es (a'e signi"i2ant use o" 2)ild
soldiers&
T)e ot)er region 9e 9ill study is West A"ri2a 9)ere t)ere )a!e 3een
2on"li2ts in Cote dKl!oire+ Li3eria and Sierra Leone& #sta3lis)ing t)e
2auses o" t)e 9ar in t)is region is also di""i2ult+ as t)ere are (any
4@
"a2tors& Order in Sierra Leone )ad 3een under(ined "or a long eriod
3e"ore 2i!il 9ar 3ro'e out in .;;.& Ba2tions engaged in 2i!il 2on"li2t in
neig)3ouring Li3eria 3egan to inter!ene in t)e "ig)ting in Sierra Leone 6
"urt)er 2o(li2ating t)e situation& Unli'e t)e situation in t)e Congo+
t)ere is+ at resent+ a ea2e and re2on2iliation ro2ess under9ay in
Sierra Leone& I#sti(ates o" 9ar6 related deat)s sin2e .;;. !ary 9idely 6
"ro( 2:+::: to <4+:::& AroAi(ately )al" t)e oulation o" 4&4 (illion
is internally disla2ed+ or li!ing as re"ugees outside t)e 2ountryF&
To date+ t)e Se2ial Court in Sierra Leone )as indi2ated a nu(3er o"
"or(er leaders o" ar(ed guerrilla grous "or 2ons2riting 2)ild soldiers&
C)arles Taylor+ t)e "or(er resident o" Li3eria+ aeared 3e"ore t)e
Se2ial Court "or Sierra Leone in Aril 2::0& He 9as 2)arged 9it) 9ar
2ri(es t)at in2luded resonsi3ility "or (ilitias 9)o (ade use o" 2)ild
2o(3atants& Li3erian and Li3erian6 2ontrolled "or2es 9ere arti2ularly
a2ti!e in re2ruit(ent in Monro!ia+ arti2ularly in t)e eriod 3e"ore
Taylor steed do9n as $resident t)at 9as (ar'ed 3y an intensi"i2ation
o" t)e "ig)ting& It 9as alleged t)at Taylor sonsored Ks(all 3oys unitsK&
T)e degree o" (ilitarisation o" t)ese young 2o(3atants 2an 3e
e!iden2ed in a22ounts t)at reort a (ilitary K2areerK t)at 3egan 9it)
"ig)ting as a young 2)ild in Li3eria+ t)en Sierra Leone+ and t)en 3eing
2ontra2ted to "ig)t in Togo&
T)e Li3erian go!ern(ent 2lai(ed t)at t)e young soldier )ad
!olunteered to "ig)t out o" a sense o" atrioti2 duty& Ho9e!er+ oular
de(onstrations in Monro!ia in 2::@ s)o9ed t)at t)is 9as not t)e 2ase&
Grous "ig)ting against t)e Li3erian go!ern(ent+ and allegedly 3a2'ed
3y Sierra Leone and t)e US+ 9ere also "ound to 3e using 2)ild soldiers
and la3ourer+ arti2ularly in t)e nort)ern art o" Li3eria& #ye9itness
a22ounts reorted 2)ild soldiers a2ti!ely ta'ing art in "ig)ting+ 3ut also
2arrying a((unition and sulies& Ot)er grous re2ruited in t)e Cote
dKl!oire "or soldier to "ig)t in Li3eria&
C)arles Taylor )as leaded not guilty to t)e 2)arges+ and )is trial is
ongoing in t)e Hague&
As (entioned a3o!e+ t)e 2i!il 9ar in Sierra Leone )as 2o(e to an end&
UN (issions to t)e 2ountry in 2::@ said t)at rogress )ad 3een (ade in
de(o3ilising 2)ild soldiers+ and re6integrating t)e( into so2iety& T)ere
9ere serious ro3le(s 9it) "unding+ and t)e s2ale o" t)e tas' t)at is
eAa2er3ated 3y t)e re"ugee ro3le( and t)e e2ono(i2 and so2ial
ro3le(s o22asioned 3y t)e 2i!il 9ar7
44
W)at 2o((on "a2tors 2an you see in t)e use o" 2)ild soldiersJ
/80 C"!$dr%nF H%#$t"#r% #nd HIV6AIDS
HI1/AI*S is a glo3al ro3le(7
HIA+AIDS continued to pose an acute threat to children9s
human rights in general. "nlie many 4irulent epidemics
in history that ha4e illed mainly young children and the
elderly, AIDS for the most part infects and ills adults
aged eighteen to forty years, in or near the most
producti4e years of their li4es. 3lo0ally, most persons in
this age group are parents. /hus, for children, the
epidemic too often represents 0oth the loss of a parent or
parents and e$posure to the stigma and discrimination
that go hand in hand with AIDS throughout the world.C
HI1/AI*S is e2uliar in t)at (ortality rates are 3orne
disroortionately 3y young eole at t)e age 9)ere t)ey are eit)er
starting a "a(ily+ or )a!e a young "a(ily& Bro( a 2)ildrenKs rig)ts
erse2ti!e+ it is t)is ase2t o" t)e disease t)at is (ost de!astating as it
destroys t)e 'ey stru2ture in t)e nurturing and rote2tion o" t)e 2)ild&
T)ere are ot)er 2onse-uen2es t)at "ollo9 "ro( t)e deat) o" a arent or
arents& It o"ten (eans t)at older 2)ildren 9ill )a!e to 2are "or t)eir
younger 3rot)ers and sisters+ 9it) t)e negati!e i(a2t t)is )as on t)eir
edu2ation or e(loy(ent oortunities& Burt)er(ore+ 2)ildren in"e2ted
9it) AI*S/HI1 are o"ten "or2ed into la3ouring "or oor 9ages or
rostitution+ t)e latter adding to t)e sread o" t)e disease& A reort )as
also dra9n attention to a ro3le( o" disin)eritan2e in 5enya& A"ter a
deat) o" a arent "ro( AI*S/HI1+ 2)ildren )a!e 3een deri!ed o"
roerty 3y distant relati!es eAloiting t)e la9 and t)e stig(a atta2)ed
to t)e disease& Binally+ t)ere is also e!iden2e to suggest t)at 2)ildren do
not )a!e a22ess to su""i2ient in"or(ation a3out AI*S/HI1& O"ten
resistan2e "ro( religious leaders and institutions to ro!iding 2)ildren
9it) in"or(ation on rerodu2ti!e )ealt) )as )andi2aed e""orts to
in"or( 2)ildren a3out )ealt) 2are issues&
T)e s2ale o" t)e disease is s)o2'ing7
In su0-Saharan Africa -the most hea4ily AIDS-affected
region of the world -AIDS HhasI orphaned children at a
rate unprecedented in history. /he "nited %ations
conser4ati4ely estimated that 0y Decem0er 7***, a0out 6-
million children under age fifteen in su0- Saharan Africa
had lost their mother or 0oth parents to AIDS. In <uly
44
7***, the "nited States =ureau of the 2ensus, which eeps
data on AIDS independent of the "nited %ations,
estimated that there were a0out 6, million children under
age fifteen who had lost at least one parent to AIDS in
Africa and that 0y 7*6* this num0er would 0e at least 7@
million, including o4er -* per cent of all children under
age fifteen in fi4e countries of eastern and southern
Africa.

T)e A"ri2an 2ontinent is not t)e only area a""e2ted& T)ailand )as seen
aroAi(ately @::+::: deat)s 9it) t)e asso2iated or)aning o" 2)ildrenE
t)e Cari33ean 3asin )as also 3een 3adly a""e2tedE )o9e!er+ at resent+
t)e disease is sreading (ost raidly in t)e "or(er So!iet Union and
#astern #uroe+ 9)ere drug use a(ong 2)ildren is eAa2er3ating
in"e2tion rates&
In .;;2+ at t)e International Su((it on T)e Rig)ts o" C)ildren in Sout)
A"ri2a+ 2)ildren aged .26.0 "ro( allo!er t)e 2ountry 2a(e toget)er and
dre9 u t)e C)ildrenKs C)arter o" Sout) A"ri2a& In itsel" t)is suggests t)e
s)ared er2etion t)at t)e rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild in Sout) A"ri2a are not
ade-uately rote2ted& We 9ill no9 eAa(ine t)is arti2ular issue+
"o2using on t)e rig)t to )ealt) 2are&
On2e again+ 9e 9ill see t)at t)e ro3le(s in t)is area are not ne2essarily
lin'ed 9it) t)e legal "ra(e9or'& T)e Sout) A"ri2an Constitution
2ontains a rig)t to )ealt) 2are and t)e 2ountry is a signatory to t)e
Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild&
South Africa ratified the 2on4ention on the &ights of the
2hild (D2&2C8, shortly after the ad4ent of democratic rule,
in <une 6..,. In the process leading to the formulation of
the %ational Programme of Action that followed
ratification, the matter of law reform for children was
identified as an important priority. /he most pressing
reason for this was the need to eliminate o4en
discrimination, especially racial discrimination, from the
statute 0oo, 0ut there were other compelling factors as
well. %ot the least of these was the need to harmonise the
laws of the so- called 9independent =antustans9 created
under apartheid with those of the rest of South Africa, and
the desire to tae legislati4e account of the pro4isions of
the 2on4ention itself. Since the 2&2 was the first
international con4ention to 0e ratified 0y South Africa,
pre4iously denied accession to "% treaties, the re4iew of
legislation pertaining to children enjoyed high political
profile and support.
40
Birst+ it is ne2essary to disa3use onesel" o" t)e idea t)at AI*S/HI1 is
so(e)o9 a Iunis)(entF "or seAual ro(is2uity& T)is aroa2) to aids
)as in"luen2ed go!ern(ent oli2y& Ho9e!er+ as 9e 9ill see 3elo9+ a
large roortion o" AI*S/HI1 su""erers are t)e !i2ti(s o" seAual
!iolen2e& Arguing t)at seAual a3stinen2e 9ill ta2'le t)e ro3le( o"
AI*S/HI1 is t)us utterly (is2on2ei!ed&
Birst o" all+ 9e need to understand t)e 3asi2 legal osition o" t)e 2)ild in
Sout) A"ri2a& At 2o((on la9+ 2onsent "ro( eit)er a arent+ guardian or
t)e Hig) Court is ne2essary 3e"ore a 2)ild 2an re2ei!e (edi2al
treat(ent& T)e C)ild Care A2t o" .;=@ er(its 2)ildren o!er .4 to
2onsent to treat(ent t)e(sel!es+ and t)ere are ot)er (e2)anis(s to
o3tain 2onsent for 2)ildren under .4 i" t)e 2onsent or a arent or a
guardian is not a!aila3le& $er(ission (ay 3e soug)t "ro( t)e Minister
o" So2ial *e!elo(ent+ or+ in e(ergen2y 2ases+ a )osital
suerintendent&
T)ese legal (e2)anis(s )a!e to 3e la2ed in t)e 2onteAt o" t)e
HI1/AI*S eide(i2& W)en t)e .;=@ A2t 9as assed+ t)e s2ale o" t)e
ro3le( )ad not 3een anti2iatedE neit)er )ad oli2y (a'ers understood
t)e lin' 3et9een seAual !iolen2e and AI*S& Indeed+ t)e reort "ro(
9)i2) 9e are -uoting tal's o" Kt)e dual eide(i2s o" HI1/AI*S and
seAual !iolen2e6in2luding a !irtually unre2edented eide(i2 o" 2)ild
raeK& T)e 2onsent to treat(ent ro2edures under statute and at 2o((on
la9 are not no9 ro3ust enoug) to deal 9it) t)ese ro3le(sE ese2ially
sin2e a large nu(3er o" 2)ildren )a!e no arent or guardian7 2)ildren
)a!e 3een Ior)aned or a3andonedF& T)us+ in t)e oinion o" Sout)
A"ri2an Hu(an Rig)ts a2ti!ists+ t)e la9 on 2onsent does not rote2t
2)ildren+ 3ut la2es Iserious 3arriersF in t)e 9ay o" t)eir )ealt) 2areE
3arriers t)at 2ontradi2t 3ot) t)e SA 2onstitution+ and international
)u(an rig)ts la9&
T)ere 9as also a(3iguity in t)e la9& Bor instan2e+ one ressing issue
9as 9)et)er testing "or HI1/AI*S 2onstitutes (edi2al treat(ent& Many
2)ildren )ad 3een re"used )el until a legal ruling 2lari"ied t)at testing
did 2ount as treat(ent&
T)e struggle against HI1/AI*S in SA )as also 3een )a(ered 3y t)e
go!ern(entKs relu2tan2e to (a'e t)e ne2essary drugs a!aila3le&
Alt)oug) t)is )as re2ently 2)anged+ t)e legal en!iron(ent is not
2ondu2i!e to e""e2ti!e )ealt) 2are i(le(entation& Litigation )as 3een
atte(ted to o3tain antiretro!iral treat(ent and drugs "or 2)ildren li!ing
9it) HI1/AI*S& #$ Parte %igel &edman %'( 4D+ 2on2erned "our
or)aned 2)ildren 9it) HI1 . AI*S& As t)e 2)ildren )ad not yet )ad
legal guardians aointed+ it 9as not ossi3le to o3tain t)e 2onsent o"
legal guardians& T)e 2onsent o" t)e rele!ant Minister 9as also not
4<
"ort)2o(ing& An ali2ation 9as t)us (ade to t)e Hig) Court+ and t)is
9as su22ess"ul& W)ilst t)is s)o9s t)at 2ourts 9ill inter!ene+ ali2ations
(ade to t)e Minister o" So2ial *e!elo(ent )a!e 3een ti(e62onsu(ing
and not entirely su22ess"ul& Bor 2)ildren li!ing 9it) a li"e6t)reatening
illness+ su2) rotra2ted ro2edures are eAtre(ely o3stru2ti!e+ and (ay
e!en ro!e "atal& T)e s2ale o" t)e ro3le( (eans t)at+ i" AI*S is to 3e
2ontrolled+ "ar (ore e""i2ient legal (e2)anis(s are ne2essary& It is
si(ly not ossi3le to (a'e ali2ations to t)e Hig) Court e!ery ti(e a
2)ild needs treat(ent+ or to 9ait "or t)e ruling o" t)e Minister o" So2ial
*e!elo(ent&
T)e C)ildrenFs A2t C2::4D goes a long 9ay to re2ti"y t)e situation&
Se2tion @2 rela2es t)e eAisting la9 9it) a ne9 set o" de"inition t)at
des2ri3es a 2)ildKs 2are gi!erE 2are gi!ers are eole 9)o assu(e 2are
"or a 2)ild+ 3ut ot)er9ise are not arents& A 2are gi!er (ay gi!e 2onsent
to Kany (edi2al eAa(ination or treat(ent o" t)e 2)ild i" su2) 2onsent
2annot reasona3ly 3e o3tained "ro( t)e arent or ri(ary 2are6gi!er o"
t)e 2)ildK& T)is se2tion s)ould (a'e o3taining treat(ent and 2are "or
2)ildren (u2) (ore straig)t "or9ard& Ho9e!er+ unless t)e A2t also
allo9s (edi2al ra2titioners to aut)oriHe treat(ent+ !i2ti(s o" seAual
!iolen2e 9ould not o3tain t)e ne2essary anti AI*S/HI1 drugs& T)is is
3e2ause go!ern(ent guidelines re-uire t)ese (edi2ines to 3e
ad(inistered 9it)in <2 )ours o" t)e seAual assault ra'ing la2e& In rural
areas+ 2)ildren (ay )a!e to tra!el a great distan2e to a )osital+ ossi3ly
9it)out arents or 2areersE t)e osition o" re"ugee or street 2)ildren is
si(ilar& Unless t)e (edi2al ra2titioner 9)o treats t)e( 2an aut)oriHe
treat(ent )i(sel" or )ersel"+ it is !ery unli'ely t)at t)e ne2essary
2onsent 9ould 3e "ort)2o(ing&
AI*S/HI1 treat(ent is a 2)ildrenKs rig)ts issue& *is2uss
/8@ C"!$dr%n !n t"% Cr!'!n#$ S-&t%'
In turning to 2onsider ju!eniles in t)e justi2e syste(+ 9e are ri(arily
2on2erned 9it) (atters o" 2ri(inal justi2e& T)e guiding rin2iles o"
2)ildrenKs rig)ts in t)is area+ resting on notions o" t)e in)erent dignity
and rig)ts o" t)e 2)ild+ stress re)a3ilitation rat)er t)an unis)(ent& We
9ill see+ t)oug)+ t)at (any 2ountries ersist in treating 2)ildren as
adults+ and 3rea2)ing t)ese guiding rin2iles&
T)e "unda(ental rin2iles 2ontained in t)e ,eijing Rules are 3ased on
se2uring t)e 9ell63eing o" t)e ju!enile in t)e 2ri(inal justi2e syste(&
$oli2y initiati!es are re2o((ended 9)i2) Kredu2e t)e need "or
inter!ention under t)e la9F+ and ju!enile justi2e needs to 3e t)oug)t o"
4=
as art o" a K2o(re)ensi!e "ra(e9or' o" so2ial justi2eK& Rule 4&.
se2i"ies t)at (easures ta'en in relation to a ju!enile o""ender are
roortionate to 3ot) t)e 2ir2u(stan2es o" t)e Ko""ender and t)e o""en2eK&
T)is is ese2ially ertinent in t)ose Kstatus o""en2esK under national legal
syste(s 9)ere t)e 3e)a!iour attra2ting 2ri(inal san2tion is 9ider t)an
t)at "or adults& T)e eAa(les gi!en are Ktruan2y+ s2)ool and "a(ily
diso3edien2e LandM u3li2 drun'ennessK& T)e rin2iles go on to
re2ognise and 2on"ir( t)e rele!an2e o" due ro2ess guarantees "or
ju!eniles& CUnited Nations Standard Mini(u( Rules "or t)e
Ad(inistration o" %u!enile %usti2e CT)e ,eijing RulesKD+ GA& res& 4:/@@+
anneA+ 4: U&N& GAOR Su& CNo& 4@D&at 2:<+ U&N& *o2& %)*+,-
C.;=4D&D
As 9ell as stressing t)e general rin2iles 2ontained in t)e ,eijing rules+
t)e United Nations Rules "or t)e $rote2tion o" %u!eniles
*eri!ed o" t)eir Li3erty+ LG&A& res& 44/..@+ anneA+ 44 U&N& GAOR
Su& CNo& 4;AD at 2:4+ U&N& *o2& %),+). C.;;:DM stress t)at detention
"or ju!eniles s)ould only e!er 3e a unis)(ent o" Klast resortK and any
rison senten2e or deri!ation o" li3erty (ust 3e K"or t)e (ini(u(
eriod ossi3leK& $er)as t)e (ost use"ul state(ent o" oli2ies regarding
ju!enile justi2e are ro!ided 3y t)e Riyad) Guidelines+ t)e United
Nations Guidelines "or t)e $re!ention o" %u!enile *elin-uen2y+ G&A&
res& 44/..2+ anneA+ 44 U&N& GAOR Su& CNo& 4;AD at 2:.+ UN *o2&
%),+). C.;;:D& T)ese guidelines stress t)e i(ortan2e o" integrating
young adults into so2iety7 K,y engaging in la9"ul+ so2ially use"ul
a2ti!ities and adoting a )u(anisti2 orientation to9ards so2iety and
outloo' on li"e+ young ersons 2an de!elo non62ri(inogeni2 attitudesK&
T)us+ t)e resonse o" any 2ri(inal justi2e syste( s)ould 3e to
understand t)e reasons "or de!ian2e& $unis)(ent (ay 3e ne2essary+ 3ut
t)e e()asis is on understanding 9)y an o""en2e )as ta'en la2e+ and
re6orientating indi!iduals to less anti6so2ial attitudes&
489 CONCLUSION
W)en it rati"ied t)e ICC$R+ t)e US go!ern(ent reser!ed t)e rig)t to
i(ose t)e deat) enalty "or 2ri(es 2o((itted 3y t)ose under .=& In
.;;4 t)e UN Hu(an Rig)ts Co((ittee+ t)e 3ody o" eAerts set u to
(onitor 2o(lian2e 9it) t)e ICC$R+ said t)at t)e US reser!ation 9as
in2o(ati3le 9it) t)e o3je2t and urose o" t)e ICC$R and s)ould 3e
9it)dra9n& Ho9e!er+ sin2e rati"i2ation+ US state aut)orities )a!e
eAe2uted siA risoners "or 2ri(es 2o((itted 9)en t)ey 9ere under .=+
in2luding t9o in .;;=& In %une .;;=+ t)ere 9ere <: su2) risoners
a9aiting t)is "ate on US deat) ro9s&
4;
In .;;=+ t9enty6"our US states er(it t)e use o" t)e deat) enalty
against t)ose under .= at t)e ti(e o" t)e 2ri(e& Bourteen states )a!e
legislation en"or2ing .= as t)e (ini(u( age& Ci3idD
A(nesty International goes on to oint out t)at t)e "ederal go!ern(ent
)as se2i"ied .= as t)e (ini(u( age o" 2ri(inal resonsi3ility+ and t)us
s)ould 3e o3liged to ensure ea2) state 2o(lies 9it) t)is rule& T)e
"ederal go!ern(ent is resonsi3le "or (a'ing sure t)at state
go!ern(ents a3ide 3y t)eir international o3ligations& Alt)oug) t)e US
)as not rati"ied t)e Con!ention+ 9)i2) sets .= as t)e age o" 2ri(inal
resonsi3ility+ t)e "a2t t)at t)e (ajority o" nations in t)e 9orld )a!e+
suggests t)at t)ere is (ore or less uni!ersal 2onsensus on t)e age o"
2ri(inal resonsi3ility& T)e Sure(e Court )as also s)o9n t)at it is not
9illing to a22et t)is 2onsensus+ )olding t)at .0 s)ould 3e t)e rele!ant
ageE it )as also )eld t)at t)e eAe2ution o" ju!eniles aged .0 or .< at t)e
ti(e o" t)e o""en2e does not !iolate t)e 2onstitution&
089 SUMMARY
,rea2)es o" t)ese standards 2an 3e "ound a2ross t)e se2tru( o" la9
en"or2e(ent and in all 2ountries o" t)e 9orld+ 3ut 9e 9ill 2onsider so(e
eAa(les dra9n "ro( Latin A(eri2a and t)e United States& A3uses
3egin on2e 2)ildren are under t)e 2ontrol o" t)e oli2e& One arti2ularly
eAtre(e eAa(le+ as reorted 3y t)e United Nations se2ial raorteur
on eAtrajudi2ial eAe2utions+ 9as e!iden2e t)at+ sin2e .;;=+ u to =::
2)ildren )ad 3een (urdered 3y t)e $oli2e in Honduras& Also in Latin
A(eri2a+ t)e Inter6 A(eri2an Court o" Hu(an Rig)ts (ade an order
against Guate(ala relating to t)e (urder o" street 2)ildren 3y t)e $oli2e&
In $araguay+ a Hu(an Rig)ts grou also reorted t)at 2)ildren 9ere
3eing )eld 9it) adults in o!er2ro9ded risons and 9ere !i2ti(s o" ill6
treat(ent+ in2luding unis)(ent 3y solitary 2on"ine(ent&
T)e re2ord o" t)e United States is also not arti2ularly good in t)is area&
Alt)oug) t)ere is a ju!enile justi2e syste( in t)e US+ 2on2ern )as 3een
dra9n to t)e "a2t t)at t)e US 2ri(inal justi2e syste( tries 2)ildren as
adults in a nu(3er o" 2ases 9)ere se2ial ju!enile ro2esses 9ould 3e
(ore suita3le& It is a general rin2ile o" 2)ildrenKs rig)ts t)at t)ere
s)ould 3e a (ini(u( age "or 2ri(inal resonsi3ility& An A(nesty
International reort s)o9s t)at (ore t)an )al" o" all US states )a!e
2ri(es "or 9)i2) any 2)ild 2an 3e rose2uted in an adult 2ourtE t)ere are
also in2onsisten2ies 3et9een di""erent states as to t)e age at 9)i2) a
2)ild 2an 3e tried in a ju!enile 2ourt& Bor instan2e+ in Nort) Carolina t)e
(ini(u( age is siAE in Maryland+ Massa2)usetts and Ne9 ?or'+ t)e
(ini(u( age is se!en& T)e Reort goes on to state t)at7
4:
..=etween 6.@? and 6..,, the num0er of children confined
in custody 0efore their cases were heard or following
con4iction grew 0y more than -* per cent. h6 many
jurisdictions, the increase in the num0er of children who
are held in custody has outstripped the increase in
resources that are a4aila0le to house the children and
pro4ide ser4ices for them. /he most recent sur4ey found
that )* per cent of facilities around the "SA housed more
children than they were designed to accommodate.
,rea2)es o" international standards t)us 2on2ern t)e eA2essi!e use o"
in2ar2eration+ 3ot) 3e"ore "or(al 2on!i2tion+ and as a (eans o"
unis)(ent a"ter 2on!i2tionE and t)e in2ar2eration o" 2)ildren in
"a2ilities t)at are not e-uied 9it) resour2es t)at are suita3le to
ju!eniles+ or to t)ose 9it) (ental )ealt) ro3le(s& Ho9e!er+ se2ial
2ensure 9as due to t)e "a2t t)at t)e US i(oses deat) senten2es on
t)ose 2on!i2ted o" 2ri(es 2o((itted 9)en t)ey 9ere 2)ildren7
.& W)y is t)ere resistan2e to 2)ildrenFs rig)ts standards in t)e US
2ri(inal justi2e syste(J
2& Alt)oug) t)e Con!ention on 2)ildrenFs rig)ts is des2ri3ed as t)e
(ost rati"ied o" international )u(an rig)ts instru(ents+ a3uses o"
2)ildrenKs rig)ts are still 9idesread& Ho9 2an t)is situation 3e
a22ounted "orJ *is2uss&
A89 RFERENCES6FURTHER READINGS
A& Liearey7 International $rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts& Uni!ersity o"
London $ress& 2::2&
4.
UNIT / THE RIGHTS OF REFUGEES
CONTENTS
2&:Introdu2tion
@&:O3je2ti!es
4&:Main Content
@&. T)in'ing a3out t)e Rig)ts o" t)e Re"ugee
@&2 T)e Re2ent History o" t)e Re"ugee
@&2&. Measures to $rote2t Re"ugees
@&2&2 W)at is a Re"ugeeJ
@&@ T)e Con!ention Relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees and t)e
.;0< $roto2ol
@&@&. *e"inition o" a Re"ugee
@&@&2 O3ligations on States and Re"ugees
@&4 Wo(en and Girls as Re"ugees
@&4 T)e Con!ention and National La9
@&4&. #nglis) Courts and t)e Con!ention
@&4&2 Re"ugees+ Asylu( and I((igration in t)e U5
@&0 T)e Crisis in t)e SudanE Oil+ $o9er and Re"ugees
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
T)e rig)ts o" re"ugees raise in a arti2ularly a2ute "or(+ one o" t)e (ain
issues t)at )as 2on2erned us t)roug)out t)is su3je2t guide&
T)e re"ugee is a erson 9)o )as )ad to lea!e t)e 2ountry o" )is or )er
3irt) or do(i2ile t)roug) a "ear o" erse2ution& Ho9 are )u(an rig)ts to
rote2t t)is (ost !ulnera3le grouJ As 9e )a!e seen+ international la9
la2es o3ligations on so!ereign states& Ho9 2an re"ugees rely on a state
to rote2t t)eir rig)ts 9)en it is t)e state itsel" t)at is erse2uting t)e(J
It is in t)e area o" re"ugeesF rig)ts t)at t)e o3ligations o" t)e
international 2o((unity are er)as t)e (ost (eaning"ul& Could 9e
sea' o" an international duty to rote2t t)ose "leeing erse2utionE or o"
t)ose 9)o )a!e 3een (ade state6less and rig)t6 lessJ We 9ill see t)at
t)e UN )as atte(ted to (a'e a duty to re"ugees a reality 3ut+ t)at t)ere
is still a great resistan2e to oen6 ended resonsi3ility to re"ugees in
(ost nations o" t)e 9orld&
Re"ugee la9 is a 2o(leA and e!er62)anging 3ody o" do2trine and
rin2ile& Li'e all )u(an rig)ts la9+ it is also an intensely oliti2al
42
su3je2t& In t)is unit+ 9e 9ill see )o9 an are2iation o" t)e ro3le(s
"a2ed 3y re"ugees )as trans"or(ed itsel" "ro( a #uroean to a 9orld
issue& T)e UN+ its agen2ies and ot)er INGOs and ressure grous are
er)as resonsi3le "or t)is in2reased a9areness o" t)e issue 6and 9e
9ill "o2us on t)e role o" t)e .;4. Con!ention and t)e .;0< $roto2ol&
Ho9e!er+ 9e need to are2iate t)at re"ugeesK rig)ts are in2reasingly
3eing 2riti2ised&
T)e Con!ention and t)e 2on2et o" re"ugeesK rig)ts are 2riti2ised 3y
oliti2ians in t)e de!eloing and de!eloed 9orld& Bor instan2e+ in 2::.
t)e t)en Ho(e Se2retary o" t)e U5+ %a2' Stra9+ argued t)at t)e
Con!ention 9as in need o" re!ision as t)e ten6"old in2rease in asylu(
see'ers in t)e U5 suggested t)at e2ono(i2 (igrants 9ere ta'ing
ad!antage o" a stateKs resonsi3ility to re"ugees& Certain oliti2ians and
irresonsi3le journalists also ortray t)e asylu( see'er as a erson
see'ing to 2lai( 3ene"its and ri!ileges t)at t)ey do not deser!e&
,ut to 9)at eAtent are t)ese !ie9s a22urateJ
/wo countries in southwest Asia, Iran and Paistan, host
twice as many refugees as do all the countries of Western
#urope com0ined. Jet in 7***, the worldCs wealthiest
nations contri0uted less than K6 0i6lion-one-tenth the
amount they spent on maintaining their own asylum
systems--to fund "%H2&Cs protection wor around the
world.
T)is aut)oritati!e -uotation suggests t)at t)e real ro3le( (ig)t rest
9it) t)e "ailure o" o9er"ul nations to 2o((it t)e(sel!es to a
(eaning"ul and 2o)erent international syste( "or t)e rote2tion o" t)e
rig)ts o" re"ugees&
We t)us need to la2e re"ugeesF rig)ts in t)eir oliti2al as 9ell as t)eir
legal 2onteAt& It is also 9ort) noting at t)is stage t)at t)ere is a
distin2tion 3et9een t)e re"ugee and t)e asylu( see'er& Indeed+ alt)oug)
t)ere are re"eren2es to asylu( in t)e $rea(3le to t)e Con!ention+ t)e
granting o" asylu( is not dealt 9it) in t)e .;4. Con!ention or t)e .;0<
$roto2ol&
4@
289 O:;ECTIVES
,y t)e end o" t)is unit and t)e rele!ant readings you s)ould 3e a3le to7
des2ri3e t)e oliti2al and so2ial 2onteAt o" re"ugeesF rig)ts
eAlain t)e legal t)eoreti2al issues raised 3y re"ugeesK rig)ts
su((arise t)e 3asi2 ro!isions o" t)e .;4. Con!ention relating to
t)e Status o" Re"ugees and t)e .;0< $roto2ol
eAlain t)e ro3le(s in)erent in t)e test "or deter(ining re"ugee
status identi"y t)e ro!isions t)at relate to 9o(en and girls as
re"ugees and to "a(ily reuni"i2ation
des2ri3e t)e resonse o" t)e #nglis) 2ourts to t)e test "or t)e
deter(ination o" re"ugee status
outline re"or(s to i((igration and asylu( oli2y in t)e U5 and t)e
oliti2al issues t)ese re"or(s raise&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. T"!n+!n, #(out t"% R!,"t& o2 t"% R%2u,%%
As suggested in t)e introdu2tion a3o!e+ t)e 2on2et o" t)e re"ugee
2onstitutes ro3le(s in )u(ans rig)ts la9& T)e "ollo9ing assage
2ontains an engaging analysis o" so(e o" t)e 'ey issues7
Re"uges (o!e(ent 2alled into -uestion t)e organisation o" t)e 9orld
into distin2t "oreign territories to 9)i2) indi!iduals 9ere allied 3y
3irt)>sin2e t)e essen2e o" t)e )eno(enon o" re"ugee)ood is t)at
an indi!idual is le"t 9it)out t)e rote2tion o" )is or )er state+ t)e
re"ugee ro3le( 9as seen 3y (any to 3e a "unda(ental ro3le( o"
(odern oliti2al organisation& T)e oliti2al t)eorist+ Hanna) Arendt+
9as one o" t)e earliest 9riters to see arti2ulated in t)e re"ugee
2ondition+ t)e in)erently !iolent and dis2ri(inatory nature o" t)e
West)alian state syste(& A22ording to Arendt+ )u(an rig)ts+ e!en
t)ose o" t)e (ost 3asi2 and "unda(ental 'ind+ su2) as t)e rig)t to li"e
and "reedo( "ro( in)u(an or degrading treat(ent or unis)(ent+
do not de!ol!e to t)e )u(an su3je2t t)roug) (ere i(ulsi!e
eAisten2e in t)e 9orld+ 3ut due rat)er to atta2)(ent to t)e so2ial and
oliti2al organisation 'no9n as t)e state& T)ose 9it)out t)e
rote2tion o" t)e state 6t)e re"ugee 3eing t)e aradig(ati2 instan2e V
IeAist 9it)out t)e rig)t to )a!e rig)tsF& W)ilst Arendt and ot)ers
2alled "or a 2orre2ti!e Cto t)e state syste(+ so t)at "alling states
a22ord roer rote2tion to its 2itiHensD ot)ers !ie9ed t)e re"ugee
2ondition as otentially rodu2ti!e o" a ne9 oliti2al 2ons2iousness
a3le to 2)allenge t)e neAus o" state+ territory and identity t)at )as
resulted in t)e disin"ran2)is(ent o" (illions o" re"ugees t)roug)out
t)e ages>indeed+ Gorgio Aga(3en+ 9)ose 9or' )as 3een )ig)ly
44
in"luential+ sea's o" re"ugee)ood as t)e Ionly t)in'a3le 2ategory "or
t)e eole o" our ti(e&F
Tuitt argues t)at t)e status o" t)e re"ugee ro!ides an insig)t into t)e
nature o" )u(an rig)ts& T)e re"ugee 2)allenges t)e !ery notion o" a
syste( o" "or(ally e-ual so!ereign states Ct)e West)alian state
syste(D& ,e2ause t)e re"ugee is a stateless erson+ )e resents a ro3le(
to a syste( o" )u(an rig)ts t)at deends on t)e so!ereign state&
A22ording to t)e Ger(an )iloso)er Hanna) Arendt+ t)e re"ugee
2)ara2terises t)e (ode( oliti2al 2ondition7 t)e in)erently !iolent
nature o" t)e state t)at 2an 3ot) grant and deri!e 2itiHens o" rig)ts& In
ArendtFs oinion+ )u(an rig)ts are not t)e rodu2t o" in)erent dignity+
3ut eAist urely 3e2ause a state (ig)t grant and re2ognise t)e(& A
nu(3er o" 2on2lusions 2an 3e dra9n "ro( t)is oint& One is t)at it is
ne2essary to )a!e a sura6go!ern(ental syste( t)at guarantees )u(an
rig)tsE anot)er sees t)e !ery 2ondition o" t)e re"ugee as rele!ant to a
ne9 oliti2al 2ons2iousness t)at ta'es t)e re"ugee as t)e rig)t6less
erson as t)e aradig( o" (odern oliti2s+ rat)er t)an t)e (odel o" t)e
2itiHen 9it) rig)ts&
TuittFs analysis also suggests t)at t)e re"ugee needs to 3e ut into a
)istori2al 2onteAtE and so 3e"ore 9e 2an t)in' 2riti2ally a3out t)e issues
raised+ 9e need to eAa(ine 3rie"ly t)e (odern ro3le( o" t)e re"ugee&
Su''#r-
T)e "o2us o" t)is unit 9ill 3e on t)e .;4. Con!ention and t)e .;0<
$roto2ol& *esite t)ese international agree(ents+ t)oug)+ t)e )u(an
rig)ts o" re"ugees are o"ten negle2ted& T)is is 3e2ause 3y 3eing state6
less+ re"ugees "all outside t)e )u(an rig)ts syste( as rig)ts o3ligations
rest 9it)in nation states& Anot)er 2entral ro3le( is t)e de(onisation o"
re"ugees and asylu( see'ers+ and t)e "ailure o" o9er"ul 2ountries to
ledge a signi"i2ant le!el o" "inan2ial suort to t)e syste( "or t)e
rote2tion o" re"ugees&
/82 T"% R%%nt H!&tor- o2 t"% R%2u,%%
/828. M%#&ur%& to Prot%t R%2u,%%&
T)e roots o" t)e (odern la9 relating to t)e rote2tion o" t)e re"ugee 2an
3e "ound in t)e i((ediate a"ter(at) o" t)e Se2ond World War& T)e
United Nations Relie" and Re)a3ilitation Agen2y CUNRRAD and t)e
International Re"ugee Organisation CIROD 9ere in!ol!ed in aiding t)e
)undreds o" t)ousands o" disla2ed eole in #uroe& Ho9e!er+ t)ere
9as not+ as yet+ a 2o)erent 3ody o" re"ugee la9& T)ere 9ere t9o rele!ant
instru(ents7 t)e .;@@ League o" Nations Con!ention relating to t)e
44
International Status o" Re"ugees and t)e .;@= Con!ention 2on2erning
t)e Status o" Re"ugees 2o(ing "ro( Ger(any& Alt)oug) t)e .;@@
Con!ention 2ontained rin2iles t)at+ as 9e 9ill see+ 9ent on to in"or(
t)e Con!ention relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees+ t)ese do2u(ents
2annot 3e seen as ro!iding a 2o)erent "ra(e9or' "or t)e rote2tion o"
t)e )u(an rig)ts o" re"ugees& Indeed+ alt)oug) t)e .;@@ Con!ention
la2ed duties on signatories to a22et re"ugees+ and ro)i3ited t)eir
eAulsion+ t)e e""e2t o" t)is treaty 9as se!erely li(ited 3y t)e "a2t t)at
t)ose "e9 nations 9)o did sign i(osed li(itations on its in"luen2e&
In t)e ost69ar eriod+ t)e 2ontinuing nature o" t)e re"ugee ro3le( in
#uroe+ and t)e are2iation t)at t)e re"ugee 2risis raised )u(anitarian
and )u(an rig)ts issues+ (ade t)e UN 'een to i(ro!e t)e international
rote2tion o" disla2ed ersons& T)e UNHCR 9as 2reated in .;4: 3y
t)e UN General Asse(3ly and gi!en a re(it t)at 2o!ered t)e rote2tion
o" re"ugees 9orld9ide&
One year a"ter t)e 2reation o" t)e UNHCR+ t)e Con!ention relating to
t)e Status o" Re"ugees 9as adoted 3y t)e UN& One o" t)e (ain reasons
"or t)e Con!ention is outlined 3y t)e UNHCR Hand3oo'7 PInstead o" ad
hoc agree(ents adoted in relation to se2i"i2 re"ugee situations+ t)ere
9as a 2all "or an instru(ent 2ontaining a general de"inition o" 9)o 9as
to 3e 2onsidered a re"ugee&Q
T)e nature o" t)e Con!ention re"le2ts t)e "a2t t)at it 9as largely a
2o(ro(ise a22eta3le to t)e arties resent 9)en it 9as dra9n u& As
9it) all international )u(an rig)ts+ re"ugee rig)ts la2e o3ligations on
so!ereign states+ and state arties 9ere relu2tant to 2o((it to
o3ligations t)at 9ere too 3road or inter"ered too dra(ati2ally 9it) t)eir
o9n internal a""airs& T)us+ as 9e 9ill see+ t)e !ery de"inition o" t)e
re"ugee status )as a te(oral li(it& It alies to t)ose 9)o 3e2a(e
re"ugees Kas a result o" e!ents o22urring 3e"ore . %anuary .;4. K& T)ere is
also an otion to li(it t)e geogra)i2al rea2) o" t)e treaty to e!ents
)aening in #uroe&
,ot) li(itations re"le2t t)e "a2t t)at so!ereign states 9ere un9illing to
adot oen6ended resonsi3ilities in t)is area& Ho9e!er+ t)e .;0<
$roto2ol relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees re(o!ed t)e geogra)i2al
and te(oral.i(its o" t)e Con!ention&
T)e .;0< $roto2ol also 2reated a duty "or national aut)orities to 2o6
oerate 9it) t)e UN in t)e KeAer2ise o" its "un2tionsF+ and in t)e
2olle2tion o" statisti2al data relating to t)e 2ondition o" re"ugees and t)e
status o" la9s relating to re"ugees in t)e signatory state& A "u..list o"
arties to t)e $roto2ol and t)e Con!ention 2an 3e "ound at7
40
)tt7//999&un)2r&org/2gi6 3in/teAis/!tA/rote2t/ oendo2& d"lt3l W
$ROT#CTIONXid W @3<@3Od0@
T)e Con!ention is i(ortant "ro( a legal erse2ti!e 3e2ause it
2ontains a general de"inition o" t)e re"ugee+ and also grants t)e( so(e
rig)ts& T)e 2ore o" t)e Con!ention is t)e rin2ile t)at a nation (ust not
eAel or return a re"ugee Cre"oule(entD& T)is rin2ile 9as 2ontentious
at t)e ti(e o" t)e dra"ting o" t)e Con!ention+ and re(ains so today&
Go!ern(ents 9ere 2on2erned t)at t)ey 9ere under an o3ligation to
allo9 unli(ited nu(3ers o" ersons to 2lai( status as re"ugees on2e
t)ey )ad 2rossed a national 3order& Misgi!ings a3out a nationFs
o3ligations to re"ugees are re"le2ted in t)e "a2t t)at t)e Con!ention also
i(oses o3ligations on re"ugees to t)e nation t)at is rote2ting t)e(& In
t)is sense+ re"ugeeFs rig)ts 2learly 2orrelate 9it) re"ugeeKF duties&
T)e Con!ention is sule(ented 3y ot)er international instru(ents+
in2luding t)e International Co!enant on Ci!il and $oliti2al Rig)ts
C.;00D+ t)e Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild C.;=;D and t)e
Con!ention Against Torture and Ot)er Cruel+ In)u(ane and *egrading
Treat(ent or $unis)(ent C.&;=4D& T)ere are also ot)er+ regional
instru(ents t)at relate to re"ugees& Bor eAa(le in Latin A(eri2a+ t)ere
are a nu(3er o" rele!ant international statutes& A(ongst t)ese
do2u(ents are7
t)e Treaty on International $enal La9 CMonte!ideo+ .==;D
t)e Agree(ent on #Atradition CCara2as+ .;..D
t)e Con!ention on Asylu( CHa!ana+ .;2=D
t)e Con!ention on $oliti2al Asylu( CMonte!ideo+ .;@@D
t)e Con!ention on *ilo(ati2 Asylu( CCara2as+ .;44D
t)e Con!ention on Territorial Asylu( CCara2as+ .;44D&
T)ere is also t)e Con!ention Go!erning t)e Se2i"i2 Ase2ts o" Re"ugee
$ro3le(s in A"ri2a& T)is 9as adoted 3y t)e Organisation o" A"ri2an
Unity in .;0;& We s)all eAa(ine t)is treaty in a later unit&
@&2&2 W"o !& # R%2u,%%D
,e"ore 9e eAa(ine t)e Re"ugee Con!ention in det)+ it is 9ort)
t)in'ing in a little (ore detail a3out t)e !ery idea o" t)e re"ugee& T)e
distin2tion 3et9een a re"ugee and a erson see'ing entry to a 2ountry "or
ot)er uroses o" (igration is rat)er ar3itrary& Bro( a )istori2al
erse2ti!e+ "or instan2e+ it 9as not until t)e late eig)teent) 2entury in
#ngland t)at t)e 9ord Ire"ugeeF 9as used to des2ri3e an indi!idual
es2aing erse2utionE su2) Ire"ugeesF 9ere t)en 2onsidered IaliensF&
More re2ently+ 9e 2an see t)at t)e 9ord+ and indeed t)e legal 2on2et+
)as 3een used rat)er loosely& In .;0=+ a large grou o" 5enyan 2itiHens
4<
o" Asian des2ent 9ere "a2ing dis2ri(ination in 5enya and soug)t to
enter t)e U5E later in .;<2 a grou o" IUgandan AsiansF also soug)t
entry into t)e U5& Alt)oug) a 2ase 2ould 3e (ade t)at t)ese eole
9ere re"ugees "leeing erse2ution+ it 9as not t)e 9ay t)at t)ey 9ere
2onsidered 3y i((igration la9& T)e treat(ent o" t)is grou 2an 3e
2o(ared 9it) t)e later treat(ent o" Al3anians "leeing 5oso!o in t)e
.;;:s& T)ese eole 9ere treated as asylu( see'ers C"or t)e distin2tion
3et9een re"ugees and asylu( see'ers+ lease see 3elo9D& One (ore
eAa(le is ertinent& Bro( No!e(3er 2::2, all 2lai(s "or asylu( to t)e
U5 "ro( 2ountries a22eding to t)e #U are to 3e treated as un"ounded&
Ho9e!er+ "ro( May 2::4, nationals "ro( t)ese sa(e 2ountries 2an enter
t)e U5 as 2itiHens o" t)e #U7 t)us+ deending on 9)et)er+ "or eAa(le+
a $olis) national enters t)e U5 3e"ore or a"ter t)e May 2::4 deadline+
)e 9ill eit)er 3e regarded as eit)er a #uroean 9or'er or as a "ailed
asylu( see'er& T)ese eAa(les suggest t)at t)e di!iding lines 3et9een
i((igrant or e2ono(i2 (igrant and asylu( see'er or re"ugee are rat)er
3lurred
R%2u,%%& or A&-$u' S%%+%r&D
T)e ter( re"ugee is so(e9)at !ague+ and 9e (ust distinguis) 3et9een
a re"ugee and an asylu( see'er& Birst+ t)e 2on2et o" asylu(+ )istori2ally
at least+ 9as a ri!ilege o" so!ereign states& Bro( an international la9
erse2ti!e+ t)is is still ro3a3ly t)e 2ase7 it is a state t)at )as t)e rig)t to
grant asylu(& W)at does t)is (eanJ A state 2an only de(and t)e return
o" its nationals in "or(al eAtradition ro2eedings+ and anot)er state (ay
2)oose to grant asylu(& T)is notion t)at t)e Irig)t to asylu( arises
3et9een statesK )as 3een -uali"ied 3y t)e Uni!ersal *e2laration+ as
Arti2le .4 states t)e rig)t to Ksee' and enjoyK asylu(& Ho9e!er+ it )as
3een argued t)at t)is does not a2tually (ean t)at one )as a rig)t to
asylu(& T)is 9ould (ean+ t)ere"ore+ t)at a state is not under an
o3ligation to grant asylu(&
Ho9 does t)is relate to t)e Con!ention relating to t)e Status o"
Re"ugeesJ As argued a3o!e+ t)e 2ore o" t)e Con!ention is t)e
ro)i3ition on re"oule(ent& T)is (eans t)at a state 2annot return
re"ugees& An o3ligation not to return re"ugees does not ne2essarily
e-uate to a rig)t to asylu(& Also note t)at re"oule(ent relates to
re"ugees already on t)e territory o" t)e state7 it does not re!ent a state
"ro( stoing re"ugees rea2)ing its 3orders in t)e "irst la2e&
4=
.& IAlt)oug) one )as to distinguis) 3et9een re"ugees+ asylu(
see'ers and e2ono(i2 (igrants+ t)ere is no 2lear 3oundary a(ong
t)e ter(s&F *is2uss&
2& W)at does TuittFs analysis o" t)e re"ugee suggest a3out t)e nature
o" re"ugee la9J
Su''#r-
T)is se2tion )as dealt 9it) t)e )istori2al and 2on2etual stru2ture o" t)e
idea o" t)e re"ugee& We )a!e re!ie9ed t)e 9or' o" Arendt+ Aga(3en
and Tuitt 9)o suggest+ in di""erent 9ays+ t)at t)e re"ugee is a K"igureK o"
our ti(es& We )a!e also loo'ed at t)e )istori2al de!elo(ent o" re"ugee
la9 9)i2) too' la2e i((ediately a"ter t)e Se2ond World War in
#uroe& Alt)oug) t)e United Nations Relie" and Re)a3ilitation Agen2y
CUNRRAD and t)e International Re"ugee OrganiHation CIROD ro!ided
assistan2e "or disla2ed eoles+ a 2o)erent 3ody o" re"ugee la9 9as
only a2)ie!ed 9it) t)e Con!ention relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees in
.;4.& Alt)oug) t)e Con!ention 2ould 3e seen as a 2o(ro(ise+ 3e2ause
states 9ere not 'een to assu(e 3road resonsi3ilities "or re"ugees+ it
does 2ontain so(e i(ortant ro!isions& T)e Con!ention ro!ides a
general de"inition o" t)e re"ugee and a 3asi2 set o" rig)ts& T)e
Con!ention states t)at a nation (ust not eAel or return a re"ugee
Cre"oule(entD& Burt)er ad!an2es (ean t)at t)ere are no9 a nu(3er o"
(easures t)at relate to t)e international rote2tion o" re"ugees rig)ts&
/8/ T"% Con*%nt!on R%$#t!n, to t"% St#tu& o2 R%2u,%%& #nd
t"% .C@A Protoo$
/8/8. D%2!n!t!on o2 # R%2u,%%
T)e Con!ention Relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees 9as adoted in .;4.
3y t)e United Nations and 2a(e into "or2e in Aril .;44& T)e $rea(3le
states t)at t)e Con!ention Ire!ises and 2onsolidatesF t)e re!ious
do2u(ents t)at relate to t)e status o" re"ugees&
C)ater I o" t)e Treaty 2ontains general ro!isions& Art!$% . 2ontains a
de"inition o" re"ugee& It is+ in art+ a te2)ni2al de"inition t)at re"ers 3a2'
to re!ious do2u(ents& T)us+ a re"ugee is so(eone 9)o )as 3een
2onsidered a re"ugee under Kt)e Arrange(ents o" .2 May .;20 and @:
%une .;2= or under t)e Con!entions o" 2= O2to3er .;@@ and .:
Be3ruary .;@=+ t)e $roto2ol o" .4 Sete(3er .;@; or t)e Constitution o"
t)e International Re"ugee OrganiHationK& W)y are t)ese dates
signi"i2antJ
4;
T)e a3o!e enu(eration is gi!en in order to ro!ide a lin' 9it) t)e ast
and to ensure t)e 2ontinuity o" international rote2tion o" re"ugees 9)o
3e2a(e t)e 2on2ern o" t)e international 2o((unity at !arious earlier
eriods t)ese instru(ents )a!e 3y no9 lost (u2) o" t)eir signi"i2an2e+
and a dis2ussion o" t)e( )ere 9ould 3e o" little ra2ti2al !alue&
Ho9e!er+ a erson 9)o )as 3een 2onsidered a re"ugee under t)e ter(s
o" any o" t)ese instru(ents is auto(ati2ally a re"ugee under t)e .;4.
Con!ention&
T)is aragra) t)us tells us )o9 t)e .;4. Con!ention is 2o)erent 9it)
earlier Con!entions&
$aragra) C2D adds signi"i2antly to t)is de"inition7
As a result o" e!ents o22urring 3e"ore I %anuary .;4. and o9ing to a
9ell6"ounded "ear o" 3eing erse2uted "or reasons o" ra2e+ religion+
nationality+ (e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular so2ial grou or oliti2al oinion+
is outside t)e 2ountry o" )is nationality and is una3le+ or o9ing to su2)
"ear+ is un9illing to a!ail )i(sel" o" t)e rote2tion o" t)at 2ountryE or
9)o+ not )a!ing a nationality and 3eing outside t)e 2ountry o" )is
"or(er )a3itual residen2e as a result o" su2) e!ents+ is una3le or+ o9ing
to su2) "ear+ is un9illing to return to it&
T)ere are a nu(3er o" ele(ents to t)is de"inition& Birst+ it is ne2essary to
eAlain t)e i(ortan2e o" t)e date . %anuary .;4.& As eAlained a3o!e+
t)e date is signi"i2ant 3e2ause it s)o9s t)at t)e state arties 9)o 9ere
in!ol!ed in t)e early stages o" (a'ing t)e Con!ention la9 9ere 'een to
li(it t)eir lia3ility to eole 9)o )ad 3een (ade re"ugees during t)e
Se2ond World War+ and so in2lude only e!ents t)at )ad already
)aened& States did not 9ant t)e Con!ention to 2reate an oen6ended
resonsi3ility "or re"ugees t)at 9ould 3e a 3urden on national
go!ern(ents& Ho9e!er+ as t)e UNHCR Hand3oo' eAlains+ 9it) t)e
signing o" t)e .;0< Con!ention+ t)is de"inition )as lost (ost o" its
signi"i2an2e& It is rele!ant (ainly to t)ose states t)at )a!e signed t)e
Con!ention+ 3ut not t)e $roto2ol&
T)e 2ore sense o" t)e de"inition is a I9ell6"ounded "ear o" erse2utionFE
t)e reasons "or t)e erse2ution relate to a 3road list o" "a2tors t)at
in2lude et)ni2ity+ 3ut also 2ultural and oliti2al 2on2erns& O9ing to t)is
"ear o" erse2ution+ t)e erson 2lai(ing re"ugee status is eit)er Ioutside
t)e 2ountry o" )is nationalityF and una3le or un9illing to return or+ in
2ases 9)ere t)e indi!idual )as no nationality+ is una3le or un9illing to
return to t)e la2e o" I"or(er )a3itual residen2eF& A re"ugee is t)us a
IstatelessF ersonE so(eone 9)o 2annot 2all on a state to rote2t )i( or
)er&
It is also 9ort) noting t)at an indi!idual 2an lose re"ugee status&
0:
T)ere are a nu(3er o" grounds under 9)i2) t)is 2ould )aen+ "or
instan2e i" )e or s)e I!oluntarily re6a!ails )i(sel" o" t)e rote2tion o"
t)e 2ountry o" )is nationalityF or t)e reasons "or t)e "ear o" rose2ution
no longer eAist& T)e 2o((ission o" 2ertain 2ri(es 2an also deri!e an
indi!idual o" re"ugee status& In2luded in t)is list 9ould 3e 9ar 2ri(es
and 2ri(es against )u(anityE Inon6oliti2alF 2ri(es 2o((itted in t)e
2ountry "ro( 9)i2) s/)e )as "led+ or i" t)e erson )as 3een Iguilty o"
a2ts 2ontrary to t)e uroses and rin2iles o" t)e United NationsF&
,e"ore 9e (o!e on+ 9e need to eAa(ine in detail t)e (eaning o" t)ese
'ey9ords in t)e Con!ention& Later in t)is unit+ 9)en 9e loo' at t)e
resonse o" t)e #nglis) Courts to t)e Con!ention+ 9e 9ill see t)at t)eir
(eaning is "ar "ro( straig)t"or9ard&
T)e )rase I9ell6"ounded "ear o" 3eing erse2utedF rela2es t)e earlier
(et)od o" de"ining re"ugees 3y 2ategories Ci&e& ersons o" a 2ertain
origin not enjoying t)e rote2tion o" t)eir 2ountryD 3y t)e general
2on2et o" K"earK "or a rele!ant (oti!e& Sin2e "ear is su3je2ti!e+ t)e
de"inition in!ol!es a su3je2ti!e ele(ent in t)e erson alying "or
re2ognition as a re"ugee& *eter(ination o" re"ugee status 9ill t)ere"ore
ri(arily re-uire an e!aluation o" t)e ali2antKs state(ents &rat)er t)an
a judg(ent on t)e situation re!ailing in )is 2ountry o" origin&
Ho9e!er+ to t)e ele(ent o" "ear 6a state o" (ind and a su3je2ti!e
2ondition 6 8is added t)e -uali"i2ation I9ell6"oundedF& T)is i(lies t)at
it is not only t)e "ra(e o" (ind o" t)e erson 2on2erned t)at deter(ines
)is re"ugee status+ 3ut t)at t)is "ra(e o" (ind (ust 3e suorted 3y an
o3je2ti!e situation&
T)ere are t)us 3ot) su3je2ti!e and o3je2ti!e ele(ents to t)e test "or
re"ugee status& T)e Hand3oo' eAlains t)at t)e general test "or re"ugee
status rela2ed t)e re!ious aroa2) 9)i2) )ad 3een to deter(ine
re"ugee status 3y re"eren2e to 2ategories o" erson& T)e Con!ention test
)as 3ot) a su3je2ti!e and an o3je2ti!e ele(ent7 t)e de2ision6(a'er (ust
as' "irst o" all 9)et)er or not a erson alying "or re"ugee status is in
"ear& T)is is a su3je2ti!e test+ and relates to t)e ali2antKs o9n
understanding o" t)e t)reat t)at )e or s)e "a2es& Ho9e!er+ t)is (ust 3e
K9ell6"oundedFE and t)is re-uires an o3je2ti!e ele(ent& T)ere (ust 3e
o3je2ti!e reasons "or t)e indi!idualFs "ear& Note also t)at t)e UNHCR
Hand3oo' stresses t)at+ "or t)e uroses o" t)e Con!ention+ 3eing t)e
!i2ti( o" a natural disaster does not+ in itsel"+ -uali"y a erson "or
re"ugee status&
As "ar as t)e su3je2ti!e ele(ent is 2on2erned+ t)e Hand3oo' ro!ides
"urt)er use"u. 2lari"i2ation o" t)e 9ay in 9)i2) it is to 3e understood7
0.
*ue to t)e i(ortan2e t)at t)e de"inition atta2)es to t)e su3je2ti!e
ele(ent+ an assess(ent o" 2redi3ility is indisensa3le 9)ere t)e 2ase is
not su""i2iently 2lear "ro( t)e "a2ts on re2ord& It 9ill 3e ne2essary to
ta'e into a22ount t)e ersonal and "a(ily 3a2'ground o" t)e ali2ant+
)is (e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular ra2ial+ religious+ national+ so2ial or
oliti2al grou+ )is o9n interretation o" )is situation+ and )is ersonal
eAerien2es 6in ot)er 9ords+ e!eryt)ing t)at (ay ser!e to indi2ate t)at
t)e redo(inant (oti!e "or )is ali2ation is "ear& Bear (ust 3e
reasona3le& #Aaggerated "ear+ )o9e!er+ (ay 3e 9ell6 "ounded i"+ in all
t)e 2ir2u(stan2es o" t)e 2ase+ su2) a state o" (ind 2an 3e regarded as
justi"ied&
T)e su3je2ti!e ele(ent de(ands t)at t)e de2ision6(a'er ta'es into
a22ount t)e 2redi3ility o" t)e ali2antE ese2ially 9)en t)e "a2ts as
resented are not t)e(sel!es 2lear& T)e de2ision6(a'er (ust assess t)e
su3je2ti!e "ear o" t)e ali2ant as an indi!idual+ ta'ing into a22ount )is
or )er 3elie"s+ status and et)ni2ityE and gi!e due 9eig)t to t)e
indi!idualKs o9n are2iation o" t)e "a2ts o" t)e situation& *eter(ining
t)e o3je2ti!e ele(ent is e-ually as di""i2ult& Alt)oug) t)e de2ision6
(a'er is not 2alled uon to Iass judg(ent on 2onditions in t)e
ali2antKs 2ountry o" originF+ it is i(ossi3le to 2onsider t)e ali2antKs
state(ents in t)e Ia3stra2tF and t)e de2ision (ust 3e related to Kt)e
2onteAt o" t)e&&&3a2'ground situationK& T)us+ 9)ilst a 'no9ledge o" t)e
situation in t)e 2ountry o" t)e ali2ant is not a ri(ary 2onsideration+ it
is Ian i(ortant ele(ent in assessing t)e ali2antFs 2redi3ilityF& T)e
ali2antFs o9n eAerien2es are i(ortant in assessing t)ese issues+ 3ut
so too are t)e eAerien2es o" )is "a(ily+ "riends+ or t)e et)ni2 or
religious grou "ro( 9)i2) )e originates& Also i(ortant are t)e la9s o"
t)e rele!ant 2ountry+ and t)e 9ay in 9)i2) t)ey are alied&
In t)is 2onteAt it is also i(ortant to note t)at+ alt)oug) t)e Con!ention
en!isages t)at re"ugee status is nor(ally deter(ined on an indi!idual
3asis+ t)ere is t)e ossi3ility o" 2ases 9)ere 9)ole grous o" eole
)a!e 3een disla2ed& In su2) 2ir2u(stan2es it is not ossi3le to (a'e
indi!idual deter(ination o" re"ugee status "or ea2) erson in t)e grou&
In t)is situation it is $ossi3le to (a'e a Igrou deter(inationF o" re"ugee
status7 Iea2) (e(3er o" t)e grou is regarded ri(a "ade Ci&e& in t)e
a3sen2e o" e!iden2e to t)e 2ontraryD as a re"ugeeF&
An e-ually i(ortant issue is t)e (eaning o" t)e 9ord erse2ution& At
resent t)ere is no single a22eted de"inition o" t)is 9ord&
Interretations are t)us t)ro9n 3a2' to t)e Con!ention itsel"& Bro(
Arti2le @@+ it is ossi3le to Iin"erF t)at erse2ution (eans Ia t)reat to li"e
or "reedo( on a22ount o" ra2e+ religion+ nationality+ oliti2al oinion or
(e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular so2ial grou&&& Ot)er seriousK !iolations o"
)u(an rig)ts 6"or t)e sa(e reasons 69ould also 2onstitute erse2ution&F
02
Alt)oug) t)is aears a reasona3ly 9ide de"inition+ it 3egs t)e -uestion
o" 9)et)er ot)er a2ts 2ould a(ount to erse2ution& T)is 9ould deend
on I2ir2u(stan2es o" ea2) 2aseF& It 9ould 3e ne2essary to ta'e into
a22ount t)e su3je2ti!e and o3je2ti!e ele(ents o" t)e test as analysed
a3o!e&
Anot)er issue t)at s)ould 3e 2onsidered )ere is t)e ro3le(ati2
distin2tion 3et9een e2ono(i2 (igrants and re"ugees& T)e UNHCR
Hand3oo' de"ines a (igrant as7 I>& a erson 9)o&&&!oluntarily lea!es
)is 2ountry in order to ta'e u residen2e else9)ereF& In t)is sense+ an
e2ono(i2 (igrant is not a re"ugeeE )o9e!er+ in 2ertain 2ir2u(stan2es+
an e2ono(i2 (igrant (ay 3e 2onsidered a re"ugee& Bor instan2e+
uniti!e e2ono(i2 (easures C"or eAa(le+ ro)i3iting eole "ro(
ta'ing 2ertain jo3s/ raising le!els o" taAation t)at aly to 2ertain grous
o" eoleD (ay lead to a erson lea!ing a 2ountry& T)is 3egs t)e
-uestion7 9)en is an e2ono(i2 (igrant a re"ugeeJ
...'0jections to general economic measures are not 0y
themsel4es good reasons for claiming refugee status. 'n
the other hand, what appears at first sight to 0e primarily
an economic moti4e for departure may in reality also
in4ol4e a political element, and it may 0e the political
opinions of the indi4idual that e$pose him to serious
conse:uenceLG rather than his o0jections to the economic
measures themsel4es.
An e2ono(i2 (igrant (ay 3e a re"ugee+ deending on t)e "a2ts o" t)e
2ase& O3!iously+ t)e ot)er ele(ents o" t)e de"inition a3o!e 9ould )a!e
to aly&
W)at is t)e nature o" t)e test to deter(ine re"ugee statusJ
/8/82 O($!,#t!on on St#t%& #nd r%2u,%%&
T)e Con!ention goes on to list 2ertain o3ligations t)at aly to 3ot)
state arties and re"ugees&
Art!$% 2 arti2ulates a set o" Igeneral o3ligationsF t)at t)e re"ugee o9es
to t)e 2ountry o" re"uge& T)ese re-uire t)at s)e or )e 2on"or(s Kto its
la9s and regulations+ as 9ell as to (easures ta'en "or t)e (aintenan2e
o" u3li2 orderK& It is er)as 3est to !ie9 t)is arti2le as asirational& As
t)e Con!ention is an international treaty+ and+ as t)e indi!idual )as+ at
3est+ a ro3le(ati2 status in international la9+ it is )ard to see )o9 t)is
duty 2ould 3e en"or2ed against indi!iduals& It is a 3road o3ligation to
0@
rese2t not just t)e la9+ 3ut+ also general (easures ta'en to reser!e
u3li2 order&
Art!$% / is a duty la2ed on state arties& T)ey (ust aly t)e
Con!ention to re"ugees 9it)out any "or( o" dis2ri(ination& Moreo!er+
3y Arti2le 4+ state arties (ust a22ord to re"ugeesK treat(ent t)at is Ias
"a!oura3le as t)at a22orded to t)eir nationalsK in relation to t)e rig)t to
ra2ti2e a religion& T)ese duties are t)e (ini(al o3ligations t)at a state
o9es to re"ugees& Arti2le 4 stresses t)at not)ing in t)e Con!ention
s)ould 3e interreted as li(iting t)e K3ene"itsK t)at a 2ontra2ting arty
(ig)t grant to re"ugees&
T)e neAt set o" Arti2les relates to t)e e2uliar legal status o" t)e re"ugee
as a disla2ed ersonE an indi!idual in a "or( o" legal li(3o&
Art!$% A o3ligates a state arty to treat t)e re"ugee in t)e sa(e 9ay t)at
it treats Ialiens generallyF+ i&e& not as a 2itiHen o" t)e state in 9)i2) t)e
erson is in residen2e& On2e a re"ugee )as 3een resident "or t)ree years+
s)e or )e is eAe(ted "ro( re2iro2ity arrange(ents t)at eAist 3et9een
)is 2ountry o" re"uge and t)e nation "ro( 9)i2) )e "led& T)ere are
"urt)er ro!isions in t)is Arti2le t)at rote2t t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees in t)e
a3sen2e o" re2iro2ity arrange(ents& Burt)er(ore+ Arti2le = ro!ides
t)at i" a state arty ta'es KeA2etional (easuresK against a "oreign state+
any re"ugees "ro( t)at state already 9it)in t)e territory o" t)e state
arty+ s)ould not 3e treated as su3je2t to t)ose se2ial (easures& T)us+
t)e re"ugee is+ as "ar as se2ial (easures are 2on2erned+ already
searated "ro( and treated di""erently "ro( )is "ello9 nationals&
Arti2le ; is a -uali"i2ation o" t)is rin2ile& A 2ontra2ting state 2an+ in
Iti(es o" 9ar or ot)er gra!e and eA2etional 2ir2u(stan2esK+ ta'e
(easures to rote2t Knational se2urityK in relation to t)e deter(ination o"
re"ugee status& Art!$% .9 2an 3e read as art o" t)is grou o" Arti2les+
3ut it relates to se2i"i2 2ir2u(stan2es7 t)ose disla2ed in t)e Se2ond
World War and resident in t)e territory o" a 2ontra2ting arty are to 3e
2onsidered la9"ul residents "or t)e eriod o" t)eir settle(ent& .:C2D
2ontain so(e "urt)er ro!isions "or deter(ining a eriod o" 2ontinuous
residen2e+ and Arti2le .. ro!ides se2ial ro!isions "or re"ugee
sea(en&
W)at are t)e (ain areas o" 2on2ern o" Arti2les 26.. o" t)e Con!entionJ
C"#7t%r II
C)ater II "urt)er ela3orates t)e juridi2al nature o" t)e re"ugee&
04
Art!$% .2 ro!ides t)at t)e ersonal status o" t)e re"ugee is deter(ined
3y t)e la9 o" t)e 2ountry in 9)i2) s)e or )e is do(i2iled& Bor t)ose
9it)out a 2ountry o" do(i2ile+ ersonal status is ro!ided 3y t)e 2ountry
in 9)i2) t)e erson )as residen2e& Any rig)ts 9)i2) t)e indi!idual
re"ugee (ig)t )a!e a2-uired+ su2) as rig)ts a2-uired on (arriage+ in t)e
2ountry in 9)i2) )e 9as a national (ust 3e rese2ted 3y t)e 2ountry o"
re"uge+ su3je2t to 9)ate!er "or(alities t)at 2ountry o" re"uge i(oses&
T)e eA2etion to t)is rin2ile is t)at t)e state 9ould )a!e re2ognised
t)e rig)t )ad t)e indi!idual not 3een a re"ugee&
Art!$% ./ ro!ides t)at t)e re"ugee (ust )a!e rig)ts at least as
"a!oura3le as t)ose a22orded to aliens in relation to t)e o9ners)i o"
(o!a3le and i((o!a3le roerty+ and 2ontra2tual or roerty la9
related rig)ts&
Art!$% .4 relates to artisti2 rig)ts and rig)ts o!er industrial roerty&
Arti2les .4 and .0 (o!e "ro( roerty rig)ts to u3li2 rig)ts& Art!$%
.0 ro!ides t)at a re"ugee )as a rig)t o" asso2iation in Knon6oliti2al and
non6ro"it6(a'ing asso2iations and trade unionsF t)at are t)e sa(e as
t)ose gi!en to nationals o" a "oreign 2ountry t)at (ay 3e in t)e territory
o" t)e state arty& Art!$% .@ addresses due ro2ess and "air trial rig)ts&
T)e Arti2le states t)at a re"ugee )as to )a!eF "ree a22ess to t)e 2ourts o"
la9 on t)e territory o" t)e state arty&
W)at are t)e (ain "eatures o" C)ater IIJ
C"#7t%r III
C)ater III o" t)e Con!ention sets out e(loy(ent rig)ts o" t)e re"ugee&
Art!$% .A ro!ides t)at a state arty (ust allo9 re"ugees 9)o are
la9"ully in its territory I(ost "a!oura3le treat(entF in relation to 9age6
earning e(loy(ent as t)ey 9ould allo9 to nationals o" a "oreign
2ountry 9)o 9ere resident in t)eir territory& Ho9e!er+ a state is allo9ed
to ut in la2e restri2tions to rote2t national la3our (ar'ets& T)ese
restri2tions 9ould not aly to a re"ugee "ro( a nation 9)ose nationals
9ould )a!e 3een eAe(t "ro( su2) restri2tionsE or+ a re"ugee 9)o )as
3een resident "or t)ree years in t)e territory o" t)e state arty 9)o )as
granted )i( re"ugee status& A re"ugee (arried to a souse 9)o is a
national o" t)e state arty 9ould also 3e eAe(tE as 9ould a re"ugee
)a!ing one or (ore 2)ildren ossessing t)e nationality o" t)e state arty&
T)ere is also a general duty at Art& .<C@D t)at is 9ort) 2onsidering in
"ull7
04
T)e Contra2ting States s)all gi!e sy(at)eti2 2onsideration to
assi(ilating t)e rig)ts o" all re"ugees 9it) regard to 9age6earning
e(loy(ent to t)ose o" nationals+ and in arti2ular o" t)ose re"ugees
9)o )a!e entered t)eir territory ursuant to rogra((es o" la3our
re2ruit(ent or under i((igration s2)e(es&
In relation to sel"6e(loy(ent+ Art!$% .B alies t)e general rin2ile
t)at a re"ugee s)ould 3e treated as "a!oura3ly as ossi3le& T)e (ini(u(
standard is t)at t)e re"ugee (ust not 3e treated less "a!oura3ly t)an
Ialiens generally in t)e sa(e 2ir2u(stan2es&F As "ar as t)e Ili3eral
ro"essionsF are 2on2erned+ Art!$% .C ro!ides t)e sa(e rin2ile to
t)ose re"ugees 9)o )old Kdilo(as re2ognised 3y t)e 2o(etent
aut)orities o" t)at State&F
C"#7t%r IV
Art!$% 29 ro!ides t)at re"ugees s)all enjoy t)e sa(e rig)ts 9it) regard
to entitle(ents under a rationing syste( as nationals& In relation to rig)ts
to )ousing+ t)e state (ust treat re"ugees as "a!oura3ly as ossi3le+ and
no less "a!oura3ly t)an aliens 9)o are la9"ully in t)e 2ontra2ting
artiesF territory&
,y !irtue o" Art!$% 22+ re"ugees enjoy t)e sa(e rig)ts to ele(entary
edu2ation as nationals& Wit) regard to edu2ational (atters ot)er t)an
ele(entary s2)ooling+ a re"ugee (ust 3e treated as "a!oura3ly as
ossi3le+ and not less "a!oura3ly t)an an alien la9"ully resident in t)e
rele!ant 2ountry& Art!$% 2/ ro!ides re"ugees 9it) t)e sa(e rig)ts to
u3li2 relie" as nationals&
Art!$% 24 eAtends to la3our legislation and so2ial se2urity& It is an
arti2le t)at )as !erti2al e""e2t against t)e state& T)us+ t)e 2ontra2ting
arty (ust underta'e to a""ord re"ugees t)e sa(e rote2tion as nationals
in 2ertain areas relating to e(loy(ent and 9el"are+ to t)e eAtent t)at
Ksu2) (atters are go!erned 3y la9s or regulations or are su3je2t to t)e
2ontrol o" ad(inistrati!e aut)oritiesK& T)us+ to t)e eAtent t)at t)ese
(atters are entirely in t)e )ands o" ri!ate arties+ it 9ould "all outside
t)e re(it o" t)e Con!ention& T)e Arti2le also re2o((ends t)at t)ere 3e
Karoriate arrange(entsK to deal 9it) t)e a2-uisition o" rig)ts in t)is
area&
T)is Arti2le+ t)en+ rese(3les t)e ones a3o!e+ in t)at it understands t)e
re"ugee to 3e a3le to a2-uire rig)ts in t)e 2ountry o" re"uge& So(eti(es+
t)oug)+ and "or justi"ia3le reasons+ t)ese rig)ts or entitle(ents (ust "all
3elo9 t)ose enjoyed 3y nationals& Bor instan2e+ Arti2le 24 allo9s
re"ugee status to 3e ta'en into a22ount in assessing 3ene"its or ension
rig)ts& It (ay o" 2ourse 3e 3y !irtue o" re"ugee status t)at a erson )as
00
not (ade su""i2ient ay(ents to re2ei!e eit)er "ull 9el"are or ension
entitle(ents&
C"#7t%r V
C)ater 1 in2ludes i(ortant ad(inistrati!e (easures relating to
re"ugee status& T)ese (easures )a!e to ta'e into a22ount t)e ro3le(s a
re"ugee (ig)t 3e eAerien2ing due to disla2e(ent or "lig)t "ro( t)e
2ountry 9)ere )e )ad residen2e or 9as do(i2iled& Bor instan2e+ t)e
indi!idual (ig)t not 3e a3le to lo2ate do2u(ents to ro!e identity and
entitle(ent& In t)is sense+ la2'ing aers and una3le to ro!e )is
identity+ a re"ugee 3e2o(es a legal Knon6ersonF&
Art!$% 20 ta'es t)is into a22ount& I" a re"ugee 2annot rely on t)e
ad(inistrati!e suort o" t)e aut)orities in t)e 2ountry )e )as le"t+ t)en
t)e state arty in 9)ose territory t)e re"ugee is in residen2e (ust a""ord
t)e ne2essary assistan2e& T)e rele!ant aut)orities (ust Kdeli!er or 2ause
to 3e deli!ered&&& su2) do2u(ents or 2erti"i2ations as 9ould nor(ally 3e
deli!ered to aliens 3y or t)roug) t)eir national aut)oritiesK& T)ese
do2u(ents (ust t)en 3e treated as o""i2ial&
Arti2les 20 to 2= 2on2ern "reedo( o" (o!e(ent& Art!$% 2@ grants
"reedo( o" (o!e(ent to re"ugees+ and Art!$% 2A ro!ides t)at a state
(ust issue t)e rele!ant do2u(ents to ena3le "ree (o!e(ent 9it)in t)e
territory& Art!$% 2B relates to tra!el do2u(ents "or (o!e(ent outside
t)e 2ountry& Unless reasons o" national se2urity or u3li2 order aly+
tra!el do2u(ents (ust 3e issued&
Art!$% 2C states t)at re"ugees 2annot 3e taAed in a 9ay t)at is di""erent
"ro( nationals in t)e sa(e situationE 3ut t)is rin2ile does not aly to
re2o!ery o" 2osts relating to t)e issuing o" rele!ant do2u(ents&
Art!$% /9 la2es a duty on a state arty to allo9 re"ugees to trans"er
assets 9)i2) t)ey )a!e 3roug)t into a stateKs territory to anot)er 2ountry
9)ere t)ey (ay 3e resettled&
Art!$% /. relates to re"ugees unla9"ully in t)e 2ountry o" re"uge&
$ro!iding t)at su2) ersons reort to t)e rele!ant aut)orities+ and s)o9
t)at t)ey )ad good 2ause to enter t)e 2ountry in -uestion illegally+ t)e
state arty 2annot i(ose enalties uon t)e(& Su2) ersons 9ould also
)a!e to s)o9+ )o9e!er+ t)at t)ey tell 9it)in t)e de"inition o" Arti2le .+
and t)at Kt)eir li"e or "reedo( 9as t)reatenedF&
A22ording to Art!$% /2+ on2e a re"ugee is la9"ully in a territory+ t)e
state arty 2annot eAel t)at erson+ unless t)ere are grounds o" national
se2urity or u3li2 order& T)e de2ision to eAel (ust 3e (ade in
0<
a22ordan2e 9it) t)e due ro2ess o" la9& #A2et in eAtre(e situations+ a
re"ugee (ust 3e allo9ed to su3(it e!iden2e to I2lear )i(sel"F and (ust
3e a22orded 2ertain due ro2ess rig)ts& T)ere (ust 3e t)e ossi3ility o"
aeal and reresentation 3e"ore t)e 2o(etent aut)ority& Moreo!er+ t)e
2ontra2ting state (ust allo9 a erson "a2ing eAulsion a Kreasona3le
eriodF to Isee' legal ad(ission into anot)er 2ountry&F Arti2le @2 is
3a2'ed u 3y Art!$% //+ 9)i2) ro)i3its Ire"oule(entF& Re"oule(ent is
t)e return o" re"ugees to t)e K"rontiers o" territories 9)ere )is li"e or
"reedo( 9ould 3e t)reatened on a22ount o" )is ra2e+ religion+
nationality+ (e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular so2ial grou or oliti2al oinionK&
T)e eA2etion to t)is rule is ro!ided at @@C2D& Re"oule(ent does not
aly to a re"ugee 9)o resents a t)reat to se2urity+ or+ )a!ing 3een
2on!i2ted o" a serious 2ri(e+ reresents a KdangerK to t)e 2ountry t)at is
eAelling )i(&
Art!$% /4 (o!es "ro( eAulsion to naturalisation& State arties s)ould
ensure t)at re"ugees are naturalised and assi(ilated&
We 2an eAa(ine so(e o" t)e (ore i(ortant Arti2le in C)ater 1I&
Art!$% /0 ro!ides t)at 2ontra2ting arties (ust 2o6oerate 9it) t)e
O""i2e o" t)e United Nations Hig) Co((issioner "or Re"ugees& T)e
2ontra2ting arties underta'e to ro!ide t)e UN 9it) reorts relating to
t)e 2ondition o" re"ugees in t)eir territories& T)e reort (ust also 2o!er
t)e i(le(entation o" t)e Con!ention and t)e rele!ant la9s and
regulations t)at relate to re"ugees& Arti2le @4 ro!ides t)at t)e
2ontra2ting states (ust in"or( t)e Se2retary6General o" t)e la9s and
regulations t)at )a!e 3een ena2ted or assed to ensure t)at t)e
Con!ention alies in national la9&
Su''#r-
C)ater III lays out t)e e(loy(ent rig)ts o" re"ugeesE C)ater I1
2ontains a grou o" Arti2le relating to 9el"are and outlines t)e legal
status o" t)e re"ugee in relation to !arious so2ial and e2ono(i2 rig)ts&
C)ater 1 2ontains t)e i(ortant rule against re"oule(ent+ as 9ell as
(ajor ad(inistrati!e ro!isions& T)e Arti2le 9e 2onsidered in C)ater
1I 2on2erns t)e duty o" state arties to r 2olla3orate 9it) t)e UNHCR&
W)at are t)e (ain ro!isions in t)e Con!ention and t)e .;0< $roto2olJ
/84 Wo'%n #nd G!r$& #& R%2u,%%&
Bigures (ade a!aila3le 3y t)e UNHCR in 2::4 s)o9 t)at nearly )al" t)e
9orldKs oulation o" re"ugees is "e(ale& Ho9e!er+ t)e roortion o"
0=
"e(ale re"ugees !aries deending on region and t)e re2ise nature o" t)e
ro3le(s t)at )a!e gi!en rise to a re"ugee situation& Mass re"ugee
situations tend to rodu2e re"ugee oulations 9)ere around )al" t)e
total nu(3ers are 9o(en&
Asylu( 2lai(s+ on t)e ot)er )and+ tend to 3e (ade 3y (en rat)er t)an
9o(en& 4< er 2ent o" t)e total nu(3ers o" re"ugees are 2)ildren under
t)e age o" .=+ 9it) a little o!er .: er 2ent 3eing 2)ildren under t)e age
o" "i!e& Ho9e!er+ t)ese "igures tend not to 3e reresentati!e+ as t)e
"igures 2o(e ri(arily "ro( t)e de!eloing+ rat)er t)an t)e de!eloed
9orld& It is esti(ated t)at in A"ri2a and CASWANAM# CNort) A"ri2a&
T)e Middle #ast& Sout)6West Asia& Central AsiaD o!er )al" t)e total
nu(3ers o" re"ugees are 2)ildren under .=+ 9)ilst t)is "igure is
signi"i2antly lo9er "or ot)er regions o" t)e 9orld C"or instan2e+ #uroe7
2@ er 2entE Asia and t)e $a2i"i27 @< er 2entD&
In .;=4 t)e #Ae2uti!e Co((ittee o" t)e UNHCR adoted a 2on2lusion+
#Ae2uti!e Co((ittee Con2lusion No& @;6=4 on Re"ugee Wo(en and
International $rote2tion+ 9)i2) stated t)at re"ugee 9o(en and girls
2o(ose t)e (ajority o" re"ugees+ and t)at t)is leads to se2ial 2on2erns
a3out )o9 3est to rote2t t)eir )u(an rig)ts& T)is 9as 3a2'ed u 3y
#Ae2uti!e Co((ittee Con2lusion No& 0: CYYYD on Re"ugee Wo(en
t)at 2alled on t)e Hig) Co((issioner to re!ie9 t)e de!elo(ent o"
oli2y in t)is area&
Ot)er UN 3odies )a!e also 3een 2on2erned 9it) t)e "ate o" "e(ale
re"ugees& In .;;:+ t)e #2ono(i2 and So2ial Coun2il 2alled on
go!ern(ents and NGOs to 'ee t)is issue 2urrent+ and to in2rease t)eir
e""orts to rote2t t)ese arti2ularly !ulnera3le grous& It is 9ort)
re(e(3ering t)at t)e Con!ention on t)e #li(ination o" All Bor(s o"
*is2ri(ination Against Wo(en is also rele!ant )ereE in arti2ular
Arti2le @ stresses t)e o3ligation to ensure t)e ad!an2e(ent o" 9o(en
and t)e rote2tion o" t)eir rig)ts& $oli2y =Iso "eeds into t)e
interretation o" t)ese instru(ents& T)e UN is 2o((itted to t)e goals set
out in t)e Nairo3i Bor9ard Loo'ing Strategies on t)e Status o" Wo(en
t)at stress t)e in2lusion o" 9o(en into rogra((es t)at are eAe2uted in
t)eir na(e&
T)e "unda(ental rin2iles on 9)i2) t)is la9 and oli2y are (ade t)us
re"le2t t)e in)erent dignity o" 9o(en+ and t)eir e-uality 9it) (en& In
order to a2)ie!e t)ese ends it is ne2essary to ta'e into a22ount t)e "a2t
t)at 9o(en re-uire se2ial rote2tion&
W)en analysing t)e ro3le(s "a2ed 3y re"ugee 9o(en+ t)ese are o"ten
"ound to 3e si(ilar+ i" not identi2al+ to t)ose "a2ed 3y 9o(en generally&
Se!eral "or(s o" )ysi2al !iolen2e and dis2ri(ination against 9o(en+
0;
"or eAa(le+ are ende(i2 in (ost+ i" not all+ 2ountries& T)e arti2ularity
o" t)e situation o" re"ugee 9o(en is not si(ly 3e2ause t)ey are su3je2t
to su2) !iolations o" t)eir rig)ts+ 3ut also t)at t)ey are ese2ially
!ulnera3le to t)ese !iolations "or a nu(3er o" reasons7 t)ey are "leeing
erse2utionE t)e so2ial disrution 2aused 3y "lig)tE so(eti(es 3e2ause
t)ey )a!e 3e2o(e deta2)ed "ro( t)eir "a(ilies and t)e rote2tion
ro!ided 3y t)eir 2o((unitiesE and 2ertainly 3e2ause t)ey are
"oreigners in an alien en!iron(ent&
It is ne2essary t)en to ro!ide (e2)anis(s t)at re2ognise t)at 9o(en
"a2e t)ese gender6se2i"i2 "or(s o" !iolen2e and a3use&
T)ere are (any 9ays in 9)i2) t)is 2ould 3e a2)ie!ed& Gi!en t)e
di""i2ulty o" tal'ing a3out seAual !iolen2e and a3use+ "or eAa(le+ it
9ould 3e ne2essary "or a state arty to ensure t)at 9o(en re"ugees
2lai(ing a3use are inter!ie9ed 3y 9o(en o""i2ersE i" t)ey are indeed
!i2ti(s o" su2) !iolen2e+ 2ounseling s)ould 3e ro!ided& Go!ern(ents
s)ould 3e a9are o" t)e need to en2ourage re"ugee 9o(en to organise
t)eir o9n asso2iations and to dra9 t)e( into t)e ro2ess o" lanning and
ad(inistering re"ugee 2o((unities& T)ere s)ould 3e sensiti!ity to t)e
needs o" 9o(en in lanning a22o((odation in re"ugee 2a(s+ and
ensuring 9o(enKs sa"ety&
T)e se2ial needs o" 9o(en and girls in ter(s o" edu2ation+ )ealt) 2are
and ro!ision o" "ood and 9ater s)ould also 3e (ade a riorityE "or
instan2e+ it is ne2essary to 3e a9are t)at7
#!en in Su2) re2arious situations+ "ood distri3ution t)roug) (ale
net9or's )as 3een di!erted to resistan2e "or2es or "or sale on 3la2'
(ar'ets 9it) re"ugee 9o(en and 2)ildren su""ering as a result& In
ot)er instan2es+ (ale distri3utors o" "ood and ot)er relie" goods )a!e
re-uired seAual "a!ours in eA2)ange "or relie" goods& L@.M
Burt)er in"or(ation on t)is toi2 is 2ontained in t)e Guidelines on K&t)e
$rote2tion o" Re"ugee Wo(en+ UNHRC+ .;;.& T)e Guidelines 2all "or
Kintegrating t)e resour2es and needs o" re"ugee 9o(en into all ase2ts o"
rogra((ing so as to assure e-uita3le rote2tion and assistan2e
a2ti!ities&K
F#'!$- R%un!2!#t!on
Alt)oug) t)e .;4. Con!ention did not ro!ide "or t)e reser!ation o"
"a(ily reuni"i2ation+ t)e Binal A2t o" t)e Con"eren2e t)at adoted t)e
Con!ention did address t)e issue& T)e .;4. United Nations Con"eren2e
2alled on go!ern(ents7
<:
to ta'e t)e ne2essary (easures "or t)e rote2tion o" t)e re"ugeeFs
"a(ily ese2ially 9it) t)e !ie9 to7
.& ensuring t)at t)e unity o" t)e re"ugeeKs "a(ily is (aintained
arti2ularly in 2ases 9)ere t)e )ead o" t)e "a(ily )as "ul"illed t)e
ne2essary 2onditions "or ad(ission to a arti2ular 2ountyE
2& t)e rote2tion o" re"ugees 9)o are (inors+ in arti2ular
una22o(anied 2)ildren and girls 9it) se2ial re"eren2e to
guardians)i and adotion&
T)is rin2ile )as 3een adoted in UNHCR #Ae2uti!e Co((ittee
Con2lusions and in t)e UNHCR Hand3oo' on $ro2edures and Criteria
"or *eter(ining Re"ugee Status&
T)e 'ey rin2ile is t)at i" t)e )ead o" t)e "a(ily is granted re"ugee
status+ t)en "a(ily deendants are a22orded si(ilar status&
SELF ASSESSMENT E?ERCISE @
W)at is t)e status o" t)e rin2iles t)at relate to t)e rote2tion o" 9o(en
and 2)ildren 9)o are re"ugeesJ Are there si(ilar 2onsiderations in
relation to "a(ily reuni"i2ationJ
Su''#r-
We )a!e 3een 2onsidering t9o areas in 9)i2) t)e Con!ention does not
go into great detail7 t)e rote2tion o" 9o(en and girls and "a(ily
reuni"i2ation& We )a!e seen t)at 2ertain #Ae2uti!e Co((ittee
Con2lusions )a!e ela3orated t)e rin2iles t)at are i(ortant in t)is
area&
/80 T"% Con*%nt!on #nd N#t!on#$ L#3
/808. En,$!&" Court& #nd t"% Con*%nt!on
Re"ugee la9 raises a great (any issues t)at i(a2t on national legal
syste(s& Li(itations o" sa2e (ean t)at 9e 2an only "o2us on a 2oule
o" 2on2erns& In t)is se2tion+ 9e 9ill eAa(ine t)e 9ay in 9)i2) #nglis)
2ourts )a!e interreted t)e Con!ention& We 9ill study a line o" 2ases7 &
! Secretary of State for the Home Department, #$ parte Si4aumaran
L.;==M . All #R .;@ HL+
5aranaaran ! Secretary of State for the Home Department CCA (2i4
*i!DD C2:::M I(( AR 2<. and 5aja ! Secretary of State for the Home
Department C.;;4M InI( AR .&
<.
T)ese 2ases s)o9 )o9 t)e 2ourts aroa2)ed t)e issue o" t)e test "or
deter(ination o" re"ugee status+ and t)e standard o" e!iden2e re-uired
under t)e test&
In & ! Secretary of State for the Home Department, #$ parte
Si4aumaran C.;==M . All #R .;@ HL+ t)e House o" Lords )eld t)at t)e
-uestion o" 9)et)er or not t)ere 9as a I9ell6"ounded "earF o"
erse2ution 9it)in t)e (eaning o" Arti2le 6A(78 o" t)e Con!ention and
$roto2ol 9as to 3e deter(ined 3y an o3je2ti!e test&
T)is )ad to ta'e into a22ount t)e 2ir2u(stan2es eAisting in t)e 2ountry
o" t)e re"ugeeKs nationality& Burt)er(ore+ t)e ali2ant )ad to s)o9 t)at
t)ere Was a reasona3le degree o" li'eli)ood t)at )e or s)e 9ould 3e
erse2uted "or one o" t)e reasons re"erred to in arti2le .AC28 i" s/)e 9ere
returned to t)at 2ountry& On t)e "a2ts+ t)ere 9as no real ris' o"
erse2ution i" t)e ali2ants 9ere returned to Sri Lan'a+ and t)eir
asylu( 2lai( 9as unsu22ess"ul&
So(e )a!e argued t)at t)is is a !ery stringent test& Bor instan2e+ t)e
Court o" Aeal itsel" re"erred a di""erent interretation o" t)e
Con!ention in t)is 2ase& T)is is )o9 t)e Court o" AealFs argu(ent
9as understood 3y t)e House o" Lords7
T)e Court o" AealKs "or(ulation 9ould a22ord re"ugee status to one
9)ose "ears+ t)oug) genuine+ 9ere o3je2ti!ely de(onstrated to )a!e
3een (is2on2ei!ed+ t)at is to say one 9)o 9as at no a2tual ris' o"
erse2ution "or a Con!ention reason& T)e Court o" Aeal 9ould -uali"y
t)is 3y denying re"ugee status to one 9)o+ 9)ile )olding a genuine "ear+
9as not a erson o" reasona3le 2ourage+ so t)at )is "ears 9ere not su2)
as a erson o" t)at degree o" 2ourage 9ould entertain& T)e
di""erentiation (eans t)at t)e "ears o" so(e+ 3ut not t)ose o" ot)ers+
9ould 3e allayed+ and it (ig)t 3e 3y no (eans easy to de2ide 9)at
degree o" 2ourage a erson o" ordinary "ortitude (ig)t 3e eAe2ted to
dislay& Burt)er+ t)e 2ourtKs illustration o" t)e 3an' 2as)ier t)reatened 3y
an i(itation "irear( does not truly suort t)e t)esis "or 9)i2) it is
rayed in aid& An o3je2ti!e o3ser!er o" t)e s2ene 9ould agree t)at at t)e
ti(e t)e i(itation "irear( 9as resented t)e 2as)ierKs "ear 9as 9ell
"ounded& ,ut on2e it 3e2a(e 2lear t)at t)e "irear( 9as an i(itation t)e
"ear+ i" it 2ontinued to eAist+ 9ould no longer 3e 9ell "ounded& Bear o"
erse2ution+ in t)e sense o" t)e Con!ention+ is not to 3e assi(ilated to a
"ear o" instant ersonal danger arising out o" an i((ediately resented
redi2a(ent& T)e 2lai(ant to re"ugee status is not i((ediately
t)reatened 9it) danger arising out o" a situation t)en 2on"ronting )i(&
T)e -uestion is 9)at (ig)t )aen i" )e 9ere to return to t)e 2ountry o"
)is nationality& He "ears t)at )e (ig)t 3e erse2uted t)ere& W)et)er t)at
(ig)t )aen 2an only 3e deter(ined 3y eAa(ining t)e a2tual state o"
<2
a""airs in t)at 2ountry& I" t)at eAa(ination s)o9s t)at erse2ution (ig)t
indeed ta'e la2e t)en t)e "ear is 9ell6"ounded& Ot)er9ise it is not&
Ho9 are t)e interretations o" t)e test 3y t)e t9o 2ourts di""erentJ T)e
test re"erred 3y t)e Court o" Aeal 9ould allo9 a re"ugee 9)o )ad
genuine "ears+ e!en t)oug) o3je2ti!ely t)ese "ears 2ould 3e s)o9n to 3e
un"ounded+ to 2lai( re"ugee status& Ho9e!er+ t)e Court o" Aeal did
(a'e a signi"i2ant -uali"i2ation to t)is test& T)e genuine "ear 9ould )a!e
to 3e t)at o" a erson o" reasona3le 2ourage& T)is does i(ose
so(et)ing o" a li(it on t)e degree o" "ear t)at 9ould )a!e to 3e s)o9n&
?et it is argua3ly a less stringent test t)an t)at re"erred 3y t)e House o"
Lords+ e!en t)oug) t)ere (ay 3e ro3le(s in its ali2ationE "or
instan2e+ deter(ining 9)at are t)e reasona3le "ears o" a erson o"
reasona3le 2ourage& T)e -uestion raised 3y t)e House o" Lords+ in
-uestioning t)e analogy t)at t)e Court o" Aeal 9as using+ is
interesting 3e2ause it s)o9s )o9 t)e 2ourt is aroa2)ing t)e issue o"
"ear o" erse2ution& T)e Court o" Aeal )ad used t)e analogy o" a 3an'
2ler' t)reatened in a ro33ery 9it) an i(itation gun& An o3je2ti!e
o3ser!er 9ould 2on2lude t)at in t)e (o(ent t)at t)e gun is rodu2ed+
and t)e 2ler' t)reatened+ t)ere is a 9ell6"ounded "ear& Ho9e!er+ i" and
9)en it 3e2o(es o3!ious t)at t)e 9eaon is an i(itation+ t)en t)e "ear
9ould not 3e o3je2ti!ely 9ell6"ounded& T)e House o" Lords is 2riti2al o"
t)is analogy+ 3e2ause t)e 2lai(ant is not i((ediately t)reatened 9it)
erse2utionE rat)er t)e issue is 9)at (ig)t )aen 9ere )e or s)e to go
3a2' to t)e 2ountry o" )is or )er nationality& It (ay 3e t)at+ o3je2ti!ely+
t)ere is no ossi3ility o" erse2ution+ in 9)i2) 2ase an o3je2ti!e
o3ser!er 9ould )a!e to assu(e t)at t)e "ear 9as un"ounded& T)e House
o" Lords 9ent on to argue t)at7
It is a reasona3le in"eren2e t)at t)e -uestion o" 9)et)er t)e "ear o"
erse2ution )eld 3y an ali2ant "or re"ugee status is 9ell6"ounded is
li'e9ise intended to 3e o3je2ti!ely deter(ined 3y re"eren2e to t)e
2ir2u(stan2es at t)e ti(e re!ailing in t)e 2ountry o" t)e ali2antFs
nationality>>&
T)is in"eren2e is "orti"ied 3y t)e re"le2tion t)at t)e general urose o"
t)e Con!ention is surely to a""ord rote2tion and "air treat(ent to t)ose
"or 9)o( neit)er is a!aila3le in t)eir o9n 2ountry+ and does not eAtend
to t)e allaying o" "ears not o3je2ti!ely justi"ied+ )o9e!er reasona3le
t)ese "ears (ay aear "ro( t)e oint o" !ie9 o" t)e indi!idual in
-uestion&
T)e argu(ent o" t)e House o" Lords is suorted 3y t)eir interretation
o" t)e Con!ention& It is 2ontended t)at t)e urose o" t)e Con!ention as
a 9)ole is to a""ord rote2tion to t)ose in genuine "earE a "ear t)at 2an 3e
o3je2ti!ely de(onstrated& Bro( t)e !ie9oint o" t)e indi!idual 2lai(ing
<@
re"ugee status+ t)e "ear (ig)t 3e real+ 3ut t)is is not t)e a2id test& In
stressing t)e o3je2ti!e test+ t)e House o" Lords t)us (a'e it (ore
di""i2ult to 2lai( re"ugee status&
T)at an asylu( see'er (ust s)o9+ o3je2ti!ely+ t)at t)ere is a reasona3le
degree to T)at )e 9ould "a2e erse2ution& ,ut 9)at standard o" roo"
s)ould 3e usedJ S)ould it 3e a lo9er standard o" roo" t)an a 2i!il 2aseJ
T)is issue+ a(ongst ot)ers+ 9as eAa(ined in 5aranaaran ! Secretary
of State for the Home Department CCA CCi! *i!DD L2:::M I(( AR 2<.&
T)e "a2ts 2on2erned a Ta(il re"ugee7
T)e aellant is a young Ta(il "ro( t)e %a""na eninsula 9)ose
2o((unity 9as destroyed 3y t)e 2i!il 2on"li2t and 9)o "led "ro( )is
)o(e area in "ear o" 3ot) t)e go!ern(ent "or2es and t)e terrorist
(o!e(ent& All t)is 9as "ound as "a2t& So 9as t)e 2onse-uent )istory o"
"lig)t+ "irst to Colo(3o and ulti(ately to t)e United 5ingdo(& It
"ollo9ed t)at Cunless t)ere 9ere a "inding t)at "lig)t 9as not a logi2al
rea2tion to t)e erse2ution 6a ossi3ility in 2ertain 2ases 3ut not in t)is
oneD t)e aellant 9as outside t)e 2ountry o" )is nationality o9ing to a
9ell6"ounded "ear o" 3eing erse2uted "or reasons o" ra2e& He 9as
t)ere"ore entitled 3y !irtue o" Arti2le . CAD C2D o" t)e .;4.
Gene!a Con!ention to asylu( ro!ided t)at+ in addition+ it 2ould 3e
esta3lis)ed t)at )e 9as Kuna3le or+ o9ing to su2) "ear+ >&un9illing to
a!ail )i(sel" o" t)e rote2tionK o" )is )o(e state& T)e latter6
un9illingness t)roug) "ear 6is 9)at t)is aeal is+ at least initially+
a3out&
In allo9ing t)e lainti""s aeal+ 5aranaaran 3uilds on t)e issues in
Si4aumaran. Lord %usti2e Sedley+ in )is su((ary o" t)e "a2ts o" t)e
2ase Si4aumaran, returns to t)e issue o" t)e 9ell6"ounded "ear o"
erse2ution& T)e issue )ere+ )o9e!er+ is t)at t)e aellant )ad 3een
internally disla2ed "ro( )is )o(e on t)e %a""na eninsula to t)e 2ity o"
Colu(3o& Alt)oug) t)e 9ell6"ounded "ear o" erse2ution 2ould 3e
s)o9n on t)ese "a2ts+ an asso2iated issue )ad also to 3e deter(ined7 t)at
t)e "ear o" erse2ution (eant t)at )e 9as Kun9illing to a!ail )i(sel" o"
t)e rote2tionF o" )is )o(e state& T)e Ho(e Se2retary 9as arguing t)at
5arana'aran s)ould 3e returned to Colu(3o+ and t)at+ as )e 9as not
"earing erse2ution t)ere+ t)is 9ould not 3e in 3rea2) o" t)e Con!entionE
t)e aellant a22eted t)is oint+ 3ut 9as arguing t)at it 9as
unreasona3le to send )i( t)ere as )e )ad no 9or'+ no )ousing and no
"riends or "a(ily in t)at 2ountry& T)e 2ase t)us raises t)e issue o" I)o9 a
de2ision6(a'er+ a tri3unal or a 2ourt is to gauge 9)et)er internal
relo2ation is a legiti(ate alternati!e to asylu( "or a erson 9)o
<4
ot)er9ise ran's as a Con!ention re"ugeeF Cara& <D& It raises a -uestion
o" e!iden2e+ and )o9 t)at e!iden2e is to 3e judged7
Is t)e 9ant o" su2) an otion i&e& internal relo2ation is not an otionM
to 3e ro!ed 3y t)e asylu( see'er Cin 9)i2) 2ase it is 2o((on
ground t)at roo" 9ould not )a!e to go as )ig) as a 3alan2e o"
ro3a3ilityDE or disro!ed 3y t)e Ho(e Se2retary Cin 9)i2) 2ase it
9ould "ollo9 t)at t)e standard eA2eeds a 3are 3alan2e o"
ro3a3ilityDE or si(ly gauged on t)e e!iden2eJ
I" t)e asylu( see'er )ad to ro!e t)at internal relo2ation 9as not an
otion+ t)en t)e standard o" roo" is )ig)er t)an it 9ound 3e i" it )ad to
3e disro!ed 3y t)e Ho(e Se2retary& T)e t)ird otion suggests a
di""erent standard& Ho9+ t)en+ s)ould t)e 2ourt ro2eedJ Sedley L& %
3egins 3y ointing out t)at t)e tas' "a2ing t)e de2ision6 (a'er under t)e
Con!ention is an issue o" Ie!aluationF Cara& .4D& T)e ali2ant 9ill lead
e!iden2e on issues su2) as t)at o" "ear o" rose2utionE and t)e de2ision6
(a'er (ust e!aluate -uestions su2) as t)e one in t)e resent aeal7 is
Colu(3o sa"er t)an t)e ali2antKs )o(eJ or is it unduly )ars) to eAe2t
t)is ali2ant to sur!i!e in a ne9 and strange la2eJK Cara& .4D& T)is
(ust 3e la2ed in 2onteAt7
W)at (atters t)roug)out is t)at t)e ali2antKs auto3iogra)i2al
a22ount is only art o" t)e i2ture& $eole 9)o )a!e not yet su""ered
a2tual erse2ution Cone t)in's o" (any %e9s 9)o "led NaHi Ger(any
just in ti(eD (ay )a!e a !ery 9ell6"ounded "ear o" erse2ution
s)ould t)ey re(ain& $eole 9)o )a!e su""ered aalling erse2ution
(ay "or one reason or anot)er not 2o(e 9it)in t)e rote2tion o" t)e
Con!ention&
Sedley L& % t)en goes on to argue t)at a 2lai( to asylu( 9as not li'e a
2lai( (ade in 2i!il litigation+ 9)ere a judge (ust a2t as u(ire 3et9een
t9o 2o(eting !ersions o" e!ents& It is in "a2t an ad(inistrati!e ro2ess,
and t)us 2annot 3e (odeled on 2i!il litigation& Rat)er t)an treat "a2ts as
esta3lis)ed on a 2i!il standard+ t)e e!iden2e o""ered (ust 3e treated as a
9)ole7
T)e -uestion 9)et)er an ali2ant "or asylu( is 9it)in t)e rote2tion o"
t)e .;4. Con!ention is not a )ead6to6)ead litigation issue& Testing a
2lai( ordinarily in!ol!es no 2)oi2e 3et9een t9o 2on"li2ting a22ounts
3ut an e!aluation o" t)e intrinsi2 and eAtrinsi2 2redi3ility+ and ulti(ately
t)e signi"i2an2e+ o" t)e ali2antFs 2ase& Binally+ and i(ortantly+ t)e
Con!ention issues "ro( "irst to last are e!aluati!e+ not "a2tual& T)e "a2ts+
so "ar as t)ey 2an 3e esta3lis)ed+ are signosts on t)e road to a
2on2lusion on t)e issuesE t)ey are not t)e(sel!es 2on2lusions& Ho9 "ar
<4
t)is ro2ess truly di""ers "ro( 2i!il or 2rirnina. litigation need not detain
us no9&
His argu(ent 2on2ludes t)at t)e -uestion to 3e deter(ined is 9)et)er+
Ita'ing a.% rele!ant (atters into a22ount+ it 9ound 3e unduly )ars) to
return t)e ali2ant to Colo(3oF&
T)is issue 9as "urt)er eAlored in 5aja ! Se2retary o" State "or t)e
Ho(e *eart(ent L.;;4M I(( AR .& O+ a national o" Oaire+ )ad
aealed against a de2ision to re"use )i( entry to t)e U5& T)e de2ision
(a'er )ad stated t)at )e did not 3elie!e OFs e!iden2e+ rat)er t)an
(a'ing re"eren2e to a standard o" roo". He aealed on a nu(3er o"
oints+ 3ut t)e one 9e 9ill eAa(ine is t)e 2lai( t)at t)e de2ision6(a'er
)ad to (a'e a re"eren2e to a standard o" roo". T)e Tri3unal a22eted
t)is argu(ent& It 9as ne2essary to (a'e re"eren2e to a standard o" roo"+
and t)at t)e lo9er standard set out in Si!a'u(aran alies to a
deter(ination o" t)e li'eli)ood t)at 3ot) a "uture e!ent 9ill )aen+ and
t)at a ast e!ent )as )aened&
T)ese 2ases as a 9)ole s)o9 t)at t)e 2ourts aroa2) t)e issue o" t)e
deter(ination o" re"ugee status as a u3li2 la9 in-uiry into t)e rele!ant
e!iden2e& T)e ro2ess is not to 3e t)oug)t o" as (odeled on 2i!il
litigationE rat)er t)e de2ision6(a'er (ust e!aluate all t)e e!iden2e to t)e
standard o" roo" arti2ulated in Si4aumaran. Clayton o3ser!es t)at t)is
(eans t)at de2ision6(a'ers s)ould not aroa2) t)eir tas' in a
K(e2)anisti2 (annerK and t)e asylu( see'er does not )a!e to 3ear a
3urden o" roo" to t)e standard o" reasona3le ro3a3ility& Assessing an
asylu( 2lai( is ulti(ately a (atter o" e!aluation7 KLIMt (ust 3e
aroa2)ed as a 9)ole+ as a u3li2 la9 eAer2ise in t)e need "or
rote2tion rat)er t)an as an eAer2ise in ro!ing "a2ts to a standardK&
SELF ASSESSMENT E?ERCISE A
W)at is t)e rele!ant standard o" roo" "or an asylu( 2lai(J
Su''#r-
We )a!e 3een studying R ! Secretary of State for the Home
Department, eA parte Si4aumaran L.;==M 5aranaaran ! Secretary of
State for the Home Department L2:::M and 5aja ! Secretary of State for
the Home Department L.;;4M& In t)e "irst 2ase t)e 2ourt deter(ined t)e
nature o" t)e test "or re"ugee statusE in t)e se2ond t9o t)e issue o" t)e
standard o" roo" re-uired in an asylu( )earing 9as addressed& T)e
)earing is to 3e aroa2)ed in a di""erent 9ay to 2i!il litigation& T)e
2orre2t aroa2) 9as one o" e!aluation+ rat)er t)an 2)oosing l4et9een
t)e e!iden2e resented 3y t9o arties&
<0
/8082 R%2u,%%&F A&-$u' #nd I''!,r#t!on !n t"% U>
Asylu( and i((igration are ro(inent on t)e oliti2al agenda in t)e
U5& Many NGOs and ressure grous )a!e 3een 2riti2al o" go!ern(ent
oli2y+ 9)i2) aears to 3e restri2ting t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees+ and
rede"ining t)e U5Ks o3ligations under t)e Con!ention& We 9ill loo' at
t9o (ain issues7 t)e I((igration+ Asylu( and Nationality A2t C9)i2)
re2ei!ed Royal assent on @: Mar2) 2::0D and t)e U5Fs roosals "or a
re"or(ed asylu( syste(&
Birst 9e need to t)in' a3out t)e relations)i 3et9een re"ugee la9 and
t)e la9 o" i((igration& W)ilst t)e de"inition o" re"ugee status (ay 3e
deter(ined 3y t)e Con!ention+ as t)e Con!ention uts in la2e an
indi!idual ali2ation ro2ess+ t)e di""erent 9ays in 9)i2) national legal
syste(s )a!e dealt 9it) ali2ations 3y re"ugees (eans t)at re"ugee la9
is inti(ately 3ound u 9it) national la9& In t)e U5+ t)e resonsi3ility
"or o!erseeing t)is area o" la9 rests 9it) t)e Ho(e O""i2e+ 9)i2) also
deals 9it) i((igration& T)is )as led to i((igration and re"ugee la9
3e2o(ing 3ound u toget)er at 3ot) t)e le!el o" legal do2trine and
institution& T)us+ t)e Aliens A2t .;:4 allo9ed t)e 2ourts to deter(ine
9)et)er or not an indi!idualKs 2lai( to asylu( 9ould ro!ide grounds to
re!ent deortation&
W)en t)is A2t 9as rela2ed 9it) t)e Aliens Restri2tion A2ts o" .;.4
and .;.;+ t)e deter(ination o" re"ugee status 9as gi!en to t)e Se2retary
o" State& It 9as not until t)e Asylu( and I((igration Aeals A2t o"
.;;@ t)at a 2lai( "or asylu( 9as resented as 2onsistent 9it) t)e U5Fs
o3ligations under t)e Con!ention7 KLtM)is re"ers to t)e non6re"oule(ent
o3ligation under Arti2le @@+ and ga!e a statutory (eaning to an asylu(
2lai(K C@4;D&
In do(esti2 oliti2s+ t)e issue o" re"ugee rig)ts )as long 3een oen to
2riti2al s2rutiny& T)e $ri(e Minister )as 3een -uoted as saying t)at it
9as ti(e to Kstand 3a2' and 2onsider its Lt)e Con!entionFsM ali2ations
in todayKF 9orldF&
So+ 9)at re"or(s are 2urrently 3eing (ade to t)e asylu( and
i((igration syste(J
T"% I''!,r#t!onF A&-$u' #nd N#t!on#$!t- :!$$
Birst+ 9e 9ill 2onsider t)e I((igration+ Asylu( and Nationality A2t
2::0& T)e A2t 2reates a single tier Asylu( and I((igration Tri3unal&
T)is 3ody 2onsiders aeals against i((igration and asylu( de2isions&
Only in li(ited 2ases 2an t)e Tri3unalFs de2ision 3e re!ie9ed 3y t)e
Hig) Court on t)e grounds t)at t)e Tri3unal (ade an error o" la9&
<<
A(ongst ot)er (easures are7 t)e re(o!al o" rig)ts o" aeal against
re"usal o" entry or lea!e to enter "or students Cs&4D and li(ited rig)ts o"
aeal "or "a(ily !isitors& It also ai(s to strea(line ost6entry rig)ts o"
aeal& Se2tion .4 2reates 2i!il enalties "or e(loyers o" illegal
9or'ers and s&2. (a'es it a 2ri(inal o""en2e to 'no9ingly e(loy an
illegal 9or'er&
Ho9 )as t)is A2t+ and t)e oli2y 3e)ind it 3een resented 3y t)e
go!ern(entJ We 9ill 2onsider t)e "ollo9ing eAtra2t7
T)e urose o" t)e L,ill and t)e go!ern(entKs i((igrationM strategy is
to (a'e (igration 9or' "or ,ritain& It in2ludes (easures to (a'e our
i((igration syste( si(ler+ 2learer and (ore ro3ust& T)e re"or(ed
syste( 9ill eAlain u3li2ly and 2learly 9)o 9e 9ill ad(it to t)e U5
and 9)y+ and 9)o 9e 9ill allo9 to stay in t)e U5 and 9)y& It 9ill also
s)o9 t)at 9e en"or2e t)e rules rigorously in e!ery rese2t& T)e U5
needs e2ono(i2 (igration& We 9el2o(e eole 9)o (igrate )ere to
9or' and study 6t)ey are an essential art o" our so2iety and e2ono(y&
Anyone 9)o loo's 3a2' o!er t)e re2ent years and de2ades 9ill 3e a3le
to gi!e testi(ony to t)e (ajor 2ontri3ution t)at t)ey )a!e (ade to t)e
li"e o" t)is 2ountry& We need (igration to "ill t)e gas in our la3our
(ar'et t)at 2annot 3e "illed "ro( t)e do(esti2 9or'"or2e& O" 2ourse+ t)e
go!ern(ent 9ill 2ontinue to 9el2o(e eole 9)o are genuinely "leeing
erse2ution& Ho9e!er+ as 9e do so 9e 9ill not6 and 2annot6tolerate
a3use o" t)e syste(& T)at eAlains 9)y t)e "i!e& year strategy 2ontains
"our (ajor 9or' strea(s+ in ea2) o" 9)i2) 9e 9or' 9it) a range o"
ot)er 2ountries to i(ro!e t)e e""e2ti!eness o" our syste(&F CC)arles
Clar'e+ "or(er Horne Se2retary+ introdu2ing t)e I((igration+ Asylu(
and Nationality ,ill to $arlia(entD
T)is de"en2e o" t)e A2t suggests t)at it 9ill stri'e a 3alan2e 3et9een t)e
need "or e2ono(i2 (igrants+ and t)e need to oli2e i((igration& Indeed+
asylu( see'ers see( to 3e ri(arily 2onsidered+ at least in t)e see2)
a3o!e+ as e2ono(i2 (igrants+ rat)er t)an t)ose "or 9)o( t)e U5 )as
resonsi3ilities under international la9& Ho9e!er+ (any NGOs and
ressure grous )a!e 3een !ery 2riti2al o" t)e A2t& Criti2s )a!e ointed
out t)at t)e li(itations on t)e rig)t to aeal are against t)e rule o" la9+
and t)at t)e A2t e""e2ti!ely 2ri(inalises re"ugees and re(o!es state
suort "ro( t)e(& It )as to 3e seen in t)e 2onteAt o" ot)er initiati!es to
re"or( U5 asylu( and i((igration la9&
T)e I((igration+ Asylu( and Nationality A2t (ust 3e seen in t)e
2onteAt o" an ongoing dri!e to us) t)roug) "ar6rea2)ing re"or(s o" t)e
international o3ligations t)at t)e U5 )as entered into under t)e
Con!ention& To get a sense o" t)e dire2tion o" t)ese re"or(s+ 9e 9ill
loo' at t)e roosals "or a re"or(ed asylu( syste(+ and t)e resonse to
<=
t)e #uroean Co((ission in t)e aer7 9/owards a more accessi0le,
e:uita0le and managed asylum system9.
Pro7o&%d A&-$u' R%2or'&
T)e re"or(s roosed are essentially "o2used on 2reating transit 2entres
eit)er in #uroe+ at its 3order+ or in nations outside o" #uroe& T)ese
Ktransit ro2essing 2entresF 9ould deal 9it) t)e 2lai(s o" asylu( see'ers
9)o 9ere intending to enter t)e U5E on2e t)e 2lai(s )ad 3een ro2essed
outside t)e U5+ so(e 9ould 3e er(itted to enter& T)ese 2entres 9ould
allo9 a K(ore e-uita3le (anage(entK o" t)e Kirregular (igrantsK 9)o
9ant to enter #uroe& A syste( o" regional 2entres also in2ludes a
roosal "or Kregional rote2tion areasK 9)ere t)ose asylu( see'ers 9)o
)a!e "ailed to 3e a22eted 2an 3e a22o((odated instead o" 3eing
returned to t)e 2ountries "ro( 9)i2) t)ey )a!e "led&
T)ere are !arious "a2tors dri!ing t)ese re"or(s& T)e go!ern(ent )as
2ited one 2o(elling reason to 3e t)e 2osts o" running t)e resent
asylu( syste(& Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) )a!e 2riti2ised t)is argu(ent and
)a!e a22used t)e go!ern(ent o" ignoring ot)er 9ays o" redu2ing t)e
2osts o" t)e syste(& Bor instan2e+ 2osts o" detention 2entres+ and t)e
ra2ti2e o" detaining asylu( see'ers+ 2ould 3e de2reased 3y allo9ing
asylu( see'ers to 9or'& T)e go!ern(ent )ad 9it)dra9n t)e K9or'
2on2essionK arrange(ent 9)ere3y asylu( see'ers 9ere issued 9it) 9or'
er(its a"ter a 2ertain eriod& T)is (eans t)at asylu( see'ers are
entirely deendent on go!ern(ent "unding& Bigures 9ere 2ited t)at
s)o9ed t)at t)e 2ost o" detention )ad risen "ro( Z@02 to Z.+02: er
9ee' (Hansard, House o" Co((ons *e3ates+ 24 O2to3er 2::.+ C @@@
WD& T)is is 3a2'ed u 3y in"or(ation "ro( t)e UNHCR 9)i2) s)o9s
t)at t)e U5 detains (ore asylu( see'ers t)an any ot)er #uroean
nation CUNHCR+ 2:::D&
$roosals "or regional 2entres and transit ro2essing 2entres )a!e also
3een en2ouraged 3y argu(ents a3out t)e s2ale o" t)e illegal entry o"
asylu( see'ers to t)e U5& Ho9e!er+ t)is is not a reasona3le aroa2) to
t)e ro3le(+ as t)e !ery "a2t t)at an asylu( see'er is "leeing erse2ution
(ay (ean t)at an illegal entry is )is or )er only otion C)o9 2an one
enter a 2ountry legally i" one is deri!ed o" a assort+ "or instan2eJD&
Moreo!er+ su2) argu(ents also 2ontradi2t t)e Con!ention 9)i2) states
t)at t)ose arri!ing illegally s)ould not 3e enalised& A si(ilar analysis
2an 3e (ade o" ot)er go!ern(ent argu(ents& T)e go!ern(ent )as
alleged t)at t)e nu(3er o" "ailed asylu( see'ers s)o9 t)at (ost (a'e
3ogus ali2ations& Ho9e!er+ t)is 2annot 3e used as a relia3le indeA o"
t)e status o" asylu( see'ersE it re"le2ts e-ually on t)e "ailings o" t)ose
9)o are (a'ing t)e de2ision on status and t)e ro2edures t)ey are
alying&
<;
Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) 2ite as e!iden2e a re2ent reort t)at s)o9s t)at in
ro2edures alied in 0: er 2ent o" 2lai(s in t)e Net)erlands+
ali2ants 9ere deri!ed o" "unda(ental )u(an rig)ts& T)e )ig) 2ourt
itsel" )as )eld t)at deri!ing asylu( see'ers o" 3asi2 so2ial suort
a(ounted to a 3rea2) o" t)e #uroean Con!ention& #!iden2e "or t)e
9ea'ness o" t)e go!ern(entFs argu(ents is also suggested 3y t)e "a2t
t)at IaroAi(ately one6-uarter o" t)ose asylu( see'ers 9)o aeal
t)eir reje2tion in t)e U5 are su22ess"ully granted asylu(K CI((igration
and Nationality *ire2torate+ 2::2D&
T)e U5Ks o3ligations under international la9 (ust also 3e ta'en into
a22ount& Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) argue t)at t)ese roosals are 2ontrary to
t)e sirit and t)e letter o" t)e Con!ention t)at I2alls uon state arties to
engage in international 2o6oeration to a(eliorate t)e lig)t o" t)e
9orldKs re"ugeesF& T)e roosals e""e2ti!ely s)i"t t)e 3urden o" asylu(
to 2ountries t)at do not )a!e t)e e2ono(i2 resour2es o" t)e U5&
Burt)er(ore+ t)e roosals 2o(e 2lose to 3ot) t)reatening t)e rig)t to
asylu( in t)e *e2laration and t)e "unda(ental rin2ile o" non6
re"oule(ent& Hu(an Rig)ts Wat2) )a!e also argued t)at t)ere is a
otential 3rea2) o" Arti2le @.+ 9)i2) states t)at re"ugees s)ould only 3e
detained in eA2etional 2asesE t)e re(o!al and detention o" t)ose 9)o
arri!e illegally in t)e U5 to transit 2entres outside t)e U5 argua3ly
3rea2)es t)is rig)t& T)ere is also t)e ris' t)at t)e roosals are
dis2ri(inatory& T)e lans "or t)e 2onstru2tion o" regional 2entres
suggest t)at t)ese (ig)t 3e geogra)i2ally roAi(al to areas 9)i2)
rodu2e large nu(3ers o" re"ugees& I" t)ose in t)e regional 2entres
enjoyed "e9er rig)ts t)an t)ose in t)e U5+ t)en Arti2le @ o" t)e
Con!ention is also !iolated&
SELF ASSESSMENT E?ERCISE B
Re"or(s in i((igration and asylu( la9 in t)e U5 s)o9 an in2reasing
disregard "or t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees& *is2uss&
Su''#r-
Re"ugee la9+ and t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees+ are 3ound u 9it) national la9&
We )a!e eAa(ined )o9 re"or(s in t)e U5 i((igration syste( are
dri!en 3y a need to strea(line a (eans o" oli2ing re"ugees and
ensuring t)at t)e nu(3er o" re"ugees entering t)e U5 is 'et to a
(ini(u(&
/8@ T"% Cr!&!& !n t"% Sud#n: O!$F Po3%r #nd R%2u,%%&
T)is "inal se2tion 9ill study t)e 2risis in t)e Sudan+ so t)at 9e 2an
are2iate )o9 t)e re"ugee ro3le( (ust 3e seen in t)e 2onteAt o"
=:
3roader oliti2al 2on2ernsE in t)is sense t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees 2an
er)as 3e seen as less i(ortant to 2ertain go!ern(ents t)an t)e need
to 2ontrol territory and re!enue& Re"ugee 2rises also arise as a result o"
t)e "ailure to gal!anise a2tion 3y t)e international 2o((unity& So(e
(ig)t see t)is as a "ailure o" states to inter!ene in regions or 2ountries
desite t)e e!iden2e o" t)e (ass a3use o" )u(an rig)ts&
UNIC#B des2ri3es t)e situation in 9estern Sudan as Kone o" t)e 9orldKs
9orst )u(anitarian 2risesK& UNIC#BKs "igures s)o9 t)at nearly .&=
(illion eole )a!e 3een internally disla2edE and t)e situation )as 3een
eAa2er3ated 3y s)ortages o" "ood and 9ater and 3y o!er62ro9ding o"
re"ugee 2a(s& Bor instan2e+ 5al(a 2a(+ 9)i2) originally
a22o((odated @:+:::+ 2urrently )as to 2oe 9it) .4:+::: eole&
T)ere are nearly 20:+::: eole "ro( t)e *ar"ur region in 2a(s in t)e
neig)3ouring C)ad& ,ut 9)at are t)e 2auses o" t)is 2risisJ
T)e A"ri2an non6Musli( 2itiHens 9)o oulate t)e sout) )a!e 3een at
9ar 9it) t)e 2entral go!ern(ent+ do(inated 3y Ara3ised Musli( elite+
sin2e indeenden2e in .;40& State o9er re(ains in t)e )ands o" t)ese
elite+ 9)i2) do(inates t)e o""i2er 2ors o" t)e ar(y+ se2urity agen2ies+
and ot)er agen2ies 9ielding o9er&
Alt)oug) t)ere 9as a de2ade o" ea2e and sout)ern autono(y in
.;<26=@ a"ter t)e searatist sout)ern re3els laid do9n t)eir ar(s+ it 2a(e
to an end 9)en t)e 2entral go!ern(ent a3olis)ed t)e sout)ern
autono(ous region and (ade Shariah CIsla(i2 la9D t)e la9 o" t)e land
in .;=@& T)e 2i!il 9ar "lared u again+ 3ut 9it) a di""erent oliti2al
agenda& W)ile sout)ern senti(ent re(ained strongly searatist+ *r %o)n
Garang+ t)e leader o" t)e (ain re3el "or2e+ t)e S$LM/ A 2alled "or a
Kunited+ se2ular Sudan&K
T)e 3a2'ground reasons "or t)e 9ar are 2o(leA+ 3ut+ as t)e assage
a3o!e suggests+ t)ey relate to et)ni2 tensions 9it)in t)e 2ountry& T)ese
are re"le2ted in t)e "a2t t)at an KAra3ised Musli( eliteK )as 2ontrolled t)e
2ountry sin2e indeenden2e+ and )as 'et o9er and resour2es "ro(
Kso2ially (arginalised se2tions o" t)e oulationK in t)e K9est and east+
nort) and sout)K o" t)e 2ountry& T)at t)ere 9as a eriod o" ea2e
suggests t)at t)ese tensions did not ne2essarily lead to 9arE )o9e!er+ t)e
(ost i((ediate 2auses 2an 3e "ound in t)e 2entral go!ern(entKs (o!e
to in2rease its 2ontrol o!er t)e 2ountry+ and t)e su3se-uent resistan2e 3y
t)e S$LM/A&
Anot)er 2entral "a2tor in t)e Sudanese 2i!il 9ar 2an 3e tra2ed to t)e
dis2o!ery o" oil in .;<=& T)e Autono(ous Sout)ern Region rotested
against t)e Nort)ern go!ern(entKF lans "or t)e eAloitation o" t)ese oil
reser!es& Alt)oug) t)e oil "ields are lo2ated in t)e sout)+ t)e
=.
go!ern(entFs lans la2ed t)e in"rastru2tures and re"ineries in t)e
Nort)& 1arious "oreign oil 2o(anies )a!e 3een in!ol!ed in t)e Sudan+
and )a!e turned a 3lind eye to t)e ongoing )u(an rig)ts a3uses&
*eter(ined to 2ontrol t)e eAloitation o" t)ese natural resour2es+ t)e
Nort)ern go!ern(ent engaged in se2i"i2 oli2ies ai(ed at su3jugating
t)e sout) o" t)e 2ountry7
In order to control the production of oil, the unelected
go4ernment of <afa9ar %imeiri (6.?.-@,8 adopted a two-
pronged strategy, di4ision and displacement of the
southern population. It has taen almost two decades and
4arious go4ernments to de4elop and refine this strategy,
0ut the di4ision and displacement strategy has
accomplished what direct military action from the central
go4ernment alone could ne4er achie4eB clear control of
certain oil areas in southern Sudan.
Go!ern(ent oli2y )as 3een to sonsor and en2ourage !arious KroAiesK
to atta2' t)ose eoles 9)o li!e in t)e areas o" t)e oil
W)at )as 3een t)e resonse o" t)e international 2o((unity to t)is
2risisJ As 9as ointed out in t)e Washington $ost+ Kon t)e .:t)
anni!ersary o" t)e R9andan geno2ide+ t)e 9orld 2o((unity again
2)osen to 9at2)+ 9ait and+ so "ar+ do not)ingK& Alt)oug) international aid
agen2ies are a2ti!e in t)e region+ and dilo(ati2 e""orts are ongoing to
ro(ote and sustain ea2e+ (any )a!e a22used t)e international
2o((unity o" doing too little& T)e UN )as issued t9o Resolutions
2alling on t)e Nort)ern go!ern(ent to dis3and its (ilitias+ 3ut t)ese
)a!e 3een ignored& T)e A"ri2an Union )as troos in t)e region+ 3ut
see(s to la2' t)e 9ill to inter!ene& T)e United States )as (ade
dilo(ati2 initiati!es+ 3ut also la2's t)e oliti2al 9ill to inter!ene (ore
ro3ustly& T)e #U )as also stood 3y& It 9ould aear t)at t)e geno2ide in
Sudan is o"" t)e 9orldKs oliti2al agenda&
SELF ASSESSMENT E?ERCISE C
KT)e situation in t)e Sudan suggests t)at re"ugee rig)ts and )u(an rig)ts
)a!e !ery little (eaning at all
489 CONCLUSION
In t)is unit+ you )a!e )ear a3out t)e Rig)t o" Re"uges and Re"uge
ro3le(s in A"ri2a&
=2
089 SUMMARY
T)is "inal se2tion )as 2onsidered t)e oliti2al reality o" )u(an rig)ts in
t)e re"ugee 2risis in t)e Sudan& W)ile t)e need to rote2t re"ugee rig)ts
(ay 3e art o" t)e genuine )u(anitarian desire to rote2t t)ose
disla2ed 3y t)e 2on"li2t+ it 9ould see( t)at t)e s2ale o" t)e ro3le( )as
not (et 9it) a suita3le resonse "ro( t)e 9orld )u(an rig)ts lo33y&
I*esite t)e i(ortan2e o" t)e . ;4. Con!ention+ t)e rig)ts o" re"ugees
see( to 3e in2reasing li(ited in 2onte(orary oliti2sF& *is2uss&
ClaytonE G& TeAt3oo' on I((igration and Asylu( La9 COA"ord
,la2'stone $ress 2::4+ $g& @44D&
5jaeru(+ M7 Re"ugee $rote2tion 3et9een State Interest and Hu(an
Rig)ts& Hu(an Rig)t [uarter 24 2::2+ & 4.@ V 4@0&
Hat)a9ay+ %& C& $re2on2ei!ing Re"ugee La9 as Hu(an $rote2tion
%ournal o" Re"ugee Studies+& 4C2D .;;. & ..@ V .@.&
As Liearey+ International $rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts& 2::0& #Aternal
$rogra((e+ Uni!ersity o" London7 Uni!ersity o" London $ress
2::0&
=@
UNIT 4 ETHNIC NATIONALS IN NIGERIA AND THE
RIGHT TO SELF DETERMINATION
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. T)e Nigerian State and t)e *i""erent Major #t)ni2 Grous
@&2 Geogra)i2al *istri3ution o" #t)ni2 Nationals
@&@ T)e Con2et o" Sel"6*eter(ination
@&4 T)e *egree o" Sel"6*eter(ination
@&4 #t)ni2ity+ Sel"6*eter(ination7 T)e Nigerian #Aerien2e
@&0 Sel" *eter(ination in Nigeria and T)e Minority National
[uestion
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
It is not in dou3t t)at Nigeria is a unilateral 2olonial 2reation& It 9as
2reated not "or t)e good o" Nigeria eole 3ut to ease 2olonial
ad(inistration and "inan2ial (anage(ent o" a !ast and disarate
territory&
Te'ena Ta(uno ut it su22in2tly 6 PT)e a(alga(ation o" Nort)ern and
Sout)ern Nigeria 9as 3asi2ally a (ajor oliti2al (eans o" sol!ing a
serious e2ono(i2 ro3le(& Its (ain 9ea'ness+ )o9e!er+ lay in t)e
,ritis) go!ern(entFs "ailure to 2onsult t)e 9is)es o" t)e eole in
(atter o" su2) great oliti2al and e2ono(i2 signi"i2an2e 3et9een .=;=
and .;.4&Q
*i""erent eole 9ere t)us 3roug)t into "or2ed 2o)a3itation& Sin2e t)e
"or2ed 2reation o" Nigeria in .;.4+ Nigeria )as graled 9it) t)e
ro3le(s o" di""erent eole li!ing in one so2iety and trying to 3uild one
nation& Wit) t)at -ueer geogra)i2al engineering+ a (ulti6nation state
9)ose 3inding (atriA 9as 2olonial !iolen2e 9as 3orn 9it) "or2ed dra"t
2ase+ 2as2ade o" et)ni2 and national ine-uities 9ere ere2ted&
=4
289 O:;ECTIVES
,y t)e end o" t)is unit+ you s)ould 3e a3le to7
de"ine sel"6deter(ination
eAlain t)e origin+ 2)ara2teristi2s and "un2tions o" sel"6
deter(ination
relate sel"6deter(ination to Nigeria ese2ially t)e agitation o"
t)e Niger *eltans "or resour2e 2ontrol and li(ited autono(y
o!er t)e 2ondu2t o" t)eir a""airs&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
08. T"% N!,%r!#n St#t% #nd t"% D!22%r%nt M#)or Et"n!
Grou7&
T)e 2ountry )as (any et)ni2 grous+ (ore t)an 24: et)ni2 grous&
So(e o" t)ese grous )a!e e2uliar 2usto(s+ tradition and languages&
T)e grous in)a3it di""erent Hones o" t)e nation& T)e distri3ution o"
et)ni2 grous in t)e 2ountry )as 3een artly in"luen2ed 3y geogra)y&
Areas t)at 2ould suort li"e 9ere 9ell o22uied+ 9)ile eole a!oided
en!iron(ents t)at 9ere )ostile&
Bor instan2e+ t)ere 9as a large 2on2entration o" s(all grous in Central
Nigeria& Se!eral o" t)ese grous enjoyed a large (easure o" oliti2al
autono(y& T)is 2on2entration and oliti2al atterns )a!e 3een attri3uted
to t)e rugged toogra)y+ )ostility o" (ore o9er"ul neig)3ours and
ra(ant sla!e trade&
Today+ Central Nigeria is noted as an area o" sarse oulation& Ot)er
si(ilar areas are t)e Nort) #ast+ ese2ially around t)e C)ad and to so(e
eAtent t)e Niger *elta& T)e 2ountry no9 )as @ (ajor 2lusters o" dense
oulation&
.& T)e Ig3o area in t)e Sout)east 9it) an a!erage oulation density o"
o!er .4: ersons er 'ilo(etreE
2& ?oru3a land in t)e Sout)9est 9it) a density o" o!er .4: ersons er
'ilo(eterE and
@& 5ano 9it) an a!erage density o" .:: ersons er 'ilo(etre&
T)ese are so(e o" t)e (ajor grous o" eole 9)o li!e in t)e di""erent
geogra)i2al Hones in t)e 2ountry&
=4
/82 G%o,r#7"!#$ D!&tr!(ut!on o2 Et"n! N#t!on#$&
T"% C%ntr#$ Hon%
T)is area 2o!ers t)e Niger *elta+ Lagos and t)e Cree's& T)e 2oastal
eole in2lude t)e ?oru3as in t)e 2ree's and lagoonsE and t)e 5ala3ari+
O'ri'a+ Ija9+ Ne(3e+ ,onny+ Itse'iri+ Ur)o3o+ Oron+ Og3a+ Ogoni+
Andoni+ Iso'o and ,enin&
T"% For%&t Hon%
T)is is t)e area o" tall trees and dense undergro9t)& A(ong t)e grous
in t)is Hone are t)e #do+ I3i3io+ Ig3o and ?oru3a&
T"% S#*#nn# Hon%
T)is is a region o" oen 9oodland and tall grasses& It 2o!ers t)e large
lains t)at eAtend "ro( t)e sa)ara desert in t)e nort)+ to t)e troi2al
"orest in t)e sout)& T)e Sa!anna Hone is in)a3ited 3y t)e 5anuri o" La'e
C)ad+ 9)o sea' Nilo sa)ara language+ t)e Hausa sea'ing eole+ t)e
Bulani+ t)e %u'un+ Nue+ Igala+ Ti!+ Angas+ Ido(a+ 5ata"+ 5aje+ %a3a+
,iro(+ G9ari+ ,eri3eri+ S)u9a+ C)a(3a+ #g3irra+ ,ede and ,ole
'ana'uru&
/8/ T"% Con%7t o2 S%$2-D%t%r'!n#t!on
Sel" deter(ination is de"ined as t)e deter(ination o" oneFs a2t or state
3y onesel" 9it)out eAternal 2o(ulsion& T)e rig)t o" a eole to de2ide
its "uture oliti2al status Cas 9it) rese2t to "or( o" go!ern(ent or
indeenden2eD or its a2tions in so de2iding 3y le3is2ite&
T)e rig)t to sel"6deter(ination is a t)ird generation rig)t 9)i2) is t)e
2olle2ti!e or grou rig)ts& T)ese are rat)er re2ent rig)ts t)at e(erged in
t)e later .;0: and .;<: and 9ere redo(inantly suorted 3y t)e ne9ly
indeendent and de!eloing states& Alt)oug) t)is rig)t )as sin2e 3een
re2ognised as a legal rig)t in international la9+ its en"or2e(ent re(ains
a toi2al issue today (ore t)an e!er in t)e lig)t o" re2ent e!ents around
t)e 9orld ese2ially in t)e ,al'a(s& T)e rig)t to sel"6deter(ination )as
3e2o(e a ere(tory nor( o" international la9&
/84 T"% D%,r%% o2 S%$2-D%t%r'!n#t!on
T)ere are di""erent degrees o" sel"6deter(ination& Indeenden2e is not
t)e only out2o(e o" sel"6deter(ination& So(e et)ni2+ ra2ial or (inority
grous 9)o are 2on2entrated in a art o" a 2ountry 2ould de(and
indeenden2e& So(e ot)ers de(and "or li(ited sel"6rule 9it)in eAisting
=0
3orders 9it) lin's to t)e Bederal go!ern(ent& Ot)ers de(and just a rig)t
to greater arti2iation in t)e oliti2al+ so2ial and e2ono(i2 ro2esses o"
t)eir 2ountries not sel" go!ern(ent as su2)&
As a result o" non6re2ognition o" a legal rig)t to se2ede+ t)e international
2o((unity )as in!ented autono(y& T)is allo9s grous o" eole to
)a!e a degree o" autono(y 9it)in 3orders and is !ie9ed as a (iddle
ground 3et9een t)e rin2ile o" territorial integrity and t)e 2)aos o"
uni!ersal sel"6deter(ination 9it)in a "ederal state& An autono(y s2)e(e
"or a geogra)i2ally 2on2entrated et)ni2 (inority (ay grant t)at
(inority (odest sel"6go!ern(ent and retain !ital o9ers "or t)e Central
go!ern(ent internal sel"6deter(ination t)roug) autono(y s2)e(es (ay
3lunt a (inorityFs de(and "or eAternal sel"6deter(ination&
T)e international 2o((unity is (ore li'ely to suort a degree o"
autono(y as t)ey )a!e in 5osoro t)an "ull indeenden2e+ 9)i2) 2ould
lead to (ore insta3ility and 2on"li2t& T)e su22ess o" autono(y deends
on a re6eAisting et)ni2 a22o((odation and 2i!i2 "ait) in t)e rule o"
la9+ de(o2rati2 set6u+ all o" 9)i2) are rare in t)e 2ountries 9)ere
et)ni2 (inority and !iolen2e o22ur&
*es2ri3e t)e 2on2et o" sel"6deter(ination&
/80 Et"n!!t-F S%$2-D%t%r'!n#t!on: T"% N!,%r!#n E17%r!%n%
Nigeria+ 3eing a nation o" )undreds o" et)ni2 grous or nationalities and
)a!ing 3een under (ilitary di2tators)i "or (ost o" )er ost6
indeenden2e years+ )a!e )ad a "air s)are o" atte(ts 3y et)ni2
(inorities to assert a rig)t to sel"6deter(ination& Aart "ro( Col&
Odu(eg9u Oju'9uFs "ailed ,ia"ra atte(t in .;0< at asserting a rig)t
to sel"6deter(ination+ t)ere 9as t)e Isaa2 Ada'a ,oro6led atte(t in t)e
Niger6*elta 9)i2) 9as -ui2'ly reressed 3y t)e Nigerian go!ern(ent&
Also+ t)e 5enule Saro69i9a6led Mo!e(ent "or t)e Sur!i!al o" Ogoni
$eole CMOSSO$D 9)i2) led to t)e )anging o" 5en Saro69i9a and =
ot)er Ogoni a2ti!ists 3y t)e Nigerian go!ern(ent on No!e(3er .:+
.;;4&
Re2ently+ t)ere )as 3een a resurgen2e o" nas2ent struggle "or sel"6
deter(ination 3y t)e Ija9s in t)e Niger6*elta+ t)e ?oru3as o" t)e
Sout)9est+ t)e Ig3os o" t)e Sout)east+ t)e Middle3elt region and t)e
Are9a grou reresenting t)e nort)ern states o" Nigeria& T)ese grous
do not see' "ull autono(y or a rig)t to se2ede& T)ey )ad to use a oular
=<
Nigerian )rase P3eing (arginaliHed o!er t)e yearsQ and "eel t)at t)ey
oug)t to )a!e a greater arti2iation in national a""airs&
T)e 2ase o" t)e Ija9s and Ogonis )as (ore to do 9it) negle2t 3y t)e
Bederal go!ern(ent& T)ey assert a rig)t to (ore arti2iation and
reresentation in go!ern(ent and e2ono(i2 de!elo(ent o" t)e region
as t)e 2rude oil t)at oils t)e (a2)inery o" t)e Nigerian go!ern(ent is
(ostly lo2ated under t)eir soil or o"" t)eir s)ores 9it) t)e attendant
en!iron(ental degradation&
T)is is a 2lassi2al reason 9)y et)ni2 grous or (inorities see' sel"6
deter(ination as t)e (ore t)ese grous "eel alienated and re(o!ed "ro(
t)e (ain strea( o" so2io6oliti2al and e2ono(i2 ro2esses o" t)e nation+
t)e (ore t)ey see' to assert t)eir rig)t to sel"6deter(ination&
In resent day Nigeria o" t)e 2.
st
2entury+ 9)at 9e are 9itnessing in t)e
Niger6*elta region o" Nigeria 9)ere t)e et)ni2 (ilitia resorted to
'idnaing o" eAatriates+ 2)ildren and reuta3le oliti2ians in t)e
region to ress )o(e t)eir oints& T)e agitation )as assu(ed a
dangerous di(ension 9)ere so)isti2ated 9eaons are e(loyed to
2on"ront se2urity agents&
It is a (an6(ade disaster o" ei2 roortion& All around in Nigeria+
tren2)es are 3eing dug and ositions are )ardened& T)ere are "rig)tening
(e(oranda and (anuals "or disintegration "lying all o!er t)e la2e&
Nigeria is 9itnessing t)e 9orst "or( o" oliti2al !iolen2e and t)e
2ountry is assing t)roug) t)e (ost di""i2ult eriod&
Indeed+ -uestions are 3eing as'ed oenly and 2onstantly on t)e
"easi3ility and desira3ility o" Nigeria as a nation as resently
2onstituted& T)e resonse o" so(e o" t)e di""erent et)ni2 grous 2an 3e
"ound in t)e (e(oranda 3elo9&
OGONI :ILL OF RIGHTS
T)e Ogoni 2o(rising o" ,a33le+ Go'anna+ 5en 5)ana+ Nyo 5)ana and
Tai nu(3ering a3out 4::+::: eole+ is a searate and distin2t et)ni2
nationality 9it)in t)e Bederal Reu3li2 o" Nigeria& On 2
nd
o" O2to3er
.;;:+ an POgoni ,ill o" Rig)tsQ 9as addressed to t)e t)en $resident o"
t)e Bederal Reu3li2 o" Nigeria+ General I3ra)i( ,a3angida and
(e(3ers o" t)e Ar(ed Bor2es Ruling Coun2il&
T)e Ogoni ,ill o" Rig)ts states t)us7
PNo9 t)ere"ore 9)ile re6a""ir(ing our 9is) to re(ain a art o" t)e
Bederal Reu3li2 o" Nigeria+ 9e (a'e de(ands uon t)e Reu3li2 as
==
"ollo9s7 T)at t)e Ogoni eole 3e granted oliti2al autono(y to
arti2iate in t)e a""airs o" t)e Reu3li2 as a distin2t and searate unit o"
9)ate!er na(e 2alled+ ro!ided t)at t)is autono(y guaranteed t)e
"ollo9ing V
C3D $oliti2al 2ontrol o" Ogoni a""airs 3y Ogoni eole&
C2D T)e rig)t to 2ontrol and use o" a "air roortion o" Ogoni
e2ono(i2 resour2es "or Ogoni de!elo(ent&
CdD Ade-uate and dire2t reresentation as o" rig)t in all Nigeria
national institutions&
CeD T)e use and de!elo(ent o" Ogoni languages in Ogoni territory&
C"D T)e "ull de!elo(ent o" Ogoni 2ulture&
CgD T)e rig)t o" religious "reedo(&
C)D T)e rig)t to rote2t Ogoni en!iron(ent and e2ology "ro( "urt)er
degradationQ&
THE >AIAMA DECLARATION
T)e 5aia(a de2laration is t)e arti2le o" "ait) o" t)e Ija9 nation to t)e
go!ern(ent o" t)e Bederal Reu3li2 o" Nigeria& T)e resolution o" t)e
.;
t)
*e2e(3er+ .;;= o" All Ija9 Con"eren2e )eld in 5aia(a+ ,ayelsa
State Nigeria+ states as "ollo9s7
We t)e )u(3le yout) o" Ija9land )ere3y (a'e t)e "ollo9ing resolutions
to 3e 'no9n as t)e 5aia(a *e2laration V
CaD We agree to re(ain 9it)in Nigeria 3ut to de(and and 9or' "or
sel"6go!ern(ent and resour2e 2ontrol "or Ija9 eole& T)e
2on"eren2e aro!ed t)at t)e 3est 9ay "or Nigeria is a Bederation
o" et)ni2 nationalities& T)e Bederation s)ould 3e run on t)e 3asis
o" e-uality and so2ial justi2e&
C3D All land and natural resour2es Cin2luding (ineral resour2esD
9it)in t)e Ija9 territory 3elong to Ija9 2o((unity and are t)e
3asis o" our sur!i!al&
C2D We 2ease to re2ogniHe all unde(o2rati2 de2rees t)at ro3 our
eole/2o((unities o" t)e rig)t to o9ners)i and 2ontrol o" our
li!es and resour2es+ 9)i2) 9ere ena2ted 9it)out our arti2iation
and 2onsent& T)ese in2lude t)e Land Use *e2ree+ $etroleu(
Resour2es *e2ree+ et2&
T)is 5aia(a *e2laration o" t)e Ija9 eole )as 3een t)e 3asis o"
agitation "or resour2e 2ontrol and t)e struggle )as ta'en (any
di(ensions and it is still t)e 3asis o" agitation till resent day 9it)in t)e
Nigeria Bederation&
=;
THE YORU:A AGENDA
T)e "o2us o" t)e ?oru3a nation o" t)e Sout)9estern art o" Nigeria and
as atly arti2ulated 3y t)eir leader+ Senator A3ra)a( Adesanya+ is an
un"lagging 2o((it(ent to t)e earnest restru2turing o" t)e Nigerian
olity 9it) a !ie9 to ensuring t)at ea2) o" t)e "ederating units enjoy
a(le rig)t to sel"6deter(ination& T)at is to say ea2) "ederating unit not
only )as a22ess to 3ut also )as total 2ontrol o!er its God6gi!en
endo9(ents V )u(an+ (ineral and (aterial resour2es&
Bor t)e ?oru3as+ t)e ?oru3a ro3le( o" unity )as ne!er 3een (ore
urgent sin2e t)e %une .2 ele2tion o" Mos)ood A3iola residential
ele2tion t)at 9as annulled 3y t)e Bederal go!ern(ent in .;;@& T)ey
)a!e 3een t)e 3ull o" )ysi2al and sy2)ologi2al atta2' "ro( t)e
Nigerian State&
Sin2e t)e days o" C)ie" O3a"e(i A9olo9o+ t)ey insist on a 3alan2e
"ederation t)at gi!es t)e regions greater autono(y& W)ile 2alling on a
!igorous tye o" "ederalis(+ t)ey 2an say all t)at 2a(e 9as an initial
de"or(ed "ederalis( and lately a "ull6s2ale unitary go!ern(ent&
THE IG:O AGENDA
T)e O)aneHe Ndig3o+ t)e Ig3o (ainstrea( so2io62ultural and oliti2al
(o!e(ent 2atured t)e 2ondition o" t)e Ig3os t)usE PIt is not just
(arginaliHation+ neit)er is it only alienation or (ere deri!ation& It is
si(ly eA2lusion&Q $er)as it is a (easure o" so(e re2rudes2en2e o"
t)eir "ait) in Nigeria t)at t)ey e!en 3ot)er to 2o(lain&
T)e Agenda o" t)e Ig3os "or a united Nigeria is as "ollo9s7
A united Nigeria t)at )as a 0 regional stru2ture as t)e 3asis o" a
ne9 "ederation+ rotational residen2y+ a deri!ation63ased re!enue
allo2ation "or(ula and rede"ined 2itiHens)i rig)ts&
T)e intelle2tual and t)eoreti2al grounding "or t)e de(ands are -uite
ro3ust& T)ey in!ol!ed t)e idea o" a P"un2tional "ederation o"
nationalitiesQ to in2lude 0 Hones C@ Hones ea2) "or t)e (ajor and (inor
et)ni2 grousD&
T)e re"eren2e "or large Hones is a re2ognition t)at t)e 2reation o" states
rat)er t)an eAand "ederalis( )as a2tually strengt)ened t)e (o(entu(
to9ards unitaris(& In resonse to t)e aggra!ation+ unitaris( and t)e
su3!ersion o" "ederalis(+ t)e Hones 9ill 3e2o(e t)e ne9 "ederal units
2o(letely at li3erty to 2reate and (anage as (any states as t)e
2o(onent nationalities o" ea2) Hone / region desires&
;:
W)en o9er 2)anged )ands on May 2;+ .;;; "ro( (ilitary to 2i!ilian
go!ern(ent+ it 9as (ore t)an a return to de(o2ra2y& T)ere 9as a
"unda(ental o9er s)i"t "ro( t)e Nort) to t)e Sout) 9)i2) totally
altered t)e geo6oliti2al e-uation in Nigeria& T)e 2o(ing on 3oard o" t)e
Are9a Consultati!e "oru( unders2ores t)e Nort)ern art o" t)e
2ountryFs interest in "inding a 2o((on lat"or( 9)ere Nort)ern interest
2ould 3e arti2ulated and rote2ted&
T)e Are9a Consultati!e Boru( is an a(or)ous asse(3ly 2o(rising
o" retired (ilitary generals+ "or(er leaders+ Heads o" states+ traditional
rulers+ oliti2ians and 3usiness(en o" t)e Nort)ern eAtra2tion& It is also
interesting to note t)at (any o" t)e .; Nort)ern states )a!e adoted t)e
S)aria legal syste( in t)eir !arious states in de"ian2e o" t)e ro!isions
o" t)e Nigerian Constitution& T)e S)aria legal 2rusade is a danger sign
ost 9)i2) is a 2lear ointer to t)e rin2ile o" sel"6deter(ination&
T)e Nigeria "ederation is today 3ased on t)e (ost 2)allenging test o"
sur!i!al& T)e (inorities do not 3elie!e in t)eir la2e 9it)in t)e
"ederation& None o" t)e "ederating artners today see t)e ot)er as a neAt
3rot)er on a 2olle2ti!e journey o" destiny&
#lse9)ere+ t)e Niger*elta resistan2e yout)s )a!e lunged t)e area in
un9)oleso(e !iolen2e& T)e 2ree's+ 9ater9ays and e!en t)e 2ities )a!e
3een (ade unsa"e 3y a sudden eAlosion o" et)ni263ased (ilitia grous
9)o 'ill+ ta'e )ostages+ sa2' !illages and !andalise oil installations&
T)e )iloso)y o" !iolen2e eAressed in di""erent tenors 3y t)e !arious
et)ni2 grous aears to )a!e gained 2urren2y all o!er t)e 2ountry&
Hit)erto 3ottled6u "rustration+ grie!an2e and "ear are 3eing generously
o"tenti(es re2'lessly !ented&
*e"ine t)e ter( Resour2e Control&
/8@ S%$2 D%t%r'!n#t!on !n N!,%r!# #nd t"% M!nor!t- N#t!on#$
Iu%&t!on
T)e (inority and t)e national -uestion are as old as t)e Nigerian nation
state& T)e inse2urity "elt 3y t)e (inority 2o((unities a2ross t)e 2ountry
)as (erged 9it) et)ni2 2lai(s and agitation to no9 2onstitute 9)at is
oularly re"erred to as t)e national -uestion&
#ssentially+ t)e national -uestion re"ers to )o9 to stru2ture t)e Nigeria
Bederation to a2'no9ledge and guarantee identity and national rig)ts
9it)in t)e 2onteAt o" a true de(o2rati2 "ra(e9or'&
;.
T)e ersistent (is(anage(ent o" t)e national -uestion as 9ell as
aarent insensiti!ity e!en tri!ialisation o" t)e issue 3y t)e 2ustodians o"
state o9er )as 2reated a "ertile ground "or et)ni2 entrereneurs+ lo2al
9arlords and oliti2al oortunists t)at )a!e only "urt)er 2o(li2ated
(atters&
W)ile t)e (inority -uestion 9as ro(inent in 3ot) t)e sout)ern and
nort)ern rote2torates+ t)e a(alga(ation o" 3ot) rote2torates in .;.4+
largely "or ad(inistrati!e 2on!enien2e only 9idened t)e "ield "or
(inority and et)ni2 agitation and 2on"li2ts& O" 2ourse se!eral Nigeria
leaders are on re2ord as to t)eir regrets and 3elly a2ting o!er t)e
a(alga(ation&
One "ounding "at)er on2e des2ri3ed Nigeria as Pa (ere geogra)i2al
eAressionQ 9)ile anot)er "elt t)at t)e a(alga(ation o" t)e nort)ern and
sout)ern rote2torate in .;.4 to 2reate t)e territory o" Nigeria 9as Pa
(ista'eQ& T)ey )a!e+ )o9e!er+ ne!er ans9ered t)e -uestion as to 9)y
t)ey 2ontinue to "ail to address t)e national -uestion&
T)e e(ergen2e o" )undreds o" en!iron(ental et)ni2 (inority
su22essi(ist grous+ regionalists+ )u(an rig)ts and ro6de(o2ra2y
grous around t)e national -uestion s)o9s t)at it )as de"ied all t)e
suer"i2ial and oortunisti2 resonses 3y !arious 2entral go!ern(ents
sin2e indeenden2e&
.& ,rie"ly eAlain t)e "ear o" t)e (inority grous 9it)in t)e
Bederation o" Nigeria&
2& Ho9 2an t)e ro3le(s o" t)e (inority grous in Nigeria 3e
sol!edJ
489 CONCLUSION
We are in t)e 2.
st
2entury and t)e rig)t to sel"6deter(ination o" eole is
still as rele!ant as it 9as 0: years ago& Alt)oug) it 3egan as t)e rig)t o"
2olonial or o22uied eole onlyE t)e rig)t to sel"6deter(ination )as
2ontinually rein!ented itsel" and it is no9 t)e rig)t o" oressed eole
e!ery9)ere&
Sel"6deter(ination is a 2ontinuing ro2ess and 9ill endure as long as
2ertain et)ni2 grous do not "eel t)at t)ey are art o" t)e (a2)inery o"
go!ern(ent 3y 9)i2) de2ision a""e2ting t)e( are (ade and
i(le(ented& So long 9ill 2lai(s to a rig)t to sel"6deter(ination 3e it
eAternal or internal 2ontinue&
;2
I" t)e nature o" go!ern(ent in a nation is (ore resonsi!e t)an it is and
t)e le!el o" arti2iation o" all grous in t)e 2ountry is )ig)er+ t)ere
9ould 3e less need to assert t)e rig)t to sel"6deter(ination 3y any o" t)e
2onstituent grous& A good eAa(le o" t)is is [ue3e2 region o" Canada
9)ere a .;;< re"erendu( on 9)et)er to se2ede 9as de"eated due to t)e
de(o2rati2 and reresentati!e syste( o" go!ern(ent 9)ere t)e rig)ts o"
t)e [ue3e2ois are truly rote2ted&
T)e re!erse is t)e 2ase in A"ri2a 9)ere go!ern(ents are al9ays
!iolently oosed to any assertion o" a rig)t to sel"6deter(ination& T)e
et)ni2 nature o" Nigeria so2iety is a real one+ it 2annot 3e 9is)ed a9ay&
T)ose 9)o try to do so at least in u3li2+ only )a!e to turn to t)e
eAa(le o" t)e So!iet Union+ ?ugosla!ia and Ro(ania to disa3use t)eir
(inds&
089 SUMMARY
T)e "eeling is t)at 4< years a"ter oliti2al indeenden2e+ t)e (ajority o"
t)e et)ni2 grous ese2ially t)e (inority grous are "rustrated a3out t)e
stru2ture o" t)e nation& T)is de!elo(ent o" "eelings o" "rustration 2ould
3e (onitored t)roug) t)e (e(oranda or ,ill o" Rig)ts o" t)e di""erent
et)ni2 grous in Nigeria+ ser!ed on t)e "ederal go!ern(ent a3out )o9
t)ey 9ant to 2ontrol t)eir o9n a""airs&
A t)oroug) study o" t)e 2onstitutions and t)e ,ill o" Rig)ts or 2)arters
o" de(ands o" t)e di""erent grous do not ad!o2ate a 3rea'u o"
Nigeria& ,ut t)ey 9ant (aAi(u( 2ontrol o!er t)e a""airs o" t)eir
territories&
<&: TUTOR-MAR>ED ASSIGNMENT
.& #Alain t)e ter( sel"6deter(ination&
2& T)e Ogoni ,ill o" Rig)ts or C)arter o" *e(and is (eant to 3rea'
u t)e Nigerian nation& *is2uss&
@& Co(are t)e nature o" t)e de(ands o" t)e Ija9 nation+ t)e Ogoni
eole on t)e Nigeria nation and t)e indeenden2e o" Nigeria
"ro( t)e ,ritis) in .;0:& Any si(ilarityJ
4& CiD W)at is resour2e 2ontrolJ
CiiD *is2uss resour2e 2ontrol in relation to t)e de(and o" t)e
Ija9 eole&
;@
#t)ni2 Nationals in Nigeria and t)e Rig)t to Sel" *eter(ination7 An
unu3lis)ed LL M dissertation o" Ige+ Ogunniyi Ayodeji
#3eneHer7 Uni!ersity o" Lagos& 2:::&
O'9o *isa N9loli7 #nugu CBourt) *i(ension $ressD& .;<= &2.4&
W& G& Su((er& Bol'9ays7 Ne9 ?or'7 *o!ers& .;4;&
Ade3ayo Willia(s& T)e Ne9s MagaHine+ .;
t)
%une+ .;;4&
*ao Olrunyo(i7 T)e Ne9s MagaHine+ 2.
st
Be3ruary+ .;;4 & .;62:
NgoHi Anig9o *ul!e M, A2)u& Constitutional Rig)t $roje2t %ournal+
O2to3er V*e2e(3er .;;@ !ol&= ISSN ...0624:@
#d9in Madunagu& T)e Guardian Ne9saer+ T)ursday O2to3er .;+
2:::&
Ta(uno+ TN& T)e #!olution o" t)e Nigeria State+ t)e Sout)ern $)ase
.=;= V .;.47 London7 Long(an& .;;2 &422&
UHoig9e GN& A"ri2an History as a Lega2y o" ,erlin A2t+ A"ri2a no9&
Mar2) .;=4 &2<&
Balola T&+ Mas)adi A&+U)o(os)iu A& and Anya9u& History o" Nigeria7
Long(an& .;=; & .26@4&
;4
MODULE 2
Unit . T)e #uroean Syste( "or t)e $rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts
Unit 2 T)e Inter6A(eri2an Syste( "or t)e $rote2tion o" Hu(an
Rig)ts
Unit @ Hu(an and $eoleFs Rig)ts in t)e A"ri2an Syste(
UNIT . THE EUROPEAN SYSTEM FOR THE
PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
CONTENTS
=&: Introdu2tion
;&: O3je2ti!es
.:&: Main Content
@&. T)e Origins o" t)e #uroean Con!ention on Hu(an
Rig)ts @@:
@&2 T)e #uroean Union and Hu(an Rig)ts
@&@ T)e #uroean Con!ention on Hu(an Rig)ts
@&4 Breedo( o" See2) and Religious Rig)ts
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
In t)is unit 9e 9ill eAa(ine t)e #uroean syste( "or t)e rote2tion o"
)u(an rig)ts& T)ere are t)ree #uroean Organisations7 t)e #uroean
Union+ T)e Coun2il o" #uroe and t)e Organisation "or Se2urity and
Co6oeration in #uroe& We 9ill 2on2entrate on t)e "irst t9o+ as t)ey
)a!e a ri(ary role in t)e en2ourage(ent and rote2tion o" )u(an
rig)ts& We 9ill see t)at a 3asi2 distin2tion 2an 3e (ade 3et9een7
t)e #uroean Con!ention on Hu(an Rig)ts+ 9)i2) is a 2reation o"
t)e Coun2il o" #uroe
t)e #uroean Union and its asso2iated institutions&
Alt)oug) t)e Union is 2o((itted to Hu(an Rig)ts+ its legal and
oliti2al status deri!es "ro( a !ariety o" treaties t)at are not in
t)e(sel!es Hu(an Rig)ts treaties& Rat)er+ t)ey set u and ela3orate t)e
stru2ture o" a #uroean 2o((on (ar'et& We 9ill see+ )o9e!er+ t)at t)is
in2reasingly (a'es a syste( o" )u(an rig)ts rote2tion 2entral to its
oeration& W)en 9e turn to t)e #uroean Con!ention+ 9e 9ill see t)at it
;4
is (ar'ed 3y an a2ti!e 2ourt and an eAanding jurisruden2e& Binally+
9e 9ill turn to eAa(ine a series o" 2ases related to Arti2le ; o" t)e
Con!ention t)at s)o9 )o9 t)e Court is dealing 9it) 2onte(orary
issues t)at relate to religious "reedo(& T)is is art o" a (u2) 9ider
-uestion a3out t)e identity and t)e "uture o" #uroe as a tolerant+
in2lusi!e oliti2al 2o((unity&
289 O:;ECTIVES
At t)e end o" t)is unit and t)e rele!ant readings+ you stand 3e a3le to7
des2ri3e t)e role o" #uroean 2on!ention on Hu(an Rig)ts
t)e #uroean union and its asso2iated institution&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. T"% Or!,!n& o2 t"% Euro7%#n Con*%nt!on on Hu'#n
R!,"t& //9
In .;4; #uroe 9as in ruins at t)e end o" t)e Se2ond World War& T)e
s2ale o" t)e tas' o" re2onstru2tion 9as (assi!e 6its siHe is er)as )ard
to i(agine "ro( todayKs erse2ti!e& It 9as ne2essary not only to re3uild
e2ono(ies and in"rastru2ture+ 3ut also to re6 "ound #uroean
de(o2ra2y& Ho9 2ould t)is )uge tas' 3e aroa2)edJ
W)at is t)is so!ereign re(edyJ It is to re2reate t)e #uroean "a3ri2+
or as (u2) o" it as 9e 2an+ and to ro!ide it 9it) a stru2ture under
9)i2) it 2an d9ell in ea2e+ in sa"ety+ and in "reedo(& We (ust 3uild
a 'ind o" United States o" #uroe&
C)ur2)illFs )oe "or a IUnited States o" #uroeF suggests a need to 3ring
#uroean nations toget)er& Underlying t)is desire to a2)ie!e a lasting
ea2e 9ere 3ot) e2ono(i2 and so2ial rin2iles& Rat)er t)an gearing
e2ono(ies to (utual 2o(etition+ 9ould it 3e ossi3le to 2olla3orate
and a!oid susi2ion and )ostilityJ Moreo!er+ "as2is( )ad s)o9ed t)e
need "or a #uroean69ide 2o((it(ent to t)e !alues o" de(o2ra2y+
)u(an rig)ts and t)e rule o" la9& T)e "oundations o" t)e ne9 #uroe
9ere t)us to 3e "ound in a sirit o" e2ono(i2 2o6oeration and (utual
rese2t "or )u(an rig)ts& Cold War tensions also added to t)e sense in
9)i2) it 9as ne2essary to 3ring toget)er nations 2o((itted to
de(o2rati2 go!ern(ent& ,ut+ one )as to 3e a9are t)at t)e nature o" t)e
#uroean roje2t is not li(ited to t)ese )istori2al e!ents& T)e end o" t)e
Cold War and t)e desire o" "or(er #astern 3lo2 nations to 3e in2luded in
t)e #uroean Union )a!e 2)anged t)e nature and dire2tion o" t)e de3ate
a3out t)e "or( o" #uroean integration& Burt)er(ore+ it 9ould also see(
t)at nationalisti2 aggression and et)ni2 tensions are on t)e rise in
;0
#uroe& T)e atro2ities 2o((itted in 5oso!o+ and t)e 9ars resulting
"ro( t)e 3rea' u o" ?ugosla!ia )a!e resented ne9 2)allenges to t)e
roje2t o" )u(an rig)ts and de(o2ra2y in #uroe&
We 9ill see+ during t)e 2ourse o" t)is unit+ t)at t)ese ongoing e""orts to
3uild de(o2ra2y and )u(an rig)ts in #uroe are (ani"old and 2o(leA&
T)ey )a!e also (et 9it) so(e oliti2al resistan2e "ro( t)ose 9)o "ear
t)e loss o" o9er and in"luen2e "ro( t)e nation state and t)e rise o" 9)at
so(e see as a #uroean "ederal stru2tureE ;ur "o2us in t)is C)ater is+ o"
2ourse+ on )u(anFs rig)ts+ 3ut+ as 9ill 3e argued+ t)e #uroean
eAeri(ent is in2reasingly 3ringing toget)er )u(an rig)ts and so2ial
and e2ono(i2 rig)ts to 2reate a syste( t)at is unli'e t)e ot)ers t)at 9e
)a!e studied in t)is study guide&
In May .;4=+ delegates "ro( nu(erous #uroean 2ountries attended
T)e Hague Con"eren2e& T)e Con"eren2e 9as dedi2ated to ro(oting
#uroean uni"i2ation& One o" t)e resolutions ta'en at t)e 2on2lusion o"
ro2eedings 9as "or t)e dra"ting o" a #uroean Con!ention on Hu(an
Rig)ts& In .;4;+ t)e Coun2il o" #uroe 9as 2reated+ and tas'ed 9it) t)e
2reation o" t)e Con!ention& Alt)oug) t)e Coun2il 9as initially relu2tant
a3out t)e roje2t+ it 3e2a(e one o" t)e (ajor 2)a(ions o" t)e
Con!ention 9)i2) it 3egan to are2iate 9as 2entral to t)e realisation o"
so2ial+ e2ono(i2 and de(o2rati2 sta3ility&
T)e #uroean Con!ention "or t)e $rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts L#CHRM
9as signed in Ro(e in .;4: and 2a(e into "or2e in .;4@& T)e
Con!ention guarantees 2ertain rig)ts in2luding t)e rig)t to li"e+ "reedo(
"ro( torture+ "reedo( "ro( ar3itrary arrest+ t)e rig)t to a "air trial+ t)e
rig)t to ri!a2y+ "reedo( o" religion+ "reedo( o" eAression+ and
"reedo( o" asse(3ly and asso2iation& It is 9ort) noting t)at t)e !ery
2ontent o" t)e Con!ention )as 3een 2riti2isedE in arti2ular its eA2lusion
o" so2ial and e2ono(i2 rig)ts&
Institutionally+ t)e Con!ention ro!ided "or an international 2ourt and a
Co((ission to 2onsider 2o(laints and de2ide 9)et)er or not to re(it
t)e( to t)e 2ourt& #!en at t)is early stage+ it is ossi3le to see t)at
2ertain nations sa9 t)is as a ossi3le 2o(ro(ise o" t)eir so!ereignty&
T)e Con!ention allo9ed a nation to deter(ine 9)et)er or not it 9ould
a22et t)e jurisdi2tion o" t)e 2ourt& As Ho""(an and Ro9e argue7
T)e Con!ention 9as an eAtre(ely radi2al inno!ation& Ne!er 3e"ore
)ad t)ere 3een a syste( o" international la9 9)i2) )eld states
a22ounta3le to so(e suerior 2ourt in rese2t o" a2tions against t)eir
o9n 2itiHens7 re!ious international 2ourts and tri3unals 9ere
2onstituted solely to settle disutes 3et9een states+ or+ in t)e 2ase o"
;<
t)e Nure(3erg Tri3unal+ to try indi!iduals "or t)eir o9n 2ri(inal
resonsi3ility&
We 2an stress a nu(3er o" oints& T)e #CHR 9as inno!ati!e in t)at it
(ade so!ereign states resonsi3le to an international 2ourt& Ho""(an
and Ro9e suggest t)at t)is reresents a dearture "ro( t)e re!ious
(anner in 9)i2) international la9 oerated&
International la9 )ad re!iously only ro!ided (eans "or states to
resol!e disutes 9it) ea2) ot)er& T)e 2onse-uen2e o" t)is ne9
de!elo(ent is t)at so!ereign states )a!e to a22et t)at t)ey (ust
u)old t)e )u(an rig)ts o" t)eir 2itiHens& Underlying t)is resonsi3ility
is a sense t)at t)e state itsel" 2an 3e an a3user o" )u(an rig)ts&
It is 9ort) ointing out at t)is stage t)at t)ere )as 3een signi"i2ant
re"or( in t)e oeration o" t)e Court set u 3y t)e Con!ention&
Under "or(er arrange(ents t)ere 9as a #uroean Co((ission o"
Hu(an Rig)ts and a Co((ittee o" Ministers& T)e Co((ission o"
Hu(an Rig)ts 9ould rule on 3rea2)es o" t)e Con!ention 9)en a 2ase
9as su3(itted to it 3y a state arty& Under t)e old ro2edure state arties
and t)e Co((ission 2ould t)en re"er t)e 2ase to t)e #CHR& In ot)er
9ords+ an indi!idual 2o(lainant did not )a!e a rig)t to etition t)e
#CHR& T)is syste( 9as "ound to 3e in2reasingly ine""i2ient+ and una3le
to deal 9it) t)e in2reasing 2ase load& T)e Co((ission 9as a3olis)ed 3y
$roto2ol .. in .;;= Ct)e Co((ittee o" Ministers retains en"or2e(ent
o9ers under t)e ne9 arrange(entsD+ and "urt)er 2)anges 9ere (ade to
t)e stru2ture o" t)e 2ourt 3y $roto2ol = Csee se2tion II o" t)e Con!ention
3elo9D& T)ese 2)anges )a!e en)an2ed t)e o9er o" t)e 2ourt+ 3ut t)ere
are still (isgi!ings a3out its a3ility to 2oe 9it) t)e nu(3er o" 2ases
9it) 9)i2) it )as to deal&
T)e ot)er e2uliarity o" t)e Con!ention is t)e status o" t)e Ks)aredK
oliti2al in)eritan2e 3et9een nations to 9)i2) it aeals&
Undou3tedly t)is re"ers to t)e 3oo's+ )iloso)ies and t)in'ers t)at
2ould 3e said to 2)ara2terise t)e #uroean traditionE 3ut+ t)e trau(a o"
t)e Se2ond World War (ig)t also suggest t)at t)e !alues o" )u(anity
)ad 3een -ui2'ly "orgotten in a #uroe o" 2on2entration 2a(s+
2olla3orators and total 9ar& It (ig)t a2tually 3e di""i2ult to "ind a
)istori2al eriod rior to t)e dra"ting o" t)e Con!ention 9)en #uroe
9as "ree o" 2on"li2t& Bro( t)is erse2ti!e+ t)e $rea(3le o" t)e
Con!ention )as to 3e read as an in2ul2ation o" t)e !alues t)at it stands
"or& $re2isely 3e2ause #uroe )ad to( itsel" aart+ it is no9 ne2essary to
sea' o" 9)at 2ould 3ring it 3a2' toget)er& #!en i" t)e Se2ond World
War suggested t)at t)e !alues o" #uroean de(o2ra2y 9ere not as
strong as a dri!e to9ards anni)ilation+ t)e Con!ention 9ill see' to
;=
re(ind #uroeans t)at t)ose !alues eAisted in t)e ast+ and 2ould 3e
re2o!ered "or t)e "uture&
As C)ur2)ill )i(sel" 9arned in t)e Ouri2) see2) o" .;40+ t)e dar' days
2ould !ery easily return&
Su''#r-
T)e roots o" t)e #CHR lie in t)e (o!e(ent "or #uroean re2onstru2tion
and t)e atte(ts to 2reate a lasting ea2e a"ter t)e Se2ond World War&
T)e Coun2il o" 9)i2) 2a(e into "or2e in .;4@& T)e Con!ention 2ontains
a 2atalogue o" rig)ts+ 3ut )as 3een 2riti2ised "or eA2luding so2ial and
e2ono(i2 rig)ts& T)e Con!ention also 2reated a Co((ission and a
Court+ and it is 9ort) noting t)e radi2al nature o" t)ese institutional
inno!ations& It is also i(ortant to note t)at t)ere )a!e 3een institutional
re"or(s 6(ost i(ortantly+ t)e a3olition o" t)e Co((ission and t)e rise
in i(ortan2e o" t)e rig)t o" indi!idual etition&
/82 T"% Euro7%#n Un!on #nd Hu'#n R!,"t&
T)e #uroean Union 9as "ounded in .;;2 3y t)e Treaty on #uroean
Union& It 9as "or(erly 'no9n as t)e #uroean Co((unity&
T)e #CHR is not to 3e 2on"used 9it) t)e !arious treaties t)at 2onstitute
t)e #uroean Union& *e"ining t)e Union is a di""i2ult tas'E and indeed+
t)e oliti2al i(li2ations o" !arious de"initions o" t)e Union are
2urrently 3eing "oug)t out in #uroean oliti2s& A 3asi2 9or'ing
de"inition is+ )o9e!er+ ossi3le& T)e #uroean Union is essentially a
2o((on (ar'et& Lin'ed to t)e 2o((on (ar'et+ and oen to !arying
degrees o" a22etan2e 3y t)e (e(3er states o" t)e Union is an ongoing
eAeri(ent in so2ial de(o2ra2y& T)is (eans t)at t)e 2o((on (ar'et is
su3je2t to regulation+ and+ t)at t)ere is a 2o((it(ent to a a2'age o"
!arious so2ial+ e2ono(i2 and 9el"are rig)ts& T)is se2tion o" t)e 2)ater
9ill atte(t to outline t)e nature o" t)ese rig)ts+ and t)eir relations)i
9it) t)e #CHR and t)e #uroean Court& ,ut it is 9ort) stressing
C3e2ause it is a 2o((on errorD+ t)at t)e la9 deri!ing "ro( t)e Treaty o"
Ro(e+ and t)e ot)er treaties t)at relate to t)e #uroean Union are
di""erent sour2es o" la9 "ro( t)ose o" t)e Con!ention& Clearly+ t)oug)+
3ot) sour2es o" la9 "eed into t)e 3roader 2onteAt o" t)e rote2tion and
en"or2e(ent o" rig)ts in #uroe&
T)e Treaty o" Ro(e+ .;4<+ ro!ides t)e 3asi2 "ra(e9or' o" t)e
2o((on (ar'et+ 9)i2) is "ounded on t)e "ree (o!e(ent o" goods+
la3our+ 2aital and ser!i2es+ as 9ell as oli2ies on transort+
2o(etition+ agri2ulture and eAternal trade& Arti2le 2 states7
;;
T)e 2o((unity s)all )a!e as its tas'+ 3y esta3lis)ing a 2o((on
(ar'et and rogressi!ely aroAi(ating t)e e2ono(i2 oli2ies o"
(e(3er states+ to ro(ote t)roug)out t)e Co((unity a )ar(onious
de!elo(ent o" e2ono(i2 a2ti!ities+ a 2ontinuous and 3alan2ed
eAansion+ an in2rease in sta3ility+ an a22elerated raising o" t)e
standard o" li!ing and 2loser relations 3et9een t)e States 3elonging
to it&
As t)is Arti2le suggests+ t)e Co((unity Cas t)e Union 9as t)en 'no9nD
is ri(arily an e2ono(i2 grouing& T)e oint o" t)e 2o((unity is to 2o6
ordinate t)e e2ono(i2 oli2ies o" t)e (e(3er states to 2reate a trade
3lo2 t)at allo9s #uroe to 2o(ete internationally& T)e so2ial
de(o2rati2 i(etus o" t)e 2o((unity is er)as aarent )ere in t)e
state(ent t)at one o" t)e 'ey goals o" t)e 2o((unity is t)e Ia22elerated
raising o" t)e standards o" li!ingK o" t)e 2itiHens o" (e(3er states& T)e
e2ono(y+ in t)is sense+ oerates as a so2ial (ar'et+ 3ringing 3ene"its to
t)e 2itiHens o" t)ose states t)at (a'e u t)e 2o((unity&
T)e Treaty o" Ro(e does 2ontain 2ertain rig)ts t)at 2ould 3e seen as
)u(an rig)ts+ to t)e eAtent t)at t)ey are si(ilar to t)ose 2ontained in t)e
Uni!ersal *e2laration+ t)e Co!enants or ot)er international )u(an
rig)ts instru(ents& T)e "ollo9ing eAa(les are not (eant to o""er a
de"initi!e 2o!erage o" t)e Treaty+ 3ut are (eant to indi2ate t)e eAtent to
9)i2) t)e 2o((on (ar'et is also lin'ed to so2ial and e2ono(i2 rig)ts&
T)us Arti2le =a+ 3a2'ed u 3y Arti2le 4=+ states t)at all 2itiHens o" t)e
#uroean Union C#UD )a!e t)e Irig)t to (o!e and reside "reely 9it)in
t)e territory o" t)e Me(3er StatesF& T)is is 2learly 2o(arati!e 9it)
rig)ts to "reedo( o" (o!e(ent 9it)in t)e *e2laration+ alt)oug) it is
o3!iously (ore li(ited& $er)as one o" t)e (ost 2ontro!ersial rig)ts Cat
least "ro( t)e erse2ti!e o" #nglis) la9D+ is Arti2le ..;+ 9)i2)
ro!ides t)at (e(3er states s)ould I(aintain t)e ali2ation o" t)e
rin2ile t)at (en and 9o(en s)ould re2ei!e e-ual ay "or e-ual 9or'F&
T)is rin2ile is itsel" 3ased on t)e 9ider ro)i3ition on dis2ri(ination
t)at runs t)roug) )u(an rig)ts instru(ents& It is 2learly rat)er li(ited in
its s2oe in Arti2le ..;+ as t)is alies only to e-ual ay "or e-ual 9or'+
3ut+ it also 2learly illustrates t)e 9ay in 9)i2) t)e Treaty o" Ro(e dra9s
on t)e 9ider )u(an rig)ts in)eritan2e&
T"% In&t!tut!on& o2 t"% Euro7%#n Un!on
T)e Treaty o" Ro(e esta3lis)ed t)e 2entral institutions o" t)e
Co((unity& T)ese are7
T)e Co((ission
T)e Coun2il o" t)e #uroean Union
T)e #uroean $arlia(ent
.::
T)e #uroean Court o" %usti2e C#C%D&
We 9ill 3rie"ly des2ri3e t)ese 3odies and t)eir relations)i& T)e
Co((ission 2an 3e t)oug)t o" as t)e Co((unityKs eAe2uti!e 3ody&
T)e o3je2ti!es o" t)e Coun2il o" t)e #uroean Union are to 2o6 ordinate
t)e e2ono(i2 oli2ies o" (e(3er states& T)e #uroean+ $arlia(ent
ro!ides a de(o2rati2 inut& It is in!ol!ed in t)e legislati!e ro2ess+ 3ut
also )as ot)er+ 3roader o9ers& T)e #uroean Court o" %usti2e Cdo not
2on"use 9it) t)e #uroean Court o" Hu(an Rig)tsD is t)e UnionFs
judi2ial 3ody 9it) aut)ority o!er t)e ali2ation and interretation o"
t)e treaties t)at (a'e u t)e Union&
It is 9ort) ointing out at t)is stage t)at t)e legal order o" t)e #U is
di""erent "ro( t)e "or(s o" international )u(an rig)ts la9 t)at 9e )a!e
eAa(ined so "ar& T)e "ollo9ing state(ent+ dra9n "ro( one o" )u(an
rig)ts 2ultures in t)e ne9 (e(3er states t)at )ad "or(erly 3een art o"
t)e So!iet 3lo2&
T)ere is one ot)er i(ortant institution 9e need to 3rie"ly eAa(ine&
#sta3lis)ed in .;;;+ t)e O""i2e o" t)e Co((issioner "or Hu(an Rig)ts
eAists as Ian indeendent institution 9it)in t)e Coun2il o" #uroeF& T)e
Co((issionerFs (andate eAtends o!er "our areas7 edu2ation in )u(an
rig)ts a9areness+ t)e en2ourage(ent "or and "a2ilitation o" )u(an rig)ts
rote2tion+ t)e identi"i2ation o" "ailures in )u(an rig)ts rote2tion and
ro(otion o" )u(an rig)ts in t)e Union& Bor instan2e+ in %anuary 2::.+
t)e Co((issioner !isited Andorra&
.
In .;;@ Andorra )ad adoted its
"irst de(o2rati2 2onstitution& T)e Co((issioner (ade largely
"a!oura3le 2o((ents on t)e rig)ts o" "oreigners in t)e 2ountry+ t)e
oeration o" its legal syste( and enal institutions+ e(loy(ent rig)ts
and so2ial se2urity ro!ision& Alt)oug) t)e Co((issioner (ade so(e
2onstru2ti!e and 2riti2al 2o((ents+ )e reorted t)at It)ere LareM no
insur(ounta3le ro3le(s in Andorra as "ar as t)e o!erall enjoy(ent o"
)u(an rig)ts is 2on2ernedF&
Ot"%r S!,n!2!#nt Euro7%#n Hu'#n R!,"t& :od!%&
To a2)ie!e a 3road o!er!ie9 o" )u(an rig)ts rote2tion 9it)in t)e #U+
it is ne2essary to 3rie"ly re!ie9 t)e oeration o" so(e ot)er signi"i2ant
#uroean 3odies and t)eir "oundational teAts& T)e #uroean So2ial
C)arter 2ontains a list o" rig)ts and "reedo(s+ ri(arily so2ial and
e2ono(i2 rig)ts+ and a suer!isory ro2edure 9)i2) in!ol!es t)e
#uroean Co((ittee o" So2ial Rig)ts C#CSRD& States (ust reort
annually on t)e C)arterFs i(le(entation+ and t)e Co((itteeKs reorts
are u3lis)ed& I" a state "ails to ta'e a2tion on an #CSR de2ision+ t)e
Co((ittee o" Ministers 2an issue a re2o((endation "or legal 2)ange to
t)e rele!ant stateFs go!ern(ent& T)ere is also a 2olle2ti!e 2o(laints
.:.
ro2edure under t)e C)arter& T)is ena3les trade unions and e(loyerFs
organisations+ and 2ertain ot)er arties+ to lodge 2o(laints o" !iolations
9it) t)e #CSR& I" t)e 2ase is ad(issi3le+ t)e Co((ittee (a'es a
de2ision and reorts to t)e Co((ittee o" Ministers&
T)ere is also t)e #uroean Con!ention "or t)e $re!ention o" Torture and
In)u(an or *egrading Treat(ent or $unis)(ent+ .;;=& T)is is
dis2ussed 3elo9&
#sta3lis)ed in .;;@+ T)e #uroean Co((ission against Ra2is( and
Intoleran2e C#CRID ro!ides an indeendent (onitoring (e2)anis(& Its
(andate 2o!ers Coun2il o" #uroe (e(3er states+ and in2ludes ra2is(+
Aeno)o3ia+ antise(itis( and intoleran2e& T)e Coun2il o" #uroe also
adoted in .;;4 a Bra(e9or' Con!ention t)at relates to t)e rote2tion
o" national (inorities&
Not%7 Alongside t)e #U+ t)e Coun2il o" #uroe and t)e Con!ention+
t)ere is a t)ird #uroean Institution+ t)e Organisation "or Se2urity and
Co6oeration in #uroe COSC#D& Bounded in .;;4+ t)is organisation )as
its roots in t)e Con"eren2e on Se2urity and Co6oeration in #uroe
9)i2) sonsored t)e Helsin'i A22ord and t)e (eetings t)at "ollo9ed t)e
signing o" t)is do2u(ent& T)is ro2ess essentially 2on2erned (atters o"
se2urity+ and in2luded t)e So!iet Union+ Canada and t)e United States&
At t)is oint+ Hu(an Rig)ts 2on2erns 9ere li(ited in t)e 9or' o" t)e
Con"eren2eE and t)e agree(ents t)at it en2ouraged 9ere not legally
3inding& Ho9e!er+ t)e Con"eren2e layed an i(ortant dilo(ati2 role&
Sin2e .;;4+ t)e Organisation )as dedi2ated itsel" to t)e 2reation and
suort o" de(o2rati2 institutions+ international 2o6oeration and t)e
rule o" la9&
Su''#r-
One (ust 3e 2are"ul to o3ser!e t)at t)e #CHR and its asso2iated
institutions are searate and distin2t "ro( t)ose o" t)e #U& T)e #U 2an
3e t)oug)t o" as a 2o((on (ar'et+ 9it) its o9n institutional stru2ture
t)at is des2ri3ed in t)is se2tion& Ho9e!er+ 3e2ause o" t)e ideologi2al
underinnings o" t)e #U+ t)e 2o((on (ar'et also 2ontains a
2o((it(ent to a 2atalogue o" )u(an rig)ts& T)ese are 2ontained in t)e
la9 o" t)e #U& Alt)oug) not essentially )u(an rig)ts la9+ as it is
2on2erned 9it) t)e stru2ture and oeration o" t)e #U+ t)is la9 )as a
)u(an rig)ts ele(ent& #U la9 2an 3e t)oug)t o" as entering dire2tly into
t)e do(esti2 legal syste(s o" (e(3er states& T)is 2ould t)ere"ore 2reate
)u(an rig)ts in a 9ay di""erent "ro( t)e ot)er syste(s t)at 9e )a!e
studied in t)is 3oo'& Re2ent de!elo(ents and re"or(s in t)e #U s)o9
an in2reasing 2o((it(ent to )u(an rig)ts+ in art 3e2ause o" t)e need
.:2
to in2ul2ate rig)ts 2ultures in t)ose ne9 (e(3er states t)at 9ere
"or(erly art o" t)e So!iet 3lo2&
/8/ T"% Euro7%#n Con*%nt!on on Hu'#n R!,"t&
Art!$% . states an Io3ligation to rese2t )u(an rig)tsF& Li'e t)e
e-ui!alent in t)e A(eri2an Con!ention+ it states a "ounding rin2ile
t)at underlies t)e oeration o" t)e Treaty& State arties underta'e to
Ise2ure to e!eryone 9it)in+ t)eir jurisdi2tionF t)e rig)ts t)at are de"ined
3y t)e Con!ention& Se2tion . goes on to list t)e rig)ts and "reedo(s t)at
are rote2ted&
S%t!on .
Art!$% 2 states t)e rig)t to li"e& T)is is a (ore eAtended de"inition t)an
t)at ro!ided 3y t)e Uni!ersal *e2laration& T)e "unda(ental nature o"
t)is Arti2le is indi2ated 3y t)e "a2t t)at it is not ossi3le to derogate
"ro( it Csee .4C2DD+ eA2et "or Ideat)s resulting "ro( la9"ul a2ts o" 9arF&
T)e Arti2le 3egins 3y la2ing a ositi!e duty on a state arty to rote2t
I#!eryoneFs rig)t to li"eF& T)ere are t)en eA2etions to t)e rin2ile& T)e
"irst 3road eA2etion 2o!ers judi2ial eAe2ution ursuant to a senten2e
ronoun2ed 3y a 2ourt o" la9&
Se2tion . C2D goes on to ro!ide t)at t)e rig)t to li"e 9ill not )a!e 3een
3rea2)ed i"+ in 2ases o" ne2essity+ "or2e is used7
to de"end a erson "ro( unla9"ul !iolen2e
to (a'e an arrest or re!ent an es2ae o" so(eone 9)o )as 3een
la9"ully detained
in la9"ul a2tions ta'en against eAtre(e instan2es o" u3li2 disorder
su2) as Iriot or insurre2tionF&
Art!$% / states t)e ro)i3ition on torture& T)is also 2o!ers Iin)u(an or
degrading treat(ent or unis)(entF& Li'e Arti2le 2+ no derogation "ro(
t)is Arti2le is ossi3le Csee .4C2DD& T)e a3solute nature o" t)e Arti2le )as
led so(e to argue t)at less serious "or(s o" ill6treat(ent 2ould not 3e
2onsidered under it+ as t)is 9ould tri!ialise t)e rote2tion t)at Arti2le @
o""ers& T)is 9as also ointed out in Ireland ! "5 C.;=:D 2 #HRR 24+
9)ere %udge BitH(auri2e ointed out t)at a te(tation eAisted to aly
Arti2le @ to treat(ent t)at "ell s)ort o" torture 3e2ause t)ere 9ere no
ot)er rele!ant Arti2les in t)e Con!ention&
2
In t)e sa(e 2ase+ t)e Court
de"ined torture as Ideli3erate in)u(an treat(ent 2ausing !ery serious
and 2ruel su""eringF62ertain ro3ust interrogation te2)ni-ues and e!en
)ysi2al assaults on risoners 9ere t)us not "ound to 2onstitute torture&
To date+ t)e only 2ase Cand t)is 9as 2onsidered 3y t)e Co((ission and
t)e Co((ittee o" MinistersD in 9)i2) torture 9as "ound 9as It)e Gree'
.:@
2aseF C.2 ?, . 4:4 Co( Re&.;0;D& Se!ere 3eatings allo!er t)e 3ody to
eAtra2t in"or(ation 9as )eld to )a!e 2onstituted It)e ne2essary le!el o"
su""eringF&
T)e #uroean Con!ention "or t)e $re!ention o" Torture and In)u(an or
*egrading Treat(ent or $unis)(ent .;;= sule(ents Arti2le @& T)e
Con!ention esta3lis)es a #uroean Co((ittee "or t)e $re!ention o"
Torture CC$TD& T)is 3ody )as t)e o9er to !isit detention 2entres and
risons and (onitor t)e treat(ent o" t)ose detained& T)e Co((ittee
dra9s u reorts a"ter !isitsE t)ese reorts are 2o((uni2ated to t)e state
arty 2on2erned&
Art!$% 4 2on2erns t)e ro)i3ition o" sla!ery and "or2ed la3our& T)e
Arti2le 3egins 3y eAli2itly ro)i3iting Isla!ery and ser!itudeF+ and goes
on to ro)i3it I"or2ed or 2o(ulsory la3ourF& No derogation is ossi3le
"ro( Arti2le 4C.D Csee .4C2DD& Arti2le 4C@D t)en outlines t)e eA2etions to
t)is general rin2ile& IBor2ed or 2o(ulsory la3ourF does not in2lude
9or' 2arried out in t)e Iordinary 2ourse o" detentionF+ 9or' o" Iser!i2e
or a (ilitary 2)ara2terF+ 9or' 2arried out in e(ergen2y situations+ or
9or' as art o" nor(al 2i!i2 o3ligations& T)is Arti2le )as generated !ery
little 2ase la9+ and to date+ no 3rea2) )as 3een "ound&
Art!$% 0 arti2ulates t)e rig)t to li3erty and se2urity& T)e Arti2le 3egins
9it) a ositi!e state(ent o" t)e rig)t7 I#!eryone )as t)e rig)t to li3erty
and se2urity o" ersonFE t)e 2onse-uen2e o" t)is is t)at ar3itrary
detention is ro)i3ited+ eA2et in 2ertain 2ir2u(stan2es 9)ere it is
Ires2ri3ed 3y la9F& T)ese in2lude7
la9"ul detention a"ter senten2e )as 3een ronoun2ed 3y a 2o(etent
2ourt
la9"ul arrest ursuant to a 2ourt order or to Ise2ureF t)e "ul"ill(ent o"
la9"ul o3ligations
detention to ena3le a erson to 3e 3roug)t 3e"ore a 2ourt o" la9
9)ere t)ere is reasona3le susi2ion o" an o""en2e )a!ing 3een
2o((itted or to re!ent t)e 2o((ission o" an o""en2e
detention o" a (inor "or edu2ational uroses or to ena3le t)e (inor
to 3e 3roug)t 3e"ore 2o(etent legal aut)orities
detention to re!ent t)e sread o" 2ontagious disease or to 2ontrol
2ertain 2lasses o" ersons&
la9"ul arrest to re!ent unaut)orised entry into a 2ountry or to allo9
deortation&
*ue ro2ess sa"eguards are also ro!ided 3y t)e Arti2le7 in t)e situation
o" arrest+ t)e rig)t to 3e ro(tly in"or(ed+ in a language 9)i2) t)e
detainee understands+ o" t)e reasons "or t)e arrest+ and 9)et)er or not
t)ere are any 2)arges against )i(& $aragra) @ states t)at t)e detainee
(ust 3e 3roug)t 3e"ore a judge+ e-ui!alent la9 o""i2er or tri3unal and is
.:4
entitled to a trial in a reasona3le ti(e+ or release ending trial& $aragra)
4 states t)at t)e detained erson is also entitled to ta'e ro2eedings t)at
deter(ine t)e la9"ulness o" )is detention+ and+ t)e "inal aragra)
ro!ides a rig)t to 2o(ensation i" )is Arti2le 4 rig)ts )a!e 3een
3rea2)ed&
T)is Arti2le )as rodu2ed a great deal o" 2ase la9& We 2an eAa(ine one
i(ortant 2ase+ #ngel and 'thers ! /he %etherlands (%o.68 C.;<;6=:D .
#HRR 04<+ a 2ase t)at 2on2erned (ilitary dis2iline& 7 T)e 2ourt argued
t)at Arti2le 4C.D7
Is 2onte(lating indi!idual li3erty in its 2lassi2 sense+ t)at is to say
t)e )ysi2al li3erty o" t)e erson& Its ai( is to ensure t)at no one
s)ould 3e disossessed o" t)is li3erty in an ar3itrary "as)ion& As
ointed out 3y t)e Go!ern(ent and t)e Co((ission+ it does not
2on2ern (ere restri2tions uon li3erty o" (o!e(ent CArt& 2 o"
$roto2ol No&4D& T)is is 2lear 3ot) "ro( t)e use o" t)e ter(s Ideri!ed
o" )is li3ertyF+ IarrestF and IdetentionF+ 9)i2) aear also in
aragra)s 2 to 4+ and "ro( a 2o(arison 3et9een Arti2le 4 and t)e
ot)er nor(ati!e ro!isions o" t)e Con!ention and its $roto2ols& Cara
4=D&
It is ne2essary+ t)ere"ore+ to read t)is Arti2le in its 2orre2t 2onteAt& It is
ai(ed ri(arily at unla9"ul detentionE or deri!ation o" li3erty in Ian
ar3itrary "as)ionF& One 2an t)us understand t)at t)e stru2ture o" t)e
Arti2le re"le2ts t)e ositi!e state(ent o" t)e rig)ts and an enu(eration
o" t)ose instan2es 9)ere detention is justi"ia3le& T)e Court )eld+ inter
alia, t)at a syste( o" (ilitary dis2iline did not+ in itsel"+ 2onstitute a
3rea2) o" t)e Arti2leE alt)oug) 2ertain dis2ilinary ra2ti2es 2ould in
t)e(sel!es a(ount to 3rea2)es i" a enalty or (easure de!iated "ro(
t)ose nor(ally ertaining to t)e ar(ed "or2es&
Art!$% @ 2o!ers t)e rig)t to a "air trial& Arti2le 0C.D 2o!ers "air trial
rig)ts t)at relate to 3ot) Ideter(inationsF o" 2ri(inal and 2i!il Irig)ts
and o3ligationsF& Note t)at t)is de"inition is 3road+ and t)us eAtends
3eyond "or(al 2ourts o" la9& T)e aragra) 2ontains a list o" (ini(al
rig)ts7 e!ery erson )as a rig)t to 3e judged 3y a la9"ully 2onstituted
indeendent tri3unal 9it)in a reasona3le ti(e& T)ere are a nu(3er o"
eA2etions to t)e rin2ile t)at t)e )earing (ust 3e in u3li27 t)e rig)t to
a u3li2 judg(ent 2an 3e legiti(ately restri2ted in t)e interests o"
I(orals+ u3li2 order or national se2urity in a de(o2rati2 so2ietyF or+ in
t)e interests o" ju!eniles+ t)e rote2tion o" ri!ate li"e+ or+ a 2at2) 6all
ro!ision7 Ito t)e eAtent stri2tly ne2essary in t)e oinion o" t)e 2ourt in
se2ial 2ir2u(stan2es 9)ere u3li2ity 9ould rejudi2e t)e interests o"
justi2eF&
.:4
I" a erson is 2)arged 9it) a 2ri(inal o""en2e+ t)ey )a!e 3y a2t& 0C2D+ t)e
rig)t to 3e Iresu(ed inno2ent until ro!ed guilty a22ording to la9F&
T)e Arti2le t)en enu(erates a nu(3er o" (ini(u( rig)ts& T)ese
in2lude7
t)e rig)t to 3e in"or(ed in a language t)at one understands+ o" t)e
Inature and 2auseF o" t)e +a22usations (ade against one
ade-uate ti(e and "a2ilities to reare a de"en2e
t)e rig)t to de"end onesel"+ or to 2ounsel&
In 2ertain 2ir2u(stan2es+ t)ere (ay 3e7
a rig)t to legal aid
t)e rig)t to eAa(ine )ostile 9itnesses and to 2o(el t)e attendan2e
o" 9itnesses
to use a translator "ree o" 2)arge+ i" )e 2annot understand t)e
language o" t)e 2ourt&
To 3ene"it "ro( Arti2le 0+ t)e ali2ant (ust )a!e an argua3le rig)t
under do(esti2 la9& Arti2le 0C.D does not guarantee any arti2ular
su3stanti!e 2ontent "or 2i!il rig)ts and o3ligations in national la9+ 3ut
ro!ides only t)e ro2edural guarantees "or t)e deter(ination o" tena3le
rig)ts& Alt)oug) Arti2le 0C.D 2annot 3e used to 2reate a su3stanti!e 2i!il
rig)t+ it (ay aly in 2ases 9)ere do(esti2 la9 2ontains i((unities or
ro2edural 3ars t)at li(it t)e ossi3ility o" 3ringing otential 2lai(s to
2ourt. In su2) 2ases+ t)e Con!ention ro!ides a degree o" I2onstraint or
2ontrolK on statesF a3ilities to re(o!e 2i!il rig)ts "ro( t)e jurisdi2tion o"
t)e 2ourt or to ro!ide i((unity to arti2ular grous o" ersons&
Clayton and To(linson argue t)at Arti2le 0 eAressly 2on"ers "air
)earing rig)ts in 3road and un-uali"ied ter(s& In addition+ t)e Court )as
re2ognised an Ii(lied rig)tF o" a22ess to t)e 2ourts and a series o" ot)er
Ki(liedK "air trial rig)ts& It )as ta'en t)e !ie9 t)at i(lied Arti2le 0
rig)ts 2an only 3e restri2ted in "urt)eran2e o" a legiti(ate ai( and 9)ere
t)e (easures ta'en are ne2essary "or t)e a2)ie!e(ent o" t)is ai( and are
roortionate& Se2ial additional rig)ts are 2on"erred on t)ose "a2ing
2ri(inal 2)arges& T)ere are t)ere"ore "i!e -uestions to 3e as'ed 9)en
2onsidering 9)et)er a u3li2 3ody )as !iolated Arti2le 07

Is t)e 3ody engaged in t)e deter(ination o" 2i!il rig)ts and
o3ligations or a 2ri(inal 2)argeJ
In t)e 2ase o" a 2ri(inal 2)arge )as t)ere 3een any 3rea2) o" t)e
(ini(u( guarantees in Arti2les 0C2D and 0C@DJ
Has t)ere 3een an in"ringe(ent o" t)e eAress rig)t to an
indeendent and i(artial tri3unal+ a )earing 9it)in reasona3le ti(e+
a u3li2 )earing and u3li2 ronoun2e(ent o" judg(entJ
.:0
Has t)ere 3een an aarent in"ringe(ent o" t)e ali2a3le i(lied
"air trial rig)tsJ I" so, 9as t)is in"ringe(ent "or a legiti(ate ai(+
ne2essary and roortionateJ
Has t)e ali2ant 9ai!ed t)e rig)t in -uestionJ
Art!$% A ens)rines t)e rin2ile t)at t)ere s)ould 3e no unis)(ent
9it)out la9& CArti2le .4C2D ro!ides t)at no derogation "ro( t)is Arti2le
is ossi3le&D It e""e2ti!ely ro)i3its e$ post facto la9s& In 5oinais !
3reece CC.;;4D .< #HRR @;<D+ t)e 2ourt ointed out t)at7
>Arti2le <C.D o" t)e Con!ention+ 9)i2) ro)i3its t)e retroa2ti!e
ali2ation o" t)e 2ri(inal la9 and t)e retroa2ti!e i(osition o"
)ea!ier enalties to t)e detri(ent o" t)e a22used+ also enun2iates Iin
a (ore general 9ay+ t)e rin2ile o" t)e statutory nature o" o""en2es
and unis)(ent (nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege89
@
and
ro)i3its Iin arti2ular+ eAtension o" t)e ali2ation o" t)e 2ri(inal
la9 Din malam partemC 3y analogyF& In addition+ t)at rin2ile also
in2ludes It)e re-uire(ent t)at t)e o""en2e s)ould 3e 2learly
des2ri3ed 3y la9> T)is re-uire(ent is satis"ied 9)ere it is ossi3le
to deter(ine "ro( t)e rele!ant statutory ro!ision 9)at a2t or
o(ission entails 2ri(inal lia3ility+ e!en i" su2) deter(ination deri!es
"ro( t)e 2ourtsK interretation o" t)e ro!ision 2on2erned&
T)e Rig)t to rese2t "or ri!ate and "a(ily li"e is guaranteed 3y Art!$%
B& Arti2le = C2D ro)i3its any Iinter"eren2eF 3y u3li2 aut)orities eA2et
Ias in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e la9 and is ne2essary in a de(o2rati2 so2ietyF&
Su2) restri2tions 9ould in2lude li(itations on t)e Arti2le in Kt)e interests
o" national se2urity+ u3li2 sa"ety or t)e e2ono(i2 9ell63eing o" t)e
2ountry+ "or t)e re!ention o" disorder or 2ri(e+ "or t)e rote2tion o"
)ealt) or (orals+ or "or t)e rote2tion o" t)e rig)ts and "reedo(s o"
ot)ersK& In 5roon ! /he %etherlands C.;;4D .; #HRR 20@D+ t)e Court
outlined t)e essential s2oe o" t)is Arti2le7
T)e essential o3je2t o" Arti2le = is to rote2t t)e indi!idual against
ar3itrary a2tion 3y t)e u3li2 aut)orities& T)ere (ay in addition 3e
ositi!e o3ligations in)erent in e""e2ti!e Irese2tF "or "a(ily li"e&
Alt)oug) t)e 3oundaries 3et9een t)e StateKs ositi!e and negati!e
o3ligations under t)is ro!ision do not lend t)e(sel!es to re2ise
de"inition+ t)e ali2a3le rin2iles are si(ilar& In 3ot) 2onteAts
regard (ust 3e )ad to t)e "air 3alan2e to 3e stru2' 3et9een t)e
2o(eting interests o" t)e indi!idual and o" t)e 2o((unity as a
9)oleE and in 3ot) 2onteAts t)e State enjoys a (argin o"
are2iation& Laragra) @.M&
T)e Court t)us eAlained t)at t)e ositi!e o3ligation to rese2t ri!ate
li"e relates to an o3ligation to re"rain "ro( 2ertain 2ondu2tE )o9e!er+ t)e
.:<
re2ise eAtent o" t)e stateFs o3ligations is di""i2ult to de"ine& T)e
rele!ant test is to 3alan2e t)e interests o" t)e indi!idual and t)e
2o((unity+ 3ut+ in stri'ing t)is 3alan2e+ t)e Irig)tF o" t)e state itsel" to
ta'e a2tion (ust 3e rese2ted& Co((entators suggest t)at t)e Court )as
not selt out in detail t)e re2ise 2ontent o" t)e restri2tions t)at 9ould 3e
2onsidered legiti(ate& Argua3ly+ t)is does a22ord 9it) a (argin o"
are2iation t)at a22ets t)at state a2tion in t)ese areas is ne2essary&
Art!$% C on "reedo( o" t)oug)t+ 2ons2ien2e and religion )as also
rodu2ed !ery little 2ase la9& T)e se2ond aragra) o" t)e Arti2le+ ;C2D+
la2es restri2tions on t)e rig)t as arti2ulated in ;C.D& T)e restri2tions are
ones t)at are justi"ia3le in a Ide(o2rati2 so2ietyF in t)e Kinterests o"
u3li2 sa"ety+ "or t)e rote2tion o" u3li2 order+ )ealt) or (orals+ or "or
t)e rote2tion o" t)e rig)ts and "reedo(s o" ot)ersK& Co((entators
CHarris et al. .;;4D )a!e des2ri3ed t)e Arti2le as reresenting t)e !alues
o" luralis( and toleran2e t)at underlie t)e Con!ention& W)et)er t)is
Arti2le 9ill 3e in!o'ed (ore "re-uently in t)e resent 2las) 3et9een
religious "unda(entalis(s and "reedo( o" eAression re(ains to 3e
seen&
Art!$% .9 arti2ulates t)e rig)t to "reedo( o" eAression& ,roadly
de"ined as 2o!ering t)e I"reedo( to )old oinions and re2ei!e and
i(art in"or(ation and ideasF+ t)e rig)t is restri2ted at art& .:C2D 3y a
state(ent o" t)e IdutiesF t)at t)e rig)t entails& It (ay t)us 3e su3je2t to
Isu2) "or(alities+ 2onditions+ restri2tions or enalties as are res2ri3ed
3y la9 and are ne2essary in a de(o2rati2 so2ietyF& T)e list o" eA2etions
is so(e9)at di""erent to t)at ro!ided in t)e Arti2les a3o!e& It 2o!ers7
It)e interests o" national se2urity+ territorial integrity or u3li2 sa"ety+ "or
t)e re!ention o" disorder or 2ri(e+ "or t)e rote2tion o" )ealt) or
(orals+ "or t)e rote2tion o" t)e reutation or rig)ts o" ot)ers+ "or
re!enting t)e dis2losure o" in"or(ation re2ei!ed in 2on"iden2e+ or "or
(aintaining t)e aut)ority and i(artiality o" t)e judi2iaryF&
T)e Arti2le is "unda(ental to t)e a2)ie!e(ent o" a de(o2rati2 so2iety&
In Handyside ! "5 L.;<0M . #HRR <@<+ t)e 2ourt ela3orated t)is
rin2ile& T)e Arti2le ai(s to rote2t Kluralis(+ toleran2e and
3road(indednessK+ 2i!i2 !irtues t)at are ne2essary "or a "louris)ing
de(o2ra2y& Ho9e!er+ t)e "unda(ental nature o" "reedo( o" eAression
does not (ean t)at t)e Arti2le is a3solute+ as 9e 2an see "ro( t)e
restri2tions i(osed&
Art!$% .. states t9o 2onne2ted "reedo(s7 asse(3ly and asso2iation&
T)e latter in2ludes t)e Irig)t to "or( and to join trade unionsF& As 9it)
t)e Arti2les a3o!e+ t)ere are also restri2tions on t)e eAtent o" t)ese
"reedo(s& T)ese are li(ited to t)ose t)at are Ires2ri3ed 3y la9 and are
ne2essary in a de(o2rati2 so2ietyF& T)ey t)us 2o!er restri2tions7 Iin t)e
.:=
interests o" national se2urity or u3li2 sa"ety+ "or t)e re!ention o"
disorder or 2ri(e+ "or t)e rote2tion o" )ealt) or (orals or "or t)e
rote2tion o" t)e rig)ts and "reedo(s o" ot)ersF& T)ere is an i(ortant
2on2luding senten2e t)at stresses t)at restri2tions 2an 3e la9"ully
i(osed 3y Kt)e ar(ed "or2es&&& t)e oli2e or&&& t)e ad(inistration o" t)e
State&F
T)e rig)t to (arry in Art!$% .2 2o!ers t)e rig)t to I"ound a "a(ilyF
9it)in t)e 2onteAt o" t)e do(esti2 la9s t)at go!ern t)is area& T)e Court
)as )eld in Aan 'osterwij ! =elgium CA 4: C.;=:D Co( ReD t)at t)is
does not (ean+ )o9e!er+ t)at a state 2ould 2o(letely re(o!e t)e rig)t
to (arry "ro( a erson or 2ategory o" ersons& In ot)er 9ords+ t)e
do(esti2 la9 o" t)e state arties )as not to 3e ar3itrary or e""e2ti!ely
re!ent t)e enjoy(ent o" a general rig)t to (arry&
Art!$%& ./ #nd .4 ro!ide+ rese2ti!ely+ a rig)t to an e""e2ti!e re(edy
and a ro)i3ition o" dis2ri(ination& Arti2le .4 is 9idely dra9n+ and 9e
s)all see 3elo9 )o9 it )as "ed into t)e jurisruden2e o" t)e Court as it
relates to !arious "or(s o" dis2ri(ination&
T)e rele!ant ali2ations o" Art!$% .0 )a!e 3een re"erred to a3o!e&
Art!$%& .@-.B 2an 3e read as a grou& Arti2le .0 allo9s restri2tions to
3e i(osed on t)e oliti2al a2ti!ity o" aliens C9)i2) in2ludes 2itiHens o"
ot)er #U statesD& Arti2le .< re!ents 3ot) states and indi!iduals or
grous "ro( 2lai(ing Kany rig)t to engage in any a2ti!ity or er"or( any
a2t ai(ed at t)e destru2tion o" any o" t)e rig)ts and "reedo(s set "ort)
)erein or at t)eir li(itation to a greater eAtent t)an is ro!ided "or in t)e
Con!entionK& T)e Arti2le )as 3een des2ri3ed 3y t)e Court as
sa"eguarding It)e "ree "un2tioning o" de(o2rati2 institutionsK (5PD !
E&3 L.;4<M No 24:/4<. ?,222+ at 22@& T)e 2ourt also 9ent on to say
t)at an order 3anning t)e Ger(an Co((unist $arty 2ould 3e justi"ied
under t)is Arti2le 3e2ause it ad!o2ated a "or( o" oliti2s in 9)i2) t)e
rig)ts o" t)e Con!ention 9ould not 3e rese2ted& Arti2le .= is not an
indeendent and "ree6standing Arti2le& It 2an only 3e leaded 3y
so(eone alleging a restri2tion on a su3stanti!e rig)t& T)e Arti2le see's
to re!ent restri2tions on one set o" rig)ts 3eing used as restri2tions on
ot)er rig)ts&
S%t!on II
Se2tion II o" t)e Con!ention esta3lis)es t)e institutions dedi2ated to t)e
rote2tion and en)an2e(ent o" )u(an rig)ts& Art!$% .C esta3lis)es t)e
#uroean Court o" Hu(an Rig)ts& 1arious Arti2les t)en relate to t)e
aoint(ent o" judges and t)eir ter(s o" o""i2e& It is 9ort) noting t)at
t)e judges o" t)e Court ser!e in t)eir indi!idual 2aa2ities CArti2le 2.D&
T)e 2ourt is t)us i(artial and indeendent o" t)e state arties 9)o are
.:;
signatories to t)e Con!ention& Art!$%& 2A-/9 state t)at t)e 2ourt is
organised into Co((ittees+ C)a(3ers and a Grand C)a(3er& T)ese
di!isions o" t)e 2ourt )a!e slig)tly di""erent o9ers in relation to
de2laring 2ases inad(issi3le&
Art!$% /2 outlines t)e CourtKs jurisdi2tion& Arti2le @2C.D states t)at it
eAtends to 3ot) t)e interretation and ali2ation o" t)e Con!ention and
its roto2ols& T)e Court also )as a general o9er to deter(ine its o9n
jurisdi2tion in e!ent o" disute Cart& @2C2DD&
T)ese o9ers are t)en "urt)er outlined& Art!$% // relates to inter state
2ases& One state arty (ay re"er to t)e Court any 3rea2) o" t)e
Con!ention or its roto2ols 3y anot)er state arty& Art!$% /4 #$$o3&
!nd!*!du#$ #77$!#t!on&8 T"% Court #n r%%!*% #77$!#t!on& 2ro'
J#n- 7%r&onF non-,o*%rn'%nt#$ or,#n!&#t!on or ,rou7 o2 indi!idualsK
9)o 2lai( t)at a state arty )as !iolated one or (ore o" )is Con!ention
rig)ts& Ho9e!er+ t)ere are ad(issi3ility 2riteria+ set out 3y Art!$% /08
T)e ali2ant (ust "irst )a!e eA)austed Iall do(esti2 re(ediesFE
"urt)er(ore Cart& @4C2DD+ t)e 2ourt 9ill not a22et anony(ous
su3(issions+ or t)ose t)at are Isu3stantially t)e sa(eF as t)ose it )as
already 2onsidered+ or 9)i2) are 3eing 2onsidered 3y Ianot)er ro2edure
o" international in!estigation or settle(ent and 2ontains no rele!ant ne9
in"or(ationK& T)e Court also )as a 9ide jurisdi2tion to de2lare
inad(issi3le ali2ations t)at are Iin2o(ati3leF 9it) t)e Con!ention+
are I(ani"estly ill6"oundedF or an a3use o" ro2ess& T)e Court also )as a
9ide o9er to stri'e out ali2ations CArti2le @<D&
Art!$% /@ ro!ides t)at in all 2ases t)at go 3e"ore a C)a(3er or t)e
Grand C)a(3er+ a Hig) Contra2ting $arty )as a rig)t to su3(it 9ritten
2o((ents and to ta'e art in )earings i" one o" its nationals is in!ol!ed
in ro2eedings&
Art!$% /B ro!ides t)at on2e t)e Court )as de2lared a 2ase ad(issi3le+
it 2an itsel" ursue in!estigations+ "or 9)i2) states (ust ro!ide Iall t)e
ne2essary "a2ilitiesF Cart& @=C.DD& T)e Arti2le also ro!ides t)at t)e Court
(ust se2ure a K"riendly settle(entK t)at is 2o)erent 9it) t)e Con!ention&
I" a "riendly settle(ent is rea2)ed+ t)en Arti2le @; states t)at t)e de2ision
o" t)e 2ourt is li(ited to a state(ent o" "a2ts and a state(ent o" t)e
solution rea2)ed&
I"+ )o9e!er+ t)e Court "inds t)at t)ere )as 3een a !iolation o" t)e
Con!ention+ and t)e rele!ant state artyFs do(esti2 la9 does not ro!ide
a "ull set o" re(edies+ t)e Court )as t)e o9er to Ia""ord just satis"a2tion
to t)e injured artyF& CArti2le 4.D&
..:
T)e di!ision o" t)e Court into Co((ittees+ C)a(3ers and a Grand
C)a(3er is also rele!ant to t)e 9ay in 9)i2) 2ases are dealt 9it) and
judg(ents issued& %udg(ents o" t)e C)a(3ers 3e2o(e "inal7
i" t)e arties state t)at t)ey do not 9ant t)e 2ase to 3e re"erred to t)e
Grand C)a(3er
i" a re"erral is not re-uested
i" t)e Grand C)a(3er re"uses a re-uest 9it)in t)ree (ont)s a"ter t)e
judg(ent C44C2DD&
A arty 2an+ under eA2etional 2ir2u(stan2es and 9it)in a t)ree (ont)
eriod+ re-uest re"erral to t)e Grand C)a(3er under Art!$% 4/& T)e
Grand C)a(3er 9ill a22et t)e re-uest i" it raises a serious -uestion
relating to t)e Con!ention and its roto2ols+ or o" general i(ortan2e
Cart& 4@C2DD& Arti2le 44C.D ro!ides t)at t)e judg(ent o" t)e Grand
C)a(3er is "inal+ and t)at reasons "or judg(ents s)ould 3e gi!en C44D+
in2luding any dissenting oinions C44C2DD&
,y Art!$% 4@+ state arties underta'e to Ia3ide 3y t)e "inal judg(ent o"
t)e CourtF&
Art!$% 4A allo9s t)e 2ourt to issue Ad!isory oinions at t)e re-uest o"
t)e Co((ittee o" Ministers& T)ese oinions do not 2on2ern t)e(sel!es
I9it) any -uestion relating to t)e 2ontent or s2oe o" t)e rig)ts or
"reedo(s de"ined in Se2tion I o" t)e Con!ention and t)e roto2ols
t)ereto+ or 9it) any ot)er -uestion 9)i2) t)e Court or t)e Co((ittee o"
Ministers (ig)t )a!e to 2onsider in 2onse-uen2e o" any su2)
ro2eedings as 2ould 3e instituted in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e Con!ention&
Reasons (ust 3e gi!en "or ad!isory oinions+ as er Arti2le 44&
Protoo$&
Not%7 t)ere are also a nu(3er o" roto2ols under t)e Con!ention&
$roto2ols = and .. )a!e 3een (entioned a3o!e+ and re"eren2e 9ill 3e
(ade to $roto2ol 2 3elo9& We 2an also 3rie"ly re!ie9 so(e o" t)e (ost
i(ortant Arti2les o" t)e ot)er $roto2ols&
Protoo$ . adds "urt)er rig)ts to t)e Con!ention7 t)e rig)t to
roerty CArti2le .D+ 2ertain edu2ational rig)ts o" arents& CArti2le 2D
and t)e rig)t to "ree ele2tions CArti2le @D&
Protoo$ 4 2ontains7
6 "reedo( "ro( i(rison(ent "or de3t CArti2le .D
6 li3erty o" (o!e(ent CArti2le 2D
6 "reedo( "ro( eAile CArti2le @D
6 a ro)i3ition on (ass eAulsion o" aliens CArti2le 4D&
...
Protoo$ @ ro)i3its t)e deat) enalty in ti(e o" ea2e & CArti2le .
and 2D&
Protoo$ A 2ontains7 t)e rig)t not to 3e eAelled "or( a nation
9it)out due ro2ess CArti2le .DE a rig)t to aeal in 2ri(inal 2ases
CArti2le 2D
6 t)e rig)t to 2o(ensation "or (is2arriages o" justi2e CArti2le @D
6 i((unity "ro( rose2ution t9i2e "or t)e sa(e o""en2e CArti2le 4D
6 e-uality o" rig)ts "or souses in (atters o" ri!ate la9 relating to
2)ildren CArti2le 4D&
Su''#r-
T)e #CHR 2reates a 2atalogue o" rig)ts t)at is not dissi(ilar "ro( t)e
ot)er international 2o!enants on )u(an rig)ts t)at 9e )a!e studied&
Arti2le 2+ t)e rig)t to li"eE Arti2le @+ t)e ro)i3ition on tortureE Arti2le 4+
t)e ro)i3ition on sla!eryE Arti2le 4+ t)e rig)t to li3erty and se2urityE
Arti2le 0+ t)e rig)t to a "air trialE Arti2le <+ t)e rin2ile t)at t)ere s)ould
3e no unis)(ent 9it)out la9E Arti2le =+ t)e rig)t to rese2t "or ri!ate
and "a(ily li"eE Arti2le ;+ "reedo( o" t)oug)t+ 2ons2ien2e and religionE
Arti2le .:+ t)e rig)t to "reedo( o" eAressionE Arti2le ..+ "reedo( o"
asse(3ly and asso2iationE
Arti2le .@+ t)e rig)t to a re(edyE Arti2le .4+ t)e ro)i3ition on
dis2ri(ination& Se2tion II o" t)e Con!ention 2reates t)e #uroean Court
o" Hu(an Rig)ts and de"ines its ersonnel and jurisdi2tion& In o!er!ie9+
t)ese in2lude t)e aut)ority to ro!ide rulings on t)e interretation o" t)e
Con!entionE a jurisdi2tion o!er inter6state a2tionsE a jurisdi2tion o!er
indi!idual etitions& Alt)oug) t)e Court is 2)arged 9it) ro(oting
K"riendly settle(entsK in disutes+ it does )a!e t)e o9er to a9ard
re(edies to injured arties in 2ertain li(ited 2ir2u(stan2es&
/84 Fr%%do' o2 S7%%" #nd R%$!,!ou& R!,"t&
In t)e se2tions a3o!e+ 9e )a!e 3een 2onsidering t)e general o9ers o"
t)e Court and o3taining an o!er!ie9 o" t)e rig)ts 2ontained in t)e
Con!ention& We no9 turn our attention to t)e issues raised in so(e
re2ent 2ases t)at 2on2ern religious "reedo(+ and 2onsider a line o" 2ases
in det)& We 9ill loo' "irst at 'tto-Preminger-Institut ! Austria, 3e"ore
turning to 2onsider t)e 9ay in 9)i2) t)e Court )as interreted Arti2le ;
in so(e 2onte(orary 2ases t)at raise t)e issue o" religious "reedo(+
and 2on2ern t)e rig)t o" Mosle( 9o(en to 9ear 2lot)es t)at (ani"est
t)eir "ait)& T)is issue is i(ortant 3e2ause it goes to t)e eAtent to 9)i2)
#uroe 2an resent itsel" as an in2lusi!e oliti2al 2o((unity&
..2
T)is 9ould )a!e a negati!e e""e2t on s2)ool dis2iline+ leading to
Idi!isi!enessF& T)ere 9ere also "ears eAressed on )ealt) and sa"ety
grounds& T)e earlier 2ourt )ad a22eted t)e s2)oolFs e!iden2e on t)is
oint+ and )eld t)at li(itations on t)e 2lai(ants rig)ts 9ere ne2essary to
allo9 t)e rote2tion o" t)e rig)ts and oinions o" ot)ers&
T)e Aeal Court 2onsidered #CHR 2ase la9 on t)is oint& Dahla0 !
SwitMerland CBe3ruary .4+ 2::.E Ali2ation No&42@;@/;=D 2on2erned a
ri(ary s2)ool tea2)er 9)o )ad 3een ro)i3ited "ro( 9earing a )ead
s2ar"& T)e Court )ad de2lared t)e 2ase inad(issi3le& T)eir argu(ent 9as
3ased on t)e K(argin o" are2iationK t)at 9as allo9ed to Knational
aut)oritiesK in de2iding 9)et)er an inter"eren2e 9it) rig)ts 9as
justi"ia3le7
T)e CourtFs tas' is to deter(ine 9)et)er t)e (easures ta'en at
national le!el 9ere justi"ied in rin2ile 6t)at is+ 9)et)er t)e reasons
addu2ed to justi"y t)e( aear Irele!ant and su""i2ientF and are
roortionate to t)e legiti(ate ai( ursued&&& In order to rule on t)is
latter oint+ t)e Court (ust 9eig) t)e re-uire(ents o" t)e rote2tion
o" t)e rig)ts and li3erties o" ot)ers against t)e 2ondu2t o" 9)i2) t)e
ali2ant stood a22used& In eAer2ising t)e suer!isory jurisdi2tion+
t)e 2ourt (ust loo' at t)e i(ugned judi2ial de2isions against t)e
3a2'ground o" t)e 2ase as a 9)ole&
In de2laring t)e 2ase inad(issi3le+ t)e 2ourt )ad 3een (u2) 2on2erned
a3out t)e rin2ile o" Ideno(inational neutrality in S9iss s2)oolsF&
Allo9ing t)e S9iss go!ern(ent its (argin o" are2iation t)us allo9ed
t)is oli2y to Itru(F t)e ali2antFs religious "reedo(& As 9e )a!e
seen+ su2) argu(ents 9ere also (ade 3y t)e 2ourt in Sahin ! /urey
C%une 2;+ 2::4E Ali2ation No& 44<<4/;=D& ,ut+ 9)at 9as an #nglis)
2ourt to (a'e o" t)is 2aseJ Clearly+ t)e U5 is not a se2ular state& Indeed+
under C)ater 1I o" t)e S2)ools Standards and Bra(e9or's A2t+ .;;=
s2)ools are re-uired to ti(eta3le daily a2ts o" 9ors)i& T)e issue in t)e
2ase is t)us re6dra9n7
T)e osition o" t)e S2)ool is already distin2ti!e in t)e sense t)at desite
its oli2y o" in2lusi!eness it er(its girls to 9ear a )eads2ar" 9)i2) is
li'ely to identi"y t)e( as Musli(& T)e 2entral issue is t)ere"ore t)e
(ore su3tle one o" 9)et)er+ gi!en t)at Musli( girls 2an already 3e
identi"ied in t)is 9ay+ it is ne2essary in a de(o2rati2 so2iety to la2e a
arti2ular restri2tion on t)ose Musli( girls at t)is s2)ool 9)o sin2erely
3elie!e t)at 9)en t)ey arri!e at t)e age o" u3erty t)ey s)ould 2o!er
t)e(sel!es (ore 2o(re)ensi!ely t)an is er(itted 3y t)e s2)ool
uni"or( oli2y& L<4M
..@
In order to address t)ese issues+ a s2)ool 9ould )a!e to address t)e
"ollo9ing -uestions7 )as t)e 2lai(ant a !alid Arti2le ; rig)tJ Was
inter"eren2e 9it) t)at rig)t justi"ied under Arti2le ;J CIn ot)er 9ords+ did
t)e inter"eren2e )a!e a legiti(ate ai(JD T)e S2)ool neit)er as'ed t)ese
-uestions nor aroa2)ed t)e issue in t)is 9ay7
No3ody 9)o 2onsidered t)e issues on its 3e)al" started "ro( t)e
re(ise t)at t)e 2lai(ant )ad a rig)t 9)i2) is re2ognised 3y #nglis)
la9+ and t)at t)e onus lay on t)e S2)ool to justi"y its inter"eren2e
9it) t)at rig)t& Instead+ it started "ro( t)e re(ise t)at its uni"or(
oli2y 9as t)ere to 3e o3eyed7 i" t)e 2lai(ant did not li'e it+ s)e
2ould go to a di""erent s2)ool& L<0M o!errule t)eir judg(ent on a
(atter as sensiti!e as t)is& T)e o9er o" de2ision )as 3een gi!en to
t)e( "or t)e 2o(elling reason t)at t)ey are 3est la2ed to eAer2ise
it+ and I see no reason to distur3 t)eir de2ision&
T)e S2)oolFs de2ision 9as roortionate 3e2ause it )ad ta'en (any
"a2tors into a22ountE it 9ould also 3e 9rong "or a 2ourt to su3stitute its
oinion "or t)at o" t)ose eole 9)o 9ere (ost "a(iliar 9it) t)e 2onteAt
o" s2)ool uni"or( oli2y& Not only )ad t)e s2)ool ta'en all rele!ant
"a2tors into a22ount+ it 9as ne2essary "or t)e 2ourt to de"er to t)ose 9)o
)ad set t)e oli2y and 9ere (ost "a(iliar 9it) t)e issues&
,aroness Hale disagreed 9it) t)e (ajority& S)e argued t)at t)ere )ad
3een an inter"eren2e 9it) S)a3ina ,egu(Ks rig)ts+ e!en t)oug) s)e )ad
not rea2)ed t)e age o" (aturity& Ho9e!er+ t)e inter"eren2e is legiti(ate
to t)e ai( ursued& On t)is ground s)e agrees 9it) Lord ,ing)a( and
Lord Ho""(ann& ,aroness HaleKs disagree(ent 9it) Lord ,ing)a( and
Lord Ho""(ann relates to t)e -uestion o" 9)et)er or not t)ere )ad 3een
an inter"eren2e 9it) t)e Arti2le ; rig)t& ,aroness Hale argues t)at t)is
rig)t )ad indeed 3een 3rea2)ed& Ho9e!er+ t)e inter"eren2e 9as justi"ied&
..89 CONCLUSION
T)is 2)ater )as 2onsidered t)e #uroean syste( "or t)e rote2tion o"
)u(an rig)ts+ and )as 2on2entrated (ainly on t)e #uroean Con!ention
and t)e #uroean Union& We )a!e seen t)at t)ere is a 2o((it(ent to
)u(an rig)ts in #uroe+ e!en t)oug) t)e 2ases on religious "reedo( t)at
9e 2onsidered suggest t)at t)e #CHR is also 9illing to tolerate t)e
restri2tion o" t)e rig)ts o" 2ertain "ait) grous to t)e eAtent t)at t)ey are
legiti(ate and a22eta3le in a de(o2rati2 so2iety& T)e eastern eAansion
o" t)e #uroean Union )as also 3een an issue in t)is 2)ater& *esite t)e
ad!an2es (ade in t)e rote2tion o" )u(an rig)ts in #uroe+ it is
ne2essary to 3e (ind"ul o" t)e dar'er side o" #uroean )istory and to 3e
2onstantly re(inded o" t)e )u(anist !alues o" rig)ts and t)e rule o" la9&
..4
.289 SUMMARY
It is e!ident t)at t)e oulations 9it)in t)e United 5ingdo(+ Bran2e and
Ger(any are !ery di""erent in ter(s o" religious and 2ultural identity
t)an t)ose o" 4: years ago& T)e trend to9ards in2reasing di!ersity is one
t)at is li'ely to in2rease in t)e "uture desite t)e 2onstraints o" )ig)ly
restri2ti!e i((igration oli2ies& Wit) t)is in2reasing di!ersity 2o(es a
need to e!aluate 9)et)er state oli2ies 2ontinue to (eet t)e
re-uire(ents o" t)e oulation as a 9)ole& In arti2ular t)ere needs to
3e 2onsideration o" )o9 (inorities !ie9s are ta'en into a22ount in a
de(o2ra2y and ensure t)ere is e""e2ti!e arti2iation in t)e oliti2al
ro2ess 3y indi!iduals and grous T)ere needs to 3e a2'no9ledge(ent
t)at identity is 2ontested+ 2ontinually s)i"ting+ and 2an and s)ould 3e
renegotiated 9it) arti2iation o" t)e oulation as a 9)ole&
./89 TUTOR-MAR>ED ASSIGNMENT
.D Mention t)e institutions "or rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts in
#uroe
2D *es2ri3e #uroean Union Bra(e9or' "or t)e rote2tion o"
)u(an Rig)ts
A& Gearey7 International rote2tion o" Hu(an& Uni!ersity o" London&
$ress&
* Sien)o ?ee+ IT)e role o" la9 in t)e "or(ation o" regional erse2ti!es
in )u(an rig)ts and regional syste(s "or t)e rote2tion o" )u(an
rig)ts7 t)e #uroean and Asian Models as illustrationsF+
Singaore ?ear3oo' o" International La9 C2::4D+ &.4<6.04&
?ee ro!ides a jurisrudential analysis o" )u(an rig)ts la9+ and
an intriguing 2o(arison 3et9een t)e #uroean regional syste(+
and t)e rin2ile o" non6inter!ention in Asian international
oliti2s t)at )as (ilitated against t)e de!elo(ent o" a regional
syste(&
..4
UNIT 2 THE INTER-AMERICAN SYSTEM FOR THE
PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
CONTENTS
.&:Introdu2tion
2&:O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. T)e Origins and *e!elo(ent o" t)e Inter6A(eri2an
Syste(
@&.&. Histori2al ,a2'ground
@&.&2 T)e Inter6A(eri2an Co((ission
@&.&@ Ho9 is t)e Inter6A(eri2an Syste( "or t)e
$rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts *istin2ti!eJ
@&2 T)e A(eri2an Con!ention on Hu(an Rig)ts
@&@ T)e %urisruden2e o" t)e Inter6A(eri2an Court o" Hu(an
Rig)ts
@&@&. T)e GodlineH CruH Case .;=;
@&@&2 T)e Bairen Gar3i and Solis Corrales Case
@&@&@ So2ial Re2onstru2tion a"ter Ar(ed Con"li2t7 T)e
Role o" t)e Courts and t)e Co((ission
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
T)is unit 2onsiders t)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( "or t)e rote2tion o"
)u(an rig)ts& We eAa(ine t)e (ain "oundational do2u(ents+ and t)e
t9o organs 2reated to ro(ote and rote2t )u(an rig)ts7 t)e Inter6
A(eri2an Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts and t)e Inter6 A(eri2an Court
o" Hu(an Rig)ts&
T)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( is one o" t)e t)ree regional syste(s t)at are
dedi2ated to t)e rote2tion o" )u(an rig)ts& In t)is unit+ 9e 9ill dra9
so(e 2o(arisons 3et9een it and t)e A(eri2an and #uroean syste(s&
T)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( also dra9s attention to a arti2ularly
ressing ro3le(7 )o9 to deal 9it) )u(an rig)ts !iolations on a
(assi!e s2ale& T)ere are no easy solutions to t)is ro3le(E 3ut 9e 9ill
see t)at t)e Inter6A(eri2an Court and Co((ission )a!e 3een 2on2erned
9it) de!eloing a )u(an rig)ts jurisruden2e t)at engages 9it) t)ese
(ost ressing issues&
..0
289 O:;ECTIVES
At t)e end o" t)is unit+ you s)ould 3e a3le to7
eAlain t)e inter6A(eri2an syste( "or t)e rote2tion o" Hu(an
Rig)ts
eAlain t)e (ain "eatures o" t)e "ra(e9or' "or t)e rote2tion o"
Hu(an Rig)t
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. T"% Or!,!n& #nd D%*%$o7'%nt o2 t"% Int%r-A'%r!#n
S-&t%'
/8.8. H!&tor!#$ :#+,round
T)e )istori2al roots o" t)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( 2an 3e "ound in t)e
(o!e(ents to a2)ie!e unity a(ongst t)e Nort) A(eri2an and Latin
A(eri2an states in t)e (id6nineteent) 2entury& T)e KBirst Congress o"
A(eri2an StatesK 9as )eld in .=20+ 3ut t)e e""e2ti!e 3eginnings 2an 3e
tra2ed to t)e $an6A(eri2an Union+ "ounded a"ter a series o" (eetings in
Was)ington 3et9een .==; and .;;:& T)e o3je2ti!es o" t)e Union 9ere
e2ono(i2 2o6oeration and settle(ent o" disutes 3et9een nationsE t)e
)u(an rig)ts agenda 9as+ at t)is oint+ not a (ajor 2on2ern& Indeed+ it
9as not until a"ter t)e Se2ond World War t)at t)e states 2on2erned
soug)t to 3ot) reorganise t)e ter(s o" t)eir union and ro(ulgate t)e
rote2tion o" )u(an rig)ts as a 'ey o3je2ti!e& T)e C)arter o" t)e
Organisation o" A(eri2an States COASD+ .;4=+ esta3lis)ed t)e
Organisation as a regional agen2y 9it)in t)e UN to se2ure Iea2e and
se2urity+ reresentati!e de(o2ra2y+ eradi2ation o" o!erty and t)e
a2i"i2 resolution o" disutes 3et9een t)e nations o" t)e regionF&
T)e original signatories o" t)e OAS C)arter 9ere7 Argentina+ ,oli!ia+
,raHil+ C)ile+ Colo(3ia+ Costa Ri2a+ Cu3a+ t)e *o(ini2an Reu3li2+
#2uador+ #l Sal!ador+ Guate(ala+ Haiti+ Honduras+ MeAi2o+ Ni2aragua+
$ana(a+ $araguay+ $eru+ t)e United States+ Uruguay and 1eneHuela&
Ot)er states )a!e joined t)e OAS sin2e .;4=& T)is grou in2ludes7
,ar3ados C.;0<DE Trinidad and To3ago C.;0<DE %a(ai2a C.;0;DE Grenada
C.;<4DE Surina(e C.;<<DE *o(ini2a C.;<;DE Saint Lu2ia C.;<;DE Antigua
and ,ar3uda C.;=.DE Saint 1in2ent and t)e Grenadines C.;=.DE T)e
,a)a(as C.;=2DE St& 5itts and Ne!is C.;=4DE Canada C.;;:DE ,eliHe
C.;;.DE and Guyana C.;;.D&
A se2ond "oundational do2u(ent 9as T)e A(eri2an *e2laration o" t)e
Rig)ts and *uties o" Man& T)is do2u(ent 9as si(ilar to t)e Uni!ersal
..<
*e2laration+ 2ontaining a 2atalogue o" t)e rig)ts and duties o" 2itiHens& It
9as adoted in May .;4=+ and t)us re6dates t)e Uni!ersal *e2laration&
In Santiago CC)ileD in .;4;+ it 9as resol!ed t)at an Inter6A(eri2an
Co((ission and a Court "or Hu(an Rig)ts 9ould 3e 2reated& T)e OAS
Coun2il aro!ed t)e Statute o" t)e Co((ission in .;0:&
Later on+ and a"ter rotra2ted negotiations+ T)e A(eri2an Con!ention
on Hu(an Rig)ts 9as adoted 3y t)e (e(3er states o" t)e OAS in
Costa Ri2a+ in .;0;&
We 9ill loo' at t)is do2u(ent in (ore detail 3elo9& In su((ary+ it
2ontains a 2atalogue o" rig)ts+ and outlines t)e o9ers o" t)e Court and
t)e Co((ission& It is 9ort) noting t)at t)e Con!ention rede"ined t)e
o9ers o" t)e Inter6A(eri2an Co((ission t)at )ad 3een 2reated ten
years earlier& T)e Co((ission 9as (ade Ka statutory organ o" t)e GASF
and gi!en o9ers to rote2t )u(an rig)ts and oerate as a 2onsultati!e
3ody to t)e Organisation& Ho9e!er+ t)e ne9 o9ers Csee Arti2les .=+ .;
and 2: 3elo9D o" t)e Co((ission 9ould only 3e 3inding on t)ose
nations 9)o rati"ied t)e Con!ention& T)e situation t)us eAisted 9)ere3y
nations 2ould 3e su3je2t to t)e old o9ers o" t)e Co((ission+ 3ut not to
t)e ne9 o9ers& We do not )a!e t)e sa2e in t)is C)ater to loo' in
detail at t)is ro3le(+ and 9ill 2on2entrate instead on t)e ne9 o9ers o"
t)e Co((ission under t)e Con!ention&

T)e A(eri2an Con!ention )as 3een rati"ied 3y7 Argentina+ ,ar3ados+
,raHil+ ,oli!ia+ C)ile+ Colo(3ia+ Costa Ri2a+ *o(ini2a+ *o(ini2an
Reu3li2+ #2uador+ #I Sal!ador+ Grenada+ Guate(ala+ Haiti+ Honduras+
%a(ai2a+ MeAi2o+ Ni2aragua+ $ana(a+ $araguay+ $eru+ Surina(e+
Trinidad and To3ago+ Uruguay and 1eneHuela&
Trinidad and To3ago denoun2ed and -uitted t)e A(eri2an Con!ention
on Hu(an Rig)ts 3y a 2o((uni2ation addressed to t)e General
Se2retary o" t)e GAS on May 20+ .;;=&
T)e United States is a signatory to t)e Con!ention+ 3ut to date )as not
rati"ied it& Canada is not a signatory to t)e Con!ention&
/8.82 T"% Int%r-A'%r!#n Co''!&&!on
T)e old o9ers allo9ed t)e Co((ission to loo' at t)e )u(an rig)ts
situation and to reort on "lagrant and reeated !iolations& T)e
Co((ission 2ould re-uest in"or(ation "ro( t)e go!ern(ent 2on2erned
9it) a !ie9 to (a'ing re2o((endations+ and 9it) t)e 2onsent o" t)e
rele!ant go!ern(ent+ (a'e a 2ountry !isit& It 2ould only 2onsider
indi!idual 2o(laints as art o" its eAa(ination o" general a3uses o"
)u(an rig)ts& In .;04+ t)ese o9ers 9ere eAtended+ allo9ing t)e
..=
Co((ission to ta'e into a22ount indi!idual a3uses+ 3ut only in li(ited
2ases& In t)ese instan2es+ t)e Co((ission 2ould issue a reort+ 3ut it
2ould not (a'e de2isions& Using t)e o9ers to reort on general a3uses+
t)e Co((ission 9as a3le to eAa(ine Cu3a and t)e *o(ini2an
Reu3li2E K2ountry reortsK 9ere also underta'en in relation to Haiti
C.;=:D+ Uruguay C.;<<D+ C)ile C.;<46.;=:D+ $ana(a C.;<=D+ Ni2aragua
C.;<=D+ #I Sal!ador C.;<;D and Argentina C.;=:D&. T)e (ore eAtended
o9ers attra2ted a large nu(3er o" 2o((uni2ations "ro( indi!iduals+
3ut t)e Co((ission re(ains too under6"unded and under6resour2ed to
3e a3le to a2)ie!e t)e 2o6oeration o" t)e rele!ant go!ern(ents& T)e
annual reorts sent "ro( t)e Co((ission to t)e General Asse(3ly o"
t)e GAS des2ri3e t)e Co((issionKs 9or' in t)is area& T)ey resent Ka
deressing i2ture o" ar3itrary arrest+ detention 9it)out trial+
interrogation a22o(anied 3y torture+ eAile 9it)out judi2ial ro2ess and
a !ariety o" si(ilar !iolationsK&
T)us+ 9e need to note+ at t)is stage+ a e2uliarity o" t)e Inter6 A(eri2an
syste(7 t)e Co((ission )as a Kdual (andateK+ and )as done a great deal
o" its 9or' under its Kold "un2tionsK 9)i2) redate t)ose o9ers granted
3y t)e Con!ention+ 9)i2) only 2a(e into "or2e in .;<=& Anot)er general
oint 2an 3e (ade a3out t)e oeration o" t)e Co((ission i" one
2o(ares it 9it) t)e #uroean Co((ission7
T)e #uroean Co((ission )as+ 9it) !ery rare eA2etions+ 3een
2on2erned 9it)&&& t)e "iner oints o" )u(an rig)ts la9 6-uestions+ "or
eAa(le+ su2) as 9)at is a reasona3le ti(e in detention ending trial+
9)at is t)e re2ise 2ontent o" t)e rig)t to a "air trial Let2M&&& t)e Inter6
A(eri2an Co((ission+ on t)e ot)er )and+ )as )ad to deal 9it)
ro3le(s o" a -uite di""erent order7 ar3itrary arrests on a (assi!e
s2ale+ syste(ati2 use o" torture+ s2ores or )undreds o" Kdisaeared
ersonsK+ total a3sen2e o" judi2ial re(edies and ot)er !iolations o"
2i!iliHed standards& In dealing 9it) su2) 2ases it )as "ound t)e
go!ern(ents 2on2erned (ore li'e antagonists t)an 9illing
artners>
As 9e 9ill see 3elo9+ t)e Co((ission and t)e Court )a!e 3egun to
de!elo a )u(an rig)ts jurisruden2e t)at ta2'les t)ese (ost di""i2ult
ro3le(s&
/8.8/ Ho3 !& t"% Int%r-A'%r!#n S-&t%' 2or t"% Prot%t!on o2
Hu'#n R!,"t& D!&t!nt!*%D
T)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( di""ers in (any 9ays "ro( t)e ot)er 9ell
esta3lis)ed regional syste( "or t)e rote2tion o" )u(an rig)ts&&& &&&T)e
inter6A(eri2an syste( is (ore 2o(leA t)an t)e #uroean Con!ention
in t)at it is 3ased uon t9o o!erlaing instru(ents+ na(ely t)e
..;
A(eri2an *e2laration on t)e Rig)ts and *uties o" Man and t)e
A(eri2an Con!ention+ 9it) t)e jurisdi2tion o" t)e Inter6 A(eri2an
Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts o!er states deending uon 9)et)er t)ey
are arties to t)e Con!ention or not& T)e Court )as jurisdi2tion in
2ontentious 2ases only o!er Con!ention arties&
It also )as (ore t)an one di(ension in t)at t)e Inter6A(eri2an
Co((ission not only )ears etitions 3ut also 2ondu2ts in lo2o !isits+
leading to t)e adotion o" 2ountry reorts on t)e )u(an rig)ts situations
in OAS (e(3er states& T)is&&& )as no 2ounterart in t)e #uroean
syste(&
T)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( 2an t)us 3e t)oug)t o" as a regional syste(+
3ut one t)at di""ers "ro( t)e #uroean syste( in t)e 9ays outlined
a3o!e& Note t)at t)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( is 2onstituted 3y t9o
Ko!erlaing do2u(entsK7 t)e *e2laration and t)e Con!ention& In
si(listi2 ter(s+ t)e Con!ention 2an 3e seen as an a(li"i2ation o" t)e
*e2laration+ 3ut it also 2reates t)e Co((ission and t)e Court+ and so
gi!es rise to (e2)anis(s o" en"or2e(ent t)at 9ere la2'ing "ro( t)e
earlier do2u(ent&
T)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( also di""ers "ro( t)e A"ri2an syste(& One
stri'ing di""eren2e 2on2erns t)e a3sen2e o" a Court o" Hu(an Rig)ts
"ro( t)e A"ri2an syste(& Alt)oug) t)e $roto2ol to esta3lis) a 2ourt 9as
signed in %une .;;=+ t)e 2ourt 9ill not "un2tion until so(e oint in t)e
"uture&
A "inal oint o" 2lari"i2ation7 it )as 3een suggested t)at t)e Inter6
A(eri2an syste( is in "a2t a Latin A(eri2an syste(E t)ere is a 2ertain
Kdislo2ationK 3et9een t)e Latin A(eri2an nations+ and A(eri2a and
Canada& T)e latter (a'e o22asional aearan2es in t)e jurisruden2e o"
t)e 2ourt+ 3ut its "o2us is essentially on t)e )u(an rig)ts ro3le(s o"
Latin A(eri2an nations&
/82 T"% A'%r!#n Con*%nt!on on Hu'#n R!,"t&
We no9 turn to 2onsider t)e teAt o" t)e A(eri2an Con!entionE t)e $a2t
signed at San %ose+ Costa Ri2a+ .;0;&
T)e $rea(3le to t)e A(eri2an Con!ention outlines t)e !alues t)at
in"or( t)e do2u(ent& Alt)oug) it is rooted in t)e oliti2s o" Nort) and
Sout) A(eri2a and t)e Cari33ean+ it is also in tou2) 9it) t)e 3roader
2urrents o" t)oug)t reresented 3y t)e Uni!ersal *e2laration& T)e
A(eri2an Con!ention 2an t)us 3e seen as a regionally se2i"i2
arti2ulation o" rin2iles t)at are seen as uni!ersal&
.2:
T)e Con!ention )as to 3e seen as en2ouraging a general de(o2rati2
et)os+ 3ased on Iersonal li3ertyF+ Iso2ial justi2eF and t)e Iessential
rig)ts o" (anF& T)e rig)ts o" (an are t)e(sel!es "ounded Kuon t)e
attri3utes o" t)e )u(an ersonalityK 6a 3old state(ent o" 9)at 2ould 3e
seen as a "or( o" a natural la9 )iloso)y o" rig)ts& Moreo!er+ t)is
)iloso)y justi"ies a legal argu(ent "or a Con!ention t)at rein"or2es or
2o(le(ents t)e rote2tion t)at is ro!ided 3y do(esti2 la9& Reading
3et9een t)e lines+ 9e 2an er)as "ind )ere a negotiation o" t)e
erennial ro3le( o" )u(an rig)ts7 t)e 2lai( to )u(an rig)ts is
uni!ersal+ 3ut t)e syste(s t)at rote2t )u(an rig)ts are do(esti2 and
lo2al&
C"#7t%r .
P#rt . addresses t)e o3ligations o" states+ and C)ater I 3egins 3y
outlining general o3ligations& Arti2le . states t)e "irst o" t)ese general
rin2iles7 t)e o3ligation to rese2t rig)ts& State arties (ust guarantee
t)at Kall ersons su3je2t to t)eir jurisdi2tionK are granted t)e K"ree and "ull
eAer2iseK o" t)e Con!entionKs rig)ts and "reedo(s 9it)out any "or( o"
dis2ri(ination& Arti2le 2 ela3orates t)e sense o" t)is general duty+ 3y
la2ing an o3ligation on state arties to a2)ie!e a realisation o"
Con!ention rig)ts t)roug) legislati!e or ot)er (eans&
C"#7t%r ..
C)ater II goes on to outline t)e 2i!il and oliti2al rig)ts guaranteed 3y
t)e Con!ention& Arti2le @ is t)e rig)t to juridi2al ersonalityFE or t)e
rig)t to 3e re2ognised as Ia erson 3e"ore t)e la9F& We )a!e seen in our
analysis o" ot)er 2on!entions t)e 2entrality o" su2) a rig)t7 9it)out
re2ognition o" juridi2al ersonality+ an indi!idual is a Inon6ersonF
deri!ed o" all legal rote2tion& In t)is sense+ )u(an rig)ts as a legal
2on2et (ust 3e "ounded on a 2lai( to t)e legal re2ognition o" t)e
indi!idual&
Art!$% 4 arti2ulates t)e "unda(ental rig)t to li"e& Li"e is seen to start
"ro( t)e I(o(ent o" 2on2etionF+ and t)e in"luen2e o" t)e Cat)oli2
C)ur2) is er)as e!ident )ere& Ho9e!er+ in 'eeing 9it) ot)er
state(ents o" t)e rig)t to li"e+ t)e deat) enalty is not eAli2itly
a3olis)ed& Rat)er+ "or t)ose nations t)at )a!e not already a3olis)ed it+ it
2an 3e i(osed+ 9it)in 2ertain li(ited instan2es+ 3y a 2o(etent 2ourt
"or serious 2ri(es&
Art!$% 0+ t)e arti2ulation o" a rig)t to )u(an treat(ent (ay 3e e2uliar
to t)e A(eri2an Con!ention+ 3ut t)e 2ontent o" t)is rig)t is not uni-ue&
Arti2le 4 rests on t)e 3asi2 rin2ile t)at e!eryone )as It)e rig)t to )a!e
)is )ysi2al+ (ental+ and (oral integrity rese2tedF& T)is is lin'ed to t)e
.2.
ro)i3ition on torture and on K2ruel+ in)u(an+ or degrading unis)(ent
or treat(entK& Arti2le 4 goes on to outline ot)er due ro2ess sa"eguards7
t)ose deri!ed o" t)eir li3erty s)ould 3e Ktreated 9it) rese2t "or t)e
in)erent dignity o" t)e )u(an ersonK& T)is general rin2ile 2an 3e
(ade (ore detailed7
$aragra) C@D states t)at unis)(ent (ust only 3e "or a 2ri(inal
o""en2e&
$aragra) C4D (a'es a distin2tion in t)e treat(ent o" a22used and
2on!i2ted ersons&
$aragra) C4D says (inors 9)o are su3je2t to 2ri(inal ro2eedings
(ust 3e treated as su2)&
Art!$%& ..-.@ are t)e 2lassi2 2i!il li3erties& Arti2le ..+ t)e rig)t to
ri!a2y+ is "ounded on rese2t "or a ersonFs K)onor and dignityF& Arti2le
.2 states t)at all are to enjoy "reedo( o" 2ons2ien2e and religion 9it)in
t)e li(its ro!ided 3y t)e la9E a si(ilar "or( o" 9ords alies to Arti2le
.@7 t)e rig)t to I"reedo( o" t)oug)t and eAressionK is also li(ited 3y
t)e la9+ and Arti2le .4+ t)e rig)t o" rely Cessentially a rig)t to resond
to li3el or slanderD also li(its "reedo( o" eAression& Arti2le .4 is a
state(ent o" t)e rig)t to Kea2e"ul asse(3lyK and Arti2le .0 guarantees
t)e "reedo( o" asso2iation& All t)ese rig)ts are si(ilarly li(ited&
Art!$% .A dearts "ro( 2i!il li3erties to 2o!er t)e rig)ts o" t)e "a(ily&
T)e A(eri2an Con!ention+ li'e t)e ot)ers t)at 9e )a!e studied+ is
2o((itted to t)e "a(ily as It)e natural and "unda(ental grou unit o"
so2ietyF and+ as su2) Kentitled to rote2tion 3y so2iety and t)e stateK& T)is
o!erall rig)t 2an 3e 3ro'en do9n into a 2atalogue o" rin2iles& T)us
aragra) C2D is t)e Krig)t o" (en and 9o(en o" (arriagea3le age to
(arry and to raise a "a(ilyK 9it)in t)e ter(s o" do(esti2 la9+ so "ar as
t)ey are not dis2ri(inatory+ and as long as t)e (arriage is 2onsensual
Caragra) @D& $aragra) 4 is a 3road duty la2ed on state arties to
IensureF t)e Ie-uality o" rig)ts and t)e ade-uate 3alan2ing o"
resonsi3ilities o" t)e souses as to (arriage+ during (arriage+ and in
t)e e!ent o" its dissolutionF& T)is rig)t is t)us 3road enoug) to 2o!er
(arriage as 9ell as di!or2e& $aragra) 4 alies a si(ilar rin2ile to
t)e rig)t o" 2)ildren7 t)ese s)all 3e t)e sa(e 9)et)er t)e 2)ild is 3orn in
or out o" I9edlo2'F&
Art!$% .B+ t)e rig)t to a na(e+ 2an 3e read as an ela3oration o" Arti2le
@+ and as lin'ed to t)e rig)t o" t)e 2)ild in Arti2le .;& T)ese are rat)er
3rie"ly des2ri3ed as It)e rig)t to t)e (easures o" rote2tion re-uired 3y
)is 2ondition as a (inor on t)e art o" )is "a(ily+ so2iety+ and t)e stateF&
T)ese KidentityK rig)ts are 2o(leted 9it) a Krig)t to nationalityK at
.22
Art!$% 29
T)e neAt grou o" rig)ts 2an er)as 3e seen as t)ose enjoyed 3y t)e
2itiHen+ and t)us "ollo9 on "ro( guarantees o" 3asi2 issues su2) as na(e
and nationality& T)us+ Art!$% 2. is t)e rig)t to o9n roerty 9it)in t)e
li(its esta3lis)ed 3y la9E Art!$% 22F t)e rig)t to "reedo( o" (o!e(ent
and residen2e and Art!$% 2/ t)e rig)t to arti2iate in go!ern(ent& I"
one a22ets t)at t)ese are t)e rig)ts t)at t)e 2itiHen enjoys+ t)en t)e
slig)t reetition o" due ro2ess guarantees t)at o22urs in Art!$%& 24
#nd 20 2an er)as 3e seen as a "urt)er ela3oration o" t)e essential
status o" t)e 2itiHen in a rule o" la9 state& T)us+ t)e 2itiHen enjoys+ 3y
Art!$% 24+ e-ual rote2tion 3e"ore t)e la9+ and 3y Art!$% 20+ t)e rig)t
to judi2ial rote2tion& Art!$% 20 is 3ased on t)e rin2ile t)at7
e!eryone )as t)e rig)t to si(le and ro(t re2ourse+ or any ot)er
e""e2ti!e re2ourse+ to a 2o(etent 2ourt or tri3unal "or rote2tion
against a2ts t)at !iolate )is "unda(ental rig)ts re2ognised 3y t)e
2onstitution or la9s o" t)e state 2on2erned or 3y t)is Con!ention+
e!en t)oug) su2) !iolation (ay )a!e 3een 2o((itted 3y ersons
a2ting in t)e 2ourse o" t)eir o""i2ial duties&
Arti2le 24 is t)us (ore t)an t)e due ro2ess guarantees se2i"ied a3o!eE
it is (ore o" a rig)t to a2tion and to re(edy&
C"#7t%r& ... #nd IV
C)ater III o" t)e Con!ention is a state(ent o" e2ono(i2+ so2ial and
2ultural rig)ts& We 9ill no9 eAa(ine so(e o" t)e (ore salient Arti2les&
Art!$% 2/ is a 3road state(ent t)at states (ust 2o6 oerate to9ards t)e
rogressi!e de!elo(ent o" t)e rig)ts stated in t)e C)arter o" t)e
Organisation o" A(eri2an States& Ho9e!er+ as C)ater I1+ Arti2le 2<
se2i"ies+ derogations "ro( 2ertain Con!ention o3ligations (ay 3e (ade
in ti(es o" K9ar+ u3li2 danger or ot)er e(ergen2yK& T)e Arti2les t)at are
eA2luded "ro( t)is 2ategory are7
Arti2le @ Crig)t to juridi2al ersonalityD
Arti2le 4 Crig)t to li"eD
Arti2le 4 Crig)t to )u(ane treat(entD
Arti2le 0 C"reedo( "ro( sla!eryD
Arti2le ; C"reedo( "ro( eA post facto la9sD
Arti2le .2 C"reedo( o" 2ons2ien2e and religionD
Arti2le .< Crig)ts o" t)e "a(ilyD
Arti2le .= Crig)t to a na(eD
Arti2le .; Crig)ts o" t)e 2)ildD
Arti2le 2: Crig)t to nationalityD
.2@
Arti2le 2@ Crig)t to arti2iate in go!ern(entD+ or o" t)e judi2ial
guarantees essential "or t)e rote2tion o" su2) rig)ts&
T)ese Arti2les t)us reresent so(et)ing o" a "unda(ental stratu( o"
)u(an rig)ts "ro( 9)i2) a state 2an ne!er derogate&
C"#7t%r V
C)ater 1+ 9)i2) 2ontains Arti2le @2+ is also uni-ue to t)e A(eri2an
Con!ention+ as it eAressly details t)e relations)i 3et9een rig)ts and
duties7
#!ery erson )as resonsi3ilities to )is "a(ily+ )is 2o((unity+ and
(an'ind&
T)e rig)ts o" ea2) erson are li(ited 3y t)e rig)ts o" ot)ers+ 3y t)e
se2urity o" all+ and 3y t)e just de(ands o" t)e general 9el"are+ in a
de(o2rati2 so2iety&
,ot) t)ese aragra)s are rat)er 9idely dra9n& Bor instan2e+ it is )ard
to 'no9 9)at an indi!idualKs IdutyF to I(an'indF (ig)t 3e in detailE
"urt)er elu2idation is ro!ided to so(e eAtent 3y t)e se2ond aragra)+
3ut again+ )rases su2) as Kt)e just de(ands o" t)e general 9el"areK
re(ain !ague& T)is Arti2le is er)as 3est read as a general ideologi2al
or )iloso)i2al state(ent o" t)e ne2essary li(itation o" t)e idea o"
rig)ts7 all rig)ts are li(ited 3y t)e duties t)at one (ig)t o9e to ot)ers&
T)at t)is is t)e 2ase is stressed 3y t)e se2i"i2 li(itations on t)e rig)ts
2ontained in C)aters II and III& O" 2ourse+ in t)ese instan2es+ t)e
li(itations are to t)e se2i"i2 rig)ts listed in t)e rele!ant Arti2les&
Arti2le 24 2an 3e read as a general+ o!erall state(ent t)at alies to t)e
Con!ention in its entirety&
C"#7t%r VIF P#rt II
$ART II o" t)e Treaty sets out t)e (eans "or t)e rote2tion o" t)e rig)ts
t)at 9e )a!e 3een 2onsidering& C)ater 1I des2ri3es t)e organs t)at are
esta3lis)ed 3y t)e Con!ention& Arti2le @@ des2ri3es t)ese as7 CaD t)e
Inter6A(eri2an Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts and C3D t)e Inter6
A(eri2an Court of Hu(an Rig)ts&
2

T)e 2o(osition and "un2tions o" t)e Co((ission are t)e su3je2t o"
C)ater 1II Csee 3elo9D& T)e Co((ission is 2o(osed o" se!en
(e(3ers 4Art!$% /45 9)o reresent all t)e (e(3er 2ountries o" t)e
OAS 4Art!$% /058 Me(3ers o" t)e Co((ission+ ele2ted 3y t)e General
Asse(3ly o" t)e Organisation+ ser!e in t)eir ersonal 2aa2ity 4Art!$%
/@58 T)e (ain "un2tion o" t)e Co((ission is to ro(ote Krese2t "or and
de"en2e o" )u(an rig)tsF 4Art!$% 4.58 To t)is end+ it )as a !ariety o"
.24
"un2tions and o9ersE (ost nota3ly7 to (a'e re2o((endations to t)e
go!ern(ents o" t)e (e(3er statesE to reare studies and reortsE to
re-uest go!ern(ents o" (e(3er states to ro!ide it 9it) in"or(ation on
(easures adoted to ro(ote )u(an rig)tsE to ta'e a2tion on etitions
resented to it su3je2t to Art!$%& 44-0. C3elo9D and to su3(it an annual
reort to t)e General Asse(3ly o" t)e OAS&
Se2tion @ deals 9it) t)e 2o(eten2e o" t)e Co((ission& Alt)oug)
Arti2les 44 and 44 des2ri3e t9o di""erent en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s+ 9e
9ill deal 9it) t)e( toget)er 3e2ause t)ere are 2ertain 2o((on "eatures&
Arti2le 44 states t)at any ersons or NGOs in t)e territories o" (e(3er
states (ay lodge 9it) t)e Co((ission Ietitions&&& 2ontaining
denun2iations or 2o(laints o" !iolation o" t)is Con!ention 3y a State
$artyF& Arti2le 44 sets out a di""erent (e2)anis(7 a state arty 2an also
indi2ate t)at it Ire2ognises t)e 2o(eten2e o" t)e Co((ission&&&to
re2ei!e and eAa(ine 2o((uni2ations in 9)i2) a State $arty alleges t)at
anot)er State $arty )as 2o((itted a !iolationF o" t)e )u(an rig)ts
detailed in t)e Con!ention&

Art!$% 4@ details 2o((on ro2edural re-uire(ents t)at relate to 3ot)
Art!$%& 44 #nd 40& T)ere are re-uire(ents t)at7
all re(edies in do(esti2 la9 )a!e 3een ursued and eA)austed
t)e etition or 2o((uni2ation is (ade to t)e Co((ission 9it)in siA
(ont)s o" t)e date "ro( 9)i2) t)e !i2ti( o" t)e alleged !iolation
9as Inoti"ied o" t)e "inal judg(entF
t)e (atter is not 3eing dealt 9it) 3y any ot)er international
ro2edure
in ali2ations under Arti2le 44+ t)e etition is not anony(ous and
2ontains 2ertain details a3out t)e indi!idual etitioner&
Ho9e!er+ t)e "irst t9o re-uire(ents s)all not 3e ali2a3le i"7
t)e do(esti2 la9 o" t)e rele!ant state does not )a!e due ro2ess
ro!isions "or t)e rote2tion o" t)e rig)ts t)at )a!e 3een allegedly
3rea2)ed
or t)e alleged !i2ti( o" a rig)ts !iolation )as 3een denied a22ess to
do(esti2 re(edies or re!ented "ro( eA)austing all do(esti2
re(edies
or t)ere )as 3een Kan un9arranted delayK in t)e "inal judg(ent&
Se2tion 4+ Art!$% 4BF details t)e ro2edure t)e Co((ission (ust "ollo9
9)en it 2onsiders a etition or 2o((uni2ation& I" t)e etition or
2o((uni2ation is ad(issi3le+ t)e Co((ission (ust re-uest in"or(ation
a3out t)e alleged 3rea2) "ro( t)e go!ern(ent 2on2erned& On2e t)e
in"or(ation )as 3een re2ei!ed+ t)e Co((ission (ust deter(ine 9)et)er
.24
or not a 2ase o" !iolation o" rig)tCsD )as 3een esta3lis)ed& I" a !iolation
is esta3lis)ed+ t)en t)e Co((ission (ust ursue "urt)er in!estigations
to esta3lis) t)e "a2tsE t)is 2ould in2lude !isiting t)e territory o" t)e state
arty 2on2erned and t)e Co((ission 2an re-uest any ne2essary "urt)er
in"or(ation or e!iden2e "ro( t)e state arty& A"ter gat)ering t)e
e!iden2e+ t)e Co((ission (ust sonsor a I"riendly settle(entF o" t)e
(atter& In IurgentF or IseriousF 2ases+ t)e Co((ission 2an (o!e straig)t
to an in!estigation& Art!$% 09 deals 9it) t)e situation i" a "riendly
settle(ent is not rea2)ed7 t)e Co((ission s)all dra9 u a reort C9)i2)
(ay 2ontain dissenting oinions "ro( Co((ission (e(3ersD 2ontaining
su2) re2o((endations as it t)in's ne2essary& I"+ a"ter t)ree (ont)s "ro(
t)e date o" t)e re2eit o" t)e reort 3y t)e state arty+ t)e (atter )as
eit)er not 3een settled+ or not su3(itted to t)e Court+ t)e Co((ission
2an deter(ine its o9n 2on2lusions and re2o((endations 3y (ajority
!ote CArti2le 4.D& I" t)e state )as not "ollo9ed t)e re2o((endations o"
t)e Co((ission 9it)in t)e eriod (andated+ t)en t)e Co((ission 2an
de2ide 3y a (ajority !ote to u3lis) t)e reort&
Art!$% 4. states t)at t)e (ain "un2tion o" t)e Co((ission is to ro(ote
Irese2t "or and de"en2e o" )u(an rig)tsF& T)us+ t)e Co((ission is
e(o9ered to (a'e re2o((endations to t)e go!ern(ents o" state
artiesE to reare studies and reortsE to re-uest go!ern(ents o"
(e(3er states to ro!ide in"or(ation on (easures adoted to ro(ote
)u(an rig)ts and to su3(it an annual reort to t)e General Asse(3ly o"
t)e OAS& Art!$% 44 ro!ides t)at any ersons or NGOs in t)e territories
o" (e(3er states (ay lodge etitions 9it) t)e Co((ission t)at allege
!iolations o" t)e Con!ention& Art!$% 40 allo9s one state arty to allege
to t)e Co((ission t)at anot)er state arty is in 3rea2) o" t)e
Con!ention& Art!$%& 4@-09 deal 9it) ro2edural re-uire(ents t)at
aly to t)ese en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s&
C"#7t%r VII
C)ater 1II des2ri3es t)e o'7o&!t!on #nd )ur!&d!t!on o" t)e Inter6
A(eri2an Court o" Hu(an Rig)ts& We 9ill no9 eAa(ine so(e o" t)e
(ore 2entral Arti2les& Art!$% 02 states t)at t)e Court 2onsists o" a anel
o" se!en judges C3ut t)e 2ourt is -uorate 9it) "i!e CArt!$% 0@DD+ 9)o
ser!e in t)eir ersonal 2aa2ity& T)ey (ust 3e aut)orities in t)e "ield o"
)u(an rig)ts+ and ossess t)e re-uisite -uali"i2ations in t)e nations
9)ere t)ey are nationals& To a!oid disroortionate reresentation o"
states+ no nationals o" t)e sa(e state C42 C2DD& Ho9e!er+ i" t)e 2ourt is
)earing a 2ase "ro( t)e sa(e nation as a judge+ t)e judge retains )is
rig)t to )ear t)e 2ase C44C.DD& T)ere are also rules in t)is Arti2le t)at
relate to t)e aoint(ent o" Kad )o2K judges s)ould t)e nationality o" t)e
judge 3e an issue&
.20
T)e Court is e(o9ered to dra9 u its o9n 2onstitutional statute+ and
deter(ine its o9n rules o" ro2edure 4Art!$% 0:DE 3ut see Arti2le 00+
3elo9&
T)e Statute o" t)e Court 9as aro!ed in .;=:& Later+ in 2::@+
de"initi!e rules o" ro2edure 2a(e into e""e2t& T)ese 2urrently aly to
2ases 3eing 3roug)t to t)e Court&
Art!$% 0A states t)at t)e Co((ission aears in all 2ases 3e"ore t)e
Court& T)e sense o" t)is Arti2le is 2lari"ied in Se2tion 2& Arti2le 0.
se2i"ies t)at only state arties and t)e Co((ission )a!e It)e rig)t to
su3(it a 2ase to t)e CourtF& Art!$%& 4B #nd 09F des2ri3ed a3o!e+ also
relate to t)e ro2edures "or utting a 2ase to t)e Court&
Art!$% @2 is i(ortant as it des2ri3es )o9 t)e rulings o" t)e Court are to
3e 3inding on state arties& Bor rulings to 3e 3inding+ a state arty (ust
de2lare t)at it re2ognises t)e jurisdi2tion o" t)e Court in all (atters
relating to t)e Con!ention& Su2) a de2laration 2an 3e eit)er
Kun2onditionalK+ on t)e 2ondition o" Kre2iro2ityK+ or "or a li(ited eriod+
or "or li(ited 2ases C02C2DD& Art!$% @/ (o!es on to t)e re(edies t)at t)e
Court 2an ro!ide& I" t)e Court "inds t)at t)ere is a !iolation o" a rig)t+ it
2an rule t)at Kt)e injured arty 3e ensured t)e enjoy(ent o" )is rig)t or
"reedo( t)at 9as !iolatedK 0@C.D+ and t)at t)is 2ould in2lude
2o(ensation& Burt)er(ore+ 0@C2D se2i"ies t)at7
KIn 2ases o" eAtre(e gra!ity and urgen2y+ and 9)en ne2essary to a!oid
irreara3le da(age to ersons+ t)e Court s)all adot su2) ro!isional
(easures as it dee(s ertinent in (atters it )as under 2onsideration&
Wit) rese2t to a 2ase not yet su3(itted to t)e Court+ it (ay a2t at t)e
re-uest o" t)e Co((ission&F

T)ese Arti2les )a!e to 3e read alongside Art!$% @B: state arties
underta'e to 2o(ly 9it) t)e judg(ents o" t)e Court 6and t)is eAtends
to ay(ents o" 2o(ensation t)at are to 3e go!erned 3y t)e rele!ant
do(esti2 la9s relating to judg(ents against t)e state&
Art!$% @4 2on2erns t)e interretati!e aut)ority o" t)e 2ourt& T)e
(e(3er states o" t)e OAS 2an 2onsult t)e Court "or aut)oritati!e rulings
on t)e interretation o" t)e Con!ention+ or indeed on ot)er treaties
2on2erning )u(an rig)ts in A(eri2an states& T)e organs t)at (a'e u
t)e OAS )a!e a si(ilar rig)t& T)e $ro2edure o" t)e Court is also
(andated 3y t)e Con!ention& Se2tion @+ Art!$% @@ ro!ides t)at t)e
Court itsel" s)all gi!e reasons "or its judg(entsE and t)at i" a judg(ent is
not unani(ous+ t)en a dissenting judge is entitled to )a!e )is dissent
aended to t)e judg(ent& Under Art!$% @AF judg(ents o" t)e Court are
"inal+ and 2annot 3e aealed&
.2<
Su''#r-
In t)is se2tion 9e )a!e 3een eAa(ining t)e A(eri2an Con!ention on
Hu(an Rig)ts& C)ater I addresses t)e general o3ligations o" statesE
2)ater II deals 9it) 2i!il and oliti2al rig)tsE 2)aters III and %
ela3orate so2ial and e2ono(i2 rig)tsE 2)ater 1 arti2ulates t)e
relations)i 3et9een rig)ts and dutiesE 2)ater 1I outlines t)e o9ers o"
t)e organs t)at are esta3lis)ed 3y t)e Con!ention7 t)e Co((ission and
t)e Court and 2)ater 1II "urt)er des2ri3es t)e 2o(osition and
jurisdi2tion o" t)e Court&
/8/ T"% ;ur!&7rud%n% o2 t"% Int%r-A'%r!#n Court o2
Hu'#n R!,"t&
In t)is se2tion 9e 9ill 2onsider t)ree 2ases de2ided 3y t)e A(eri2an
Court o" Hu(an Rig)ts7 &odrigueM, 3ar0i and 2orrales, and 2ruM.
T)e jurisruden2e o" t)e Court is eAanding+ and t)is study o" t)ese
t)ree 2ases is (eant only as a rat)er li(ited eAa(le o" t)e CourtKs
9or'& As detailed a3o!e+ t)e Court also )as t)e o9er to ro!ide
ad!isory oinions+ and+ alt)oug) 9e 9ill (a'e re"eren2e to one o" t)ese
oinions+ t)ey 9ill not 2on2ern us in a general sense& Our ri(ary "o2us
9ill 3e 9)at &odrigueM, 3ar0i and 2orrales and 2ruM tell us a3out t)e
CourtKs resonse to eAtre(e !iolations o" )u(an rig)ts&
T)is 2an 3e 2onne2ted to t)e Ise2ond o3ligationF o" state arties& State
arties are o3ligated to IensureF t)e "ull eAer2ise o" Con!ention rig)ts to
all in t)eir jurisdi2tion& T)e i(li2ation o" t)is rin2ile is t)at t)e
agen2ies o" go!ern(ent (ust t)e(sel!es guarantee )u(an rig)ts& T)e
I2onse-uen2e o" t)is o3ligationF is t)at states (ust do e!eryt)ing in t)eir
o9er to re!ent !iolations o" rig)ts and+ i" a !iolation is ro!ed+ to 3ot)
restore t)e rig)t and ro!ide 2o(ensation&
Arti2le .C.D is t)us (ore Kdire2tK t)an Arti2le 2& Arti2le 2 o3ligates a state
arty to ta'e legislati!e or ot)er (easures to (a'e national la9 2o)erent
9it) t)e Con!ention& Arti2le .C.D+ on t)e ot)er )and+ (a'es any eAer2ise
o" o9er 3y a u3li2 3ody t)at !iolates a Con!ention rig)t illegal&
Burt)er(ore+ t)is 9ould 3e t)e 2ase 9)et)er or not t)e 3ody )as
3rea2)ed do(esti2 la9+ as it is a rin2ile o" international la9 t)at a
state assu(es resonsi3ility "or t)e a2ts and o(issions o" its agents&
Burt)er(ore+ t)e state itsel" )as a legal duty to in!estigate )u(an rig)ts
a3uses to t)e 3est o" its a!aila3le resour2es+ and to ut rig)t any
3rea2)es7
In t)e instant 2ase+ t)e e!iden2e s)o9s a 2o(lete ina3ility o" t)e
ro2edures o" t)e State o" Honduras+ 9)i2) 9ere t)eoreti2ally
.2=
ade-uate+ to 2arry out an in!estigation into t)e disaearan2e o"
Man"redo 1elas-ueH+ and o" t)e "ul"ill(ent o" its duties to ay
2o(ensation and unis) t)ose resonsi3le+ as set out in Arti2le .C.D
o" t)e Con!ention&
T)is is a o9er"ul !indi2ation o" )u(an rig)ts&
W)at does t)e RodrigueH 2ase tell us a3out disaearan2es as a )u(an
rig)ts issueJ
T)e 3ar0i and 2orrales and t)e 2ruM 2ases raise si(ilar oints& We 9ill
3rie"ly outline t)e "a2ts 3e"ore turning to 2onsider so(e ase2ts o" t)e
judg(ent in t)e "or(er&
/8/8. T"% Dod$!n%K CruK C#&% .CBC
In su3(itting t)e 2ase+ t)e Co((ission re-uested t)at t)e Court
deter(ines 9)et)er t)e State in -uestion6Honduras6)ad !iolated Arti2les
4 Crig)t to li"eD+ 4 Crig)t to )u(ane treat(entD and < Crig)t to ersonal
li3ertyD o" t)e Con!ention& In addition+ t)e Co((ission as'ed t)e Court
to rule t)at Kt)e 2onse-uen2es o" t)e situation t)at 2onstituted t)e 3rea2)
o" su2) rig)t or "reedo( 3e re(edied and t)at "air 2o(ensation 3e aid
to t)e injured arty or arties&F
Saul GodineH CruH 9as a s2)ooltea2)er 9)o disaeared on 22 %uly
.;=2& An eye9itness stated t)at a erson rese(3ling CruH 9as arrested
3y a (an in (ilitary uni"or( a22o(anied 3y t9o (en in 2i!ilian dress&
A etition 9as "iled 9it) t)e Co((ission+ 9)o a"ter unsu22ess"ul
atte(ts to o3tain in"or(ation "ro( t)e Honduran go!ern(ent+ alied
Arti2le 42 o" its Regulations and resu(ed Ias true t)e allegations
2ontained in t)e 2o((uni2ation o" O2to3er ;+ .;=2 2on2erning t)e
detention and ossi3le disaearan2e o" Saul GodineH in t)e Reu3li2 o"
HondurasF& T)e Co((ission ointed out to t)e Go!ern(ent t)at Isu2)
a2ts are (ost serious !iolations o" t)e rig)t to li"e CArt& 4D and t)e rig)t
o" ersonal li3erty CArt& <D o" t)e A(eri2an Con!entionF CResolution
@2/=@ o" O2to3er 4+.;=@D& In turn+ t)e Honduran go!ern(ent argued t)at
a 9rit o" ha0eus corpus )ad 3een re"used 3e2ause it 9as not ser!ed
2orre2tly+ and anot)er 9as still ending& T)e Co((ission de2ided to
2ontinue 9it) t)e 2ase+ and t)e Honduran go!ern(ent aointed an
in!estigatory 2o((ittee& T)e reort o" t)e latter stated t)at t)ere 9as no
e!iden2e t)at CruH )ad 3een IdisaearedF+ and t)e Co((ission re"erred
t)e 2ase to t)e Court&
.2;
/8/82 T"% F#!r%n G#r(! #nd So$!& Corr#$%& C#&%
Bran2is2o Bairen Gar3i and ?olanda Solis Corrales 9ere Costa Ri2an
nationals 9)o disaeared in *e2e(3er .;=.+ 9)ile tra!eling t)roug)6
Honduras to MeAi2o& T)e Co((ission su3(itted t)e 2ase to t)e Court
to deter(ine 9)et)er t)e Honduran go!ern(ent )ad 3rea2)ed Arti2les 4
Crig)t to li"eD+ 4 Crig)t to )u(ane treat(entD and < Crig)t to ersonal
li3ertyD o" t)e Con!ention&
We 2an 2onsider so(e o" t)e rulings t)at t)e Court (ade in relation to
t)e argu(ent (ade 3y t)e Honduran go!ern(ent in 3ot) 2ases7 t)at all
t)e do(esti2 re(edies t)at 9ere a!aila3le in t)is 2ase )ad not 3een
eA)austed& In re!ie9ing t)is 2lai(+ t)e Court ela3orated t)e
jurisruden2e o" re(edies under t)e Con!ention "or 3rea2) o" Hu(an
Rig)ts& T)e Court ointed out t)at Kt)e rule o" rior eA)austion o"
do(esti2 re(ediesK (eans t)at a state (ust de2ide a 2ase under its o9n
do(esti2 la9 3e"ore international ro2eedings 3e2o(e ossi3le& A state
is+ o" 2ourse+ under a 3urden to ro!ide legal re(edies under Arti2le 24+
as t)e Court )ad itsel" de2ided in a rior ruling in t)e Bairen Gar3i and
Solis Corrales Case C$reli(inary O3je2tions+ aragra) ;:D& T)e
Honduran go!ern(ent 9as arguing t)at t)e 9rit o" ha0eus corpus 9as
one do(esti2 re(edy t)at 9ould aly to t)e "a2ts o" t)e 2ase& T)e
Court argued+ )o9e!er+ t)at su2) a re(edy 9as not aroriate 3e2ause
t)e 9rit 9ould )a!e to se2i"y t)e la2e o" detention+ and t)is 9as
o3!iously not ossi3le 9)en eole 9ere 3eing )eld I2landestinely&&& 3y
State o""i2ialsF& T)us7 I$ro2edural re-uire(ents 2an (a'e t)e re(edy o"
ha0eas corpus ine""e2ti!e7 i" it is o9erless to 2o(el t)e aut)orities&&&F
to a2t& Moreo!er+ i" t)ere is e!iden2e t)at a arti2ular ra2ti2e is
tolerated 3y go!ern(ent+ t)en t)is 9ould also render do(esti2 re(edies
ine""e2ti!e& In t)ese instan2es t)e eA2etions to Arti2le 40C2D Csee a3o!eD
9ould aly+ and t)ere 9ould 3e no o3ligation on t)e 2o(lainant to
eA)aust all do(esti2 re(edies& T)e 2ase )ig)lig)ts t)e "a2t t)at a
deter(ined state and a liant or inti(idated judi2iary 2an render t)e idea
o" t)e rule o" la9 (eaningless7
A22ording to t)at e!iden2e+ "ro( .;=. to .;=4 (ore t)an one
)undred ersons 9ere illegally detained+ (any o" 9)o( ne!er
reaeared+ and+ in general+ t)e legal re(edies 9)i2) t)e
Go!ern(ent 2lai(ed 9ere a!aila3le to t)e !i2ti(s 9ere ine""e2ti!e&
In 3ar0i and 2orrales t)e Court also 9ent on to 2onsider ot)er
i(ortant ro2edural oints& T)e Co((ission 9ere arguing t)at t)e
go!ern(ent 3ot) tolerated a oli2y o" disaearan2es and suressed
e!iden2e o" t)ose disaearan2es& I" it 9as ossi3le to s)o9 t)at su2)
ra2ti2es eAisted+ t)en t)e disaearan2e o" any gi!en indi!idual 2ould
3e ro!ed t)roug) 2ir2u(stantial e!iden2e or 3y in"eren2e& I" t)is
.@:
argu(ent 9as not a22eta3le+ it 9ould 3e i(ossile to s)o9 t)at eit)er
Gar3i or Corrales )ad 3een disaeared& T)e Court a22eted t)is
argu(ent+ and 9ent on to 2lari"y t)e standard o" roo" re-uired+ 3e2ause
no guidan2e 9as ro!ided on t)is issue 3y eit)er t)e Con!ention+ t)e
Statute o" t)e Court nor t)e CourtKs o9n rules o" ro2edure& It 9as t)us
ne2essary to loo' at international jurisruden2e (ore 3roadly C.@:D&
W)at do t)e 2ases CruH and Gar3i and Corrales tell us a3out a stateFs
resonsi3ility to ro!ide e""e2ti!e re(edies "or )u(an rig)tsJ
T)e Co((ission 2ites a reort issued in .;=.+0 9)i2) aints a star'
i2ture o" t)e )u(an rig)ts situation in t)e 2ountry7
t)e general oli2y in )u(an rig)ts is organiHed around and 3ased
uon an analysis o" t)e Colo(3ian so2io6oliti2al situation in t)e last
"orty years& Colo(3iaFs e2ono(i2+ oliti2al+ so2ial and (oral
stru2tures are 2ollasing and t)e eAer2ise o" "unda(ental )u(an
rig)ts is su""ering as a result& In site o" t)e StateKs e""orts to restore a
just de(o2ra2y+ o3sta2les re(ain t)at t)e Go!ern(ent does not )a!e
t)e (eans to o!er2o(e& A"ter "our de2ades o" rogress and 2)ange+
so2ial ine-ualities and a 2on2entration o" 9ealt) are still t)e
2ountryFs (ost salient "eatures& *esite its !igorous e2ono(y and
2ultural ad!an2e(ent+ Colo(3ia 2ontinues to 3e a 2ountry o"
alar(ing 2ontrasts7 t)ere are t)ose 9)o are rosering in t)e
tre(endous e2ono(i2 3oo(+ 3ut t)ey are "ar outnu(3ered 3y t)e
(any 9)o still li!e in dire o!erty&
T)e reort s)o9s t)at a go!ern(ent 2o((itted to t)e rule o" la9 2an 3e
aralysed 3y strong oositional grous 9)o do not s)are su2) !alues& It
is ro"oundly di""i2ult to 2reate a )u(an rig)ts 2ulture in su2) a
situation& Negotiations 9it) !arious ar(ed grous+ and t)eir atte(ted
in2lusion into legiti(ate oliti2s (ade so(e rogress to9ards so2ial
re2onstru2tion& Ne9 institutions 9ere also 2reated& T)e O""i2e o" t)e
$residential Ad!isor "or Hu(an Rig)ts 9as "ounded in .;=<+ and
atte(ts (ade to 3ring t)e (ilitary under 2ontrol t)roug) t)e
aoint(ent o" a 2i!ilian $rose2utor "or t)e Military and $oli2e Bor2es&
An O""i2e o" t)e Attorney *elegate "or Hu(an Rig)ts 9as also 2reated
and gi!en t)e re(it to in!estigate 2ases o" geno2ide+ disaearan2es and
torture& *esite t)ese re"or(s+ !iolen2e re(ained ende(i2& T)ree
residential 2andidates 9ere assassinated 3et9een .;=; and .;;:+ and
t)e Attorney General+ Carlos Mauro Hoyos+ 9as (urdered in Be3ruary
.;==& T)e drugs 2artels 2ontinued to try and "or2e t)e go!ern(entKs
)and and to re!ent t)e suression o" t)e nar2oti2s tradeE a 3rand o"
.@.
!iolen2e 'no9n as Inar2oterroris(F t)at 2ontinued una3ated t)roug)out
t)e .;;:s&
T)e la9s esta3lis)+ inter alia, t)at a 2essation o" ro2edure (cesacion de
procedimiento8, a resolution o" re2lusion o" t)e in!estigation
(resolucion de preclusion de la instruccion8, or a resolution o" dis(issal
(resolucion inhi0itoria8 (ay 3e granted on 3e)al" o" t)ose 9)o 2on"ess
and )a!e 3een or 9ere a22used o" or tried "or oliti2al 2ri(es+ and )a!e
not 3een 2on!i2ted 3y a "ir( judg(ent+ ro!ided t)at t)ey 2)oose to
arti2iate in an indi!idual or 2olle2ti!e de(o3ilisation& A22ording to
t)ese ro!isions+ t)ose 9)o )a!e 3ene"ited "ro( a ardon or 9it)
rese2t to 9)o( a 2essation o" ro2edure )as 3een ordered (ay not 3e
tried or rose2uted "or t)e sa(e "a2ts gi!ing rise to t)e granting o"
3ene"its&
An usurge in !iolen2e in 2::2 3roug)t an end to t)ese negotiationsE
and 2riti2s )a!e also argued t)at t)ose already de(o3ilised )a!e not
3een su22ess"ully reintegrated into so2iety&
/8/8/ So!#$ R%on&trut!on A2t%r Ar'%d Con2$!t: T"% Ro$% o2
t"% Court #nd t"% Co''!&&!on
Considering t)e situation in Colu(3ia rein"or2es t)e sense o" t)e
(agnitude o" t)e tas' "a2ed 3y t)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( in 2reating
and sustaining 2ultures o" )u(an rig)ts in t)e region& In t)is last art o"
t)e 2)ater+ 9e 9ill loo' at t)e 9ay t)at t)e Court and t)e Co((ission
)a!e 2olla3orated in an atte(t to de!elo rin2iles t)at relate to so2ial
re2onstru2tion and an ela3oration o" rig)ts rin2iles t)at 2an guide
so2ieties "ro( 2on"li2t to ea2e&
T)e Court and t)e Co((ission )a!e 3een a2ti!e in de!eloing a
jurisruden2e t)at relates to de(o3ilisation and t)e disar(a(ent o"
9arring "a2tionsE and in doing so )a!e alied an international
jurisruden2e to t)e situation in Latin A(eri2a& T)e guiding t)e(es in
t)e 2reation o" rin2iles in t)is area )a!e 3een 3alan2ing t)e re6
2reation o" a "un2tioning and ea2e"ul 2i!il so2iety+ 9it) a need to
deter(ine t)e trut) a3out t)e )u(an rig)ts !iolations and atro2ities t)at
too' la2e in t)e 2on"li2t+ and to ro!ide rearations to t)e !i2ti(s& T)e
legal nor(s t)at in"or( t)is ro2ess are dra9n "ro( t)e C)arter o" t)e
OAS and t)e A(eri2an *e2laration o" t)e Rig)ts and *uties o" Man+
and+ in t)ose instan2es 9)ere states are signatories+ to t)e A(eri2an
Con!ention&
In all 2ases+ t)ese Treaties (ust 3e interreted "ro( t)e erse2ti!es o"
t)e rin2iles t)at 2an 3e "ound to go!ern international legal o3ligations
in general and+ in arti2ular+ )u(an rig)ts o3ligations& It )as to 3e
.@2
stressed t)at t)ese o3ligations are ali2a3le to ar(ed 2on"li2t+ and so
2annot 3e o3!iated 3y argu(ents t)at eA2etional situations (ean t)at
)u(an rig)ts o3ligations are susended& T)e )u(an rig)ts o3ligations
entered into 3ind states+ as international a2tors+ 3ut also relate to t)e
ersons under t)e jurisdi2tions o" statesE t)is is+ o" 2ourse+ t)e e2uliarity
o" international )u(an rig)ts la9& As "ar as t)e inter6 A(eri2an syste(
is 2on2erned+ t)ese o3ligations are lin'ed to t)e suer!isory roles o" t)e
Co((ission and t)e Court& Ulti(ately t)e Knor(ati!e "ra(e9or'K also
in2ludes t)e ot)er international treaties 9)i2) state arties are
signatories to+ as 9ell as 2usto(ary la9& T)e "oundational rin2iles
deri!ed "ro( t)ese sour2es are7

trut)+ justi2e+ and rearation as "unda(ental&&&in re3uilding a 2ulture
o" ea2e+ toleran2e+ rese2t "or t)e la9+ and reje2tion o" i(unity&
T)e 9or' o" t)e Court )as 3een redi2ated on t)e need to de!elo (ore
re2ise rules t)at e(anate "ro( t)ese grounding ideas& T)ey )a!e 3een
a2ti!e in a nu(3er o" inter6related areas&
One o" t)e (ost ressing ro3le(s in so2ial re2onstru2tion )as 3een t)e
need "or t)e sur!i!ors o" !iolen2e to 'no9 t)e trut) a3out t)e 2ri(es
t)ey su""eredE and+ "or so2iety at large to 'no9 t)e trut) a3out t)ose 9)o
died or 9ere (urdered during ar(ed 2on"li2t& In t)is sense+ it is ossi3le
to sea' o" a rig)t to 'no9 t)e trut)+ and to 2o(el t)ose 9)o 9ere
in!ol!ed to re!eal t)e trut) a3out t)eir a2ti!ities& T)e Court )as used
Arti2le 24 o" t)e A(eri2an Con!ention to ro!ide legal re(edies in t)is
area& T)e starting oint is t)at t)e rig)t to trut) s)ould not 3e Krestri2ted
t)roug) legislati!e or ot)er (easuresK& LColu(3ia Reort+ 2::4M& T)is
(eans t)at any a(nesty la9s s)ould not ser!e in su2) a 9ay to allo9 t)e
ast+ or t)e a2tions o" a2tors+ to 3e 2on2ealed& Moreo!er+ a(nesty la9s
s)ould not allo9 !i2ti(s to 3e deri!ed o" re(edies "or any loss t)at
t)ey (ay )a!e su""ered& T)is+ in turn+ "eeds into di""erent oli2y
initiati!es& Arti2le 24 2o(els states to ta'e seriously t)e rig)t to see'
and re2ei!e in"or(ation+ to set u in!estigati!e 2o((issions and to
ena3le t)e judi2iary to underta'e in!estigations into alleged 2ri(es and
rig)ts !iolations&
Burt)er(ore+ Arti2les = and 24 o" t)e Con!ention re-uire t)at t)e neAt
o" 'in o" a !i2ti( 2an o3tain "ro( t)e state 3ot) t)e rele!ant "a2ts and
t)e rose2ution o" t)ose 9)o )a!e 2o((itted any 2ri(es against t)e
de2eased& T)is is 2onsistent 9it) a ruling o" t)e Hu(an Rig)ts
Co((ittee o" t)e United Nations+ 9)i2) deter(ined t)at states are
under a duty to legally esta3lis) t)e re2ise details o" )u(an rig)ts
!iolations+ as art o" t)e oliti2al ro2esses o" so2ial re2onstru2tion and
t)e granting o" rearations to t)e !i2ti(s& T)is )as 3een "urt)er
.@@
generalised 3y 3ot) t)e Co((ission and t)e Court 6to a rig)t "or so2iety
as a 9)ole C.;D to 'no9 t)e trut) a3out t)e Ka3errant 2ri(esK o" t)e ast7
So2iety as a 9)ole )as t)e rig)t to learn o" t)e 2ondu2t o" t)ose 9)o
)a!e 3een in!ol!ed in 2o((itting serious !iolations o" )u(an rig)ts
or international )u(anitarian la9+ ese2ially in t)e 2ase o" (ass or
syste(ati2 !iolationsE to understand t)e o3je2ti!e and su3je2ti!e
ele(ents t)at )eled 2reate t)e 2onditions and 2ir2u(stan2es in
9)i2) atro2ious 2ondu2t 9as eretrated+ and to identi"y t)e legal
and "a2tual "a2tors t)at ga!e rise to t)e aearan2e and ersisten2e o"
i(unityE to )a!e a 3asis "or deter(ining 9)et)er t)e state
(e2)anis(s ser!ed as a 2onteAt "or unis)a3le 2ondu2tE to identi"y
t)e !i2ti(s and t)e grous t)ey 3elong to as 9ell as t)ose 9)o )a!e
arti2iated in a2ts !i2ti(ising ot)ersE and to understand t)e i(a2t
o" i(unity&
One 2an are2iate t)at t)is lin'ing o" t)e indi!idual rig)t to 'no9 9it)
a rig)t "or so2iety at large to 3e told t)e trut) is art o" a (u2) 9ider+
2o(leA and di""i2ult ro2ess 9)ere t)e 9ounds o" a so2iety )a!e to 3e
)ealed t)roug) t)e la9& Hu(an rig)ts are t)us art o" a oliti2al
trans"or(ation& ,ut t)is ro2ess is also a sy(3oli2 K2leansingK o" t)e la9&
In t)ose so2ieties t)at )a!e eAerien2ed sustained 2i!il 2on"li2t+ t)e la9
itsel" )as 3een 2o(ro(ised& As 9e sa9 a3o!e+ one o" t)e ro3le(s t)at
t)e Court )ad to address in Colu(3ia 9as t)e 9ay in 9)i2) t)e la9 9as
eit)er a3used or ine""e2ti!e& T)e rig)t to 'no9 2an 3e lin'ed to t)e need
to e""e2ti!ely Kstart againKE to s)o9 t)at an i(artial and neutral rule o"
la9 so2iety is ossi3le& In t)is sense t)e state 3e2o(es uni!ersal+ a3le to
sea' "or all+ rat)er t)an a artisan in an unso'en 2i!il 9ar&
So+ 2ertain 2ri(es (ust not 3e le"t ununis)ed as art o" an a(nesty
ro2ess& A(ongst t)ese 2ri(es are7 oliti2al assassinations+
disaearan2es+ rae+ t)e disla2e(ent or "or2ed resettle(ent o" grous
o" eole+ torture+ in)u(ane a2ts+ (ilitary atta2's on 2i!ilian
oulations and t)e use o" 2)ild soldiers& In relation to t)ese
Ii(res2rita3leF o""en2es+ state arties are under a duty to in!estigate
and unis) t)ose resonsi3le& In ter(s o" t)e Inter6 A(eri2an syste(+
t)e rele!ant Arti2les are Y1III and YYI1 o" t)e A(eri2an *e2laration
and Arti2les .C.D+ 2+ =+ 24 o" t)e A(eri2an Con!ention& T)ese Arti2les
aly 9)et)er t)e eretrator is a state agent or a ri!ate artyE
(oreo!er+ t)e state in t)ese 2ir2u(stan2es 3ears t)e 3urden o" 3ringing
t)e rose2utions+ and it+ rat)er t)an t)e !i2ti(s or t)eir reresentati!es+
(ust 3ot) initiate t)e ro2ess and ensure t)at it is 2arried t)roug)& T)ere
are also non6deroga3le o3ligations under t)e Gene!a Con!entions t)at
(andate t)e rose2ution o" 9ar 2ri(es& T)ese 2orresond 9it) Arti2le
2< and 2; o" t)e A(eri2an Con!ention& L22M
.@4
Bro( t)is erse2ti!e+ t)e "unda(ental rin2ile t)at underlies a(nesty
is t)at t)e 2ri(es t)at 2an 3e a su3je2t to a(nesty are rat)er li(itedE
restri2ted to Koliti2al 2ri(es or 2o((on 2ri(es lin'ed to oliti2al
2ri(esK t)at are not serious !iolations o" )u(an rig)ts standards& In t)e
=arrios Altos Case+ t)e Court esta3lis)ed
t)at7
all a(nesty ro!isions+ ro!isions on res2rition and t)e
esta3lis)(ent o" (easures designed to eli(inate resonsi3ility are
inad(issi3le+ 3e2ause t)ey are intended to re!ent t)e in!estigation
and unis)(ent o" t)ose resonsi3le "or serious )u(an rig)ts
!iolations su2) as torture+ eAtrajudi2ial+ su((ary or ar3itrary
eAe2ution and "or2ed disaearan2e+ all o" t)e( ro)i3ited 3e2ause
t)ey !iolate non6deroga3le rig)ts re2ognised 3y international )u(an
rig)ts la9&
T)e ot)er (ajor rin2ile t)at underlies t)e a(nesty ro2ess is t)e
!i2ti(Ks rig)t to rearations "or t)e )ar( 2aused& T)e reason underlying
t)is rin2ile is t9o"old7 it stresses t)at 2itiHens )a!e legal status+ and
t)us (ust 3e re2o(ensed "or )ar( su""ered+ and is an atte(t to
re3uild trust in t)e legal syste( C20D& T)e re(edies a!aila3le (ust 3e
di!erseE t)ey 2ould ta'e t)e "or( o" 2o(ensation or re)a3ilitation+ at
least as "ar as t)ose 9)ose status )as su""eredE 3ut+ (ust in all 2ases 3e
IroortionateF to t)e o""en2es 2o((itted& O" 2ourse in instan2es o"
'idnaing or unla9"ul detention+ t)e ersonKs li3erty s)ould
i((ediately 3e restoredE eole 9)o )a!e lost land or roerty (ay
)a!e a rig)t to restitutionE t)ose 9)o are t)e neAt o" 'in o" !i2ti(s o"
unla9"ul !iolen2e (ay )a!e t)e rig)t to 2o(ensation& T)ese rin2iles
are also 2o)erent 9it) t)ose (entioned earlierE so t)at so2iety as a 9)ole
)as a rig)t to Ku3li2 re2ognition o" t)e e!ents and t)e resonsi3ilitiesE
re2o!ery o" t)e (e(ory o" t)e !i2ti(sE and tea2)ing t)e )istori2al
trut)K C@2D& T)e ro2ess (ust also in2lude t)e dis3anding o" ar(ed
grous and "a2tions+ and t)e reintegration o" 2o(3atants into 2i!il
so2iety&
489 CONCLUSION
T)e "o2us o" t)is unit )as 3een t)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( o" )u(an
rig)ts& We )a!e loo'ed in detail at t)e A(eri2an Con!ention+ and t)e
o9ers and "un2tions o" t)e Co((ission and t)e Court& We )a!e seen
t)at 3ot) t)ese 3odies are de!eloing a jurisruden2e t)at engages 9it)
t)e arti2ular oliti2al ro3le(s o" t)e region7 t)e 9ide6s2ale a3use o"
)u(an rig)ts& In eAa(ining t)e reorts o" t)e Co((ission on Colu(3ia+
9e )a!e seen t)at )u(an rig)ts rest on a "un2tioning rule o" la9 so2iety&
A2)ie!ing su2) a so2iety de(ands (u2) (ore t)an.egal rin2ilesE
9)at is ne2essary is a 2ultural 2o((it(ent to de(o2ra2y& T)e Court and
.@4
t)e Co((ission are atte(ting to en2ourage t)e gro9t) o" de(o2rati2
go!ern(ent in t)e region+ and to (o!e a9ay "ro( t)e lega2y o" ar(ed
2on"li2t and organised 2ri(e t)at )as 3een t)e trau(ati2 eAerien2e o"
(ost Latin A(eri2an nations&
089 SUMMARY
Alt)oug) t)e 3eginnings o" t)e Inter6A(eri2an syste( 2an 3e tra2ed
3a2' to t)e (id6.=::s+ t)e "oundations o" t)e syste( 2an 3e "ound in t)e
$an A(eri2an Union C.==;6.;;:D+ and t)e C)arter o" t)e OrganiHation
o" A(eri2an States C.;4=D& T)is esta3lis)ed t)e OAS as a regional
agen2y 9it)in t)e UN& A se2ond i(ortant "oundational do2u(ent 9as
t)e A(eri2an *e2laration o" t)e Rig)ts and *uties o" Man C.;4=D& We
)a!e loo'ed already in so(e detail at t)e Ine9F o9ers 2reated 3y t)e
Con!ention+ and "o2used on t)e role o" t)e Co((ission& It is also
i(ortant to understand t)e distin2ti!e "eatures o" t)e Inter6A(eri2an
syste( in 2o(arison 9it) t)e ot)er regional syste(s t)at t)is (anual is
2on2erned 9it)7 t)e A"ri2an and t)e #uroean&
W)at does t)e Rodri-ueH 2ase tell us a3out disaearan2e as a Hu(an
rig)ts issueJ
Harris *7 Regional $rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts7 T)e Inter6A(eri2an
A2)ie!e(ent COA"ord7 Clarndon $ress& C.;;=D 2&
A& Gearey7 International $rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)ts+ Uni!ersity o"
London $ress& 2::0 @4<&
.@0
UNIT / HUMAN AND PEOPLE=S RIGHTS IN THE
AFRICAN SYSTEM
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. T)e Organisation o" A"ri2an Unity COAUD
@&.&. T)e Co((ission
@&.&2 T)e C)arter
@&.&@ Bro( t)e OAU to t)e AU
@&2 T)e A"ri2an C)arter on Hu(an and $eoleFs Rig)ts
CACH$RD
@&2&. $eoleFs Rig)ts
@&2&2 *uties
@&2&@ T)e Case o" 5en Saro6Wi9a and t)e Ogoni #ig)t
@&@ T)e A"ri2an C)arter on t)e Rig)ts and Wel"are o" t)e
C)ild
@&4 T)e $rote2tion o" Re"ugeeFs Rig)ts
@&4&. T)e Con!ention on Se2i"i2 Ase2ts o" t)e Re"ugee
$ro3le( in A"ri2a
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
In t)is se2tion 9e 9ill tra2e t)e trans"or(ation o" t)e Organisation o"
A"ri2an Unity into t)e A"ri2an Union+ and eAa(ine t)e )u(an rig)ts
ase2ts o" 3ot) t)e old and t)e ne9 3odies& #sta3lis)ed in %uly 2::.+ t)e
A"ri2an Union is t)e regional organisation "or A"ri2a&
T)e A"ri2an Hu(an Rig)ts syste( rests on "our treaties7
T)e Con!ention on Se2i"i2 Ase2ts o" t)e Re"ugee $ro3le( in
A"ri2a C2a(e into "or2e in .;<4D
T)e A"ri2an C)arter on Hu(an and $eolesK Rig)ts C.;=0D
T)e A"ri2an C)arter on t)e Rig)ts and Wel"are o" t)e C)ild C.;;;D
T)e $roto2ol on t)e #sta3lis)(ent o" an A"ri2an Court on Hu(an
and $eolesK Rig)ts Ct)e $roto2ol 2a(e into "or2e in %anuary 2::4+
3ut t)e Court )as yet to 3e esta3lis)edD&
A $roto2ol on t)e Rig)ts o" Wo(en is 2urrently under 2onsideration&
T)e $roto2ol 2o(es out o" a 2on2ern t)at+ desite t)e rati"i2ation o" t)e
.@<
A"ri2an C)arter on Hu(an and $eolesK Rig)ts and ot)er international
)u(an rig)ts instru(ents adoted 3y t)e (ajority o" state arties+
9o(en in A"ri2a still su""er "ro( dis2ri(ination and (arginalisation&
T9o o" t)ese treaties )a!e en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s& T)e A"ri2an
Co((ission on Hu(an and $eolesF Rig)ts 9as esta3lis)ed 3y t)e
A"ri2an C)arter on Hu(an and $eolesK Rig)ts&
289 O:;ECTIVES
des2ri3e t)e role o" t)e Organisation o" A"ri2an Unity and t)e
A"ri2an Union in rote2ting )u(an rig)ts
outline t)e 3asi2 ro!isions o" t)e A"ri2an &C)arter on Hu(an and
$eolesK Rig)ts C.;=0D
outline t)e 3asi2 ro!isions o" t)e $roto2ol on t)e Rig)ts o" Wo(en
outline t)e 3asi2 ro!isions o" t)e A"ri2an C)arter on t)e Rig)ts and
Wel"are o" t)e C)ild C.;;;D
outline t)e 3asi2 ro!ision o" t)e Con!ention on Se2i"i2 Ase2ts o"
t)e Re"ugee ro3le( in A"ri2a C.;<4D&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. T"% Or,#n!&#t!on o2 A2r!#n Un!t- 4OAU5
T)e Organisation o" A"ri2an Unity COAUD 9as esta3lis)ed on 24 May
.;0@ in Addis A3a3a+ #t)ioia& T)e ganisationKs (ain o3je2ti!e 9as to
3ring to an end t)e 2ontrol o" A"ri2a 3y t)ose o9ers t)at )ad
esta3lis)ed 2olonial and deendent territories in t)e 2ontinent+ and to
end aart)eid syste(s o" go!ern(ent& Hu(an rig)ts 9ere not+ as su2)+
t)e OrganisationFs (ain "o2us& Indeed+ alt)oug) t)e OAU 9as a2ti!e in
t)e anti62olonial struggle+ it 9as er2ei!ed t)at t)e Organisation 9as
ignoring )u(an rig)ts a3uses 9it)in A"ri2an states t)at )ad a2)ie!ed
indeenden2e& Resonding to t)ese 2riti2is(s+ t)e Organisation too'
a2tion& Wor' on dra"ting a C)arter 3egan in .;<;+ and it 2a(e into "or2e
in O2to3er .;=0&
We 9ill loo' in detail at t)e ro!isions o" t)e C)arter itsel" 3elo9
Cse2tion .4&.&2D& It is ne2essary+ "irst o" all+ to eAa(ine t)e institutions
2reated 3y t)e C)arter&
.@=
/8.8. T"% Co''!&&!on
Arti2le @: 2reates Ian A"ri2an Co((ission on Hu(an and $eolesF
Rig)tsF& T)is is 2o(osed o" .. (e(3ers ser!ing in t)eir ersonal and
indeendent 2aa2ities and not as reresentati!es o" t)eir 2ountries& Its
(ain "un2tions+ as des2ri3ed in Arti2le 44+ are t)e ro(otion and
rote2tion o" )u(an and eolesF rig)ts in A"ri2a and t)e interretation
o" t)e C)arter&
T)e Co((issionFs ro(otion o" t)e C)arter is outlined in Arti2le 44C.D&
To t)is end+ t)e Co((ission )as t)e o9er to7
2olle2t do2u(ents+ underta'e studies and resear2)es on A"ri2an
ro3le(s in t)e "ield o" )u(an and eolesF rig)ts+ organise
se(inars+ sy(osia and 2on"eren2es+ disse(inate in"or(ation+
en2ourage national and lo2al institutions 2on2erned 9it) )u(an and
eolesF rig)ts and+ s)ould t)e 2ase arise+ gi!e its !ie9s or (a'e
re2o((endations to go!ern(ents&
T)e Co((issionFs a2ti!ities in t)ese areas )a!e allo9ed it to 9or' 9it)
non6go!ern(ental organisations CNGOsD and ressure grous to 3uild
u an ar2)i!e t)at 2an 3e used "or lo33ying and edu2ational uroses&
T)e role layed 3y NGOs in t)e 9or' o" t)e Co((ission 9as
re2ognised+ and intensi"ied+ in .;== 9)en o3ser!er status 9as granted to
2ertain NGOs& T)e Co((ission )as also aointed Se2ial Raorteurs
9)ose role is to reort on K\!arious )u(an rig)ts areas&
T)e tas's o" t)e Co((ission are "urt)er outlined in Arti2le 44 C.DC3D+
T)e Co((ission is o3liged to I"or(ulate and lay do9n rin2iles and
rules ai(ed at sol!ing legal ro3le(s relating to )u(an and eolesF
rig)ts and "unda(ental ro3le(s uon 9)i2) A"ri2an go!ern(ents (ay
3ase t)eir legislationF& T)is allo9s t)e Co((ission to 2o6oerate 9it)
ot)er institutions in t)e de!elo(ent o" a 3ody o" A"ri2an )u(an rig)ts
la9&
Ho9 does t)e Co((ission ensure t)e rote2tion o" rig)ts as it is
2)arged under Arti2le 44C2D and )o9 2an it ensure t)at t)e state does not
!iolate eolesK rig)tsJ T)e C)arter details a I2o((uni2ation ro2edureF
9)i2) is a syste( 3y 9)i2) an indi!idual+ NGO or grou o" indi!iduals
2an etition t)e Co((ission a3out )u(an rig)ts a3uses& A State $arty
2an also etition t)e Co((ission i" it 3elie!es t)at anot)er State $arty
)as !iolated t)e C)arter& I" t)e Co((uni2ation (eets 9it) t)e
2onditions o" Arti2le 40 o" t)e C)arter+ t)e Co((ission "or(ally
accepts it "or 2onsideration7
.@;
T)e Co((ission 2an ro2eed to 2onsider a 2o((uni2ation only a"ter it
)as as2ertained t)at all lo2al re(edies )a!e 3een eA)austed+ unless it is
o3!ious to t)e Co((ission t)at t)e ro2edure o" a2)ie!ing t)ese
re(edies 9ould 3e unduly rolonged& T)e Co((ission (ay+ i" it dee(s
it ne2essary+ as' States to ro!ide it 9it) all t)e rele!ant in"or(ationE
and 9)en it is 2onsidering t)e (atter+ it (ay in!ite States to (a'e oral
or 9ritten resentations& T)e ri(ary goal o" t)e Co((ission in eit)er
ro2edure is to se2ure a "riendly settle(ent&
Co((ission t)en in"or(s t)e state t)at )as 3een a22used o" rig)ts
!iolations+ and in!ites it to su3(it a resonse& T)e (ission 9ill t)en
deter(ine 9)et)er or not t)ere )as 3een a !iolation o" t)e C)arter and
(a'e re2o((endations to t)e state to t)e OAU on 9)at re(edies are
re-uired& In e(ergen2y situations 69)en t)e li"e o" t)e !i2ti( is in
i((inent danger+ "or eAa(le 6t)e Co((ission 2an re-uest t)at t)e
state delays any ion and a9aits t)e Co((issionFs de2ision&
T)e Co((issionFs "inal de2isions are 2alled r%o''%nd#t!on&8
T)e (andate o" t)e Co((ission is only -uasi6judi2ial and+ as su2)+ its
"inal re2o((endations are not in t)e(sel!es legally 3inding on t)e
states 2on2erned&
T)e Co((ission )as not laid do9n ro2edures to suer!ise t)e
i(le(entation o" its re2o((endations& Ho9e!er+ t)e Se2retariat t)e
Co((ission does send letters o" re(inder to states t)at )a!e 3een "ound
to )a!e !iolated t)e ro!isions o" t)e C)arter+ 2alling uon t)e( to
)onour t)eir o3ligations under Arti2le . o" t)e C)arterF>to re2ognise
t)e rig)ts+ duties and "reedo(s ens)rined in t)is C)arter and &&&adot
legislati!e and ot)er (easures to gi!e e""e2t to t)e(F& T)e "irst letters
are sent i((ediately a"ter t)e adotion o" t)e Co((issionFs Annual
A2ti!ity Reort 3y t)e OAU Asse(3ly o" Heads o" State and
Go!ern(ent and su3se-uent letters are sent as o"ten as is ne2essary&
T)ere is no (e2)anis( t)at 2an 2o(el states to a3ide 3y t)ese
re2o((endations& Mu2) deends on t)e good9ill o" t)e states&
T)e Co((ission 2an also send (issions to states to in!estigate alleged
rig)ts a3uses+ and to (a'e re2o((endations to t)e state in -uestion&
Under Arti2le 02+ t)e Co((ission 2onsiders reorts t)at states are
re-uired to su3(it e!ery t9o years on t)e legislati!e (easures ta'en to
"urt)er and reser!e t)e rig)ts o" t)e C)arter& ICounter reortsF 2an 3e
su3(itted 3y indi!iduals and grous and se2i"i2 -uestions 2an 3e as'ed
o" state reresentati!es&
.4:
T)e Co((ission studies t)ese reorts and engages at t)e session in
dialogue 9it) reresentati!es "ro( t)e states+ and (a'es
re2o((endations+ i" ne2essary&
T"% C"#rt%r
T)e A"ri2an C)arter on Hu(an and $eolesF Rig)ts 3uilds on t)e
o3je2ti!es o" t)e C)arter o" t)e Organisation o" A"ri2an Unity& It states
as its "oundational rin2iles7 I"reedo(+ e-uality+ justi2e and dignityF&
T)ese are t)e rin2iles t)at underlie t)e eradi2ation o" Iall "or(s o"
2olonialis( "ro( A"ri2aF+ 2o6ordinate I2o6oeration and e""orts to
a2)ie!e a 3etter li"e "or t)e eoles o" A"ri2aF and Iro(ote international
2o6oerationF& T)e C)arter o" t)e United Nations and t)e Uni!ersal
*e2laration o" Hu(an Rig)ts re(ain 2onstant oints o" re"eren2e& T)e
essentially A"ri2an nature o" t)is arti2ulation o" )u(an rig)ts is t)en
stressed&
T)e C)arter is an ela3oration o" t)e I)istori2al tradition and t)e !alues
o" A"ri2an 2i!ilisationFE a set o" 2on2ets 9)i2) in turn are lin'ed to t)e
I2on2et o" )u(an and eolesF rig)tsF& $eolesF rig)ts 3e2o(es a
"unda(ental 2on2et t)at allo9s )u(an rig)ts to 3e osited7
&&&"unda(ental )u(an rig)ts ste( "ro( t)e attri3utes o" )u(an
3eings 9)i2) justi"ies t)eir national and international rote2tion and
on t)e ot)er )and t)at t)e reality and rese2t o" eolesK rig)ts s)ould
ne2essarily guarantee )u(an rig)ts Lsi2M&
T)e ot)er essential ase2t o" t)e A"ri2an notion o" )u(an rig)ts is t)e
e()asis on dut-: It)e enjoy(ent o" rig)ts and "reedo(s also i(lies
t)e er"or(an2e o" duties on t)e art o" e!eryoneF& T)is 2lai( to an
A"ri2an tradition o" )u(an rig)ts )as to 3e related to t)e oliti2al
2ir2u(stan2es o" t)e C)arter& T)ere are t9o related 2on2erns& T)e
C)arter stresses t)e rig)t to de!elo(ent+ and t)e "a2t t)at 2i!il and
oliti2al rig)ts 2annot 3e disasso2iated "ro( e2ono(i2+ so2ial and
2ultural rig)ts& T)e C)arter is t)us essential to t)e li3eration struggle7
Cons2ious o" t)eir duty to a2)ie!e t)e total li3eration o" A"ri2a+ t)e
eoles o" 9)i2) are still struggling "or t)eir dignity and genuine
indeenden2e+ and underta'ing to eli(inate 2olonialis(+ neo6
2olonialis(+ aart)eid+ Oionis( and to dis(antle aggressi!e "oreign
(ilitary 3ases and all "or(s o" dis2ri(ination+ arti2ularly t)ose
3ased on ra2e+ et)ni2 grou+ 2olour+ seA+ language+ religion or
oliti2al oinions&
.4.
At t)e ti(e o" t)e dra"ting o" t)e C)arter in .;<;+ alt)oug) so(e
A"ri2an nations )ad a2)ie!ed t)eir indeenden2e+ (any ot)ers 9ere still
go!erned 3y 2olonial o9ers or 9ere ruled 3y aart)eid regi(es&
We eAa(ine t)e distin2ti!e "eatures o" t)e C)arter in se2tion .4&2&
/8.82 Fro' t"% OAU to t"% AU
In .;;;+ t)e OAU 2alled "or t)e esta3lis)(ent o" an A"ri2an Union
CAUD& T)is ne9 3ody 9ould )a!e di""erent and 3roader o3je2ti!es& T)e
Constituti!e A2t (ade ro!isions "or a transition "ro( t)e old to t)e ne9
3ody+ and "or t)e rela2e(ent o" t)e C)arter o" t)e OAU 3y t)e A2t
itsel"& T)e O3je2ti!es o" t)e Union are to7
Ia2)ie!e greater unity and solidarity 3et9een A"ri2an 2ountries and
t)e eoles o" A"ri2aF
reser!e t)e so!ereignty o" its (e(3er states
9or' to9ards t)e Ioliti2al and so2io6e2ono(i2 integration o" t)e
2ontinentF
ro(ote 2o((on ositions on (atters o" i(ortan2e
sonsor international 2o6oeration+ ea2e+ se2urity and sta3ility
ro(ote de(o2ra2y and good go!ernan2e
integrate t)e 2ontinent into t)e Glo3al #2ono(y
ro(ote sustaina3le de!elo(ent
raise li!ing standards in t)e 2ontinent
ro(ote resear2) and u3li2 )ealt)&
T)e Constituti!e A2t also )as an eAli2it 2on2ern 9it) )u(an rig)ts7 t)e
AU is tas'ed 9it) t)e ro(otion and rote2tion o" )u(an rig)ts Iin
a22ordan2e 9it) t)e A"ri2an C)arter on Hu(an and $eolesK Rig)ts and
ot)er rele!ant )u(an rig)ts instru(entsF&
T)ese o3je2ti!es rest on 2ertain rin2iles&

One grou o" rin2iles stresses t)e need to reser!e t)e so!ereign
e-uality o" nations and to reser!e t)e 3orders a2)ie!ed at
indeenden2e+ alt)oug) t)e a2)ie!e(ent o" a I2o((on de"en2e oli2yF
(ay (ean so(e negotiation o" so!ereignty& A se2ond grou o"
rin2iles 2on2erns ea2e"ul resolution o" disutes+ and Iro)i3ition o"
t)e use o" "or2e or t)reat to use "or2e a(ong Me(3er States o" t)e
UnionF&
T)ese rin2iles eAtend to 2o!er t)e rig)t to re-uest inter!ention "ro(
t)e Union in order to Irestore ea2e and se2urityF&
.42
T)e rin2iles are also 2are"ul to "urt)er -uali"y so!ereignty 9it) an
i(ortant eA2etion7 It)e rig)t o" t)e Union to inter!ene in a Me(3er
State ursuant to a de2ision o" t)e Asse(3ly in rese2t o" gra!e
2ir2u(stan2es+ na(ely7 9ar 2ri(es+ geno2ide and 2ri(es against
)u(anityF& T)ere is also a grou o" rin2iles t)at ela3orate t)e 2on2ern
9it) rig)ts and good go!ernan2e7
.D ro(otion o" gender e-uality &
2D rese2t "or de(o2rati2 rin2iles+ )u(an rig)ts+ t)e rule o" la9
and good go!ernan2e
@D ro(otion o" so2ial justi2e to ensure 3alan2ed e2ono(i2
de!elo(ent
4D rese2t "or t)e san2tity o" )u(an li"e+ 2onde(nation and reje2tion
o" i(unity and oliti2al assassination+ a2ts o" terroris( and
su3!ersi!e a2ti!ities
4D 2onde(nation and reje2tion o" un2onstitutional 2)anges o"
go!ern(ents&
T)e A"ri2an Union )as to 3e seen in t)e 2onteAt o" t)e Ne9 $artners)i
"or A"ri2aFs *e!elo(ent CN#$A*D& N#$A* gre9 out o" an OAU
initiati!e to de!elo a lan "or t)e so2ial and e2ono(i2 de!elo(ent o"
t)e 2ontinentE in arti2ular+ to ta2'le es2alating o!erty le!els+
underde!elo(ent and t)e (arginalisation o" A"ri2a in t)e 9orld
e2ono(y& $art o" N#$A*Fs 3road re(it is a 2on2ern 9it) good
go!ernan2e and )u(an rig)ts t)at 3uilds on t)e rin2iles o" t)e
Constituti!e A2t7
T)e 2o(ing into "or2e o" t)e Constituti!e A2t o" t)e AU ro!ides a
ti(ely oortunity to "o2us on 9)at needs to )aen institutionally
and at a oli2y le!el to gal!anise integration+ 9it) arti2ular regard
to t)e ro(otion and rote2tion o" )u(an rig)ts& T)e Constituti!e
A2t o" t)e AU aears to ro!ide "or a stronger and (ore transarent
aroa2) to )u(an rig)ts+ 2o(ared to t)e OAU 9)ere t)e rin2ile
o" non6inter"eren2e in internal a""airs see(ed sa2rosan2t& T)e A2t
in2ludes all o" t)e o3je2ti!es and rin2iles o" t)e OAU+ 3ut "urt)er
ro!ides "or t)e ro(otion o" de(o2rati2 rin2iles and institutions+
oular arti2iation and good go!ernan2e+ t)e ro(otion and
rote2tion o" )u(an and eolesK rig)ts in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e
ACH$R and ot)er rele!ant instru(ents $arti2ularly i(ortantly+ t)e
Constituti!e A2t ro!ides "or t)e i(osition o" san2tions on
(e(3ers "ailing to 2o(ly 9it) t)e de2isions and oli2ies o" t)e
AU+ otentially ro!iding "or a (ore stringent )u(an rig)ts
en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(& &&&T)e eAisten2e o" t)e A"ri2an Court o"
%usti2e (ay also )el to 2onsolidate t)is& Go!ern(ents t)at )a!e
2o(e to o9er t)roug) un2onstitutional (eans 2an 3e susended and
ro)i3ited "ro( arti2iating in t)e a2ti!ities o" t)e Union& Alt)oug)
.4@
it is nonet)eless de3ata3le )o9 "ar t)ese ro!isions 9ill 3e utilised+
t)e re2ent de2ision o" t)e Central Organ to susend arti2iation
rig)ts o" t)e Central A"ri2an Reu3li2&& &as a result o" t)e coup d9etat
in Mar2) 2::@ o""ers so(e )oe "or its i(le(entation&
.& W)at is t)e nature o" t)e A"ri2an UnionKs 2on2ern 9it) )u(an
rig)tsJ *oes t)e AU o""er any )u(an rig)ts ad!antages o!er t)e
OAUJ
2& $reare a s)ort so'en resentation Cone (inuteD on t)e 2)anges
9)i2) )a!e o22urred in t)e )u(an rig)ts "ield as a result o" t)e
2)ange "ro( t)e OAU to t)e AU&
Su''#r-
T)e OAU C.;0@D )as its roots in t)e struggle against 2olonialis(&
Hu(an Rig)ts 9ere not+ at "irst+ one o" its riorities& Ho9e!er+ t)e
2reation o" t)e A"ri2an C)arter o" Hu(an and $eolesF Rig)ts in .;=0
(ade )u(an rig)ts "ar (ore 2entral to t)e 9or' o" t)e Union& Li'e t)e
A(eri2an *e2laration+ or t)e #uroean Con!ention+ t)e A"ri2an C)arter
2an 3e seen as 3ot) art o" t)e general tradition o" )u(an rig)ts+ and as
re"le2ting se2i"i2 national and international 2ultures& Bor instan2e+ t)e
A"ri2an C)arter 2ontains (ore o" a stress on duties and eolesF rig)ts
t)an ot)er international do2u(entsE and also re"le2ts t)e struggle against
2olonialis(& In .;;;+ t)e OAU 3e2a(e t)e AU& T)is 2)ange re"le2ts a
re6"o2using o" t)e o3je2ti!es o" t)e organisation to9ards good
go!ernan2e and regional e2ono(i2 2o6oeration&
/82 T"% A2r!#n C"#rt%r on Hu'#n #nd P%o7$%=& R!,"t&
4ACHPR5
In t)is se2tion+ 9e 9ill o!er!ie9 t)e rig)ts t)at t)e ACH$R ro!ides+
and t)en turn to loo' in detail at t)e distin2ti!e "eatures o" t)e C)arter&
T)e (ain Arti2les o" t)e C)arter ro!ide as "ollo9s7
Art!$% 27 t)e rig)t not to 3e dis2ri(inated against on t)e grounds o"
Kra2e+ et)ni2 grou+ 2olour+ seA+ language+ religion+
oliti2al or any ot)er oinion+ national and so2ial origin+
"ortune+ 3irt) or ot)er statusK&
Art!$% /7 e-uality 3e"ore t)e la9&
Art!$% 47 rig)t to li"e and integrity o" t)e erson&
Art!$% 07 t)e rig)t to rese2t and dignity& T)is Arti2le in2ludes a
ro)i3ition on sla!ery+ Itorture+ 2ruel+ in)u(an or
degrading unis)(ent and treat(entF&
.44
Art!$% @7 t)e rig)t to li3erty and to t)e se2urity o" t)e erson&
Art!$% A7 t)e rig)t to )a!e L)isM 2ase )eard& T)is Arti2le 2ontains
nu(erous due ro2ess guarantees&
Art!$% B guarantees I"reedo( o" 2ons2ien2e+ t)e ro"ession and "ree
ra2ti2e o" religionF&
Art!$% C7 t)e rig)t to re2ei!e and disse(inate in"or(ation&
Art!$% .9: t)e rig)t to "ree asso2iation&
Art!$% ..: t)e rig)t to asse(3le "reely&
Art!$% .2: t)e rig)t to "reedo( o" (o!e(ent and residen2e 9it)in t)e
3orders o" t)e state&
Art!$% ./: t)e rig)t to arti2iate "reely in go!ern(ent&
Art!$% .4 guarantees t)e rig)t to roerty&
Art!$% .0 gi!es indi!iduals t)e rig)t to I9or' under e-uita3le and
satis"a2tory 2onditionsF to Ire2ei!e e-ual pay "or e-ual
9or'F&
Art!$% .@: t)e rig)t to enjoy t)e 3est attaina3le state o" )ysi2al and
(ental )ealt)&
Art!$% .A: t)e rig)t to edu2ation& Arti2le.< C@D outla9s
Idis2ri(ination against 9o(enF and also (a'es it a duty
o" t)e state to Kensure t)e rote2tion o" t)e rig)ts o" t)e
9o(an and t)e 2)ild as stiulated in international
de2larations and 2on!entionsF&
Art!$% .B de2lares t)at t)e I"a(ily s)all 3e t)e natural unit and 3asis
o" so2ietyK and la2es a duty on t)e state Ito assist t)e
"a(ilyF&
We 9ill no9 turn to t)e distin2ti!e "eatures o" t)e C)arter7 t)e 2on2et
o" eolesK rig)ts and t)e 2on2et o" duties&
/828. P%o7$%=& R!,"t&
We 9ill eAa(ine Arti2les .;624&
Art!$% .C
All eoles s)all 3e e-ualE t)ey s)all enjoy t)e sa(e rese2t and
s)all )a!e t)e sa(e rig)ts&
Not)ing s)all justi"y t)e do(ination o" a eole 3y anot)er&
Arti2le .; re"le2ts t)e anti62olonial insiration o" t)e C)arter& It
se2i"i2ally relates t)e e-uality rin2ile to t)e ro3le( o"
do(ination&

Art!$% 29
.44
.& All eoles s)all )a!e t)e rig)t to eAisten2e& T)ey s)all )a!e t)e
un-uestiona3le and inaliena3le rig)t to sel"6deter(ination& T)ey
s)all "reely deter(ine t)eir oliti2al status and s)all ursue t)eir
e2ono(i2 and so2ial de!elo(ent a22ording to t)e oli2y t)ey
)a!e "reely 2)osen&
2& Colonised or oressed eoles s)all )a!e t)e rig)t to "ree
t)e(sel!es "ro( t)e 3onds o" do(ination 3y resorting to any
(eans re2ognised 3y t)e international 2o((unity&
@& All eoles s)all )a!e t)e rig)t to t)e assistan2e o" t)e state
arties to t)e resent C)arter in t)eir li3eration struggle against
"oreign do(ination+ 3e it oliti2al+ e2ono(i2 or 2ultural&
It is 2lear t)at Art!$% 29 3uilds on Art!$% .C8 W)ereas Arti2le .;
ela3orated a rin2ile o" e-uality+ Arti2le 2: arti2ulates a rig)t to
eAisten2e t)at is eAli2itly related to t)e rig)t to sel"6 deter(ination& T)is
is t)e rig)t to deter(ine Ioliti2al statusF+ and again re"ers to t)e struggle
against i(osed go!ern(ents& T)e rin2ile o" sel"6deter(ination is
lin'ed to t)e rig)t to engage in a oliti2al struggle against "oreign
do(ination+ and t)e asso2iated rig)t to aid in t)e li3eration struggle&
Art!$% 2.
.& All eoles s)all "reely disose o" t)eir 9ealt) and natural
resour2es& T)is rig)t s)all 3e eAer2ised in t)e eA2lusi!e interest o"
t)e eole& In no 2ase s)all a eole 3e deri!ed o" it&
2& In 2ase o" soliation t)e disossessed eole s)all )a!e t)e rig)t
to t)e la9"ul re2o!ery o" its roerty as 9ell as to an ade-uate
2o(ensation&
@& T)e "ree disosal o" 9ealt) and natural resour2es s)all 3e
eAer2ised 9it)out rejudi2e to t)e o3ligation o" ro(oting
international e2ono(i2 2o6oeration 3ased on (utual rese2t+
e-uita3le eA2)ange and t)e rin2iles o" international la9&
4& States arties to t)e resent C)arter s)all indi!idually and
2olle2ti!ely eAer2ise t)e rig)t to "ree disosal o" t)eir 9ealt) and
natural resour2es 9it) a !ie9 to strengt)ening A"ri2an unity and
solidarity&
4& States arties to t)e resent C)arter s)all underta'e to eli(inate
all "or(s o" "oreign e2ono(i2 eAloitation arti2ularly t)at
ra2ti2ed 3y international (onoolies so as to ena3le t)eir
eoles to "ully 3ene"it "ro( t)e ad!antages deri!ed "ro( t)eir
national resour2es&
Art!$% 2. 2an 3e seen as an ela3oration o" Arti2le 2: in t)at it states
one o" t)e 2onse-uen2es o" sel"6deter(ination7 t)e 2lai( o!er a eoleFs
o9ners)i o" 9ealt) and resour2es& On a ra2ti2al le!el+ t)is Arti2le
9ould (ean t)at a nation 2ould 2lai( o9ners)i o" resour2es 9it)in its
.40
territorial 3oundaries+ and o!ersee t)eir eAloitation in t)e interests o"
t)e nation as a 9)ole&
T)e Arti2le 9ould 3e too li(ited i" it re"erred to a nationFs o9ners)i o"
resour2es& Certain territories+ still at t)e ti(e under 2olonial go!ern(ent+
2ould not 3e 2onsidered nations as su2)& T)e Arti2le 9as 2onse-uently
3roadly "ra(ed&
Note t)e 2o((unitarian underinnings o" t)is Arti2le& As' yoursel"+ r]
to 9)at eAtent is it 2onsistent 9it) an indi!idual rig)t to roertyJ
Art!$% 22
.& All eoles s)all )a!e t)e rig)t to t)eir e2ono(i2+ so2ial and
2ultural de!elo(ent 9it) due regard to t)eir "reedo( and
identity and in t)e e-ual enjoy(ent o" t)e 2o((on )eritage o"
(an'ind&
2& States s)all )a!e t)e duty+ indi!idually or 2olle2ti!ely+ to ensure
t)e+ eAer2ise o" t)e rig)t to de!elo(ent&
Read in t)e 2onteAt o" Arti2le 2.F Arti2le 22 lin's o9ners)i o"
resour2es to a rig)t to de!elo(ent& T)is rig)t 2ould 3e seen as an
ele(ent o" t)e anti62olonial struggle& One ase2t o" 2olonialis( 9as t)e
under6de!elo(ent o" 2olonial territories+ and t)e lin'ing o" t)eir
e2ono(ies to t)ose o" t)e 2olonial o9ers& On2e nations )ad
su22ess"ully a2)ie!ed t)eir indeenden2e+ it 9as ne2essary to de!elo
e2ono(i2 resour2es and 2aa2ity& T)e rig)t to de!elo(ent gi!es a legal
and oliti2al "or( to t)is asiration&
Art!$% 2/
.& All eoles s)all )a!e t)e rig)t to national and international
ea2e and se2urity& T)e rin2iles o" solidarity and "riendly
relations i(li2itly a""ir(ed 3y t)e C)arter o" t)e United Nations
and rea""ir(ed 3y t)at o" t)e organisation o" A"ri2an Unity s)all
go!ern relations 3et9een States&
2& Bor t)e urose o" strengt)ening ea2e+ solidarity and "riendly
relations+ States arties to t)e resent6C)arter s)all ensure t)at7
CaD any indi!idual enjoying t)e rig)t o" asylu( under Arti2le .2
o" t)e resent C)arter s)all not engage in su3!ersi!e a2ti!ities
against )is 2ountry o" origin or any ot)er State arty to t)e
resent C)arterE C3D t)eir territories s)all not 3e used as 3ases "or
su3!ersi!e or terrorist a2ti!ities against t)e eole o" any ot)er
State arty to t)e resent C)arter&
.4<
Art!$% 2/ relates rin2iles o" t)e UN C)arter to t)e A"ri2an oliti2al
situation& Arti2le 2@C2D is interesting& T)e ne9ly indeendent states in
A"ri2a+ 9it) unsettled 3orders or resti!e oulations un)aily in2luded
into ne9 nations+ 9ere eAerien2ing oliti2al insta3ility& Arti2le 2@C2D
atte(ts to resol!e t)is ro3le(+ and a""ir(s a rin2ile o" national
so!ereignty and non6inter"eren2e in national a""airs&
Art!$% 24
All eoles s)all )a!e t)e rig)t to a general satis"a2tory en!iron(ent
"a!ora3le to t)eir de!elo(ent&
Art!$% 24 3rings toget)er a nu(3er o" 2on2erns 9it) t)e integrity o" t)e
en!iron(ent and t)e need to sa"eguard so2ial and e2ono(i2al
de!elo(ent&
All t)ese Arti2les re"er to IeolesF rig)tsF& It is i(ortant t)at 9e
understand t)is ter(&
As Issa S)i!ji 9rites7

T)e rig)t )older>is not eA2lusi!ely an autono(ous indi!idual 3ut a
2olle2ti!e7 a eole+ a nation+ a nationality+ a national grou+ an interest/
so2ial grou+ a 2ultural/oressed (inorityF CT)e Con2et o" Hu(an
Rig)ts in A"ri2a LA2ade(i2 Literature+ CO*#SRIA+ .;=;.D&
SoVeolesF rig)ts re"er in art to t)e role t)at rig)ts lay in a oliti2al
or re!olutionary struggle against oression& A 2olle2ti!ist re!olutionary
aradig( 9ould stress t)at a Irig)tF is not so (u2) a 2lai( or an
entitle(ent+ 3ut art o" a oliti2al IstruggleF+ a node around 9)i2)
struggles 2an organise t)e(sel!es&
T)is argu(ent 9ould also rede"ine t)e notion o" rig)ts as oliti2al rat)er
t)an (oral 2lai(s& T)ey (a'e sense as 2olle2ti!e rig)ts t)at 2an 3e t)en
KassertedK t)roug) oliti2al rat)er t)an legal a2tion&
W"#t #r% Co$$%t!*% R!,"t&D
A ossi3le a22ount o" 2olle2ti!e rig)ts 2an 3egin 3y noting t)at
2olle2ti!e entities Csu2) as 2ororationsD 2an )a!e rig)ts and duties&
Argua3ly+ a 2ororation )as a legal identity 3e2ause it )as a arti2ular
stru2ture and 2arries out oli2ies to9ards 2ertain ends& ,y analogy+ i"
one "inds t)at a eole are reresented 3y identi"ia3le stru2tures t)at
)a!e de2ision6(a'ing ro2edures+ t)en t)ere s)ould 3e no "atal
o3je2tion to (a'ing eoles t)e )olders o" rig)ts& Moreo!er+ t)ese rig)ts
2an 3e 2on2ei!ed as gi!ing title to entities t)at 2annot 3e di!ided+ su2)
as t)e en!iron(ent C1an der Wal+ ;46;0D&
.4=
$eolesF rig)ts are lin'ed 9it) t)e rig)t to sel"6deter(ination 63ut in
jurisruden2e t)is )as 3e2o(e al(ost eA2lusi!ely lin'ed to t)e notion o"
so!ereign states and t)e ro3le( o" se2ession& I" one 2o(ares t)e
eAa(le o" t)e 2ession o" ,ia"ra "ro( Nigeria 9it) t)at o" t)e se2ession
o" ,anglades) "ro( $a'istan+ one 2ould argue t)at t)e "or(er "ailed and
t)e latter su22eeded+ not so (u2) 3e2ause one )ad a 3etter 2lai( to a
rig)t o" se2ession t)an t)e ot)er+ 3ut t)at one 9as suressed and t)e
ot)er 9asnFt& I" t)e 2on2lusion is rea2)ed t)at t)e rig)t to sel"6
deter(ination is i(ossi3le to searate "ro( 3roader oliti2al issues+
t)en t)is (ay s)o9 t)at t)e dis2ourse o" rig)ts 2an ne!er eAist searately
"ro( oliti2s& CSee ,ae)rE also Cra9"ord+ .;;2&D
Loo'ed at a di""erent 9ay+ t)ese are genealogi2al issuesE 2on2erns a3out
)o9 a ne9 2ategory o" rig)ts s)ould relate to t)e eAisting 2atalogue o"
rig)ts& One erse2ti!e is t)at ne96generation rig)tsIre6in"or2eF eAisting
rig)ts Csee Blinter(an in ,erting et ai., .;;:+ <<D& Rat)er t)an 3eing
disruti!e 2lai(s+ t)ey are eAtensions o" eAisting rig)tsE t)us+ t)e rig)t to
de!elo(ent is 2on2erned 9it) sustaina3le de(o2rati2 2o((unities in
t)e sa(e 9ay t)at 2lassi2al rig)ts are so engaged& Solidarity rig)ts+ as
rig)ts )eld 3y 2o((unities+ 2)allenge t)e eAisting 2on2ets o" 2i!il
li3erties+ as t)e t)ese 9ere ri(arily )eld 3y indi!iduals& C<=D& T)ese
ne9 de!elo(ents "or2e eAisting rig)ts dis2ourses to "a2e ne9 oliti2al
ro3le(s& To argue ot)er9ise 9ould turn rig)ts into a stati2 2on2et&
Ho9e!er+ 2ounter genealogies 9ould suggest t)at t)e !ery in!ention o"
t)ird Cand er)as e!en se2ondD generation rig)ts+ Ide!aluesF and
Iunder(inesF t)e "oundational notion o" rig)ts& An eAtension o" t)is
2riti2is( 9ould )old t)at it turns a rig)ts dis2ourse into a set o" utoian
oliti2al 2lai(s+ rat)er t)an argu(ents t)at 2an 3e (ade 3y la9yers in
2ourts& I" one loo's at t)e U*HR+ )o9e!er+ one 2o(es a2ross Arti2le 2=
9)i2) states7 Ie!eryone is entitled to a so2ial and international order in
9)i2) t)e rig)ts and "reedo(s set "ort) in t)is *e2laration 2an 3e "ully
realisedF 6a state(ent t)at 9as not realised in t)e dra"ting o" t)e
Co!enants in .;00& To t)e eAtent t)at de3ates o!er t)ird generation
rig)ts return to t)is o(ission+ it (ig)t 3e suggested t)at t)e ro3le(s
are not so (u2) t)ose o" eAternal oliti2al "a2tors 3eing 3roug)t to t)e
de3ate+ 3ut t)e s)ae o" t)e de3ate in its (ost o""i2ial "or(s&
$eolesF rig)ts are t)us a 2ontro!ersial and distin2ti!e "eature o" t)e
C)arter& We 9ill no9 turn our attention to t)e 2on2et o" duties&
/8282 Dut!%&
.4;
T)e 2orrelation o" rig)ts and duties in t)e $rea(3le 2onne2ts 9it)
Arti2les 2<+ 2= and 2;7
Art!$% .
T)e Me(3er States o" t)e Organisation o" A"ri2an Unity arties to
t)e resent C)arter s)all re2ognise t)e rig)ts+ duties and "reedo(s
ens)rined in t)is C)ater and s)all underta'e to adot legislati!e or
ot)er (easures to gi!e e""e2t to t)e(&
T)is suggests t)at rig)ts+ duties and "reedo(s are inseara3le&
Art!$% 2A
.& #!ery indi!idual s)all )a!e duties to9ards )is "a(ily and so2iety+
t)e State and ot)er legally re2ognised 2o((unities and t)e
international 2o((unity&
2& T)e rig)ts and "reedo(s o" ea2) indi!idual s)all 3e eAer2ised
9it) due regard to t)e rig)ts o" ot)ers+ 2olle2ti!e se2urity+
(orality and 2o((on interest&
Art!$% 2A ela3orates a rin2ile le"t i(li2it in Arti2le .& Rig)ts
2orrelate 9it) duties+ and t)ey 2an only 3e understood 3y seeing t)e
indi!idual )older o" rig)ts as a (e(3er o" a 2o((unity& Rig)ts are
-uali"ied 3y !irtue o" t)is (e(3ers)i&
Art!$% 2B
#!ery indi!idual s)all )a!e t)e duty to rese2t and 2onsider )is "ello9
3eings 9it)out dis2ri(ination+ and to (aintain relations ai(ed at
ro(oting+ sa"eguarding and rein"or2ing (utual rese2t and toleran2e&
Art!$% 2C
T)e indi!idual s)all also )a!e t)e duty7
.& To reser!e t)e )ar(onious de!elo(ent o" t)e "a(ily and to
9or' "or t)e 2o)esion and rese2t o" t)e "a(ilyE to rese2t )is
arents at all ti(es+ to (aintain t)e( in 2ase o" need
2& To ser!e )is national 2o((unity 3y la2ing )is )ysi2al and
intelle2tual a3ilities at its ser!i2e
@& Not to 2o(ro(ise t)e se2urity o" t)e State 9)ose national or
resident )e is
4& To reser!e and strengt)en so2ial and national solidarity+
arti2ularly 9)en t)e latter is t)reatened
.4:
4& To reser!e and strengt)en t)e national indeenden2e and t)e
territorial integrity o" )is 2ountry and to 2ontri3ute to its de"en2e
in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e la9
0& To 9or' to t)e 3est o" )is a3ilities and 2o(eten2e+ and to ay
taAes i(osed 3y la9 in t)e interest o" t)e so2iety
<& To reser!e and strengt)en ositi!e A"ri2an 2ultural !alues in )is
relations 9it) ot)er (e(3ers o" t)e so2iety+ in t)e sirit o"
toleran2e+ dialogue and 2onsultation and+ in general+ to 2ontri3ute
to t)e ro(otion o" t)e (oral 9ell 3eing o" so2iety
=& To 2ontri3ute to t)e 3est o" )is a3ilities+ at all ti(es and at all
le!els+ to t)e ro(otion and a2)ie!e(ent o" A"ri2an unity&
Arti2le 2; sets out t)e (ost eAtended de"inition o" t)e duties o" t)e
indi!idual& T)ey are o9ed to "a(ily+ t)e nation and to A"ri2an 2ultural
!alues& T)is (a'es eAli2it anot)er er!asi!e 2on2ern7 t)e 2on2ern 9it)
duties is an aut)enti2 (ar' o" A"ri2an 2ulture& T)us+ A"ri2an )u(an
rig)ts (ust reresent t)is 2ultural de!elo(ent&
Ho3 #n 3% Und%r&t#nd t"!& Con%7t o2 Dut!%&D
T)e 2on2et o" duties is t)e se2ond "eature t)at t)e dra"ters o" t)e
C)arter 3elie!ed distinguis)ed t)e uni-ueness o" A"ri2an )u(an and
eolesF rig)ts& T)is is not a t)eoreti2al inno!ation in itsel"+ rat)er it
sta'es its 2lai( on t)e originality o" t)e e()asis t)at t)ese duties are
gi!en in t)e C)arter&
T)is e()asis on duty is justi"ied 3y re"erring to traditional A"ri2an
2ulture& T)e 2lai( is also (ade t)at it is at t)is oint in t)e C)arter t)at
A"ri2an 2ultural !alues a2)ie!e a legal "or(& T)e duties des2ri3e an
indi!idual 9)o is rooted in t)e 2onteAt o" "a(ily+ 2o((unity and nation&
Already+ t)en+ t)ere is a transosition o" t)e notion o" t)e traditional
2o((unity to t)e notion o" t)e nation7 in ot)er 9ords+ 3e2ause tradition
)olds it 2lear t)at an indi!idual )as duties to 'it) and 'in+ t)en it "ollo9s
t)at t)ey s)ould also )a!e duties to9ards t)eir nation&
I& t"!& L!n+ o2 Dut!%& 3!t" t"% St#t% Pro($%'#t!D
T)e C)arter (a'es t)e lin' 3et9een duties and t)e state 3e2ause t)e
li3eration struggle 9as "o2used on a2)ie!ing indeenden2e "or 2olonial
territories&

Ho9e!er+ on2e indeenden2e 9as a2)ie!ed+ does t)is e()asis (ean
t)at indi!idual rig)ts are al9ays to 3e li(ited 3y a duty to9ards a stateJ
#!en+ "or eAa(le+ 9)en a state is a3using eolesK rig)tsJ
T)ere is a ossi3le 2ontradi2tion 3et9een t)e need to Kreser!e and
strengt)en ositi!e A"ri2an 2ultural !aluesK and t)e need not to
.4.
I2o(ro(ise t)e se2urity o" t)e stateF& It is 2learly ossi3le to suggest
t)at reser!ing 2ultural !alues (ay 3e 3est ser!ed 3y oosing a 2orrut
and oressi!e state+ and t)us to satis"y t)e de(ands o" duty&
T)e ro3le(ati2 status o" t)e 2on2et o" rig)ts in t)e C)arter 2ould 3e
lin'ed to t)e 2riti2is( t)at t)e C)arterKs en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s are
9ea'+ and re!ent t)e de!elo(ent o" a !igorous )u(an rig)ts 2ulture
in A"ri2a& Alt)oug) t)is is true+ to so(e eAtent+ t)e later de!elo(ent o"
t)e C)arter s)o9s t)at t)e notion o" duties 3e2o(es less i(ortant to
t)ose etitioning t)e Co((ission t)an are t)e 2lai(s to due ro2ess and
so2ial and e2ono(i2 rig)ts t)at t)e C)arter also ro!ides&
To assess t)ese 2lai(s+ 9e 9ill loo' at t)e 9ay t)e ACH$R )as 3een
used in a re2ent 2ase o" national a3use o" )u(an rig)ts&
W)at are t)e distin2ti!e "eatures o" t)e ACH$RJ
T"% C#&% o2 >%n S#ro-W!3# #nd t"% O,on! E!,"t
T)e role o" t)e ACH$R and t)e Co((ission 2an 3e 3etter understood
3y re"erring to a se2i"i2 eAa(le o" )o9 t)ey oerate& We 9ill "o2us on
t)e eAe2ution o" t)e Nigerian 9riter and a2ti!ist 5en Saro6Wi9a and
ot)er a2ti!ists to see )o9 etitions to t)e Co((ission 2an rodu2e
oliti2al and legal 2)anges&
Saro6Wi9a and eig)t ot)er a2ti!ists 9ere eAe2uted 3y t)e Nigerian
go!ern(ent in .;;4& T)ey 9ere rotesting a3out t)e so2ial and
e2ono(i2 (arginalisation o" t)e Ogoni et)ni2 grouing to 9)i2) t)ey
3elonged& T)e Ogoni li!e in t)e *elta Region o" Nigeria+ and t)eir lands
are ri2) in oil& T)e Nigerian go!ern(ent 9as a22used o" eAtra2ting oil
9it) little regard "or t)e desoliation o" t)e region or "or "inan2ially
2o(ensating t)e Ogoni& Hu(an rig)ts a3uses 3y t)e Nigerian oli2e
and (ilitary )ad also allegedly ta'en la2e&
A"ter rioting in May .;;4+ during 9)i2) "our Ogoni leaders 9ere
(urdered+ 5en Saro6Wi9a and )is nine 2o6a22used "ound t)e(sel!es
3e"ore a Ci!il *istur3an2es Se2ial Tri3unal& Later+ an ad hoc tri3unal
9as esta3lis)ed "or t)eir trial& Re!ie9ing t)e 2ase+ t)e Se2ial
Raorteur "or t)e UN "ound t)at t)e rioting )ad resulted "ro(
go!ern(ent agents stirring u dissent 3et9een t)e Ogoni and
neig)3ouring et)ni2 grous& T)e Tri3unal itsel" 9as 2onstituted in
2ontra!ention o" due ro2ess& Bollo9ing ro2edures esta3lis)ed 3y t)e
(ilitary go!ern(ent+ t)e judges Cin2luding an ar(y o""i2erD 9ere
aointed 3y t)e eAe2uti!e&2 As t)e United Nations reort ointed out+
.42
t)is 9as in dire2t 2ontra!ention o" t)e 3asi2 rin2ile o" t)e rig)t to trial
3y an i(artial 2ourt& T)e 2onstitution o" a tri3unal in su2) a 9ay is also
in 3rea2) o" t)e A"ri2an C)arter o" Hu(an and $eolesF Rig)ts CArti2le
<E Arti2le 20D and t)e International Co!enant on Ci!il and $oliti2al
Rig)ts CArti2le .4 C.DD& Indeed+ a 2)allenge 9as "iled in t)e
Constitutional 2ourt+ 3ut it 9as not )eard& T)ere 9ere "urt)er serious
3rea2)es o" due ro2ess in t)e 2ondu2t o" t)e trial+ in2luding eA2lusion
o" e!iden2e t)at s)ed serious dou3t on t)e rose2ution 2ase& T)is 9as
a22o(anied 3y (ilitary )arass(ent o" t)e de"en2e 2ounsel&
Saro6Wi9aFs 2ase 9as etitioned 3e"ore t)e A"ri2an Co((ission& T)e
Co((ission a""ir(ed t)at nu(erous 3rea2)es o" t)e C)arter )ad ta'en
la2e&
In .;;; t)e Co((ission a""ir(ed t)at t)ere )ad 3een a 3rea2) o" Arti2le
4 o" t)e A"ri2an C)arter& Saro6Wi9a and )is 2o6de"endants )ad 3een
su3je2t to ill6treat(ent during t)eir i(rison(ent and interrogation& T)e
go!ern(ent )ad e""e2ti!ely "ailed to re2ognise t)e Klegal statusK o" t)e
)u(an 3eing& ,rea2)es o" Arti2le 4+ 9)i2) rote2ts t)e in!iola3ility o"
t)e )u(an 3eing+ suorted t)is argu(ent& T)ere 9ere also 3rea2)es o"
Arti2les 0 and <& T)ese Arti2les 2an 3e read as rote2ting due ro2ess+
se2i"i2ally ai(ed at outla9ing ar3itrary detention and se2i"ying t)e
standards t)at (ust go!ern t)e 9ay in 9)i2) a trial is 2ondu2ted& T)e
Nigerian go!ern(ent )ad also "ailed to u)old its o3ligations under
Arti2le .:+ a""ir(ing t)e rig)t o" "ree asso2iation&
In 2::.+ a later de2ision o" t)e Co((ission deter(ined t)at t)e
Nigerian go!ern(ent 9as in 3rea2) o" a nu(3er o" Arti2les o" t)e
C)arter& Note )o9 t)is de2ision is 2on2erned 9it) t)e e2ono(i2 rig)ts
and duties o" t)e state&
Alt)oug) t)e Nigerian go!ern(ent is entitled to rodu2e oil+ t)is
entitle(ent is -uali"ied 3y 2ertain duties and o3ligations& Arti2le 2. is
re2ise in stressing t)at eAloiting natural resour2es is to 3e underta'en
in an e-uita3le (anner and in t)e interests o" Kt)e eoleF& W)ere
degradation )as o22urred as a result o" industrial eAtra2tion o" natural
resour2es+ t)ose a""e2ted )a!e t)e rig)t to 2o(ensation& Burt)er(ore+
t)e Arti2le se2i"ies t)at A"ri2an go!ern(ents s)ould 9or' to Keli(inate
all "or(s o" "oreign e2ono(i2 eAloitationK 3y (ultinational
2ororations and Kinternational (onooliesK& T)e 2ases to 9)i2) t)e
Co((ission re"erred stressed t)at go!ern(ents )a!e a duty to rote2t
t)eir 2itiHens against a2ts 3y ri!ate arties+ a roosition suorted 3y
2ases under ot)er )u(an rig)ts instru(ents&
It 9as also argued t)at t)e Nigerian go!ern(ent )ad !iolated t9o "urt)er
Arti2les o" t)e C)arter& Arti2le 24 la2es on t)e state t)e duty to
.4@
reser!e t)e en!iron(ent to t)e eAtent t)at it is I"a!oura3leF to eoleKs
Kde!elo(entK& Arti2le .0 relates to t)e stateKs (ani"old duties to
sa"eguard t)e (ental and )ysi2al )ealt) o" indi!iduals& T)e go!ern(ent
)ad 3rea2)ed 3ot) Arti2les as it )ad arti2iated in olluting t)e
en!iron(ent+ 2aused )ar( to t)e eole o" t)e *elta region and )ad
"ailed to rote2t 3ot) eole and t)e en!iron(ent "ro( t)e degradation
2aused 3y t)e S)ell Consortiu(& T)e Nigerian go!ern(ent 9as also in
3rea2) o" t)e o3ligation to underta'e studies o" t)e Ogoni lands 9it) a
!ie9 to assessing da(age to t)e region& T)ose argu(ents 9ere run
alongside a 2lai( t)at t)e go!ern(ent )ad not guaranteed t)e rig)t to
roerty under Arti2le .4 and+ dra9ing on a nu(3er o" Arti2les+ t)at t)e
rig)t to s)elter )ad also 3een in"ringed 3y t)e destru2tion o" Ogoni
!illages& T)e Co((ission also a22eted argu(ents on t)e in"ringe(ent
o" t)e rig)t to "ood& Alt)oug) t)is 9as not dire2tly stated in t)e C)arter+
it 9as a 2lear i(li2ation o" reading toget)er t)e Arti2les rote2ting t)e
rig)t to li"e CArti2le .D+ t)e rig)t to )ealt) CArti2le .0D and t)e rig)t to
e2ono(i2+ so2ial and 2ultural de!elo(ent CArti2le 22D&
Alt)oug) t)is 2ase )as 3een 2riti2ised+ t)ere is a sense in 9)i2) it
reresents an i(ortant inter!ention in t)e oliti2al de!elo(ent o"
A"ri2an de(o2ra2y& *uring t)e eriod o" (ilitary rule+ t)e ro!isions in
t)e Nigerian 2onstitution t)at in2ororated t)e A"ri2an C)arter on
Hu(an and $eolesK Rig)ts )ad 3een susended 3y t)e (ilitary& T)e
"a2t t)at a 2i!ilian ad(inistration )ad returned to o9er suggests t)at
t)ere 9ould also 3e a return to due ro2ess and a rene9ed 2o((it(ent
to )u(an rig)ts& T)e Co((ission noted+ )o9e!er+ t)at t)e Nigerian
go!ern(ent )ad not resonded to 2o((uni2ations a3out t)e a!aila3ility
o" do(esti2 re(edies+ and )en2e t)e status o" t)e C)arter in Nigerian
la9 9as un2ertain& Moreo!er+ t)e Nigerian go!ern(ent a2'no9ledged
t)at t)ere 9ere ongoing a3uses o" t)e Ogoni and t)eir land 3y oil
2o(anies oerating in t)e region&
List t)e C)arter 2lauses under 9)i2) t)e Nigerian go!ern(ent )as 3een
2riti2ised o!er t)e 5en Saro6Wi9a/Ogoni 2ase&
So+ t)e 2riti2is(s t)at )a!e rig)tly inointed t)e ulti(ate 9ea'ness o"
t)e C)arter at t)e le!el o" t)e re(edies t)at it is a3le to in!o'e+ dra9
attention+ in art+ to t)e "ailure o" t)is dis2ourse at er)as its (ost !ital
le!el& T)e A"ri2an Co((issionKs de2ision (erely re(inds t)e Nigerian
go!ern(ent o" t)e i(ortan2e o" t)e (atter& Alt)oug) t)ere is a
sy(3oli2 i(ortan2e to t)is tye o" utteran2e+ it lea!es a great deal to 3e
desired in ter(s o" 2o(ensation "or t)e a3uses su""ered& T)is is an area
t)at re(ains 9it)in t)e so!ereign 2o(eten2e o" t)e state&
.44
In resonse to t)e Co((ission+ t)e Nigerian go!ern(ent a2'no9ledged
t)e seriousness o" t)e Ogoni issue+ and outlined t)e resonse o" t)e
ad(inistration& T)ey )ad set u a roerly resour2ed Bederal Ministry o"
#n!iron(ent+ 9it) a 3rie" t)at "o2used on t)e Ogoni region and t)e
Niger *eltaE a %udi2ial Co((ission o" In-uiry )as 3een instituted to
eAa(ine t)e alleged )u(an rig)ts a3uses and Ogoni etitions 9ere
3eing 2onsidered& W)et)er or not t)is is su""i2ient (ust re(ain+ at t)is
stage+ an oen -uestion&
W)at 9ider 2on2lusions 2ould 9e dra9 a3out t)ese de2isionsJ T)e
dis2ourse o" t)e C)arter a22ords t)e state its roer rig)ts and ri!ileges+
3ut sees t)e( as -uali"ied 3y t)e o3ligations t)at t)e state )as to9ards
its eoles& We 2an see+ t)oug)+ t)at t)e C)arter also atte(ts to 2reate a
!ia3le )u(an rig)ts regi(e 3y (a'ing t)e state resonsi3le "or t)e
a2tions o" t)ose industries t)at are 9or'ing 9it)in t)e territory "or 9)i2)
t)at state is resonsi3le& Ta'en toget)er+ t)e de2isions 2an 3e seen as t)e
la9Ks re2o((endation o" 2ertain (ini(u( oliti2al "or(s t)at in2lude
rig)ts to due ro2ess+ to "air trial and 2o((it(ents to so2ial and
e2ono(i2 rig)ts&
Alt)oug) t)e ACH$R )as 3een 2riti2ised "or )a!ing 9ea' en"or2e(ent
(e2)anis(s+ t)e Co((ission )as layed a ositi!e role in )ig)lig)ting
)u(an rig)ts a3uses& *is2uss&
Su''#r-
T)e 2ase o" 5en Saro6Wi9a and t)e Ogoni eig)t s)o9s )o9 t)e
ACH$R 2an 3ring ressure to 3ear on a national go!ern(ent "or a3use
o" )u(an rig)ts& Saro6Wi9a and t)e Ogoni eig)t 9ere 9rongly a22used+
t)en tried 9it)out due ro2ess and eAe2uted& In .;;;+ t)e Co((ission
a""ir(ed t)at t)ere )ad 3een a 3rea2) o" Arti2les 4+ 4+ 0 < and .:& In
2::.+ a se2ond 2ase "ound 3rea2)es o" Arti2les .4+ .0+ 2.+ 22 and 24&
Alt)oug) t)ere are no re(edies "or t)ese 3rea2)es+ t)e de2isions )a!e
ut ressure on t)e Nigerian go!ern(ent&
/8/ T"% A2r!#n C"#rt%r on t"% R!,"t& #nd W%$2#r% o2 t"%
C"!$d
T)e need "or an A"ri2an C)arter on t)e Rig)ts and Wel"are o" t)e C)ild
CACRWCD 9as a2ute as A"ri2an nations 9ere under6 reresented in t)e
dra"ting o" t)e Con!ention on t)e Rig)ts o" t)e C)ild CCRCD in t)e late
.;=:s& Gi!en t)e sensiti!eness o" issues relating to 2)ildren+ it 3e2a(e
in2reasingly ne2essary to reare a do2u(ent t)at re"le2ted A"ri2an
2ultures&
.44
T)e ro3le(s t)at 2a(e out o" a se2i"i2ally A"ri2an 2onteAt related to a
!ariety o" ro3le(s t)at 2an 3e s'et2)ed as "ollo9s& An A"ri2an C)arter
(ust address7
2)ildren 9)o 9ere li!ing under aart)eid regi(es
dis2ri(inatory ra2ti2es to9ards girls+ su2) as 2ir2u(2ision and
genital (utilation
t)e ro3le(s "a2ed 3y 2)ildren 9)o 9ere disla2ed or re"ugees&
T)ere 9as also a 2on2ern t)at t)e CRC did not re"le2t A"ri2an nor(s
relating to t)e "a(ily+ adotion and "ostering& Ho9e!er+ t)e ACRWC
did (a'e use o" rin2iles "ro( t)e CRC7 non6 dis2ri(ination+ t)e
2on2et o" t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild+ t)e sur!i!al and de!elo(ent
o" t)e 2)ild and t)e e!ol!ing 2aa2ities o" t)e 2)ild& Criti2s )a!e dra9n
attention to t)e "ailures o" t)e ACRWC in 2ertain areasE (ost nota3ly
t)e rules t)at relate to ju!enile justi2e&0
T)ese 2on2erns underlie t)e "inal do2u(ent& We 9ill eAa(ine so(e o"
t)e (ore i(ortant se2tions7
Art!$% . la2es o3ligations on state arties7 Iany 2usto(+ tradition+
2ultural or religious ra2ti2eF in2onsistent 9it) t)e rig)ts+ duties and
o3ligations o" t)e C)arter s)all I3e dis2ouragedF& T)e C)arter t)en goes
on to ela3orate a series o" rig)ts and duties&
Art!$% / on Non6*is2ri(ination ro!ides t)at7
e!ery 2)ild s)all 3e entitled to t)e enjoy(ent o" t)e rig)ts and
"reedo(s irrese2ti!e o" t)e 2)ildFs or )is/)er arentsF or legal
guardiansF ra2e+ et)ni2 grou+ 2olour+ seA+ language+ religion+
oliti2al or ot)er oinion+ national and so2ial origin+ "ortune+ 3irt) or
ot)er status&
Art!$% 4 lays do9n a (ajor rin2ile7 t)at o" t)e 3est interests o" t)e
2)ild& T)is ro!ides as "ollo9s7

.& In all a2tions 2on2erning t)e 2)ild underta'en 3y any erson or
aut)ority t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild s)all 3e t)e ri(ary
2onsideration&
2& In all judi2ial or ad(inistrati!e ro2eedings a""e2ting a 2)ild 9)o
is 2aa3le o" 2o((uni2ating )is/)er o9n !ie9s+ an oortunity
s)all 3e ro!ided "or t)e !ie9s o" t)e 2)ild to 3e )eard eit)er
dire2tly or t)roug) an i(artial reresentati!e as a arty to t)e
ro2eedings+ and t)ose !ie9s s)all 3e ta'en into 2onsideration 3y
t)e rele!ant aut)ority in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e ro!isions o"
aroriate la9&
.40
Art!$% 0 deals 9it) sur!i!al and de!elo(ent& Li'e Arti2le 4+ Arti2le 4
2on2erns itsel" 9it) ro!iding a series o" rig)ts t)at are uni-ue to
2)ildren& Ho9e!er+ t)ese rig)ts are 3ased on t)e Kin)erentK rig)t to li"e
t)at is 2o((on to 3ot) t)e U*HR and t)e ACH$R& Arti2le 4 goes on to
state t)at7
.& #!ery 2)ild )as an in)erent rig)t to li"e& T)is rig)t s)all 3e
rote2ted 3y la9&
2& States $arties to t)e resent C)arter s)all ensure+ to t)e (aAi(u(
eAtent ossi3le+ t)e sur!i!al+ rote2tion and de!elo(ent o" t)e
2)ild&
@& *eat) senten2e s)all not 3e ronoun2ed "or 2ri(es 2o((itted 3y
2)ildren&
Art!$% @ 2an 3e seen as ro!iding "or t)e 2i!il identity o" t)e 2)ild&
#ntitled INa(e and NationalityF+ it states t)at7
.& #!ery 2)ild s)all )a!e t)e rig)t "ro( )is 3irt) to a na(e&
2& #!ery 2)ild s)all 3e registered i((ediately a"ter 3irt)&
@& #!ery 2)ild )as t)e rig)t to a2-uire a nationality&
4& States $arties to t)e resent C)arter s)all underta'e to ensure t)at
t)eir Constitutional legislation re2ognises t)e rin2iles
a22ording to 9)i2) a 2)ild s)all a2-uire t)e nationality o" t)e
State in t)e territory o" 9)i2) )e )as 3een 3orn i"+ at t)e ti(e o"
t)e 2)ildFs 3irt)+ )e is not granted nationality 3y any ot)er State
in a22ordan2e 9it) its la9s&
T)ree Arti2les "ollo9 t)at adat rig)ts "ound in t)e U*HR and t)e
ACH$R to t)e se2i"i2 situation o" t)e 2)ild& Art!$% < grants
Breedo( o" #Aression+ Art!$% =+ Breedo( o" Asso2iation and Art!$%
.:+ $rote2tion o" $ri!a2y& Art!$% ; 2ould also 3e seen as art o" t)is
series+ as it de2lares t)e rig)t o" Breedo( o" T)oug)t+ Cons2ien2e and
Religion& It se2i"ies t)at Iarents+ and 9)ere ali2a3le+ legal guardians
s)all )a!e a duty to ro!ide guidan2e and dire2tion in t)e eAer2ise o"
t)ese rig)ts )a!ing regard to t)e e!ol!ing 2aa2ities+ and 3est interests
o" t)e 2)ild&F

Art!$% .. relates to edu2ation& A 2)ildKs edu2ation s)ould 3e dire2ted
to7 Kt)e rearation o" t)e 2)ild "or resonsi3le li"e in a "ree so2iety+ in
t)e sirit o" understanding toleran2e+ dialogue+ (utual rese2t and
"riends)i a(ong all eoles+ et)ni2+ tri3al and religious grous&
.4<
Art!$% .0 2on2erns 2)ild la3our& It ro!ides t)at7
.& #!ery 2)ild s)all 3e rote2ted "ro( all "or(s o" e2ono(i2
eAloitation and "ro( er"or(ing any 9or' t)at is li'ely to 3e
)aHardous or to inter"ere 9it) t)e 2)ildKs )ysi2al+ (ental+
siritual+ (oral+ or so2ial de!elo(ent&
Art!$% .@ adats rig)ts "ound in t)e U*HR and ACH$R to ro!ide
rote2tion against 2)ild a3use and torture7
.& States $arties to t)e resent C)arter s)all ta'e se2i"i2 legislati!e+
ad(inistrati!e+ so2ial and edu2ational (easures to rote2t t)e
2)ild "ro( all "or(s o" torture+ in)u(an or degrading treat(ent
and ese2ially )ysi2al or (ental injury or a3use+ negle2t or
(altreat(ent in2luding seAual a3use+ 9)ile in t)e 2are o" t)e
2)ild&
T)e C)arter 3uilds on t)e 2on2ern in ACH$R 9it) t)e "a(ily and roots
o" t)e 2)ild in t)is 2onteAt& Arti2le .=+ entitled K$rote2tion o" t)e Ba(ilyK+
la2es a nu(3er o" o3ligations on state arties7
.& T)e "a(ily s)all 3e t)e natural unit and 3asis o" so2iety& It s)all
enjoy t)e rote2tion and suort o" t)e State "or its esta3lis)(ent
and de!elo(ent&
2& States $arties to t)e resent C)arter s)all ta'e aroriate stes to
ensure e-uality o" rig)ts and resonsi3ilities o" souses 9it)
regard to 2)ildren during (arriage and in t)e e!ent o" its
dissolution& In 2ase o" t)e dissolution+ ro!ision s)all 3e (ade "or
t)e ne2essary rote2tion o" t)e 2)ild&
Art!$% .C 2an 3e understood as de!eloing Arti2le .=+ and "o2uses on
t)e relations)i 3et9een arents and 2)ildren7
Arti2le .;7 $arent Care and $rote2tion
.& #!ery 2)ild s)all 3e entitled to t)e enjoy(ent o" arental 2are and
rote2tion and s)all+ 9)ene!er ossi3le+ )a!e t)e rig)t to reside 9it)
)is or )er arents& No 2)ild s)all 3e searated "ro( )is arents
against )is 9ill+ eA2et 9)en a judi2ial aut)ority deter(ines in
a22ordan2e 9it) t)e aroriate la9 t)at su2) searation is in t)e
3est interest o" t)e 2)ild&
T)ere is "urt)er ela3oration o" arental resonsi3ilities in Arti2le 20:
.4=
.& $arents or ot)er ersons resonsi3le "or t)e 2)ild s)all )a!e t)e
ri(ary resonsi3ility o" t)e u3ringing and de!elo(ent t)e
2)ild and s)all )a!e t)e duty7
CaD to ensure t)at t)e 3est interests o" t)e 2)ild are t)eir 3asi2
2on2ern at all ti(esE
C3D to se2ure+ 9it)in t)eir a3ilities and "inan2ial 2aa2ities+
2onditions o" li!ing ne2essary to t)e 2)ildFs de!elo(entE
and
C2D to ensure t)at do(esti2 dis2iline is ad(inistered 9it)
)u(anity and in a (anner 2onsistent 9it) t)e in)erent
dignity o" t)e 2)ild&
Art!$% 2. arti2ulates a so(e9)at di""erent set o" 2on2erns& T)e C)arter
turns "ro( t)e arent62)ild relations)i to lay do9n rin2iles t)at relate
to t)e rote2tion o" 2)ildren "ro( )ar("ul 2ultural and so2ial ra2ti2es7
.& States $arties to t)e resent C)arter s)all ta'e all aroriate
(easures to eli(inate )ar("ul so2ial and 2ultural ra2ti2es
a""e2ting t)e 9el"are+ dignity+ nor(al gro9t) and de!elo(ent o"
t)e 2)ild and in arti2ular7
CaD t)ose 2usto(s and ra2ti2es rejudi2ial to t)e )ealt) or li"e
o" t)e 2)ildE and
C3D t)ose 2usto(s and ra2ti2es dis2ri(inatory to t)e 2)ild on
t)e grounds o" seA or ot)er status&
2& C)ild (arriage and t)e 3etrot)al o" girls and 3oys s)all 3e
ro)i3ited and e""e2ti!e a2tion+ in2luding legislation+ s)all 3e
ta'en to se2i"y t)e (ini(u( age o" (arriage to 3e .= years and
(a'e registration o" all (arriages in an o""i2ial registry
2o(ulsory&
Art!$% 2/ relates to re"ugee 2)ildren7
.& States $arties to t)e resent C)arter s)all ta'e all aroriate
(easures to ensure t)at a 2)ild 9)o is see'ing re"ugee status or
9)o is 2onsidered a re"ugee in a22ordan2e 9it) ali2a3le
international or do(esti2 la9 s)all+ 9)et)er una22o(anied or
a22o(anied 3y arents+ legal guardians or 2lose relati!es+
re2ei!e aroriate rote2tion and )u(anitarian assistan2e in t)e
enjoy(ent o" t)e rig)ts set out in t)is C)arter and ot)er
international )u(an rig)ts and )u(anitarian instru(ents to 9)i2)
t)e States are $arties&
.4;
Art!$% 20 is entitled KSearation "ro( $arentsK& It 2ould 3e understood
as art o" t)e 2o(leA o" rig)ts and duties t)at 2on2ern arent and 2)ild
relations)is+ 3ut one t)at deals 9it) t)e 3rea'do9n o" t)e 2)ild/arent
neAus& It is also rele!ant to t)e situation "a2ed 3y re"ugee 2)ildren& T)e
Arti2le states t)at
>9)en 2onsidering alternati!e "a(ily 2are o" t)e 2)ild and t)e 3est
interests o" t)e 2)ild+ due regard s)all 3e aid to t)e desira3ility o"
2ontinuity in a 2)ildKs u63ringing and to t)e 2)ildKs et)ni2+ religious or
linguisti2 3a2'ground&
Art!$% 2@ la2es a duty on state arties to rote2t 2)ildren against
aart)eid and dis2ri(ination&
Art!$% 2A deals 9it) t)e se2i"i2 ro3le( o" t)e seAual eAloitation o"
2)ildren& It la2es a duty on state arties to7
.& >&underta'e to rote2t t)e 2)ild "ro( all "or(s o" seAual eAloitation
and seAual a3use and s)all in arti2ular ta'e (easures to re!ent7
CaD t)e indu2e(ent+ 2oer2ion or en2ourage(ent o" a 2)ild to
engage in any seAual a2ti!ityE
C3D t)e use o" 2)ildren in rostitution or ot)er seAual ra2ti2esE
C2D t)e use o" 2)ildren in ornogra)i2 a2ti!ities+
er"or(an2es and (aterials&
Art!$% /. is interesting as it relates 3a2' to t)e 2entral 2on2ern in t)e
ACH$R 9it) duties7
<

R%&7on&!(!$!t- o2 t"% C"!$d
#!ery 2)ild s)all )a!e resonsi3ilities to9ards )is "a(ily and so2iety+
t)e State and ot)er legally re2ognised 2o((unities and t)e international
2o((unity& T)e 2)ild+ su3je2t to )is age and a3ility+ and su2)
li(itations as (ay 3e 2ontained in t)e resent C)arter+ s)all )a!e t)e
duty7
CaD to 9or' "or t)e 2o)esion o" t)e "a(ily+ to rese2t )is arents+
sueriors and elders at all ti(es and to assist t)e( in 2ase o"
needE
C3D to ser!e )is national 2o((unity 3y la2ing )is )ysi2al and
intelle2tual a3ilities at its ser!i2eE
C2D to reser!e and strengt)en so2ial and national solidarityE
CdD to reser!e and strengt)en A"ri2an 2ultural !alues in )is relations
9it) ot)er (e(3ers o" t)e so2iety+ in t)e sirit o" toleran2e+
.0:
dialogue and 2onsultation and to 2ontri3ute to t)e (oral 9ell6
3eing o" so2ietyE
CeD to reser!e and strengt)en t)e indeenden2e and t)e integrity o"
)is 2ountryE
C"D to 2ontri3ute to t)e 3est o" )is a3ilities+ at all ti(es and at all
le!els+ to t)e ro(otion and a2)ie!e(ent o" A"ri2an Unity&
W"#t %n2or%'%nt '%"#n!&'& #r% 7ro*!d%d (- t"% C"#rt%rD
Art!$% /2 esta3lis)es an A"ri2an Co((ittee o" #Aerts on t)e Rig)ts
and Wel"are o" t)e C)ild to ro(ote and rote2t t)e rig)ts and 9el"are
o" t)e 2)ild& Arti2le 42 des2ri3es t)e (andate o" t)e Co((ittee7
CaD To ro(ote and rote2t t)e rig)ts ens)rined in t)is C)arter and in
arti2ular to7
CiD 2olle2t and do2u(ent in"or(ation+ 2o((ission inter6dis2ilinary
assess(ent o" situations on A"ri2an ro3le(s in t)e "ields o" t)e
rig)ts and 9el"are o" t)e 2)ild+ organise (eetings+ en2ourage
national and lo2al institutions 2on2erned 9it) t)e rig)ts and
9el"are o" t)e 2)ild+ and 9)ere ne2essary gi!e its !ie9s and
(a'e re2o((endations to Go!ern(entsE
CiiD "or(ulate and lay do9n rin2iles and rules ai(ed at rote2ting
t)e rig)ts and 9el"are o" 2)ildren in A"ri2aE
CiiiD 2o6oerate 9it) ot)er A"ri2an+ international and regional
institutions and organisations 2on2erned 9it) t)e ro(otion and
rote2tion o" t)e rig)ts and 9el"are o" t)e 2)ild&
C3D To (onitor t)e i(le(entation and ensure rote2tion o" t)e
rig)ts ens)rined in t)is C)arter&
C2D to interret t)e ro!isions o" t)e resent C)arter at t)e re-uest o"
a State $arty+ an Institution o" t)e Organisation o" A"ri2an Unity
or any ot)er erson or Institution re2ognised 3y t)e Organisation
o" A"ri2an Unity+ or any State $arty&
CdD $er"or( su2) ot)er tas' as (ay 3e entrusted to it 3y t)e
Asse(3ly o" Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent+ Se2retary6General
o" t)e OAU and any ot)er organs o" t)e OAU or t)e United
Nations&K
Arti2le 4@ lays do9n t)e reorting ro2edure& States underta'e to su3(it
to t)e Co((ittee reorts on t)e (easures t)ey )a!e adoted 9)i2) gi!e
e""e2t to t)e C)arter& Arti2le 44 states t)at t)e Co((ittee (ay re2ei!e
2o((uni2ation+ "ro( any erson+ grou or non6go!ern(ental
organisation re2ognised 3y t)e Organisation o" A"ri2an Unity+ "ro( a
Me(3er State+ or t)e United Nations+ relating to any (atter 2o!ered 3y
t)e C)arter& Under Arti2le 44+ t)e Co((ittee (ay 2arry out
.0.
in!estigations+ resorting to any aroriate (et)od o" in!estigating&
T)eir re(it eAtends o!er any (atter "alling 9it)in t)e a(3it o" t)e
resent C)arter+ re-uest "ro( t)e States $arties "or any in"or(ation
rele!ant to t)e i(le(entation o" t)e C)arter and (ay also resort to any
aroriate (et)od o" in!estigating t)e (easures t)e State $arty )as
adoted to i(le(ent t)e C)arter& T)e Co((ittee su3(its to ea2)
Ordinary Session o" t)e Asse(3ly o" Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent
e!ery t9o years+ a reort on its a2ti!ities and on any 2o((uni2ation
(ade under Arti2le 44 o" t)is C)arter&
Outline t)e rote2tion o""ered 3y t)e ACRWC&
Su''#r-
T)e C)arter on t)e Rig)ts and Wel"are o" t)e C)ild 2o(es out o" t)e
"a2t t)at A"ri2an nations did not )a!e a (ajor inut into t)e dra"ting o"
t)e CRC& It 9as t)us ne2essary to 2reate a 2atalogue o" rig)ts t)at
related se2i"i2ally to t)e ro3le(s "a2ed 3y 2)ildren in A"ri2a& T)e
C)arter ela3orates a nu(3er o" 9el"are and so2ial/e2ono(i2 rig)ts t)at
rest on t)e rin2iles o" non6dis2ri(ination and t)e I3est interests o" t)e
2)ildF& T)e C)arter also 2reates a Co((ittee 9)i2) re2ei!es reorts
"ro( states t)at )a!e signed t)e C)arter+ and 2an underta'e
in!estigations&
/84 T"% Prot%t!on o2 R%2u,%%&= R!,"t&
T)e serious ro3le(s "a2ed 3y re"ugees in A"ri2a )a!e 3een outlined in
a re2ent reort 3y leading )u(an rig)ts NGO7
AroAi(ately 2: (illion A"ri2ans are 2urrently urooted "ro( t)eir
)o(es 3y 2i!il stri"e+ so2ial 3rea'do9n+ and erse2ution& T)e rig)ts o"
A"ri2an re"ugees are rote2ted+ in t)eory at least+ 3y 9)at is 9idely
3elie!ed to 3e t)e (ost rogressi!e treaty regi(e in t)e 9orld7 t)e .;0;
Organisation o" A"ri2an Unity Con!ention Go!erning t)e Se2i"i2
Ase2ts o" Re"ugees in A"ri2a COAU Con!entionD& ?et in ra2ti2e t)e
OAU Con!ention )as not re!ented re"ugees "ro( 3eing su3je2ted to
(ilitary atta2's+ )ysi2al a3use+ eAulsion+ and restri2tions on t)eir
rig)ts&
We 9ill loo' "irst o" all at t)e rig)ts t)at are (eant to rote2t re"ugees+
3e"ore turning to loo' in (ore detail at t)e re"ugee situation in A"ri2a&
Re"ugees are entitled to rote2tion under t)e .;4. Gene!a Con!ention
Relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees+ and to t)e so2ial+ e2ono(i2 and
.02
oliti2al rig)ts 2ontained in 3ot) t)e U*HR and t)e asso2iated
Co!enants as 9ell as t)e ACH$R and its rele!ant $roto2ols& Re"ugees
are also entitled to t)e rote2tion o""ered 3y )u(anitarian la9 and t)e
la9 o" 9ar+ and it is 9ort) re"erring 3a2' to C)ater ; o" t)is study
guide 9)en t)in'ing a3out t)e )u(an rig)ts o" re"ugees&
Rele!ant rig)ts under t)e ACH$R 9ould in2lude7

Arti2le 4+ rese2t "or li"e
Arti2le 4+ t)e ro)i3ition o" torture
Arti2le 0+ t)e rig)t to ersonal li3erty
Arti2le <+ due ro2ess
Arti2le .=+ "a(ily reunion
Arti2le .2+ t)e rig)ts to "reedo( o" (o!e(ent and residen2e+ and t)e
rig)t to see' and enjoy asylu(&

One eAa(le o" t)e 9ay in 9)i2) ACH$R rig)ts 2an 3e used to
sule(ent t)e rig)ts under t)e Con!ention is gi!en 3y lard+ ,eyani and
Odin'lau7
T)e C)arter (ig)t also 3e )el"ul in addressing restri2tions on
"reedo( o" (o!e(ent and residen2e 9it)in )ost states+ 9)i2) are an
all6too6regular ase2t o" t)e li!es o" re"ugees and asylu( see'ers in
A"ri2a& ,ot) t)e UN and OAU Con!entions do allo9 "or restri2tions
on t)e "reedo( o" (o!e(ent and residen2e o" re"ugees in )ost States
in order to ensure t)e sa"e lo2ation o" re"ugees as 9ell as to as2ertain
t)e identity o" t)e re"ugee or asylu( see'er& Su2) restri2tions (ay 3e
2)allenged 3e"ore t)e A"ri2an Co((ission Csee 3elo9D i" t)ey are so
eA2essi!e as to deri!e re"ugees o" t)eir "reedo( o" (o!e(ent
9it)in or outside t)e settle(ents and 9)ere t)ey do not a2)ie!e t)e
o3je2ti!e o" sa"ely lo2ating re"ugees "ro( t)e 3order o" t)eir 2ountry
o" origin& In any )earing o" t)is issue 3e"ore t)e Co((ission+ t)e
re2ei!ing State 9ould 3ear t)e 3urden o" ro!ing t)at restri2tions on
t)e (o!e(ent and residen2e o" re"ugees are ne2essary+ justi"ied+ and
reasona3le on a22eta3le grounds stiulated in )u(an rig)ts la9+
na(ely u3li2 order+ u3li2 se2urity+ and u3li2 )ealt)&
T)e eriod "ro( t)e .;0:s to t)e early .;;:s sa9 (ost A"ri2an states
"ollo9 an Ioen doorF oli2y& In t)e early art o" t)is eriod+ in t)e 9a'e
o" de2olonisation+ 2on"li2ts in R9anda and ,urundi 2aused (any eole
to 3e disla2ed+ and to su22ess"ully see' asylu( in neig)3ouring states&
Re"ugees "ro( t)e 2i!il 9ar in MoHa(3i-ue li'e9ise "ound asylu( in
neig)3ouring 2ountries& Ot)er 2on"li2ts in t)e sout)ern art o" t)e
2ontinent also generated large nu(3ers o" re"ugees& Sin2e t)e early
.;;:s+ )o9e!er+ t)ere )a!e 3een signi"i2ant 2)anges in re"ugee oli2y&
T)e ongoing 9ar in t)e Congo+ t)e 2i!il 9ar in Angola and t)e R9andan
.0@
geno2ide in .;;4 (eant t)at t)ere 9ere still large nu(3ers o" eole
"leeing 2on"li2t&
C)anges in re"ugee oli2y 9ere (oti!ated 3y t)e ro3le(s 2aused 3y
a22o((odating disla2ed eoles& States )a!e 2losed t)eir 3orders+
"ailed to ro!ide se2urity and (ade "or2ed reatriations&
T)ere are a nu(3er o" do(esti2 2on2erns "or 2ountries t)at )ost
re"ugees& T)e "irst o" t)ese is internal se2urity& Many re"ugees 2o(e
"ro( situations o" 2i!il 9ar and 3ring t)eir 9eaons 9it) t)e(& T)ese
are t)en used 3y so(e "or 2ri(es 9)i2) in2lude ar(ed ro33ery and
oa2)ing& Large in"luAes 2an also la2e serious strains on t)e
en!iron(ent and so2ial in"rastru2ture& T)ese ro3le(s 3e2o(e (ore
se!ere 9)ere 3urden s)aring t)roug) international assistan2e is Cor
3e2o(esD li(ited& Bor eAa(le+ it 9as t)e la2' o" sustained 2o6
oeration "ro( t)e international 2o((unity t)at 2ontri3uted in large
art to TanHaniaKs drasti2 de2ision to 2lose its 3orders at a oint during
t)e Great La'es 2risis&
Sout) A"ri2a )as eAerien2ed arti2ularly intense di""i2ulties7
IRe"ugees in Sout) A"ri2a )a!e )ad a stri'ing i(a2t on t)e so2ial
"a3ri2 o" so2iety "or a !ariety o" reasons+ T)ese in2lude t)e
2on2entration o" re"ugees in already densely oulated ur3an areas
9)ere+ 9it)out assistan2e "ro( international or national agen2ies+
t)ey are "or2ed to 2o(ete "or s2ar2e jo3s 9it) nationals&&+ &re"ugees
Ltend toM li!e on t)e (argins o" so2iety and are largely in2aa3le o"
eit)er leading rodu2ti!e li!es or 2ontri3uting to t)eir )ost so2ieties
in any (eaning"ul 9ay&
/848. T"% Con*%nt!on on S7%!2! A&7%t& o2 t"% R%2u,%%
Pro($%' !n A2r!#
T)is Con!ention 9as "ounded on t)e need "or a )u(anitarian aroa2)
to sol!ing t)e ro3le(s o" re"ugees& Ho9e!er+ di""i2ult distin2tions )ad
to (a'eE in arti2ular+ 3et9een a re"ugees 9)o see's a ea2e"ul and
nor(al li"e and a erson "leeing )is 2ountry "or t)e sole urose o"
"o(enting su3!ersion "ro( outside& T)e *e2laration on t)e $ro3le( o"
Su3!ersion and Resolution on t)e $ro3le( o" Re"ugees )ad already
3een adoted at A22ra in .;04+ and t)e Con!ention soug)t to 3uild on
t)is do2u(ent& It also soug)t ot)er international re"eren2e oints7
t)e UN C)arter
.04
t)e 3asi2 rin2iles 2ontained in t)e United Nations Con!ention o"
2= %uly .;4.+ as (odi"ied 3y t)e $roto2ol o" @. %anuary .;0<
relating to t)e status o" re"ugees
Resolution 2@.2 CYYIID o" .4 *e2e(3er .;0< o" t)e United Nations
General Asse(3ly+ relating to t)e *e2laration on Territorial Asylu(&

T)e Con!ention )as 3een rati"ied 3y o!er 4: nations to date&
Arti2le . 2ontains a de"inition o" t)e ter( re"ugee7

.& >t)e ter( Ire"ugeeF s)all (ean e!ery erson 9)o+ o9ing to
9ell6 "ounded "ear o" 3eing erse2uted "or reasons o" ra2e+
religion+ nationality+ (e(3ers)i o" a arti2ular so2ial grou or
oliti2al oinion+ is outside t)e 2ountry o" )is nationality and is
una3le or+ o9ing to su2) "ear+ is un9illing to a!ail )i(sel" o" t)e
rote2tion o" t)at 2ountry+ or 9)o+ not )a!ing a nationality and
3eing outside t)e 2ountry o" )is "or(er )a3itual residen2e as a
result o" su2) e!ents is una3le or+ o9ing to su2) "ear+ is un9illing
to return to it&

2& T)e ter( Ire"ugeeF s)all also aly to e!ery erson 9)o+ o9ing
to eAternal aggression+ o22uation+ "oreign do(ination or e!ents
seriously distur3ing u3li2 order in eit)er art or t)e 9)ole o" )is
2ountry o" origin or nationality+ is 2o(elled to lea!e )is la2e o"
)a3itual residen2e in order to see' re"uge in anot)er la2e outside
)is 2ountry o" origin or nationality&
Arti2le .C4D 2ontains i(ortant ro!isos and li(itations t)at -uali"y
Arti2le .& Arti2le .C4D also re(o!es re"ugee status "ro( 9ar 2ri(inals or
t)ose 9)o )a!e 2o((itted 2ri(es against )u(anity&
Arti2le 2 goes on to de"ine asylu(7
.& Me(3er States o" t)e OAU s)all use t)eir 3est endea!ours
2onsistent 9it) t)eir rese2ti!e legislations to re2ei!e re"ugees
and to se2ure t)e settle(ent o" t)ose re"ugees 9)o+ "or 9ell
"ounded reasons+ are una3le or un9illing to return to t)eir 2ountry
o" origin or nationality&
2& T)e grant o" asylu( to re"ugees is a ea2e"ul and )u(anitarian
a2t and s)all not 3e regarded as an un"riendly a2t 3y any Me(3er
State&
@& No erson s)all 3e su3je2ted 3y a Me(3er State to (easures su2)
as reje2tion at t)e "rontier+ return or eAulsion+ 9)i2) 9ould
2o(el )i( to return to or re(ain in a territory 9)ere )is li"e+
)ysi2al integrity or li3erty 9ould 3e t)reatened "or t)e reasons
set out in Arti2le I+ aragra)s . and 2&
.04
4& W)ere a Me(3er State "inds di""i2ulty in 2ontinuing to grant
asylu( to re"ugees+ su2) Me(3er States (ay aeal dire2tly to
ot)er Me(3er States and t)roug) t)e OAU+ and su2) ot)er
Me(3er States s)all in t)e sirit o" A"ri2an solidarity and
international 2o6oeration ta'e aroriate (easures to lig)ten
t)e 3urden o" t)e Me(3er State granting asylu(&
4& W)ere a re"ugee )as not re2ei!ed t)e rig)t to reside in any
2ountry o" asylu(+ )e (ay 3e granted te(orary residen2e in any
2ountry o" asylu( in 9)i2) )e "irst resented )i(sel" as a re"ugee
ending arrange(ent "or )is resettle(ent in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e
re2eding aragra)&
0& Bor reasons o" se2urity+ 2ountries o" asylu( s)all+ as "ar as
ossi3le+ settle at a reasona3le distan2e "ro( t)e "rontier o" t)eir
2ountry o" origin&
We 2an see "ro( t)ese Arti2les t)at a re"ugee is anyone 9)o su""ers loss
or la2' o" rote2tion in t)e 2ountry o" origin due to a 9ell6"ounded "ear
o" erse2ution in )is 2ountry o" origin& A 'ey art o" t)e de"inition o"
erse2ution is t)e t)reat o" !iolation or t)e a2tual !iolation o" re"ugeesK
indi!idual )u(an rig)ts&
T)e de"inition o" t)e re"ugee in Arti2le . C2D is di""erent to t)at 9)i2)
9as 2ontained in t)e .;4. UN Con!ention Cand its .;0< $roto2olD& T)is
re2ognised as re"ugees t)ose ersons 9)o )ad su""ered 9)at 9as
ri(arily indi!idualised erse2ution "or reasons oliti2al oinion+
religion+ ra2e or analogous reasons& We 2an see )at in t)e A"ri2an
Con!ention+ t)is de"inition is (odi"ied7 a re"ugee 2on2ludes any erson
"or2ed to lea!e )is la2e o" )a3itual residen2e 3e2ause o" IeAternal
aggression+ o22uation+ "oreign do(ination and e!ents seriously
distur3ing u3li2 order in eit)er art or t)e )ole o" t)eir 2ountries o"
origin or nationalityF& As a (u2) 3roader de"inition o" a re"ugee+ it
reresents a 2onteAt in 9)i2) A"ri2an states oerated an Ioen doorF
oli2y Csee a3o!eD&
Re2ent resear2) 3y Hu(an Rig)ts Birst suggests t)at t)ere are (any
ro3le(s 9it) deter(ining re"ugee status& Bor instan2e+ insu""i2ient
!etting (eans t)at (any 9ar 2ri(inals )a!e su22ess"ully gained re"ugee
status& T)ere is also a ga 3et9een IaerF rote2tion and a2tual
ra2ti2e7
T)e lig)t o" Mauritanian re"ugees in Senegal )ig)lig)ts t)e
i(ortan2e o" re2ognition o" legal status o" re"ugeesE 9)ereas
Senegal )as rati"ied all rele!ant treaties regarding re"ugees and )as
e!en ena2ted do(esti2 legislation guaranteeing additional rig)ts o"
re"ugees+ Mauritanian re"ugees enjoy none o" t)e 3asi2 rig)ts and
rote2tion 3e2ause t)e Senegalese aut)orities+ "or oliti2al reasons+
.00
do not re2ognise t)e( as re"ugees& T)us Hu(an Rig)ts Birst "ound
t)at Mauritanian re"ugees su""ered "ro( 9idesread dis2ri(ination
as soon as t)ey (o!ed a9ay "ro( t)e 3order areas+ in addition to
indire2t in!oluntary reatriation 9it)out t)e 3ene"it o" international
suer!ision to guarantee t)eir se2urity&
Art!$% / returns to t)e 'ey 2on2erns eAressed in t)e introdu2tion to
t)is se2tion o" t)e 2)ater& It relates to t)e ro)i3ition o" su3!ersi!e
a2ti!ities7
.& #!ery re"ugee )as duties to t)e 2ountry in 9)i2) )e "inds )i(sel"+
9)i2) re-uire in arti2ular t)at )e 2on"or(s 9it) its la9s and
regulations as 9ell as 9it) (easures ta'en "or t)e (aintenan2e o"
u3li2 order& He s)all also a3stain "ro( any su3!ersi!e a2ti!ities
against any Me(3er State o" t)e OAU&
2& Signatory States underta'e to ro)i3it re"ugees residing in t)eir
rese2ti!e territories "ro( atta2'ing any State Me(3er o" t)e
OAU+ 3y any a2ti!ity li'ely to 2ause tension 3et9een Me(3er
States+ and in arti2ular 3y use o" ar(s+ t)roug) t)e ress+ or 3y
radio&F
Art!$% 4 2ontains a non6dis2ri(ination ro!ision+ and Arti2le 4 a
ro)i3ition against in!oluntary reatriation& Arti2le .C4D is an i(ortant
se2tion t)at 2on2erns t)e status o" re"ugees on2e t)ey )a!e returned to
t)eir 2ountry o" origin7
4& Re"ugees 9)o !oluntarily return to t)eir 2ountry s)all in no 9ay
3e enalised "or )a!ing le"t it "or any o" t)e reasons gi!ing rise to
re"ugee situations& W)ene!er ne2essary+ an aeal s)all 3e (ade
t)roug) national in"or(ation (edia and t)roug) t)e
Ad(inistrati!e Se2retary6General o" t)e OAU+ in!iting re"ugees
to return )o(e and gi!ing assuran2e t)at t)e ne9 2ir2u(stan2es
re!ailing in t)eir 2ountry o" origin 9ill ena3le t)e( to return
9it)out ris' and to ta'e u a nor(al and ea2e"ul li"e 9it)out
"ear o" 3eing distur3ed or unis)ed+ and t)at t)e teAt o" su2)
aeal s)ould 3e gi!en to re"ugees and 2learly eAlained to t)e(
3y t)eir 2ountry o" asylu(&
4& Re"ugees 9)o "reely de2ide to return to t)eir )o(eland+ as a
result o" su2) assuran2es or on t)eir o9n initiati!e+ s)all 3e gi!en
e!ery ossi3le assistan2e 3y t)e 2ountry o" asylu(+ t)e 2ountry o"
origin+ !oluntary agen2ies and international and
intergo!ern(ental organisations+ to "a2ilitate t)eir return&
.0<
Art!$% @ states t)at (e(3er states s)ould issue to re"ugees 9)o are
la9"ully in t)eir territories tra!el do2u(ents in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e
United Nations Con!ention relating to t)e Status o" Re"ugees&
Art!$% A outlines 2o6oeration o" t)e National Aut)orities 9it) t)e
OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity&
In order to ena3le t)e Ad(inistrati!e Se2retary6General o" t)e
Organisation o" A"ri2an Unity to (a'e reorts to t)e 2o(etent organs
o" t)e Organisation o" A"ri2an Unity+ Me(3er States underta'e to
ro!ide t)e Se2retariat in t)e aroriate "or( 9it) in"or(ation and
statisti2al data re-uested 2on2erning7
CaD t)e 2ondition o" re"ugeesE C3D t)e i(le(entation o" t)is Con!ention+
and C2D la9s+ regulations and de2rees 9)i2) are+ or (ay )erea"ter 3e+
in "or2e relating to re"ugees&
Oard+ ,eyani and Odin'lau 9rite t)at+ under t)e C)arter+ re"ugees and
asylu( see'ers 2an etition t)e A"ri2an Co((ission "or rote2tion
9)en t)eir rig)ts )a!e 3een !iolated& T)is rig)t to etition 9ould 2o!er
3ot) t)eir rig)ts as re"ugees and t)eir rig)ts under t)e C)arter& T)e
UNHCR+ t)e inter6go!ern(ental agen2y resonsi3le "or o!erseeing t)e
.;0; UN Con!ention on Re"ugees+ also (onitors t)e i(le(entation o"
t)e A"ri2an Con!ention&
*esite t)e eAtensi!e rote2tion o""ered 3y t)e A"ri2an Con!ention+
t)ere are (ajor ro3le(s 9it) its i(le(entation+ and 9it) t)e s2ale o"
t)e re"ugee ro3le( in A"ri2a7
On aer+ A"ri2an re"ugees 3ene"it "ro( one o" t)e (ost rogressi!e
rote2tion regi(es in t)e 9orld& In reality+ )o9e!er+ t)ey "a2e see(ingly
endless )u(an rig)ts )urdles in2luding "or2ed return+ dis2ri(ination+
ar3itrary arrest and detention+ restri2ted "reedo( o" (o!e(ent and
eAression+ and a le!el o" e2ono(i2 deri!ation synony(ous 9it)
!iolations o" so2ial and e2ono(i2 rig)ts& Ba2ed 9it) an ongoing struggle
to 3ridge t)is ga 3et9een t)eory and reality+ ad!o2ates "or re"ugees
)a!e t)e otion o" inno!ati!ely using A"ri2aFs general )u(an rig)ts
(e2)anis(s to (a'e t)e (ore se2i"i2 2ase "or re"ugee rig)ts&
T)e 2risis "a2ing re"ugees on t)e 2ontinent re"le2ts not a au2ity o"
nor(s+ 3ut rat)er a "ailure to i(le(ent t)e(& A (ajor 9ea'ness o" t)e
2urrent international legal "ra(e9or' to rote2t re"ugees 6one t)at 9as
re2ognised during t)e a(3itious UNHCR Glo3al&
Consultations ro2ess o" 2::: 6is t)e a3sen2e o" any (eaning"ul syste(
o" suer!ision+ su2) as a 2ourt or treaty 3ody+ to ensure t)at States a3ide
3y t)e letter and sirit o" international re"ugee 2on!entions& International
.0=
and regional )u(an rig)ts (e2)anis(s 6 and in arti2ular t)e A"ri2an
)u(an rig)ts syste( 6(ay go so(e 9ay to9ards (a'ing u "or t)is
o(ission+ ro!iding ad!o2ates 9it) an i(ortant 2o(le(entary (eans
3y 9)i2) to ensure t)at re"ugees and asylu( see'ers 3ene"it in reality
"ro( t)ose rig)ts t)at t)ey )a!e on aer& Certainly t)e otential o" su2)
(e2)anis(s to 3ot) de!elo t)e 2ontent o" re"ugee rig)ts and oli2e
t)eir i(le(entation 9arrants t)eir 3eing an i(ortant ele(ent o" any
2o(re)ensi!e ad!o2a2y strategy on t)e 2ontinent&
Any (eaning"ul atte(t to alle!iate t)e re"ugee ro3le( 9ould t)us
need to 3e (ulti6"a2eted and "ounded on t)e oliti2al 9ill to a2t at 3ot) a
national and international le!el7
T)e re"ugee 2risis needs to 3e addressed at 3ot) a regional and
international le!el&&&t)is 9ould entail a oliti2al and e2ono(i2 agenda
ai(ed at eli(inating et)ni2 stri"e and 2on"li2tE 2urtailing t)e ar(s
tradeE esta3lis)ing a "ir( "oundation "or de(o2rati2 institutions and
go!ernan2eE rese2t "or )u(an rig)tsE and t)e ro(otion o"
e2ono(i2 de!elo(ent and so2ial rogress&&&Binally+ (eaning"ul
solutions to t)e re"ugee ro3le( s)ould in2lude initiati!es ai(ed at
en)an2ing international 3urden6s)aring 3ot) in e(ergen2ies+ 3ut also
to ro!ide assistan2e to a(eliorate t)e en!iron(ental and ot)er long6
ter( i(a2ts eAerien2ed 3y 2ountries )osting large re"ugee
oulations&
To so(e eAtent t)e 2all "or a Hu(an Rig)ts Court 3y t)e AU (ay ut in
la2e a stronger syste( "or ro!iding re(edies "or rig)ts a3uses+ and
N#$A*+ and ot)er regional initiati!es+ (ay "urt)er t)e 2o6oeration
ne2essary to ro(ote and sustain )u(an rig)ts&
489 CONCLUSION
Ulti(ately+ t)en+ one s)ould er)as 3e 2riti2al o" any assess(ent o" t)e
A"ri2an syste( t)at re"uses to see it in 2onteAt& Alt)oug) it 9ould 3e
easy to agree 9it) t)e sense in 9)i2) t)ere needs to 3e stronger
en"or2e(ent (e2)anis(s in t)e A"ri2an syste(+ any (ore general
assess(ent o" )u(an rig)ts in A"ri2a is deely ro3le(ati2+ as it (ust
ta'e into a22ount t)e oliti2al+ e2ono(i2 and so2ial ase2ts o" t)e
2ontinent& Ulti(ately+ )u(an rig)ts in A"ri2a are de!eloing 9it)in t)is
e2uliar 2onteAt&
089 SUMMARY
It is )ard to say de"initi!ely 9)et)er t)e A"ri2an syste( is any (ore or
less e""i2ient t)an ot)er regional syste(s& To 2o(are 9it) t)e
.0;
#uroean syste(+ "or instan2e+ 9ould 3e 9rong+ as t)e s2ale and
2o(leAity o" t)e ro3le(s "a2ing t)e A"ri2an 2ontinent are di""erent
"ro( t)ose "a2ing #uroean nations Cto say not)ing o" t)e syste(ati2
under6de!elo(ent o" A"ri2aD& It (ay 3e 2loser+ in t)is sense+ to t)e
Inter6A(eri2an syste(E 3ut )o9 9ould one assess its e""e2ti!enessJ
.D Identi"y t)e (ajor ro3le(s "ind 3y A"ri2an Re"ugees
2D *is2uss t)e Rig)ts o" Re"ugees under t)e A"ri2an 2)arter&
Cra9"ord+ %& /he &ights of Peoples. COA"ord7 Clarendon+ .;;2D LIS,N
:.;=24=:40M&
Blinter(an+ C& in ,erting+ %& et ai CedsD &ights in a Pluralist World.
CLondon7 Me2'ler+ .;;:D LIS,N :==<@042.@%&
Lloyd+ A& and R& Murray IHu(an Rig)ts $rote2tion under t)e A"ri2an
UnionF+ <ournal of Afran 1awG 4= C2D C2::4D&
1an der Wal+ 5& 2ollecti4e Human &ightsB A Western Aiew
Oard+ M& in Colla3oration 9it) C)alo'a ,eyani and C)idi Ansel(
Odin'lau IRe"ugees and t)e A"ri2an Co((ission on Hu(an and
$eolesF Rig)tsF
IT)e Re"ugee 2risis in Sout)ern and Central A"ri2aK+ 3lo0al Dialogue
1ol& 4&.+ Aril .;;;&
A Gearey International $rote2tion o" Hu(an Rig)t& Uni!ersity o"
London7 2::0 @=<&
MODULE /
Unit . Rig)t to Re(edy
Unit 2 #n"or2e(ent o" Hu(an Rig)ts
.<:
Unit @ Lo2us Standi
UNIT . RIGHT TO REMEDY
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. %usti2ia3ility o" Matter
@&2 Rig)t o" A2tion
@&@ Rig)t o" Aeal
@&4 Bailure to Ser!e a $re6A2tion Noti2e
@&4 Ouster Clauses
@&0 $ossession o" %urisdi2tion
@&< Res %udi2ata
@&= *eat) o" $lainti""
@&; Statute o" Li(itation
@&.: Constitutional Restri2tions and *erogations "ro(
Bunda(ental Rig)ts in t)e Interest o" t)e State
@&.. I((unity "ro( Lia3ility
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
T)e re(edies ro!ided "or t)e a3ridge(ent o" )u(an rig)ts are
eAtensi!e& T)e 2)ain o" rig)t o" re(edy goes li'e t)is7 1ocus standi6
justi2ai3ility Vreasona3le 2ause o" a2tion+ jurisdi2tion6eAer2ise o"
judi2ial o9er to entertain re(edy& T)e ro3le( o" 1ocus Standi in
u3li2 la9 is !ery (u2) intert9ined 9it) t)e 2on2et o" t)e role o" t)e
judi2iary in t)e ro2ess o" go!ern(ent& %udi2ial "un2tions are ri(arily
ai(ed at reser!ing legal order 3y 2on"ining legislati!e and eAe2uti!e
organs o" go!ern(ent 9it)in t)eir ro!in2es in t)e interest o" t)e u3li2&
It is also dire2ted to9ards t)e rote2tion o" ri!ate indi!iduals 3y
re!enting illegal in en2roa2)(ent on t)eir indi!idual rig)ts& T)e "irst
intention rests on t)e t)eory t)at t)e 2ourts are t)e "inal ar3iters o" 9)at
is legal and illegal sin2e t)e do(inant o3je2ti!e is to ensure t)e
o3ser!an2e o" t)e la9& T)is 2an 3est 3e a2)ie!ed 3y er(itting any
erson to ut t)e judi2ial (a2)inery in (otion&
289 O:;ECTIVES
.<.
At t)e end o" t)is unit you s)ould 3e a3le to7
identi"y t)e 2)ain o" re(edy
understand t)e 2onditions re2edent 3e"ore going to 2ourt
identi"y t)e ingredients ne2essary "or an ali2ant to "ile 3e"ore
aroa2)ing a 2ourt o" la9&
a3le to de"ine jurisdi2tion and justi2a3ility o" an a2tion&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. ;u&t!!#(!$!t- o2 t"% M#tt%r
A (atter is justi2a3le 9)en it is 2aa3le o" 3eing en"or2ed in la9&
,e"ore a 2ourt o" la9 2an entertain a (atter and do justi2e t)erein t)e
(atter (ust 3e justi2ia3le+ t)at is+ t)e (atter t)reat+ injury or da(age
(ust 3e a 9rong+ 9)i2) 2on"ers a rig)t to a re(edy& T)e (atter (ust 3e
a 3rea2) o" a legal or e-uita3le rig)t or t)reat+ 9)i2) entitle a arty to a
relie"& T)ere"ore a justi2ia3le (atter is legal or e-uita3le rig)t 9)i2)
entitles a erson to a legal re(edy& In A0raham 4 Adesanya, $resident o"
t)e Bederal Reu3li2 o" Nigeria+ Idig3e+ %SC ut it t)us&
PA judi2ial o9er is t)ere"ore in!ested in t)e 2ourts "or t)e urose o"
deter(ining 2ases and 2ontro!ersies 3e"ore it+ t)e 2ases or 2ontro!ersies
)o9e!er (ust 3e justi2ia3le& #Aa(les o" (atters 9)i2) are not
justi2ia3le are (atters 2ontained in 2)ater o" t)e Nigerian Constitution&
As a general rule any (atter in2luded in t)e "unda(ental o3je2ti!es and
dire2ti!e rin2ile o" state oli2y 9)i2) "or( 2)ater 2 o" t)e Nigeria
.;;; 2onstitution does not 2on"er a rig)t in an aggrie!ed arty to retain
a re(edy in 2ourt&
/82 R!,"t& o2 At!on
A rig)t o" a2tion is a legal rig)t to sue Adigun 4 A. 3. 'yo State C.;=<D.
NWLR Ct 4@D anot)er erson+ 3ody or go!ern(ent& In Nigeria+ a erson
)as a rig)t o" a2tion 9)en any o" )is rig)t )as 3een+ is 3eing or is li'ely
to 3e 2ontra!ened& To 3e a3le to 2)allenge a go!ern(ent or
ad(inistrati!e de2ision one (ust )a!e rig)t o" a2tion in la9& As a
general rule in Nigeria+ a erson+ )as a rig)t o" a2tion under se2tion
0C0D3 and se2tion 40C.D o" t)e .;;; 2onstitution& Bor 9)ere t)ere is a
rig)t t)ere is a re(edy+ 9)ere t)ere is a 9rong+ t)ere is a re(edy& T)is is
eAressed in Latin as Nu0i jus remedium.O
/8/ R!,"t o2 A77%#$
Rig)t o" aeal is t)e rig)t to go to a )ig)er 2ourt "or its re!ie9 o" t)e
judg(ent or ruling o" a lo9er 2ourt 9it) 9)i2) t)e aellant is not
satis"ied& Adigun A. 3. 4 'yo State C.;;4D@ NWLR Ct @=D o" 4.@&
.<2
As a general rule+ a erson 2an only aeal against a de2ision or
judge(ent o" a 2ourt or tri3unal 9)en t)ere is a rig)t o" aeal+ a rig)t
o" aeal (ay 3e 2on"erred 3yE
.& t)e 2onstitution
2& 3y any ot)er statute+ in2luding t)e statute esta3lis)ing t)e 2ourt&
T)e rig)t o" aeal eAists in t9o 'inds t)ese are7
aD aeal as o" rig)tE and
3D aeal 9it) lea!e o" 2ourt&
See 1ewot P others 4 <udicial /ri0unal C.;;@D2 NWLR Ct 2<0D+ &
4.: and 442&
W)ere a statute se2i"i2ally denies t)e rig)t o" aeal in a (atter t)e
only otion le"t to an aggrie!ed arty (ay 3e to aeal to t)e go!ernor
or resident as t)e 2ase (ay 3e+ to eAer2ise )is rerogati!e o" (er2y and
ardon t)e a""e2ted erson&
/84 F#!$ur% to S%r*% Pr%-At!on Not!%
A re6a2tion noti2e is a noti2e o" intended legal a2tion+ 9)i2) a statute
re-uires to 3e gi!en to a rose2ti!e de"endant to ena3le )i( or )er
de2ide 9)et)er to (a'e rearation to t)e lainti"" or let t)e (atter go to
2ourt "or deter(ination& W)ere a statute re-uires a re6a2tion noti2e to
3e gi!en to a de"endant+ "ailure to do so (eans t)at t)e a2tion is not
(aintaina3le against t)e de"endant&
!ustafa 4 !onguno 132 C.;=<D@ NWLR t 02& 00@CA
$re6a2tion noti2e is a 2ondition re2edent in instru2ting an a2tion&
*is2uss&
/80 Ou&t%r C$#u&%&
An ouster 2lause is a ro!ision or la9 9)i2) eA2ludes t)e o9er o" 2ourt
to entertain a (atter and de2ide it& Su2) a 2lause eli(inates t)e
jurisdi2tion o" a 2ourt to de2ide a (atter& W)ere a la9 2ontains an ouster
2lause+ t)e only t)ing le"t "or t)e 2ourt to do is to de2lare t)at it )as no
jurisdi2tion to entertain su2) (atters& It is t)e duty o" a 2ourt to
deter(ine 9)et)er or not it )as jurisdi2tion on a (atter&
.<@
/8@ Po&&%&&!on o2 ;ur!&d!t!on
%urisdi2tion is t)e o9er o" a 2ourt to )ear and de2ide a 2ase& It is t)e
o9er or aut)ority o" a 2ourt to )ear and deter(ine (atters+ 9)i2)
statute )as gi!en it judi2ial o9er to adjudi2ate uon& %udi2ial o9er is
t)e aut)ority o" a 2ourt to )ear and de2ide 2ases& W)ere a 2ourt )as no
jurisdi2tion to entertain an a2tion+ any ro2eedings and de2isions gi!en
t)ereon are a nullity no (atter )o9 9ell 2ondu2ted& %udi2ial o9ers are
tied u 9it) jurisdi2tion and justi2ea3ility&
In %wosu 4. Imo State #n4ironmental Sanitation Authority C.;;:D2
NWLR Ct .@4D $& 0== at <2<+ t)e 2ourt said t)at t)e issue o" jurisdi2tion
is al9ays "unda(ental and it is only rudent it 3e resol!ed "irst+
ot)er9ise t)e 2ourt t)at ignores t)at issue (ig)t "ind t)at going into real
trial is a (ere ad!enture& %urisdi2tion is t)ere"ore t)e o9er o" t)e 2ourt
to adjudi2ate in t)e su3je2t (atter and it is eit)er gi!en 3y t)e
2onstitution or a se2i"i2 statute on t)e su3je2t in issues& To a!oid
unne2essarily 9asting t)e ti(e o" t)e 2ourt+ it is ad!isa3le to as2ertain
"irst+ i" t)ere is jurisdi2tion 3y t)e 2ourt on any o" t)e issues 2an!assed&
/8A Res Judicata
&es <udicata (eans t)at a "inal de2ision ronoun2ed 3y a 2o(etent
2ourt or tri3unal+ 9)i2) is not su3je2t to aeal+ is 2on2lusi!e o" t)e
(atter 3et9een t)e arties& See %woedi 4 'ugo C2::2D.0 NWLR Ct
<;4D SC& &es judicata (eans t)at a (atter )as 3een litigated uon and
2on2lusi!ely de2ided and rested&
/8B D%#t" o2 t"% P$#!nt!22
T)e general rule o" la9 is t)at deat) 3rings a legal rig)t to an end&
Ajaaye 4 Idehai C.;;4D= NWLR Ct @04D age 4:4 SC& W)ere a
lainti"" dies+ a ersonal rig)t o" a2tion dies 9it) )i(& Si(ilarly+ an
a2tion 9)i2) is in erson also auto(ati2ally 2o(es to an end on t)e
deat) o" t)e de"endant& Unless t)ere are ot)er joint de"endants on t)e
ot)er )and+ 9)ere a 2ause o" a2tion is in re(+ t)at is+ in to roerty+ t)e
rig)t o" a2tion and t)e rig)t to de"end+ sur!i!e t)e deat) o" a arty+ "or
t)e 3ene"it o" )is estate+ )eirs+ legal reresentati!e or assigns&
.<4
T)e deat) o" a lainti"" in an a2tion in re(ar's t)e end o" t)e suit&
*is2uss&
/8C St#tut% o2 L!'!t#t!on
A statute o" li(itation is a ro!ision or la9 9)i2) stiulates t)at a"ter a
se2i"i2 eriod o" ti(e "ro( t)e date o" a 2ause o" a2tion+ legal a2tion
2annot 3e 3roug)t to redress a 9rong& See 1amina 4 Ieja 132 C.;;@D=
NWLR Ct @.4D & <4=& CA&
T)us+ a 9rong 2ould )a!e o22urred 9it)out a re(edy& As a rule+ it is
generally .2 years in land 2ases+ @ (ont)s in a2tions against u3li2
o""i2ers and 3odies+ 0 years in si(le 2ontra2t eA2et "or 2ontra2t
(atters under seal or deed& Ho9e!er+ t)ere is no li(itation eriod in
2ri(inal rose2ution+ and so ti(e does not run against t)e State&
Je0ug0e 4 2'P C.;;2D 4 NWLR Ct 2@4D .42&
/8.9 D%ro,#t!on 2ro' Fund#'%nt#$ R!,"t& !n t"% Int%r%&t o2
St#t%
Under t)e 2o((on la9 do2trine o" ne2essity+ t)e "unda(ental rig)ts o"
a erson (ay 3e restri2ted+ and/or derogated "ro( in 2o(elling
2ir2u(stan2es and t)e interest o" t)e state& See =adejo 4 Eederal
!inistry of #ducation C.;;0D = NWLR Ct 404D at & . SC& T)is 2ould
also eAist "or t)e ne2essity o" reser!ing t)e state "ro( eril& Under t)e
.;;; 2onstitution+ t)e "unda(ental rig)ts o" a erson (ay only 3e
restri2ted on t)e grounds ro!ided in se2tions @@C2D+ @4C2D+ @4C.D CaD6 C"D
and @0C2D and C4D+ @;C@D+ 4:+ 4.C2D+ 44C2D and 0C0 CdD+ .4@+ .4=+ .==+
@:<+ @:= and se2tion 44 and @:4&
A 2ourt 2an deter(ine its jurisdi2tion& *is2uss
/8.. I''un!t- 2ro' L!#(!$!t-
W)en a erson is i((uned "ro( legal ro2ess or "ro( legal lia3ility+
t)en legal a2tion "or judi2ial re(edy 9ill not su22eed see 2ol. &otimi 4
!acgregor C.;<4D All NLR =2= SC&
Under t)e .;;; Constitution and ot)er statutes+ !arious ersons enjoy
di""erent 'inds o" i((unity 9)ile in o""i2e or are rote2ted under t)e
statute o" li(itation& Su2) ersons in2lude judges+ dilo(ats+ t)e
$resident+ 1i2e6$resident+ Go!ernors and *euty Go!ernors&
.<4
489 CONCLUSION
?ou )a!e learned o" situations in 9)i2) t)e 2ourt o" la9 (ay de2line
jurisdi2tion in rese2t o" 2ertain (atters& In t)is unit 9e dis2ussed
essential ele(ents 9)i2) a litigant s)ould loo' at 3e"ore litigation& I" any
o" t)ese essential ingredients in 2o((en2ing an a2tion is (issing a
litigant (ay 3e denied locus standi 3y t)e 2ourt o" la9&
089 SUMMARY
We )a!e dis2ussed t)e 2lai( o" rig)t to re(edy+ t)at is+ locus standi+
justi2ea3ility+ 2ause o" a2tion+ jurisdi2tion+ eAer2ise o" judi2ial o9ers
et2&
As Lord Ho"" said in Ashly 4 White C.<:@D. #R 4.<+ Pi" t)e lainti"" )as
a rig)t )e (ust o" ne2essity )a!e t)e (eans to !indi2ate it+ and a
re(edy+ it is a !ain t)ing to i(agine a rig)t 9it)out a re(edy "or 9ant
o" rig)t and re(edy are re2iro2alQ&
.D A 2ourt )as a jurisdi2tion to deter(ine its o9n jurisdi2tion&
*is2uss 9it) rese2t to ouster 2lauses&
2D T)e deat) o" a lainti"" in an a2tion 9)i2) is in erson and in re(
auto(ati2ally 3rings t)e 2ase to an end& *is2uss&
@D In 2ri(inal (atters+ t)ere is a stated eriod "or t)e state to
rose2ute o""enders& *is2uss&
4D I((unity 2lause is one o" t)e i(edi(ents to t)e art o" locus
standi. *is2uss&
#se Mole(i C2::0D& Nigeria Constitutional La9& I'eja+ Lagos7 $rin2eton
$u3lis)ing&
$& A Oluyede X Ai)e C2::@D& Cases and Materials on Constitutional
La9 in Nigeria& I3adan7 Uni!ersity $ress $l2&
.<0
UNIT 2 ENFORCEMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. $ro3le(s o" #n"or2e(ent
@&2 Re2o((endations
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
%urisdi2tion7 T)e Hig) Court )as original jurisdi2tion to )ear and
deter(ine ali2ations relating to t)e 2ontra!ention o" )u(an rig)ts&
T)e 2ase o" !inister Internal affairs 4 Shuga0a Darman raised so(e
issues relating to jurisdi2tion& At t)e Court o" Aeal+ t)e (ajority
de2ision 9as t)at t)e Hig) Court in re"eren2e under Se2tion 40 C2D 9as
eit)er t)e State6Hig) Court or t)e Bederal Hig) Court T)is de2ision
ga!e ali2ants t9o otions 9)ile see'ing to en"or2e t)eir "unda(ental
)u(an rig)ts against t)e Go!ern(ent+ eit)er t)roug) t)e State Hig)
Court or t)roug) t)e Bederal Hig) Court
T)e lead judg(ent o" Co'er+ %CA+ read in artE
^T)e lain and !ery 2lear (eaning o" a Hig) Court in t)at
state aearing in Se2tion 42 CID and C2D is de"ined in
Se2tion 2<< as t)e Bederal Hig) Court or t)e Hig) Court
o" a State^
Against t)is lead judg(ent 9as t)e e-ually instru2ti!e dissenting
oinion o" Nasir+ t)e $resident o" t)e Court 9)o argued t)at7
^> T)e intention 2annot 3e t)at t)e ali2ant )as a 2)oi2e
at )is 9ill and dis2retion As ea2) go!ern(ent is sure(e
9it)in its s)ere o" aut)ority and indeendent o" t)e ot)er+
t)e Bederal go!ern(ent 2annot 3e sued in a State Court
eA2et 9)ere jurisdi2tion is se2i"i2ally !ested in t)e State
Court 3y t)e Constitution or > t)e National Asse(3ly& To
)old ot)er9ise 9ill 'no2' t)e 3otto( o"" t)e 2itadel uon
9)i2) t)e rin2iles o" searation o" o9ers is 3ased&^
.<<
T)is oinion raised t)e genuine and i(ortant issue o" searation o"
o9ers it is su3(itted t)at t)e i(ortan2e o" "unda(ental rig)ts 2annot
3ut (ello9 do9n t)is )allo9ed 2onstitutional 2on2et It (ust 3e
stressed t)at t)is dissenting oinion (ay 3e use"ul 9)en t)e
en"or2e(ent o" "unda(ental rig)ts graduates to a )ig)er le!el t)an 9)at
it is no9& T)is is only ossi3le 9)ere t)ere is a 2onstitutional de(o2ra2y
and no de2rees susending or a(ending 2onstitutional ro!isions eAist
T)e (atter o" 2o((en2e(ent o" a2tions o" "unda(ental rig)ts 9as
raised in On9o 1 O'o 9)ere t)e sa(e 2ourt )eld inter alia t)atE
Ûnli'e in (ost 2i!il a2tions+ an in"ringe(ent o"
"unda(ental rig)ts as earlier stated (ust 3e 2o((en2ed in
t)e Hig) Court o" t)e State 9)ere t)e 2ontra!ention o" t)e
rig)t o22urredE and it is t)e Hig) Court o" t)at State t)at
)as jurisdi2tionQ
289 O:;ECTIVES
At t)e end o" t)is unit you s)ould 3e a3le to7
de"ine 9)at en"or2e(ent ro2edure stands "or
understand t)e 2ondition "or learnt o" Re(edy rule o" ro2edure
understand t)e ro3le( o" en"or2e(ent&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
T)e issue o" jurisdi2tion 9as addressed in =orno &adio and /ele4ision
2orporation 4 =asil #g0uonu. In t)is 2ase+ t)e 2ourt loo'ed at
jurisdi2tion "ro( a 9ider se2tru(& It )eld t)at t)e State Hig) Court )as
jurisdi2tion under Se2tion 42+ no9 Se2tion 40 o" t)e .;;; Constitution
to entertain an ali2ation "or en"or2e(ent o" "unda(ental rig)ts+ it
2leared t)e re(aining (aHe as to 9)at 2ourt to aly "or t)e
en"or2e(ent o" "unda(ental rig)ts&
3& Rules o" $ro2edure7 T)e .;;; Constitution e(o9ers t)e C)ie"
%usti2e o" Nigeria to (a'e rules o" ro2edure and ra2ti2e "or
Hig) Courts in order to eAer2ise original jurisdi2tion in (atters
relating to t)e in"ringe(ent o" t)e "unda(ental rig)ts& T)is sa(e
Constitution allo9s t)e National Asse(3ly to 2on"er uon a Hig)
Court su2) o9ers in addition to t)ose 2on"erred "or t)e e""e2ti!e
eAer2ise o" t)is jurisdi2tion&
,y !irtue or Se2tion 42 o" t)e Constitution+ t)e C)ie" .usti2e (ade t)e
Bunda(ental Rig)t C#n"or2e(ent $ro2edureD Rules o" .;<; 9)i2) too'
e""e2t on t)e I^ %anuary+ .;=: Order I Rules 2 and @ o" t)e Rules (a'e it
(andatory "or an ali2ant to aly eA6arte to t)e aroriate 2ourt "or
.<=
lea!e to en"or2e or se2ure t)e en"or2e(ent o" )is "unda(ental rig)t T)is
ali2ation (ust 3e suorted 3y a state(ent gi!ing t)e na(e and
des2rition o" t)e ali2ant along 9it) t)e relie" soug)t and t)e ground
on 9)i2) it is soug)t All t)ese (ust 3e a22o(anied 3y an a""ida!it
!eri"ying t)e "a2ts relied uon Su2) lea!e 9ill not 3e granted unless t)e
ali2ation is 3roug)t 9it)in&.2 (ont)s o" t)e )aening o" t)e e!ent
2o(lained o"&
W)en t)e lea!e is granted+ a return date (ust 3e gi!en 9)i2) a22ording
to Order 2 Rule 2 (ust "all 9it)in .4 days "ro( t)e date on 9)i2) t)e
lea!e 9as granted&
4:
On t)e use o" #n"or2e(ent Rules+ it )as 3een
de2ided t)at 9)ere t)e (ain or rin2ial 2lai( in an ali2ation is not
t)e en"or2e(ent or se2uring o" t)e en"or2e(ent o" a "undan.ental rig)t+
t)e jurisdi2tion o" a Hig) Court 2ould not 3e roerly eAer2ised&
4.
T)e
eA2etion to t)is rule 9as enun2iated in Anig0oro 4 Sea /rucs (%ig8
1td.
42
In t)is 2ase t)e (ain issue related to t)e rig)t o" "reedo( o"
asso2iation& T)e ali2ant )ad 3een 2o(elled 3y )is e(loyers+ t)e
Resondents to join a Trade Union "or(ed 3y t)e( His re"usal a2tuated
a dis(issal& It 9as t)e !ie9 o" t)e 2ourt t)at a 2lai( under 2o((on la9
2ould roerly 3e joined in a se2ial ali2ation under Se2tion 42 o" t)e
Constitution only 9)ere su2) 2lai( is an2illary or in2idental to t)e
rin2ial o" 3rea2) o" "unda(ental rig)t It 9as eAressly )eld t)at t)e
issues o" "unda(ental rig)t and dis(issal 2ould 3e 3roug)t toget)er
sin2e t)e one a2tuated t)e ot)er&
Anot)er i(ortant "a2tor is t)at on2e lea!e is granted to aly "or an
order under t)e Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(ent $ro2edureD Rules+
.;<;+ it is irre!ersi3le It is not oen to t)e Sa(e 2ourt to go 3a2' and
re!erse itsel"& In any 2ase+ no judge o" t)e Hig) Court )as t)e o9er to
re!erse or e!en re!ie9 t)e de2ision o" a Court o" 2o6ordinate jurisdi2tion
t)at "un2tion (ust 3e le"t "or t)e Court o" Aeal&
4@
Binally+ on t)e issue o" ro2edure+ Order 0 Rule . C2D o" t)e Rules
ro!ide "or 2o((ittal o" any arty diso3eying orders gi!en ali2ation
under t)e rules&
/8. Pro($%'& o2 En2or%'%nt
Ha!ing dis2ussed t)e Constitutional ro2edure "or t)e en"or2e(ent o"
"unda(ental rig)ts+ it is ne2essary to loo' 3rie"ly into so(e o" t)e
ro3le(s relating toK en"or2e(ent& T)ese are dis2ussed )ereunder
#5 Ou&t%r C$#u&%&: T)ese are 2lauses ro!ided in any statute "or t)e
ti(e 3eing in "or2e 9)i2) auto(ati2ally re(o!e t)e ade-uate
state(ents against t)e a3use o" o9er 3y t)e #Ae2uti!e Bor
instan2e+ Se2tion 4 o" *e2ree No .:<
44
ro!ided t)atE
.<;
^No -uestion as to t)e !alidity o" t)is *e2ree or any ot)er *e2ree
(ade during t)e eriod @.
st
*e2e(3er+ .;=@ to 20
t)
August .;;@
or (ade a"ter t)e 2o((en2e(ent o" t)is *e2ree or an #di2t s)all
3e entertained 3y any Court o" La9 in Nigeria^
T)is se2tion si(ly li"ts t)e la9 a3o!e any i(agina3le ossi3ility o"
judi2ial re!ie9&
T)e injusti2e t)at an ouster 2lause is 2aa3le o" rodu2ing 2ould 3e seen
in t)e 2ase o" "ederal 2i4il Ser4ice 2ommission P Anor. A Saidu 3ar0a&
Co((enting on Se2tion @ o" *e2ree No .< o" .;=4+ 9)i2) ousted t)e
%urisdi2tion o" t)e Court+ Hon+ %usti2e 5ola9ole said7
^>9)at is oressi!e is t)e ro!ision o" Se2tion @ CID o"
t)e *e2ree 9)at t)is Se2tion (eans is t)at t)e resondent
9as dis(issed a"ter )e )ad ut in 2; years o" ser!i2e He
9as not as'ed to eAlain any allegation In ot)er 9ords+ )e
9as re(o!ed "ro( ser!i2e "or no just 2ause^
Needless to say+ ouster 2lauses 2o(e in t)e (ost na'ed and 3raHen
(anner under (ilitary regi(es+ T)is 2ould 3e "ound "ro( t)e
2ir2u(stan2es in 1aanmi 4 Attorney 3eneral CWestD
40
9)ere an ouster
2lause 9as used against t)e de2ision o" Sure(e Court o" Nigeria A"ter
t)is 2ase+ t)e aroa2) o" t)e judi2iary to ouster 2lauses )ad 3een to
3lo9 (uted tru(ets&
(5 Co''!t'%nt to Ru$% o2 L#3: T)e 3asis o" t)e rule o" la9 is t)e
"urt)eran2e o" "unda(ental rig)ts in an at(os)ere 9)ere t)e
uni!ersal rin2iles o" justi2e and "airness to all 9it)out "a!our
eAist T)e #Ae2uti!e (ust 3e 2o((itted to t)is rin2ile in all its
a2tions T)e anni)ilation or atte(ted su""o2ation o" t)ese
rin2iles 9ill )a!e negati!e e""e2ts on t)e en"or2e(ent o"
"unda(ental rig)ts T)e !ie9 o" t)e #Ae2uti!e t)at 1e &oi est 19
etat is no longer use"ul in 2onte(orary ra2ti2e
5 Pu($!!t-: CitiHens generally are not a9are o" t)eir 2onstitutional
rig)ts Bor instan2e at $oli2e Stations+ t)e ins2rition is t)ere t)at
3ail is "ree Ho9e!er+ it is 2o((on 'no9ledge t)at i" a erson is
arrested+ )e 9ill not 3e released unless )e ays a 2ertain+
3argained a(ount to t)e $oli2e Ot)er9ise+ t)e arrested erson
9ill 3e (ade to send 9ee's and (ont)s t)ere3y in"ra2ting )is
rig)ts7 T)e non6u3li2ation o" t)ese rig)ts t)roug) t)e (edia is
2ertainly a ro3le( to t)eK en"or2e(ent o" "unda(ental rig)ts
$ro!isions in t)e Constitution 2an only 3e read 3y less t)an .:G
o" t)e oulation+ 9)i2) is literate Out o" t)is .:G anot)er @G is
.=:
not interested 3e2ause t)ey are o" t)e !ie9 t)at it (a'es no gain
to t)e( 9)en t)ey 'no9
d5 Su&7%n&!on o2 Con&t!tut!on: T)is goes to t)e root o"
en"or2e(ent and is 2reated 3y regular 2)anges in go!ern(ent
t)roug) 2ou dKetats Under *e2ree No .:< o" .;;@+ Se2tions @2
C2D 6C<D and 4. o" t)e .;<; Constitution 9)i2) dealt 9it) arrest
and detention+ unla9"ul arrest+ 3ail+ lengt) o" eriod o" arrest and
eriod o" e(ergen2y 9ere susended T)is *e2ree re(o!ed all
2onstitutional 3ridles against eAe2uti!e la9lessness *e2rees li'e
t)is eAtin2t t)e rule o" la9 and t)e re(nants o" "unda(ental rig)ts
%5 ;ud!!#$ Pr%%d%nt: %udi2ial $re2edent in its negati!e
(ani"estation is judi2ial 2onser!ation Bor instan2e+ t)e ta2t t)at
only t)e Sure(e Court 2ould o!errule itsel" (a'es it i(ossi3le
to )a!e a raid gro9t) o" la9 #!en t)e ro2ess o" distinguis)ing
)as its o9n li(itations %udi2ial a2ti!is(+ it is suggested (ust 3e
inje2ted into t)e de(o2rati2 sirit o" our Constitution
25 ;ud!!#$ Ind%7%nd%n%: One o" t)e (ost essential "a2tors in t)e
en"or2e(ent o" "unda(ental rig)ts is t)e indeenden2e o" t)e
judi2iary A"ter9ards+ t)e %udi2iary )as 3een 'no9n to 3e t)e last
3astion o" t)e 2o((on (an&
In site o" Se2tion 0 C0D CaD o" t)e Constitution+ 9)i2) states t)at judi2ial
o9ers are in)erent in t)e Courts+ t)ere are -uite a nu(3er o"
i(edi(ents to t)is indeenden2e Bor instan2e+ t)eir 2onditions o"
ser!i2e+ (e(3ers)i and 2onstitutional roto2ol&
/82 R%o''%nd#t!on&
We )a!e atte(ted to state t)e 2onstitutional osition o" "unda(ental
rig)ts as 9ell as t)e en"or2e(ent o" t)ese rig)ts No dou3t+ t)ere is t)e
need "or i(ro!e(ents It is along t)ese lines t)at t)is se2tion s)all "o2us
on re2o((endations "or t)e 3etter(ent o" "unda(ental rig)ts as 9ell as
t)eir en"or2e(ent in Nigeria&
CaD T)e .;;; Constitution o" t)e Bederal Reu3li2 o" Nigeria
ro!ides "or t9el!e o" su2) rig)ts as 9ell as t9o se2tions on t)eir
en"or2e(ents&
4<
,ot) t)e .;<; and .;;; Constitutions still "all s)ort o" 2onte(orary
A"ri2an Standards Bor instan2e+ t)e Ugandan Constitution
4=
ro!ides "or
rig)ts under t9enty6one )eadings It (a'es ro!isions "ro( Arti2le 2: to
4. "or nearly all "a2ets o" )u(an eAisten2e+ ta'ing into 2onsideration
2onte(orary te2)nologi2al and so2io62ultural re-uire(ents Bor
.=.
instan2e+ it ro!ides "or rig)ts o" disa3led and )andi2aed ersons
4;
as
9ell as e2ono(i2 rig)ts
4:
and rig)ts o" 9o(en
4.
and 2)ildren&
42
It also
ro!ides "or t)e rig)t o" (inorities
4@
and a2tions in "a!our o"
(arginaliHed ersons
44
All t)ese rig)ts are 2ro9ned 3y t)e 2reation o" t)e Ugandan Hu(an
Rig)ts Co((ission
44
9)ose sole duty is to re!ie9 t)e 2ases o" ersons
9)o are detaineds&
40
T)is 2o((ission underta'es salutary duties
4<
and is
endo9ed 9it) enor(ous o9ers&
4=
It (ay a"ter 2onsideration o" t)e
2ir2u(stan2e 3e"ore it release detained ersons&
4;
Our suggestion is t)at
t)e Nigerian Constitution s)ould 3orro9 a lea" "ro( t)e Ugandan
Constitution+ arti2ularly regarding t)e ro!isions on "unda(ental rig)ts
Bor instan2e+ t)ere is t)e i((ediate need "or t)e esta3lis)(ent o" a
Hu(an Rig)ts Tri3unal o" an indeendent nature&
0:
T)e duties o" t)is
Tri3unal 9ill in2lude ensuring and (onitoring t)e en"or2e(ent o"
"unda(ental rig)ts In t)e ro2ess o" re!ie9+ t)e National Asse(3ly
s)ould ta'e t)e a3o!e into 2ogniHan2e&
4(5 Ru$% o2 L#3: T)e La9yer as a (e(3er o" t)e )onoura3le
ro"ession is a Minister in t)e te(le o" justi2e in t)is
2onne2tion+ t)e eAe2tations o" t)e u3li2 are i((ense T)e
ro"essional attri3utes o" t)e La9yer t)ere"ore ut )i( at a
!antage osition against t)e ot)er (e(3ers o" t)e u3li2 As Mr&
%usti2e Ola'unle OrojoE said+ o" a Legal $ra2titioner as KK>one
a(ong t)e !ery "e9 ri!ileged eole in an en!iron(ent 9)ere
t)e !ast (ajorities are not only illiterate 3ut also ignorant+
suerstitious an oorQ&
0.
T)e oinion o" Lord *enning en2asulates 9)at is eAe2ted o" t)e
,arrister He saidE
Â ,arrister 2annot i2' or 2)oose )is 2lients He is 3ound
to a22et a 3rie" "ro( any (an 9)o 2o(es 3e"ore t)e
2ourts No (atter )o9 great a ras2al )e (ay 3e No (atter
)o9 gi!en to 2o(laining No (atter )o9 unoular )is
2ause& T)e 3arrister (ust de"end )i( to t)e end^&
45 St#($% Go*%rn'%nt: A sta3le go!ern(ent is a sine -ua non o"
national rogress Military Go!ern(ents t)e 9orld o!er )a!e 3een
'no9n "or t)eir "lagrant disregard "or 2onstitutional ro!isions
T)eir en2)ant "or dra2onian la9s and disregard "or "unda(ental
rig)ts 9)i2) "rustrate t)e intent and urort o" t)e Constitution
2annot 3e o!er e()asiHed It is t)ere"ore suggested t)at t)ere
s)ould 3e a 9ay to en"or2e Se2tion . C2D o" t)e .;;; Constitution
9)i2) legislates against any go!ernan2e o" Nigeria eA2et as
ro!ided 3y t)e Constitution&
.=2
4d5 Int%rn#t!on#$ L#37 It is gladdening t)at "unda(ental rig)ts )a!e
ta'en a ne9 status Nations 9)ere in"ringe(ent o" )u(an rig)ts
o22ur are loo'ed at as aria)s 3y t)e rest o" t)e 9orld T)e
eAisten2e o" Regional Hu(an rig)ts C)arters and Co((issions
02
(a'es it 2lear t)at "unda(ental rig)ts and t)eir en"or2e(ent is no
longer restri2ted to (uni2ial la9 It )as ta'en international
di(ensions State arties to t)is 2)arter t)ere"ore ensure stri2t
o3ser!an2e to its ro!isions as 9ell as t)eir en"or2e(ent&
Nigeria s)ould endea!our to (onitor t)e !iolation o" )u(an rig)ts 3y
e!ol!ing identi"ying se2tors 9)ere t)ere are suse2ted ossi3ilities o"
)u(an rig)ts in"ra2tion A se2ial Hu(an Rig)t Monitoring Grou (ust
3e esta3lis)ed+ indeendent in nature and 2aa3le o" rendering reort o"
t)eir "indings -uarterly&
489 CONCLUSION
T)e situation o" )u(an rig)ts in Nigeria s)ould ta'e (ore ositi!e and
raid stes Constitutional ro!isions on t)e en"or2e(ent o" "unda(ental
rig)ts oug)t also to 3e 3oosted T)e eriod o" (ilitary rule 9itnessed t)e
)ig)est le!el o" in"ringe(ent o" eolesK rig)ts T)e go!ern(ent s)ould
rese2t International Hu(an Rig)ts La9s and Nor(s and *o(esti2
Legislation go!erning Hu(an Rig)ts&
089 SUMMARY
In t)e de"en2e o" t)e Constitution+ t)e Legal $ra2titioner is eAe2ted to
3e in t)e "ore"ront+ arti2ularly 9)ere t)e issue o" rig)ts o" t)e
indi!idual under t)e Constitution is 2on2erned&
.D #Alain t)e %urisdi2tion o" t)e Hig) Court on Bunda(ental
Hu(an rig)t Cases&
2D W)y are t)ere ro3le(s o" en"or2e(ent o" "unda(ental Hu(an
Rig)t Cases&
.=@
So'e"un %ustus A& C2::2D& Issues in Constitutional Land and $ra2ti2e in
Nigeria& #ssenjin Honour o" *r& OLu Onagoru9 G $$@.;6@2=
Ola3isi Ona3anjo Uni!ersity ress&
C.;;0D 0 NWLR t 440 age 4=4&
At age 4=;
Se2tion 40 C@D
Se2tion 44 C@D
See Og9u2)e 1 M3a C.;;4D 4 NWLR t @@0 at age 2.
,orno Radio and Tele!ision 2ororation 1 ,asil #g3uonu CsuraD
C.;;4DRl/WLR t @;; CA+ age @4
O'oye 1 NC X BCo Ltd& C.;;.D 0 NWLR t .;; at 4:.
Under t)e a3solute Constitution CSusension and *e2ree .;;@
C.;=0D 2 NWLR @;4
C.;<.D . UILR 2:.
See 2)ater I1 o" t)at Constitution&
Constitution o" t)e Reu3li2 o" Uganda& .;;4
Arti2le @4
Arti2le 4:
Arti2le @@
Arti2le @4
Arti2le @0
Arti2le @2
Arti2le 4.
Arti2le 4=&
Arti2le 42 C.D&
Arti2le 4@ C.D&
Arti2le7 4@ C2D
Arti2le7 44 o" t)e Ugandan Constitution (a'es t)e Co((ission and
Indeendent one not Su3je2t to Control 3y any Aut)ority&
Orojo O&+ Condu2t and #ti-uette "or Legal $ra2titioners+ .;<;+ age 40
In Rondel 1 Worsley [uoted "ro( Lord *enning V Breedo( under t)e
La9+ t)e Ha(lyn Le2tures Birst Series $ages 464
.=4
UNIT / LOCUS STANDI
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. Meaning and *e"inition o" 1ocus Standi
@&2 T)e Ali2ation o" t)e *o2trine o" 1ocus Standi in Nigeria
@&@ 1ocus Standi is t)e Boundation o" a Suit or Legal Matter
@&4 Narro9 or Restri2ti!e Ali2ation
@&4 T)e Court )eld Inter6Alia
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
1ocus Standi (eans t)e rig)t to sue in la9& 1ocus Standi is t)e rig)t to
sue or de"end a 2lai( in 2ourt& It is t)e rig)t o" arty to aear in a 2ourt+
tri3unal or ot)er judi2ial ro2eedings and 3e )eard on t)e (atter 3e"ore
it& ,ello %s2 Cas )e t)en 9asD in Senator Adesanya 4 President of %igeria
C.;=.D 2 NCR @4= de"ined locus standi as Pt)e rig)t o" a arty to aear
and 3e )eard on t)e -uestion 3e"ore t)e 2ourt or tri3unal&
T)ere is er)as no -uestion (ore "unda(ental in t)e 9)ole ro2ess o"
en"or2e(ent o" Hu(an Rig)ts and adjudi2ation t)e( t)at o" a22ess to
t)e 2ourt& It is in t)is 2onteAt and "or t)is "unda(ental reason t)at (any
legal syste(s are no9 relaAing t)e se!erity o" t)e rules regarding locus
standi& T)e do2trine )as 3een an attra2ti!e 2on2et "or ages and )as
osed serious ro3le(s 3ot) to litigants and t)e 2ourts& It is a !ery
i(ortant issue sin2e it deter(ines 9)et)er or not a erson 2an institute
an a2tion in a 2ourt o" la9&
289 O:;ECTIVES
W)en you )a!e studied t)is 2ourse+ you s)ould 3e a3le to7
outline t)is 3asi2 re-uire(ents o" 1ocus Standi
outline t)e ele(ents t)at 2onstitute 1ocus Standi
des2ri3e locus standi in relation to justi2ia3ility and jurisdi2tion
o" 2ourts
di""erentiate 3et9een strangers and aggrie!ed ersons
de"ine locus standi&
.=4
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. M%#n!n, #nd D%2!n!t!on o2 Locus Standi
T)e ter( locus standi de"ies any de"inition 9it) all 2ertainty& Se!eral
aut)ors )a!e atte(ted to gi!e a 9or'ing de"inition o" t)e ter(& It )as
3een said t)at t)e "unda(ental ase2t o" locus standi is t)at it "o2uses on
t)e arty see'ing to get )is 2o(laint 3e"ore t)e 2ourt+ not on t)e issue
)e 9is)es to )a!e adjudi2ated Eawehinmi 4 Ailu Cno.D C.;;:D . NWLR
Ct .2<D 44:&
T)e ter( locus standi denotes a legal 2aa2ity to institute ro2eedings in
a 2ourt o" La9 or a rig)t o" a arty to 3e )eard on t)e -uestion 3e"ore
t)e tri3unal& See Adesanya 4 President of %igeria C.;=2D@ NWLR @:0&
In its 2o((on la9 ali2ation+ it 2a(e into 3eing ri(arily t)roug) t)e
en"or2e(ent o" u3li2 rig)ts& Considering t)at locus standi 9as 3ased on
t)e do2u(ent intention o" t)e Ro(ans to ensure t)e san2tity o" t)eir
la9s t)roug) t)e a2tion oularis+ locus Standi rat)er t)an en)an2e
a22ess to t)e 2ourts )as 2ons2rited sa(e t)roug) t)e re-uire(ent t)at
t)e litigant (ust s)o9 a Pse2ial interest or ro!e t)at )e )as 3een
ersonally aggrie!ed o!er and 3eyond ot)er 2itiHensQ& In 2)ie"tain2y
(atters+ religious asso2iations and oliti2al asso2iations+ t)e standard o"
grie!an2e re-uired )as 3een so )ig) to deri!e (any litigants o" su22or&
In 2onstitutional (atters+ locus standi )as generally 3een deri!ed on t)e
surious ground t)at on (atters in t)e interest o" t)e u3li2 in general+
only t)e Attorney6General 2an sue& See Attorney 3eneral 4 Hallam
%naru Hassan C.;=4D2 NWLR Ct =D 4=@&
In Nigeria+ t)e de"inition o" lo2us standi and 9)en a erson )as lo2us
standi is not in dou3t& T)is is so 3e2ause t)e Nigeria 2onstitution de"ined
9)en and 9)o )as lo2us standi in se2tion 40C.D o" t)e .;;; 2onstitution&
T)is se2tion de"ines a erson 9)o )as lo2us standi as OAny person who
alleges that any of the pro4isions of this chapter has 0een, is 0eing, or
liely to 0e contra4ened in any state in relation to him in any apply to a
High 2ourt in that state for redressO.
T)e "unda(ental Rig)ts 2)ater o" t)e Nigerian Constitution a!ers all
t)e ersonal and rorietary rig)ts 9)i2) are 2aa3le o" en"or2e(ent
erson& T)ere"ore+ in Nigeria a erson in )is 2aa2ity as a lainti"" or
de"endant )as locus standi i" any o" )is rig)ts )as 3een+ is 3eing or li'ely
to 3e 2ontra!ened& T)ere"ore+ to )a!e re(edy or judi2ial re!ie9+ t)e
aggrie!ed arty 9)o is alying to 2ourt "or redress (ust )a!e t)e
standing+ or locus standi to go to 2ourt& A erson 9)o see's redress in a
2ourt o" la9 against a 9rong"ul a2t (ust s)o9 t)at )e is dire2tly a""e2ted
3y su2) a2t 3e"ore )e 2an 3e )eard& It (ust 3e t)e assertion o" a rig)t
9)i2) is ersonal to )i(+ and t)e rig)t (ust )a!e 3een in"ringed or t)ere
.=0
is a t)reat o" in"ringe(ent& A general interest 2o((on to all (e(3ers o"
t)e u3li2 is not a litiga3le interest and it is not locus standi in a 2ourt o"
la9&
Bor an aggrie!ed arty alying to 2ourt to esta3lis) locus standi )e
(ust s)o97
iD T)at )e )as sustained dire2t injury
iiD T)at )e is in i((ediate danger o" sustaining so(e dire2t injury as
a result o" t)e la9+ o9er+ a2t+ o(ission or issue in -uestion&
It is not su""i2ient "or a erson to say t)at )e (ay su""er in so(e
inde"inite 9ay in 2o((on 9it) t)e (e(3ers o" t)e u3li2 in general& He
(ust esta3lis) su""i2ient interest+ or rig)t to entitle )i( to sue 3ased on
t)e eAisting "a2ts or i((inent danger&
T)ere"ore+ as a general rule+ t)e si(le teAt is t)at a erson 9)o does
not )a!e su""i2ient interest in a (atter 2annot o3tain judi2ial relie"+ as )e
)as no lo2us standi& In ot)er 9ords a 3usy3ody t)at is not dire2tly
2on2erned or dire2tly a""e2ted )as no rig)t to sue in la9&
.& #Alain t)e ter( lo2us standi
2& In (atter o" u3li2 interest only t)e Attorney General sues&
Co((ent&
A&%rt#!n'%nt o2 Locus Standi
In Nigeria+ it is 2onstitutional t)at a litigant (ust )a!e locus standi in
order to (aintain an a2tion and rose2ute a (atter in a la9 2ourt& See
/imothy Adefade and 67 ors 4 =ello 'yesile and , others C.;=;D4
NWLR Ct .22D @<<
T)e issue to locus standi 3eing an indire2t -uestion+ t)e jurisdi2tion o"
t)e 2ourt to adjudi2ate on a (atter 2an 3e raised at any ti(e+ e!en on
aeal& See 'loride 4 'ye0i C.;=4D .42 NLR @=:&
In as2ertaining 9)et)er t)e lainti"" in an a2tion )as locus standi t)e
leading t)at is t)e state(ent o" 2lai(+ (ust dis2lose a 2ause o" a2tion
!ested in t)e lainti"" and t)e rig)t and o3ligation or interest o" t)e
lainti"" 9)i2) )a!e 3een !iolated& T)e rig)t 9ay to deter(ine 9)et)er
a lainti"" )as t)e ne2essary standing to sue is to eAa(ine t)e state(ent
o" 2lai( and t)e 9rit o" su((ons& In doing t)is+ t)e 2ourt eAa(ines
9)et)er t)at arty is a roer arty to re-uest "or an adjudi2ation under
.=<
a arti2ular su3je2t (atter& See 'lateru 'lag0egi 4 '0a 'gunnoye II
COlo9o o" O9o X ors C.;;0D NWLR Ct 44=D @@2 X @42&
W)ere t)e 2o(eten2e o" t)e lainti"" to institute an a2tion is 2)allenged
or is in issue+ t)e onus is on t)e lainti"" to esta3lis) t)at )e is 2o(etent
to sue as lainti""&
In t)e issue o" locus standi+ t)e justi2ia3ility o" t)e issue "or adjudi2ation
is i((aterial& W)at is i(ortant is 9)et)er t)e lainti"" is roer erson
to sue& See #Meafuluule 4 <ohn Holt 1td C.;;0D2 NWLR Ct 4@2D 4.. X
2.;&
A lainti"" (ust t)ere"ore esta3lis) t)at )e )as so(e ersonal interest
9)i2) )as 3een 3rea2)ed or in i((inent danger o" 3eing 3rea2)ed to
)a!e locus standi to sustain a 2lai(& T)ere"ore 9)ere a 9rong is
i((inent t)ere 9ill 3e not)ing to redressE only a erson 9it) locus
standi or legal rig)t is a erson entitled to sue in la9& See Adesanya 4
President of the Eederal &epu0lic of %igeria and other C.;=.D NCR .
SC&
T)e issue in t)is 2ase 9as t)e locus standi o" t)e lainti"" aealing to
2)allenge t)e 2onstitutionality o" t)e aoint(ent o" t)e 2
nd
de"endant
resondent C$resident o" NigeriaD& T)e aellant 3roug)t a2tion "or a
de2laration t)at t)e aoint(ent o" t)e 2
nd
de"endant/resondent as
2)air(an o" t)e Bederal #le2toral Co((ission CB#*#COD 9as
un2onstitutional as )e 9as at t)e ti(e o" )is aoint(ent t)e 2)ie" judge
o" ,endel State and is t)ere"ore dis-uali"ied "ro( 3eing aointed a
(e(3er o" t)e Bederal #le2toral Co((ission and also "or an injun2tion
restraining t)e resident "ro( s9earing in t)e 2
nd
resondent as
2)air(an o" t)e Bederal #le2toral Co((ission and restraining t)e 2
nd
de"endant "ro( a2ting or urorting to a2t as a (e(3er or as 2)air(an
o" t)e Bederal #le2toral Co((ission& On aeal+ t)e Sure(e Court
)eld interalia t)at t)e lainti"" aellant )ad no su""i2ient interest or
locus standi in t)e (atter o" t)e aoint(ent o" t)e 2
nd
resondent as t)e
2)air(an o" t)e Bederal #le2toral Co((ission&
T)e 2ourt )eld "urt)er t)at t)e lainti"" )ad asserted a 2onstitutional
oint 9)i2) did not a""e2t )i( ersonally& In t)is 2ase+ O3ase'i %SC
said+ P t)e (ere "a2t t)at an a2t o" t)e #Ae2uti!e or Legislature is
un2onstitutional+ 9it)out any allegation o" in"ra2tion o" or its ad!erse
e""e2t on oneFs 2i!il rig)ts and o3ligations+ does not raise -uestion to 3e
settled 3et9een t)e aellant and t)e resondents as to t)e 2i!il rig)ts
and o3ligation o" t)e aellant&Q
T)e 2ase o" Adesanya 4 President of %igeria a(ong ot)er 2ases o" its
'ind is an eAa(le o" Iu3li2 interest litigationF& #ssentially u3li2
.==
interest litigations are suits 3roug)t on 3e)al" o" t)e u3li2 to sto an
injury or re!ent i((inent injury to t)e u3li2& T)e only dra93a2' o"
u3li2 interest litigation is t)at t)ey o"ten "ail "or la2' o" locus standi
9)ere t)e do2trine o" locus standi is not li3erally alied 3y t)e 2ourt&
See 'lawoyin 4 A. 3. of %orthern %igeria C.;0.D2 SC NLR 4& In
Eawehinmi 4 !rs. !aryam =a0angida Cunreorted Suit No&
C*/4@@/;:D+ t)e de"endant 9as t)e "irst lady o" Nigeria 3et9een .;=4
and .;;@& As t)e "irst lady+ )er o""i2e initiated a roje2t 'no9n as t)e
,etter Li"e $rogra((e on 9)i2) a ortion o" u3li2 "unds 9as
eAended& T)e lainti"" 3roug)t an a2tion to 2)allenge t)e unaut)oriHed
and eAtra63udgetary eAenditure o" u3li2 "unds on t)e rogra((e&
Oe6Ag3e %&+ o" in t)e Hig) Court o" Lagos State in line 9it) t)e
narro9 interretation o" locus standi 9)i2) ruled t)at a taA aying
2itiHen o" Nigeria la2'ed t)e locus standi to 2)allenge t)e eAenditure o"
u3li2 "unds 3y t)e o""i2e o" t)e "irst lady on t)e rogra((e& Under t)e
narro9 and restri2ti!e ali2ation o" locus standi suits in2luding u3li2
interest litigation are t)ro9n out o" Nigeria 2ourts annually "or la2' o"
locus standi&
/82 T"% A77$!#t!on o2 t"% Dotr!n% o2 Locus Standi !n
N!,%r!#
T)e legal and 2onstitutional 3asis o" t)e do2trine o" locus standi in
Nigeria is in t)e Nigerian ConstitutionE Se2tion 40C.D o" t)e .;;;
2onstitution ro!idesE
PAny erson 9)o alleges t)at any o" t)e ro!isions o" t)is 2)ater )as
3een+ is 3eing or li'ely to 3e 2ontra!ened in any state in relation to )i(
(ay aly to a Hig) Court in t)at State "or redress&
In !ie9 o" se2tion 40C.D o" t)e .;;; 2onstitution+ a erson 9)o )ad
locus standi in Nigeria is PAny erson 9)ose rig)t )as 3een+ is 3eing or
li'ely to 3e 2ontra!enedQ& T)e 2on2et o" locus standi is one legal issue
t)at )as generated a lot o" 2ontro!ersy in legal )istory& T)e nature o"
locus standi is t)at it "o2uses on t)e arty see'ing to get re(edy "ro(
2ourt and not on t)e issue )e 9is)es to )a!e adjudi2ated& W)ere a
lainti"" "ails to dis2lose )is legal rig)t or aut)ority to sue and "or t)e
relie"s )e see's or 9)at injury )e )as su""ered or is su""ering or 9ill
su""er+ )e la2's locus standi to 2onstitute su2) suit or 3e )eard&
Burt)er(ore+ 9)ere it is a 2ondition re2edent re-uired 3y statute+
"ailure to send a re6a2tion noti2e also denies a arty o" locus standi and
si(ilarly an in"ant only )as standi 9)en )e sues t)roug) an ad(it& See
Sofolahan 4 Eowler C2::2D.4 NWLR Ct <==D004&
.=;
/8/ Locus Standi !& t"% Found#t!on o2 # Su!t or L%,#$ M#tt%r
In Nigeria+ t)e 2o((on la9 do2trine o" locus standi as 2ontained in t)e
ro!isions o" se2tion 40C.D o" t)e .;;; 2onstitution )as 3een interreted
and alied 3y t)e 2ourt in t9o (ain 9ays& T)e ali2ations are t)eE
=& Narro9 or restri2ti!e ali2ation
;& Legal and eAansi!e ali2ation&
/84 N#rro3 or R%&tr!t!*% A77$!#t!on
T)e sure(e 2ourt o" Nigeria ga!e a restri2ted interretation o" t)e ter(
locus standi in t)e AdesanyaFs 2ase& Anot)er 2ase t)at readily 2o(es to
(ind is 2hief (Dr8 Irene /homas P , ors 4 /he most &e4erend /imothy
'motayo 'lufosoye C.;;0D. NWLR Ct& .=D 00;&
In t)is 2ase+ t)e lainti""s 9)o 9ere 2o((uni2ants o" t)e Angli2an
Co((union 9it)in t)e *io2ese o" Lagos 2)allenged t)e aoint(ent o"
Rt& Re!ered %ose) A3iodun Adetiloye as t)e ne9 ,is)o o" Lagos and
as'ed t)e 2ourt to de2lare t)e aoint(ent !oid&
T)e lainti"" "iled a state(ent o" 2lai(& T)ey did not say t)at t)ey )ad
an interest in t)e o""i2e o" t)e ,is)o o" t)e *io2ese& T)ey also did not
say )o9 t)eir interest Ci" anyD )ad 3een ad!ersely a""e2ted 3y t)e
aoint(ent o" Re!erend %& Adetiloye& T)ey in"a2t+ 2on2eded t)at t)ey
9ere not interested in a arti2ular 2andidate 3ut (erely stated t)at t)e
ro2ess o" t)e aoint(ent o" Re!& %& A& Adetiloye 2ontra!ened so(e
ro!isions o" t)e 2onstitution o" t)e 2)ur2) o" Nigeria CAngli2an
Co((unionD& T)e de"endant 3y noti2e o" (otion argued t)at t)e
lainti""s )ad no locus standi to institute t)e a2tion and t)at t)e
state(ent o" 2lai( dis2losed no reasona3le 2ause o" a2tion& T)e trial
2ourt a22eted t)e o3je2tion and dis(issed t)e suit& T)e lainti""
aealed to t)e Court and "urt)er to t)e Sure(e Court& ,ot) aeals
9ere dis(issed&
One o" t)e issues su3(itted "or deter(ination at t)e Sure(e Court 9as
9)et)er t)e aellant )ad in t)eir state(ent o" 2lai( dis2losed t)eir
lo2us standi or standing to institute t)e a2tion& Sure(e Court )eld inter
alia t)at t)e lainti""s )ad no locus standi as t)ey )ad not raised in t)eir
state(ent o" 2lai( any -uestion as to t)eir 2i!il rig)ts and o3ligations&
T)is )as 3een t)e osition a"ter t)e AdesanyaFs 2ase& T)e osition o"
locus standi in #ngland and Australia is so(e)o9 (ore li3eral&
Ho9e!er re2ently+ t)e 2ourt relaAed t)e restri2ted interretation o" lo2us
standi as enun2iated in earlier 2ases and 3roadened it in Eawehimi 4
Ailu P ors C.;=<D4 NWLR Ct 0<D<;<& Wit) t)e de2ision in t)is 2ase+ a
.;:
2ourt in alying t)e do2trine s)ould 2onsider t)e urose "or t)e
ro2eedings&
T)e "a2ts in t)is 2ase 9ere as "ollo9sE on Sunday t)e .;
t)
O2to3er+ .;=0
Mr& *ele Gi9a+ a journalist and editor in62)ie" o" a 9ee'ly (agaHine
Ne9s9ee' 9as 'illed at )is residen2e at I'eja in Lagos State 3y a ar2el
3o(3& On t)e @
rd
o" No!e(3er+ .;=0 t)e Aellant a "riend and legal
ad!iser to *ele Gi9a+ su3(itted to t)e *ire2tor o" $u3li2 $rose2utions
C*$$D Lagos a @;6aged do2u(ent 2ontaining all details o" in!estigation
)e 2ondu2ted toget)er 9it) in"or(ation a22using t9o ar(y o""i2ersE Col&
Halilu A'ilu+ t)e *ire2tor o" Military Intelligen2e C*MID and Lt& Col& A&
5& Togun+ *euty *ire2tor o" t)e State Se2urity Ser!i2es CSSSD o" t)e
(urder o" *ele Gi9a ursuant to se2tion @42 o" t)e Cri(inal $ro2edure
La9 o" Lagos State& T)e ali2ant a2ting as a ri!ate rose2utor
re-uested t)e *$$ to eAer2ise )is dis2retion 9)et)er or not )e 9ould
rose2ute t)e said Ar(y O""i2ers and i" )e de2lined to rose2ute+ )e
s)ould t)en endorse a 2erti"i2ate to t)at e""e2t on t)e in"or(ation
su3(itted to ena3le )i( as a ri!ate rose2utor rose2ute t)e 2on2erned
Ar(y o""i2ers&
On 0
t)
No!e(3er+ .;=0+ t)e aellant (et 9it) t)e *$$ 9)o in"or(ed
)i( t)at )e 2ould not 2o(e to a de2ision 9)et)er or not to rose2ute t)e
said o""i2er until )e re2ei!ed a reort o" oli2e in!estigation&
Conse-uently+ t)e aellant "iled an ali2ation at t)e Hig) Court o"
Lagos "or lea!e to aly "or an order o" (anda(us to 2o(el t)e
resondent to de2ide 9)et)er or not to rose2ute t)e t9o o""i2ers and i"
)e de2ided not to rose2ute+ to endorse t)e in"or(ation "or ri!ate
rose2ution& T)e learned C)ie" %udge o" Lagos State Honoura3le %usti2e
Ade(ole Candido6%o)nson 2onsidered t)e ali2ation "or lea!e and
dis(issed it on t)e ground t)atE
aD T)e *$$ )ad not re"used to do )is duty under se2tion @42 o" t)e
Cri(inal $ro2edure La9&
3D He 9ould not 3e "or2ed to do so uon li(ited (aterials 3e"ore
)i(&
T)e aellant aealed to t)e Court o" Aeal on t)e ground t)at t)e )e
)ad a locus standi in t)e deat) o" *ele Gi9a to 3ring t)e ali2ation&
T)e ali2ation 9as )eld to 3e )oeless+ "ri!olous+ i(roer+ ill6ti(ed+
and re(ature& T)e aellant "urt)er aealed to t)e Sure(e Court&
T)is 2ourt+ in a 2onsidered judg(ent allo9ed t)e aealE set aside t)e
lo9er 2ourts judg(ent& T)e Ali2ant/Aellant ali2ation "or lea!e to
aly "or order o" (anda(us 9as granted&
.;.
/80 T"% Court "%$d Inter-Alia
.D T)e aellant+ as a Nigerian+ a "riend and a legal ad!iser to *ele
Gi9a )as a ersonal rig)t under t)e 2ri(inal ro2edure la9 to see
t)at a 2ri(e is not 2o((itted and i" 2o((itted+ to lay a 2ri(inal
2)arge "or t)e o""en2e against any one 2o((itting t)e o""en2e in
)is !ie9 9)o( )e reasona3ly suse2t to )a!e 2o((itted t)e
o""en2e&
2D T)e 2ri(inal 2ode and t)e 2ri(inal ro2edure la9 do not 3y t)eir
ro!isions 2on"ine 2o(lainant in rese2t o" t)e o""en2e o"
(urder to a arti2ular erson or ersons& Any erson 9)o )as
su""i2ient in"or(ation in )is ossession to esta3lis) t)e 2ri(e 2an
identi"y an a22used erson and is entitled to lay t)e 2)arge& T)e
2ourt t)ere"ore de2ided t)at t)e Aellant 9as e(inently
-uali"ied under t)e la9 to do so&
On t)e rin2ile o" lo2us standi t)e 2ourt 9as o" t)e "ollo9ing !ie9E
QCri(inal la9 is addressed to all 2lasses o" so2iety as t)e rule t)at t)ey
are 3ound to o3ey on ain o" unis)(ent to ensure order in t)e so2iety
and in 2ertain t)e ea2e"ul eAisten2e o" so2iety& T)e rules are
ro(ulgated 3y t)e reresentati!es o" t)e so2iety 9)o "or( t)e
go!ern(ent or t)e legislati!e ar( o" go!ern(ent "or t)e 3ene"it o" t)e
so2iety and t)e o9er to arrest and rose2ute any erson 9)o 3rea2)es
t)e rule is also 2on"erred on any erson in t)e so2iety in addition to t)e
Attorney6General and ot)er la9 o""i2ers "or t)e 3ene"it o" t)e so2iety&
T)e ea2e o" t)e so2iety is t)e resonsi3ility o" all ersons in t)e
2ountry and as "ar as rote2tion against 2ri(e is 2on2erned+ e!ery erson
in t)e so2iety is ea2) ot)ers 'eeer& Sin2e 9e are all 3rot)ers in t)e
so2iety+ 9e are our 3rot)erFs 'eeer& I" 9e ause a little and 2ast our
(inds to t)e )aenings in t)e 9orld+ t)e rationale "or t)is rule 9ill
3e2o(e aarent& T)ere )a!e 3een 2ases 9)ere 3rot)ers assault or 'ill
3rot)ers& T)ere are 2ases 9)ere a "at)er assaults or 'ills )is son and !i2e
!ersaE 9)ere a )us3and 'ills )is 9i"e and !i2e !ersa& I" 2onsanguinity or
3lood relations)i is allo9ed to 3e t)e only -uali"i2ation "or lo2us
standi+ t)en 2ri(es su2) as are listed a3o!e 9ill go ununis)ed and
anar2)y (ay 3e2o(e order o" t)e day&
T)is 2ase o" Eawehinmi 4 Ailu 3roug)t t)e li3eral aro!al into locus
standi in Nigeria as against t)e earlier restri2ti!e !ie9 oint t)is ti(e o"
reasoning 9as "ollo9ed in 2ase o" =eo &ansome 5uti P ors 4 A. 3.
Eederation Cunreorted& Suit no M/2=</;2D& T)e suit 9as an e""ort o"
se!eral Nigeria NGOs to 2)allenge t)e 2losure o" t)e Guardian
Ne9saers 3y t)e Bederal Go!ern(ent aut)orities as illegal+ and a
gross !iolation o" t)e 2onstitutional rig)ts to "reedo( o" eAression and
t)e ress& T)e go!ern(ent 2)allenged t)e suit on t)e ground o" t)e locus
.;2
standi o" t)e ali2ants& Hononu6Wasu o" t)e Hig) Court o" Lagos
State )eld t)at t)e lainti""s as 2on2erned 2itiHens )ad a rig)t to sue t)e
go!ern(ent in t)e (atter&
Identi"y t)e (ain di""eren2es 3et9een Restri2ti!e aroa2) and Li3eral
aroa2) to t)e interretation o" lo2us standi&
489 CONCLUSION
In t)is unit 9e )a!e learnt a3out t)e do2trine o" locus standi+ t)e attitude
o" t)e 2ourt in adoting di""erent tyes o" interretation& ?ou are no9 in
a osition to de"ine and eAlain 9)at locus standi is all a3out& Si(ilarly
you no9 )a!e a 2lear idea o" t)e 2urrent osition o" t)e interretation o"
locus standi 3y t)e 2ourts in Nigeria&
089 SUMMARY
We dis2ussed t)e do2trine o" lo2us standi and t)e 2aa2ity to institute
a2tions& We esta3lis)ed t)at lo2us standi is "o2used on t)e arty see'ing
to get )is 2o(laint 3e"ore t)e 2ourt not on t)e issues )e 9is)es to )a!e
adjudi2ated& T)e ter( denotes t)e legal 2aa2ity to institute ro2eeding
in a 2ourt o" la9&
.& W)at is t)e osition o" a (inor in instituting an a2tion in t)e La9
Court in Nigeria&
2& #Alain t)e ter( locus standi
@& $u3li2 interest litigation is a 9aste o" ti(e as t)e 2ourts are a
3arrier in t)is rese2t& Co((ent&
4& In (atters o" u3li2 interest only t)e Attorney6General 2an
litigate& Co((ent&
#se Male(i C2::0D& T)e Nigeria Constitutional La9& I'eja+ Lagos7
$rin2eton $u3lis)ing&
$&A& Oluyede and *& O& Ai)ie+ Cases and (aterials on 2onstitutional
La9 in Nigeria& I3adan7 Uni!ersity $ress $l2&
I3idao6O3e A'in+ #ssays on Hu(an Rig)ts La9 in Nigeria& Lagos7
Con2et $u3li2ations&
.;@
Ajo(o M& A& ,olaji and O9osanoye C.;;@D& Indi!idual Rig)ts Under
t)e .;=; Constitution Nigeria Institute o" Ad!an2ed Legal
Studies&
%ustus A& So'e"unE Issues in Constitutional La9 and $ra2ti2e in Nigeria
in Honour o" *r& Olu Onagoru9a& Ago6I9oye7 Ola3isi Ona3anjo
Uni!ersity&
.;4
MODULE 4 ENFORCEMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Unit . T)e Role and Bun2tions o" t)e National Co((ission on
Hu(an Rig)ts
Unit 2 T)e $u3li2 Co(lain Co((ission
Unit @ T)e Role and Bun2tion o" t)e A"ri2an Co((ission on
Hu(an and $eoles Rig)ts
UNIT . THE ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
NATIONAL COMMISSION ON HUMAN
RIGHTS
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. Hu(an Rig)ts in Nigeria
@&2 T)e Military *i(ension
@&@ Retroa2ti!e Legislation
@&4 Ouster Clauses
@&4 Legislati!e %udg(ent
@&0 $ro)i3ition o" Aeal
@&< National Hu(an Rig)t Co((ission&
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
Bunda(ental )u(an Rig)t )a!e 3een entren2)ed into t)e 2onstitution o"
Nigeria+ and it is an o""s)oot o" t)e #uroean 2on!ention o" )u(an
Rig)ts Ct)e 2on!ention "or t)e rote2tion o" Hu(an rig)t and
"unda(ental "reedo(s C.;4:D 9it) t)e addition o" so(e ro!isions
3orro9ed "ro( India&

289 O:;ECTIVES
eAlain t)e )istory o" )u(an rig)ts in Nigeria
t)e )istory o" 9illin's 2o((ission in Nigeria
t)e national )u(an rig)t 2o((ission&
.;4
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. Hu'#n R!,"t& !n N!,%r!#
T)e Willin's Co((ission set u in .;4= 3y t)e ,ritis) 2olonial
go!ern(ent to loo' into t)e de(ands o" t)e (inorities re2o((ended t)e
adotion o" so(e o" t)e nor(s o" t)e .;4= Uni!ersal *e2laration o"
Hu(an Rig)ts into t)e Nigerian 2onstitution as a ro2ess "or "ears
eAressed 3y (inority grous in t)e 2ountry t)ere no9 9ere adoted
and introdu2ed into 2)ater 4 o" t)e Indeenden2e 2onstitution o" .;0:
as "unda(ental rig)ts& T)ese 9ere su3se-uently entren2)ed in t)e .;0@+
.;<;+ .;=; and .;;; 2onstitutions o" t)e Bederal Reu3li2 o" Nigeria&
T)oug) Nigeria is a arty to (any )u(an rig)ts de2larations and
2o!enants+ 2ertain "unda(ental )u(an rig)ts arise under t)e (ilitary
rule ersisted generally until re2ently& Bor instan2e+ Nigeria is a arty to
t)e International Co!enant on Ci!il and $oliti2al Rig)ts CICC$RD and
t)e International Con!ention in an #2ono(i2+ So2ial and Cultural Rig)t
CIC#SCRD& It )as also signed and rati"ied t)e Rig)t o" t)e C)ild CCRCD
t)e 2on!ersation on t)e #li(ination o" "ir(s o" *is2ri(ination CC#R*D
t)e 2on!ention on t)e re!ention and unis)(ent o" geno2ide+ t)e
sla!ery 2on!ention o" .;20+ t)e 2on!ention and t)e rote2t relating to
t)e state o" re"uges in Nigeria is also a signatory to t)e 2on!ention
against Torture and ot)er 2ruel+ in)u(an and degrading treat(ent
(entor unis)(ent+ Nigerian eole are redisosed to t)e rese2t and
rote2tion o" )u(an rig)ts+ 3ut t)e long o!er9)el(ing resen2e o" t)e
(ilitary in go!ern(ent in t)e 2ountry 2onstrained t)e i(le(entation o"
)u(an rig)ts ro!isions&
In addition+ t)e so2ial relations o" rote2tion (ust not 3e o!erloo'ed in
our understanding o" rig)ts issues as t)is a""e2ts t)e organiHation o"
o9er in any arti2ular 2onteAt& In Nigeria+ t)e oliti2al e2ono(y o" oil
rodu2tion and distri3ution and its nuti"a"ied 2ontradi2tions+ ser!es as a
lo2us or eAlanation& In t)is 2onteAt+ t)e struggle "or reso(es 3e2o(es a
rin2ial "a2tor resonsi3le "or t)e negation o" rig)ts+ t)is is 3e2ause oil
or reso(es oliti2s in Nigeria )as a tenden2y+ to9ards 2entraliHation+
9)i2) do!etails in!a2a3ly into "eelings o" (arginaliHation or reression&
T)e Ogoni 2risis "or instan2e is a se2i"i2 2ase o" oil 2ontradi2tion in
Nigeria& In t)e struggle "or rote2tion o" rig)ts+ t)e 2i!il so2iety is
lanning in a 2onsolation relations)i 9it) t)e state and t)ose 9)o
reresent it&
/82 T"% M!$!t#r- D!'%n&!on to Hu'#n R!,"t& !n N!,%r!#
T)e ro2ess o" Hu(an Rig)ts a3use in Nigeria 2annot 3e eAa(ined
9it)out 3earing in (ind t)e role o" t)e (ilitary in oliti2al go!ern(ent
and t)e i(a2t o" t)is on )u(an rig)t issues& Sin2e t)e (ilitary
.;0
institution is 3asi2ally aut)oritarian and )ierar2)i2al in stru2ture+ it is not
suosing "or t)is to a""e2t t)e 9ay it relates to t)e so2iety in general&
As eAe2ted+ a 9)ole range o" )u(an rig)ts !iolations under (ilitary
regi(es "ollo9ed&
Hu(an rig)t a3uses t)roug) (ilitary regi(es 9ere t)roug) t)e
"ollo9ing7
.D Retroa2ti!e La9s
2D Ouster Clauses
@D Legislati!e %udg(ents and
4D $rodu2tion o" aeals&
/8/ R%tro#t!*!t-
O"ten de2rees 9)ere 3a2'dated to legiti(iHe illegalities or to (a'e
2ertain ersons 2ula3le "or se2i"i2 a2tions 9)i2) did not 2onstitute
o""en2es at t)e ti(e t)ey 9ere 2arried out& Su2) retroa2ti!e de2rees 9ere
designed to su2) a (anner t)at t)e P!i2ti(Q 2ould not es2ae
unis)(ent and t)e unis)(ents 9ere usually )ars)& Su2) retroa2ti!e
de2rees 9ere t)ere"ore used in t)e (ost )ar("ul 9ays 3ut 9ere intended
(ostly to ta'e a9ay rig)ts re!iously granted 3y 2ontra2t or u3li2
aoint(ent& T)e susension o" art i! CHu(an Rig)tsD in t)e .;<;
Constitution (ade t)e use o" retroa2ti!e de2rees ossi3le and redress
untena3le&
/84 Ou&t%r C$#u&%&
Ouster 2lauses 9)i2) )ad 3een t)e )all(ar' o" (ilitary regi(es li(ited
t)e regular 2ourts su3stantially in t)e adjudi2ation o" 2ases i" not
2o(letely eroding t)e o9ers o" t)e 2ourt&
/80 L%,!&$#t!*% ;ud,'%nt
T)ese 9ere de2rees ai(ed at se2i"i2 indi!iduals or situations or de2rees
to 2reate se2ial tri3unals "or t)e adjudi2ation o" se2i"i2 2ases& T)ese
de2rees )ad 3een in eAisten2e sin2e .;=@+ and one o" t)e( 9as later to
ser!e as a 3asis "or t)e eAe2ution o" 5enule Saro6Wi9a& T)ese de2rees
are 2learly unsurations o" judi2ial o9ers 9)i2) transgressed t)e
3oundaries o" t)e rin2ile o" searations o" o9ers&
/8@ Pro"!(!t!on o2 ;ud!!#$ A77%#$&
Usually de2rees setting u (ilitary tri3unals did not ro!ide "or aeal
to regular 2ourts& On so(e o22asions+ aeal 9as ossi3le to t)e
eAe2uti!e o9er& T)is 9as in dire2t 2ontra!ention o" arti2le .4C4D o" t)e
.;<
ICC$R 9)i2) states t)at Pe!eryone )as t)e rig)t to )is o9n 2on!i2tion
and senten2e 3eing re!ie9ed or aealled 3y a )ig)er 2ourt s)all
ro!ide a t)oroug) and i(artial re!ie9 o" t)e "a2ts o" t)e 2ase 9it)in a
reasona3le eriod o" ti(e& Ho9e!er+ 2o(lian2e 9it) international
standardsVHu(an Rig)ts Regi(e+ t)e A"ri2an C)arter on Hu(an and
eole rig)ts and do(esti2 i(le(entation o" international )u(an rig)ts
really 9as (ore su3ordinate to national se2urity and nation V3uilding as
de"ined 3y (ilitary rulers& Indeed+ (ilitary rule is an a3erration 9)i2)
"alls s)ort o" t)e eAe2tation o" t)e 3asis "or t)e eAer2ise+ and rote2tion
o" )u(an rig)ts&
Military rule is an a3erration and against t)e eAer2ise and rote2tion o"
)u(an rig)ts& *is2uss&
/8A N#t!on#$ Hu'#n R!,"t& Co''!&&!on o2 N!,%r!#
T)e National Hu(an Rig)ts Co((ission 9as esta3lis)ed 3y *e2ree 22
o" .;;4 3y a (ilitary regi(e&
T)e 2o((ission 3asi2ally )as t)e (andate Pto (onitor and in!estigate
all alleged 2ases o" )u(an rig)ts !iolations in Nigeria and (a'e
aroriate re2o((endations to t)e Bederal Military Go!ern(ent&
T)e 2o((ission is also to assist !i2ti(s o" )u(an rig)ts !iolations and
see' aroriate redress and re(edies on t)eir 3e)al"& T)ese in2lude
t)ose allegations against go!ern(ent& Sin2e t)e 2o((issions 2ardinal
"un2tion is to rote2t )u(an rig)ts+ it is re-uired to "a2ilitate eAtra
judi2ial re2ognition+ ro(otion and rote2tion o" all rig)ts and all
(atters relating to t)e rote2tion o" )u(an rig)ts as guaranteed 3y t)e
2onstitution&
T)e General A3u3a'ar ad(inistration in Nigeria en)an2ed t)e
autono(y o" t)e National Hu(an Rig)ts Co((ission 3y allo9ing it to
eAer2ise its indeenden2e in 2o(lian2e 9it) a22eta3le international
standards& Sin2e in2etion+ t)e 2o((ission )as (aed out a
2o(re)ensi!e lan o" a2tion "or t)e ro(otion o" )u(an rig)ts+
t)roug) 9or's)os+ se(inars+ and training rogra(s "or tea2)ers+ rison
o""i2ers+ judges and rele!ant go!ern(ent institutions& I" not only see's
to enlig)ten t)e 2i!il so2iety on )u(an rig)t issues+ 3ut also see's to
eAtend its )u(an rig)ts a9areness 2a(aign to t)e su36region le!el&
T)roug) relati!ely ne9+ t)e 2o((ission )as (ade tre(endous and
dyna(i2 i(a2t in t)e Nigeria so2iety& It )as also (ade se2i"i2
re2o((endations to t)e Bederal Go!ern(ent 3ased on areas o" )u(an
rig)ts 2on2ern su2) as su3(issions on rison re"or(s and de2ongestions
.;=
a"ter sur!eys& T)is )as yielded t)e (u2) designed desired di!idends in
rison de2ongestion in Nigeria&
489 CONCLUSION
In t)is unit you )a!e learnt a3out t)e national Hu(an Rig)t Co((ission
and its "un2tion&
089 SUMMARY
T)e toi2 t)e Role and Bun2tion o" t)e National Co((ission on Hu(an
Rig)ts )as 3een dealt 9it) in t)is unit 2o(re)ensi!ely&
.D State t)e "un2tions o" t)e National Hu(an Rig)ts Co((ission
2D Military rule negates t)e eAer2ise and rote2tion o" Hu(an
Rig)ts *is2uss&
Hu(an Rig)ts as a Uni!ersal Con2ern7 Nigerian Institute o"
International A""airs&
Ade(ola ?a'u3u7 C2::4D& Legal T)oug)t+ #ssays in Honour o" $ro"&
Iluyo(ade $u3lis)ed 3y *e(aAy La9 ,oo's&
.;;
UNIT 2 THE PU:LIC COMPLAINT COMMISSION
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. *e"inition o" O(3uds(an
@&2 Reason "or #sta3lis)ing O(3uds(an
@&@ Area o" Con2ern o" O(3uds(an
@&4 T)e Bun2tion o" an #""e2ti!e O(3uds(an
@&4 T)e Met)ods o" Ma'ing a Co(lain
@&0 T)e u3li2 Co(lain Co((ission
@&< T)e $rose2utes and *uties o" t)e Co((ission
@&= Li(it o" t)e $ro!isions o" t)e Co((ission
@&; O""en2es and $enalties
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
An o(3uds(an is an indeendent and non6artisan u3li2 agen2y t)at
re2ei!es and in!estigates 2o(lains "ro( (e(3ers o" t)e u3li2 and
(a'es 2onta2ts 9it) t)e alleged 9rongdoer to ea2e"ully resol!e and
o3tain re(edy "or t)e 2o(lainant& An o(3uds(an re(edy syste( is a
tye o" ar3itration and is an alternati!e to 2ourt a2tion in aroriate
instan2es t)at ad(its it& T)us+ an o(3uds(an is an o""i2ial 3ody to
9)i2) eole (ay 2o(e 9it) grie!an2es against go!ern(ent+
ad(inistrati!e aut)orities+ ri!ate erson or 3odies&
289 O:;ECTIVES
des2ri3e t)e essen2e o" t)e o(3uds(an
list t)e "un2tions o" t)e o(3uds(an
identi"y+ t)e o9ers+ duties and t)e (et)od o" (a'ing a
2o(laint to t)e o(3uds(an&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. W"o !& #n O'(ud&'#nD
T)e o(3uds(an is a 3ody 9)i2) gi!es 2itiHens sa"eguards against
(alad(inistration 3y in!estigating and ursuing general 2lai(s o" an
2::
aggrie!ed arty 9it) t)e rele!ant u3li2 or ad(inistrati!e aut)ority+
3ody or erson+ 9)et)er it is a u3li2 or ri!ate 3ody 9it) a !ie9 to
"inding solutions to t)e issues raised& T)e $u3li2 Co(laints
Co((ission is t)e o""i2ial o(3uds(an in Nigeria&
/82 T"% R%#&on& 2or E&t#($!&"!n, #n O'(ud&'#n
T)e o(3uds(an or $u3li2 Co(laint Co((ission re(edy syste( )as
3een ne2essitated 9orld9ide 3y a nu(3er o" reasons& T)ese in2lude t)e
"ollo9ing7
.D T)e need to (a'e ersons aggrie!ed 3y o""i2ial 2ondu2t to 'no9
t)at so(eone 2ares&
2D Inade-ua2ies o" t)e re(edies ut in la2e 3y t)e legislature+ t)e
eAe2uti!e and t)e judi2iary&
@D A3use o" o9er 3y u3li2 aut)orities and ri!ate 3odies and t)e
inade-uate 2ontrol o" t)ese 3odies&
4D Inade-ua2ies o" a!oida3le internal ad(inistrati!e re(edy syste(
or 2)e2' de!i2es to )andle and justly deal 9it) 2o(lains o"
aggrie!ed arties&
4D A3sen2e o" se2ialiHed or s(all 2lai(s 2ourt syste(s 9)ere
(inor 2lai(s and relati!ely less signi"i2ant issues and grie!an2es+
2an 3e )eard and ti(eously deter(ined 3et9een arties+ 9it)in a
"e9 (inutes or 9it)in a day et2& in an at(os)ere t)at is de!oid
o" (any o" t)e "or(alities o" a regular 2ourt&
0D Litigation is o"ten slo9+ 2u(3erso(e+ 2o(leA+ 2ostly and
"rig)tening to t)e a!erage erson&
<D La2' o" desire or "inan2ial ina3ility o" a arty to underta'e t)e
e""ort and eAense o" legal rose2ution o" a (atter in 2ourt&
=D La2' o" interest on t)e art o" t)e aggrie!ed arty in t)e
aortion(ent o" 3la(e and san2tion o" t)e ersons against
9)o( )e )as a grie!an2e and t)e desire rat)er to get t)e issue
straig)tened out -ui2'ly 9it)out undue u3li2ity&
;D T)e need to ensure t)e "ull rote2tion o" t)e 2i!il rig)ts and
li3erties o" t)e eole&
.:D O(3uds(an re(edy a""ords a 2)eaer and relati!ely easier
(et)od o" getting issues sorted out on 3ot) sides 9it)out t)e
eAenses and 3itterness 9)i2) legal ro2eeding (ay engender&
/8/ Ar%#& o2 Con%rn o2 #n O'(ud&'#n
T)e duty o" an o(3uds(anFs to loo' into issues o" re"usal+ negle2t+
a2tion (otion+ oression+ unreasona3le 3e)a!ior+ (alad(inistration+ or
injusti2e in a go!ern(ent deart(ent+ or agen2y or in t)e la9s o" u3li2
o""i2ers+ ri!ate 2o(any or ot)er ersons& As an indeendent 3ody it is
e(o9ered to in!estigate 2o(laints and ensure i(artial re!ie9 o" t)e
2:.
ad(inistrati!e de2isions or a2tions 9)i2) aear unjust and t)ere3y
ensure relie" or rote2tion "or an aggrie!ed arty "ro( any injusti2e
arising "ro( a3use o" o9erE negle2t o" duty or error o" judg(ent& On
t)e art o" t)e eole in aut)ority+ or erson in a suerior osition& ,y
t)e 9ide nature o" its area o" 2on2ern al(ost any 'ind o" 2o(laint 2an
3e 3roug)t to t)e o(3uds(an&
State t)e reasons "or t)e atta2)(ent o" an o(3uds(an&
/84 T"% F#tor& 2or #n E22%t!*% O'(ud&'#n
So(e o" t)e "a2tors t)at 9ill ena3le an o(3uds(an re(edy syste( to
9or' e""i2iently and e""e2ti!ely are7
4D In ter(s o" ersonality and 2)ara2ter+ t)e sta"" o" t)e o(3uds(an
(ust 3e ersons o" good reutation and integrity+ )onest+ sin2ere+
and si(le ersons 9)o (ust 3e ready to dis2)arge t)eir duties
9it) ut(ost diligen2e and i(artiality&
4D T)e 2o((ission s)ould 3e indeendent and 3e gi!en su""i2ient
o9ers to dis2)arge its "un2tions&
0D It s)ould )a!e a22ess to any do2u(ent or su2) ot)er e!iden2e t)at
is rele!ant to )is en-uiry+ re-uire any one to gi!e oral or 9ritten
e!iden2e 3e"ore )i( an o(3uds(an )as t)e se(3lan2e o" a
judge+ 3ut does not usually a2t as su2)&
<D $ro!ision o" ade-uate "a2ilities "or t)e dis2)arge o" t)eir duties&
=D $ro!ision o" good re(uneration t)at t)e ersonal 9ould 3e less
sus2eti3le to 2orrut in"luen2e&
;D Se2urity o" o""i2e during t)eir tenure o" o""i2e+ eA2et 9)ere a
ersonnel is "ound to 3e ot)er9ise un"it "or )is o""i2e&
#Alain t)e ter( o(3uds(an&
/80 T"% M%t"od& o2 M#+!n, # Co'7$#!n
T)e (anner o" lodging a 2o(laint 9it) t)e 2o((ission (ay 3e
deter(ined 3y t)e 2)ie" 2o((issioner& Ho9e!er+ in ra2ti2e+ 2o(laints
are usually (ade 3y t)e 2o(lainant t)roug)E
iD Oral reort
iiD *eli!ery o" reort 3y )ard
iiiD *eli!ery o" reort 3y ost
i!D Trans(ission o" reort 3y ot)er (eans o" 2o((uni2ation su2) as
tele)one&
2:2
T)is u3li2 2o(lains 2o((ission )as o9er to litigate 2o(laints
against u3li2 aut)orities and ri!ate 3odies and indi!iduals&
/8@ T"% Pu($! Co'7$#!nt Co''!&&!on
T)e $u3li2 Co(laint Co((ission A2t+ 2a $@< 2::4 is an art to
esta3lis) t)e $u3li2 Co(lain Co((ission 9it) 9ide o9ers to in-uire
into 2o(laints 3y (e(3ers o" t)e u3li2 2on2erning t)e ad(inistrati!e
a2tions o" any u3li2 aut)ority+ 2o(any or 3ody or ot)er o""i2ials&
Se2tion .CiD o" t)e A2t ro!ides "or t)e esta3lis)(ent o" t)e $u3li2
Co(laints Co((ission 9)i2) )as a C)ie" Co((issioner as it )ead and
su2) nu(3er o" 2o((issioners as t)e National Asse(3ly+ (ay "ro(
ti(e to ti(e deter(ine& Under se2tion .C2D t)e 2o((ission (ay
esta3lis) su2) nu(3er o" 3ran2)es o" t)e 2o((ission in t)e states o" t)e
Bederation as t)e National Asse(3ly (ay "ro( ti(e to ti(e deter(ine&
/8A T"% Po3%r& #nd Dut!%& o2 t"% Co''!&&!on
Under se2tion 4CiD o" t)e A2t all 2o((issioners s)all 3e resonsi3le to
t)e National Asse(3ly 3ut t)e C)ie" Co((issioner s)all 3e resonsi3le
"or 2o62oordinating t)e 9or' o" all ot)er 2o((issioners&
,y !irtue o" se2tion 4C2D+ a 2o((issioner s)all )a!e o9er to
in!estigate eit)er on )is o9n initiati!e or "ollo9ing 2o(laints lodged
3e"ore )i( 3y any ot)er erson any ad(inistrati!e a2tion ta'en 3y7
aD Any deart(ent or (inistry o" t)e "ederal or any state
go!ern(ent&
3D Any deart(ent o" any lo2al go!ern(ent aut)ority set u 3y any
state in t)e "ederations&
2D Any statutory 2ororation or u3li2 institution set u 3y any
go!ern(ent in Nigeria&
dD Any 2o(any in2ororated under or ursuant to t)e Co(anies
and Allied Matter A2t&
eD Any o""i2er or ser!ant o" any o" t)e a"ore6(entioned 3odies&
Under se2tion 4C@D "or t)e uroses o" t)e A2t7
jD T)e C)ie" Co((issioner (ay deter(ine t)e (anner 3y 9)i2)
2o(laint are to 3e lodged&
'D Any 2o((issioner (ay de2ide in )is a3solute dis2retion 9)et)er+
and i" so+ in 9)at (anner )e s)ould noti"y t)e u3li2 o" )is
a2tion+ or intended a2tion in any arti2ular 2ase&
lD Any 2o((issioner s)all )a!e a22ess to all in"or(ation ne2essary
"or t)e e""i2ient er"or(an2e o" )is duties under t)is A2t and "or
2:@
t)is urose (ay !isit and inse2t any re(ises 3elonging to any
erson or 3ody (entioned in su3se2tion C2D&
(D #!ery 2o((issioner s)all ensure t)at ad(inistrati!e a2tion 3y
any erson or 3ody (otioned in su3se2tion C2D does not result in
t)e 2o((it(ent o" any a2t o" injusti2e against any 2itiHen o"
Nigeria in any ot)er erson resident in Nigeria+ and "or t)at
urose )e s)all in!estigate 9it) se2ial 2are ad(inistrati!e a2t
9)i2) are or aear to 3e7
i& Contrary to any la9 or regulations&
ii& Mista'en in la9 or ar3itrary in as2ertain(ent o" "a2t&
iii& Unreasona3le+ un"air oressi!e+ or in2onsistent 9it) t)e general
"un2tions o" ad(inistrati!e organs&
i!& I(roer in (oti!ation or 3ased on irrele!ant 2onsideration
!& Un2lear or inade-uately eAlained&
!i& Ot)er9ise o3je2tiona3le&
nD A 2o((issioner s)all 3e 2o(etent to in!estigate ad(inistrati!e
ro2edure o" any 2ourt o" la9 in Nigeria&
oD W)ere 2on2urrent 2o(laints are lodged 9it) (ore t)an one
2o((issioner t)e 2)ie" 2o((issioner+ s)all de2ide 9)i2)
2o((ission s)all deal 9it) t)e (atter&
D T)e 2o((issioner s)all not 3e su3je2t to 2ontrol o" any erson in
t)e eAer2ise o" )is duties&
/8B L!'!t& o2 t"% Po3%r& o2 t"% Co''!&&!on
Se2tion 0 o" t)e A2t li(its t)e o9ers o" t)e 2o((ission& ,y !irtue o"
se2tion 0C.D+ t)e 2o((ission s)all not in!estigate (atters&
aD t)at are 2learly outside t)eir ter(s o" re"eren2e
3D t)at is ending 3e"ore t)e National Asse(3ly
2D t)at is ending 3e"ore any 2ourt o" la9 in Nigeria&
dD t)at is related to anyt)ing done or urorted to 3e done in rese2t
o" any (e(3er o" t)e ar(ed "or2es&
eD in 9)i2) t)e 2o(lainant )as not in t)e oinion o" t)e
2o((issioner+ eA)austed all a!aila3le legal or ad(inistrati!e
re(edy&
/8C O22%n%& #nd P%n#$t!%&
Under se2tion =7
.D Any 2o(laint lodged 3e"ore t)e 2o((ission s)all not 3e (ade
u3li2 3y any erson eA2et a 2o((issioner and any erson 9)o
2ontra!enes t)e ro!ision o" t)is se2tion s)all 3e guilty o" any
2:4
o""en2e and s)all 3e lia3le on 2on!i2tion to a "ine o" N4:: or
i(rison(ent "or siA (ont)s or 3ot)&
2D Any erson 9)o 9ill"ully o3stru2ts inter"eres 9it) assault or
resists any 2o((issioner or any ot)er o""i2er or ser!ant o" t)e
2o((ission in t)e eAe2ution o" )is duty under t)is A2t+ or 9)o
aids+ indu2es or a3ets any ot)er erson to o3stru2t inter"ere 9it)+
or resist any su2) 2o((issioners+ o""i2ers or ser!ant s)all 3e
guilty o" an o""en2e and una3le on 2on!i2tion to a "ine o" N4:: or
i(rison(ent "or 0(ont)s or to 3ot) su2) "ine and
i(rison(ent&
489 CONCLUSION
In 2on2lusion 9e 2an say 2on2lusi!ely t)e "un2tion and o9ers o" t)e
$u3li2 Co(lain Co((ission&
089 SUMMARY
In t)is unit+ you learnt a3out t)e o(3uds(an and its "un2tion+ ro2ess
and t)e o""en2es and unis)(ent "or t)e !iolation o" t)e $u3li2
Co(laint Co((ission A2t&
.D Mention and eAlain t)e o9ers o" t)e o(3uds(an
2D W)at are t)e li(itations to t)e o9ers o" t)e o(3uds(anJ
@D W)at are t)e o""en2es 2reated under se2tion = o" t)e u3li2
2o(lain 2o((ission a2t&
4D W)at are t)e o9ers and duties o" t)e o(3uds(anJ&
$ro"& I& O& S(it)E C2::4D& La9 and *e!elo(ent in Nigeria& #COWAS7
$u3lis)ers Nig& CLtdD&
2:4
UNIT / THE ROLE AND FUNCTION OF THE
AFRICAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN AND
PEOPLES RIGHTS
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. *e"inition o" Ter(s
@&2 #sta3lis)(ent and OrganiHation o" t)e A"ri2an
Co((ission on Hu(an and $eole Rig)t
@&@ Mandate o" t)e Co((ission
@&4 $ro2edure o" t)e Co((ission
@&4 Ali2a3le $rin2iles
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
T)e A"ri2an 2)arter 9as adoted on .;=. 3y t)e organiHation o" A"ri2an
Unity COAUD+ re2onstituted as t)e A"ri2an Union CAUD& Nigeria rati"ied
t)e 2)arter in 22 %une .;=@ and su3se-uently trans"or(ed it into
do(esti2 la9 ursuant to t)e Rati"i2ation and #n"or2e(ent A2t&
289 O:;ECTIVES
,y t)e end o" t)is unit+ you s)ould 3e a3le to7

eAlain t)e reasons "or t)e esta3lis)(ent o" t)e A"ri2an
Co((ission on Hu(an Rig)ts
eAlain t)eir "un2tions and (andate&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. D%2!n!t!on o2 T%r'&
T)e A"ri2an 2)arter 9as t)e "irst (ajor 2olle2ti!e e""ort "or9ards ta'ing
)u(an rig)t seriously in A"ri2a& It 9as t)e "irst signi"i2ant atte(t 3y
A"ri2an states to de"eat t)e e""orts 3y !otaries o" so!ereignty and t)e
do(ain reser!e to a3use o" )u(an rig)t 3y state o""i2ials t)roug) t)e
argu(ent t)at )o9 a state treats its national 9as its eA2lusi!e 3usiness&
T)e 2)arter guarantees 2i!il any oliti2al rig)ts+ e2ono(i2+ so2ial and
2:0
2ultural rig)ts as 9ill as grou or eoles rig)ts& It guarantees to e!ery
2itiHen t)e rig)t to arti2iate "reely in t)e go!ern(ent o" )is 2ountry+
eit)er dire2tly or t)roug) "reely 2)osen reresentati!es in a22ordan2e
9it) t)e ro!ision o" t)e la9&
T)e A"ri2an Co((ission on Hu(an and $eoles Rig)ts CA"ri2an
Co((issionD t)e only eAisting regional (e2)anis( "or t)e
i(le(entation o" t)e A"ri2an C)arter&
/82 M%#&ur%& o2 S#2%,u#rd
#sta3lis)(ent and organiHation o" t)e A"ri2an Co((ission on Hu(an
and $eole Rig)ts&
P#rt II L MEASURES OF SAFEGUARD
C"#7t%r .- E&t#($!&"'%nt #nd Or,#n!&#!ton o2 t"% A2r!#n
Co''!&&!on on Hu'#n #nd P%o7$% R!,"t&8
Art!$% /9
An A"ri2an Co((ission on Hu(an and $eolesF Rig)ts+ )ereina"ter
2alled Pt)e Co((issionQ+ s)all 3e esta3lis)ed 9it)in t)e OrganiHation o"
A"ri2an Unity to ro(ote )u(an and eolesF rig)ts and ensure t)eir
rote2tion in A"ri2a&
Art!$% /.
.D T)e Co((ission s)all 2onsist o" ele!en (e(3ers 2)osen "or(
a(ongst A"ri2an ersonalities o" )is )ig)est reutation+ 'no9n
"or t)eir )ig) (orality& Integrity+ i(artiality and 2o(eten2e in
(aters o" )u(an and eoles rig)tE arti2ular 2onsideration 3eing
gi!en to ersons )a!ing legal eAerien2e&
2D T)e (e(3ers o" t)e Co((ission s)all ser!e in t)eir ersonal
2aa2ity&
Art!$% /2
T)e Co((ission s)all not in2lude (ore t)an one national o" t)e sa(e
State&
Art!$% //
T)e (e(3ers o" t)e Co((ission s)all 3e ele2ted 3y se2ret 3allot 3y t)e
Asse(3ly o" Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent+ "ro( a list o" ersons
no(inated 3y t)e States arties to t)e resent C)arter&
2:<
Art!$% /4
#a2) State arty to t)e resent C)arter (ay not no(inate (ore t)an t9o
2andidates& T)e 2andidates (ust )a!e t)e nationality o" one o" t)e States
arties to t)e resent 2)arter& W)en t9o 2andidates are no(inated 3y a
State+ one o" t)e( (ay not 3e a national o" t)at State&
Art!$% /0
.D T)e Se2retary General o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity s)all
in!ite States arties to t)e resent C)arter at least "our (ont)s
3e"ore t)e ele2tions to no(inate 2andidates&
2D T)e Se2retary General o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity s)all
(a'e an al)a3eti2al list o" t)e ersons t)us no(inated and
2o((uni2ate it to t)e Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent at least
one (ont) 3e"ore t)e ele2tions&
Art!$% /@
T)e (e(3ers o" t)e Co((ission s)all 3e ele2ted "or a siA year eriod
and s)all 3e eligi3le "or re6ele2tion& Ho9e!er+ t)e ter( o" o""i2e o" "our
o" t)e (e(3ers ele2ted at t)e "irst ele2tion s)all ter(inate a"ter to9
years and t)e ter( o" o""i2e o" t)ree ot)ers+ at t)e end o" "our years&
Art!$% /A
I((ediately a"ter t)e "irst ele2tion+ t)e C)air(an o" t)e Asse(3ly o"
Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity
s)all dra9 lots to de2ide t)e na(es o" t)ose (e(3ers re"erred to in
Arti2le @0&
Art!$% /B
A"ter t)eir sele2tion+ t)e (e(3ers o" t)e Co((ission s)all (a'e a
sole(n de2laration to dis2)arge t)eir duties i(artially and "ait)"ully&
Art!$% /C
<& In 2ase o" deat) or resignation o" a (e(3er o" t)e Co((ission
t)e C)air(an o" t)e Co((ission s)all i((ediately in"or( t)e
Se2retary General o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity+ 9)o
s)all de2lare t)e seat !a2ant "ro( t)e date o" deat) or "ro( t)e
date on 9)i2) t)e resignation ta'es e""e2t&
=& i"+ in t)e unani(ous oinion o" ot)er (e(3ers o" t)e
Co((ission+ a (e(3er )as stoed dis2)arging )is duties "or
any reason ot)er t)an a te(orary a3sen2e+ t)e C)air(an o" t)e
2:=
Co((ission s)all in"or( t)e Se2retary General o" t)e
OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity+ 9)o s)all t)en de2lare t)e seat
!a2ant&
;& In ea2) o" t)e 2ases anti2iated a3o!e+ t)e Asse(3ly o" Heads o"
State and Go!ern(ent s)all rela2e t)e (e(3er 9)ose seat
3e2a(e !a2ant "or t)e re(aining eriod o" )is ter( unless t)e
eriod is less t)an siA (ont)s&
Art!$% 49
#!ery (e(3er o" t)e Co((ission s)all 3e in o""i2e until t)e date )is
su22essor assu(es o""i2e&
Art!$% 4.
T)e Se2retary General o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity s)all
aoint t)e Se2retary o" t)e Co((ission& He s)all ro!ide t)e sta"" and
ser!i2es ne2essary "or t)e e""e2ti!e dis2)arge o" t)e duties o" t)e
Co((ission& T)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity s)all 3ear 2ost o" t)e
sta"" and ser!i2es&
Art!$% 42
;& T)e Co((ission s)all ele2t its C)air(an and 1i2e 2)air(an "or
a t9o6year eriod& T)ey s)all 3e eligi3le "or re6ele2tion&
.:& T)e Co((ission s)all lay do9n its rules o" ro2edure&
..& Se!en (e(3ers s)all "or( t)e -uoru(&
.2& In 2ase o" an e-uality o" !otes+ t)e C)air(an s)all )a!e a 2asting
!ote&
.@& T)e Se2retary General (ay attend t)e (eetings o" t)e
Co((ission& He s)all neit)er arti2iate in deli3erations nor
s)all )e 3e entitled to !ote& T)e C)air(an o" t)e Co((ission
(ay )o9e!er+ in!ite )i( to sea'&
Art!$% 4/
In dis2)arging t)eir duties+ (e(3ers o" t)e Co((ission s)all enjoy
dilo(ati2 ri!ileges and i((unities ro!ided "or in t)e General
Con!ention on t)e $ri!ileges and I((unities o" t)e OrganiHation o"
A"ri2an Unity&
Art!$% 44
$ro!ision s)all 3e (ade "or t)e e(olu(ents and allo9an2es o" t)e
(e(3ers o" t)e Co((ission in t)e Regular ,udget o" t)e OrganiHation
o" A"ri2an Unity&
2:;
C"#7t%r II- MANDATE OF THE COMMISSION
Art!$% 40
T)e "un2tions o" t)e Co((ission s)all 3e7
.@& To ro(ote Hu(an and $eolesF Rig)ts and in arti2ular&
aD To 2olle2t do2u(entsE underta'e studies and resear2)es on A"ri2an
ro3le(s in t)e "ield o" )u(an and eolesF rig)ts+ organiHe
se(inars+ sy(osia and 2on"eren2es+ disse(inate in"or(ation+
en2ourage national and lo2al institutions 2on2erned 9it) )u(an and
eolesF rig)ts+ and s)ould t)e 2ase arise+ gi!e its !ie9s or (a'e
re2o((endations to Go!ern(ents&
3D To "or(ulate and lay do9n+ rin2iles and rules ai(ed at sol!ing
legal ro3le(s relating to )u(an and eolesF rig)ts and
"unda(ental "reedo(s uon 9)i2) A"ri2an Go!ern(ents (ay 3ase
t)eir legislation&
2D Co6oerate 9it) ot)er A"ri2an and international institutions
2on2erned 9it) t)e ro(otion and rote2tion o" )u(an and eoles
Rig)ts&
.4& #nsure t)e rote2tion o" )u(an and eolesF rig)ts under
2onditions laid do9n 3y t)e resent C)arter&
.4& Interret all t)e ro!isions o" t)e resent 2)arter at t)e re-uest o"
a State $arty+ an institution o" t)e OAU or an A"ri2an
OrganiHation re2ogniHed 3y t)e OAU&
.0& $er"or( any ot)er tas's 9)i2) (ay 3e entrusted to it 3y t)e
Asse(3ly o" Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent&
C"#7t%r III- PROCEDURE OF THE COMMISSION
Art!$% 4@
T)e Co((ission (ay resort to any aroriate (et)od o" in!estigation+
it (ay 3ear "or( t)e se2retary General o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an
Unity or any ot)er erson 2aa3le o" enlig)tening it&
Art!$% 4A
I" a state arty to t)e resent C)arter )as good reasons to 3elie!e t)at
anot)er State $arty to t)is C)arter )as !iolated t)e ro!isions o" t)e
C)arter+ it (ay dra9+ 3y 9ritten 2o((uni2ation+ t)e attention o" t)at
State to t)e (atter& T)is 2o((uni2ation s)all also 3e addressed to t)e
Se2retary General o" t)e OAU and to t)e C)air(an o" t)e Co((ission&
Wit)in t)ree (ont)s o" t)e re2eit o" t)e 2o((uni2ation& T)e State to
2.:
9)i2) t)e 2o((uni2ation is addressed s)all gi!e t)e en-uiring State+
9ritten eAlanation or state(ent elu2idating t)e (atter& T)is s)ould
in2lude as (u2) as ossi3le rele!ant in"or(ation relating to t)e la9s and
rules o" ro2edure alied and ali2a3le and t)e redress already gi!en
or 2ourse o" a2tion a!aila3le&
Art!$% 4B
I" 9it)in t)ree (ont)s "or( t)e date on 9)i2) t)e original
2o((uni2ation is re2ei!ed 3y t)e State to 9)i2) it is addressed+ t)e
issue is not settled to t)e satis"a2tion o" t9o States in!ol!ed t)roug)
3ilateral negotiation or 3y any ot)er ea2e"ul ro2edure+ eit)er State
s)all )a!e t)e rig)t to su3(it t)e (atter to t)e Co((ission t)roug) t)e
C)air(an and s)all noti"y t)e ot)er States in!ol!ed&
Art!$% 4C
Not9it)standing t)e ro!isions o" Arti2le 4<+ i" a State arty to t)e
resent 2)arter 2onsiders t)at anot)er State arty )as !iolated t)e
ro!isions o" t)e C)arter+ it (ay re"er t)e (atter dire2tly to t)e
2o((ission 3y addressing a 2o((uni2ation to t)e C)air(an+ to t)e
Se2retary General o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity and t)e State
2on2erned&
Art!$% 09
T)e Co((ission 2an only deal 9it) a (atter su3(itted to it a"ter
(a'ing sure t)at all lo2al re(edies+ i" t)ey eAist+ )a!e 3een eA)austed+
unless it is o3!ious to t)e Co((ission t)at t)e ro2edure o" a2)ie!ing
t)ese re(edies 9ould 3e unduly rolonged&
Art!$% 0.
.& T)e Co((ission (ay as' t)e States 2on2erned to ro!ide it 9it)
all rele!ant in"or(ation&
2& W)en t)e Co((ission is 2onsidering t)e (atter+ States
2on2erned (ay 3e reresented 3e"ore it and su3(it 9ritten or oral
reresentation&
Art!$% 02
A"ter )a!ing o3tained "or( t)e states 2on2erned and "ro( ot)er sour2es
all t)e in"or(ation it dee(s ne2essary and a"ter )a!ing tried all
aroriate (eans to rea2) an a(i2a3le solution 3ased on t)e rese2t o"
)u(an and eoles rig)ts+ t)e 2o((ission s)all reare+ 9it)in a
reasona3le eriod o" ti(e "ro( t)e noti"i2ation re"erred to in Arit2le4=+ a
2..
reort stating t)e "a2ts and its "indings& T)is reort s)all 3e sent to t)e
States 2on2erned and 2o((uni2ated to t)e Asse(3ly o" Heads o" States
and Go!ern(ent&
Art!$% 0/
W)ile trans(itting its reort+ t)e Co((ission (ay (a'e to t)e
Asse(3ly o" Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent su2) re2o((endations as
it dee(s use"ul&
Art!$% 04
T)e Co((ission s)all su3(it to ea2) ordinary Session o" t)e Asse(3ly
o" Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent a reort on its a2ti!ities&
Art!$% 00
.& ,e"ore ea2) Session+ t)e Se2retary o" t)e Co((ission s)all (a'e
a list o" t)e Co((uni2ations ot)er t)an t)ose o" States arties to
t)e resent 2)arter and trans(it t)e( to t)e (e(3ers o" t)e
Co((ission+ 9)o s)all indi2ate 9)i2) 2o((uni2ations s)ould
3e 2onsidered 3y t)e Co((ission&
2& A 2o((uni2ation s)all 3e 2onsidered 3y t)e Co((ission i" a
si(le (ajority o" its (e(3ers so de2ide&
Art!$% 0@
Co((uni2ations relating to )u(an and eoleFs rig)ts re"erred to in
Arti2le 44 re2ei!ed 3y t)e Co((ission+ s)all 3e 2onsidered it t)ey&
.& Indi2ate t)eir aut)ors e!en i" t)e latter re-uest anony(ity+
2& Are 2o(ati3le 9it) t)e C)arter o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an
Unity or 9it) t)e resent C)arter&
@& Are not 9ritten in disaraging or insulting language dire2ted
against t)e State 2on2erned and its institutions or to t)e
organiHation o" A"ri2an Unity&
4& Are not 3ased eA2lusi!ely on ne9s disse(inated t)roug) t)e
(ass (edia&
4& Are sent a"ter eA)austing lo2al re(edies+ i" any unless it is
o3!ious t)at t)is ro2edure is unduly rolonged&
0& Are su3(itted 9it)in a reasona3le eriod "ro( t)e ti(e lo2al
re(edies are eA)austed or "ro( t)e date t)e Co((ission is
seiHed 9it) t)e (atter and
<& *o not deal 9it) 2ases 9)i2) )a!e 3een settled 3y t)e states
in!ol!ed in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e rin2iles o" t)e C)arter o" t)e
2.2
United Nations+ or t)e C)arter o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an
Unity or t)e ro!isions o" t)e resent C)arter&
Art!$% 0A
$rior to any su3stanti!e 2onsideration all 2o((uni2ations s)all 3e
3roug)t to t)e 'no9ledge o" t)e State 2on2erned 3y t)e 2)air(an o" t)e
Co((ission&
Art!$% 0B
.& W)en it aears a"ter deli3erations o" t)e Co((ission t)at one or
(ore 2o((uni2ations aarently relate to se2ial 2ases 9)i2)
re!eal t)e eAisten2e o" a series o" serious or (assi!e !iolations o"
)u(an and eolesF rig)ts+ t)e Co((ission s)all dra9 t)e
attention o" t)e asse(3ly o" Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent to
t)ese se2ial 2ases&
2& T)e Asse(3ly o" Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent (ay t)en
re-uest t)e Co((ission to underta'e an in6det) study o" t)ese
2ases and (a'e a "a2tual reort+ a22o(anied 3y its "inding and
re2o((endations&
@& A 2ase o" e(ergen2y duly noti2ed 3y t)e Co((ission s)all 3e
su3(itted 3y t)e latter to t)e C)air(an o" t)e Asse(3ly o" Heads
o" State and Go!ern(ent 9)o (ay re-uest an in6det) study&
Art!$% 0C
.& All (easures ta'en 9it)in )e ro!isions o" t)e resent C)ater
s)all re(ain 2on"idential until su2) a ti(e as t)e Asse(3ly o"
Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent s)all ot)er9ise de2ide&
2& Ho9e!er+ t)e reort s)all 3e u3lis)ed 3y t)e C)air(an o" t)e
Co((ission uon t)e de2ision o" t)e Asse(3ly o" Heads o" State
and Go!ern(ent&
@& T)e reort on t)e a2ti!ities o" t)e 2o((ission s)all 3e u3lis)ed
3y its 2)air(an a"ter it )as 3een 2onsidered 3y t)e Asse(3ly o"
Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent&
C"#7t%r IV- APPLICA:LE PRINCIPLES
Art!$% @9
T)e Co((ission s)all dra9 insiration "ro( international la9 on
)u(an and eoles rig)ts+ arti2ularly "ro( t)e ro!isions o" !arious
A"ri2an instru(ents on )u(an and eoleFs rig)ts+ t)e C)arter o" t)e
united Nations+ t)e 2)arter o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity+ t)e
Uni!ersal *e2laration o" Hu(an Rig)ts+ ot)er instru(ents adoted 3y
2.@
t)e United Nations and 3y A"ri2an 2ountries in t)e "ield o" )u(an and
eoles rig)ts as 9ell as "ro( t)e ro!isions o" !arious instru(ents
adoted 9it)in t)e Se2ialiHed Agen2ies o" t)e United Nations o" 9)i2)
t)e arties to t)e resent C)arter are (e(3ers&
Art!$% @.
T)e 2o((ission s)all also ta'e into 2onsideration+ as su3sidiary
(easures to deter(ine t)e rin2iles o" la9+ ot)er general or se2ial
international 2on!entions+ laying do9n rules eAressly re2ogniHed 3y
(e(3er states o" )i( OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity+ A"ri2an ra2ti2es
2onsistent 9it) international nor(s on )u(an and eolesF rig)ts+
2usto(s generally a22eted as la9+ general rin2iles o" la9 re2ogniHed
3y A"ri2an states as 9ell as legal re2edents and do2trine&
Art!$% @2
#a2) State arty s)all underta'e to su3(it e!ery t9o years "ro( t)e date
t)e resent C)arter 2o(es into "or2e+ a reort on t)e legislati!e or ot)er
(easures ta'en 9it) a !ie9 to gi!ing e""e2t to t)e rig)ts and "reedo(s
re2ogniHed and guaranteed 3y t)e resent 2)arter&
Art!$% @.
.& T)e resent C)arter s)all 3e oen to signature+ rati"i2ation or
ad)eren2e o" )e (e(3er states o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an
Unity&
2& T)e instru(ents o" rati"i2ation or ad)eren2e to e) resent C)arter
s)all 3e deosited 9it) t)e Se2retary General o" t)e OrganiHation
o" A"ri2an Unity&
@& T)e resent C)arter s)all 2o(e into "or2e t)ree (ont)s a"ter t)e
re2etion 3y t)e Se2retary General o" t)e instru(ents o"
rati"i2ation o" ad)eren2e o" a si(le (ajority o" t)e (e(3er
states o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity&
PART III- GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art!$% @/
.& A"ter t)e 2o(ing into "or2e o" t)e resent C)arter+ (e(3ers o"
t)e Co((ission s)all 3e ele2ted in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e rele!ant
Arti2les o" t)e resent C)arter&
2& T)e Se2retary General o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity s)all
2on!ener t)e "irst (eeting o" t)e Co((ission at )e Head-uarters
o" t)e OrganiHation 9it)in t)ree (ont)s o" t)e 2onstitution o" t)e
2.4
Co((ission& T)erea"ter+ t)e Co((ission s)all 3e 2on!ened 3y
its C)air(an 9)ene!er ne2essary 3ut at least on2e a year&
Art!$% @0
Bor ea2) o" t)e States t)at 9ill rati"y or ad)ere to t)e resent C)arter
a"ter its 2o(ing into "or2e+ t)e C)arter s)all ta'e e""e2t t)ree (ont)s
a"ter t)e date o" t)e deosit 3y t)at State o" its instru(ent o" rati"i2ation
or ad)eren2e&
Art!$% @@
Se2ial roto2ols or agree(ents (ay+ i" ne2essary+ sule(ent t)e
ro!isions o" t)e resent C)arter&
Art!$% @A
T)e Se2retary General o" t)e OrganiHation o" A"ri2an Unity s)all in"or(
(e(3er states o" t)e OrganiHation o" t)e deosit o" ea2) instru(ent o"
rati"i2ation or ad)eren2e&
Art!$% @B
T)e resent C)arter (ay 3e e(ended i" a state arty (a'es a 9ritten
re-uest to t)at e""e2t to t)e Se2retary General o" t)e OrganiHation o"
A"ri2an Unity& T)e Asse(3ly o" Heads o" State and Go!ern(ent (ay
only 2onsider t)e dra"t a(end(ent a"ter all t)e States arties )a!e 3een
duly in"or(ed o" it and t)e Co((ission )as gi!en its oinion on it at t)e
re-uest o" )e sonsoring State& T)e a(end(ent s)all 3e aro!ed 3y a
si(le (ajority o" t)e States arties& It s)all 2o(e into "or2e "or ea2)
State 9)i2) )as a22eted it in a a22ordan2e 9it) its 2onstitutional
ro2edure t)ree (ont)s a"ter t)e Se2retary General )as re2ei!ed noti2e
o" t)e a22etan2e&
489 CONCLUSION
Alt)oug) t)e e()asis )as 3een on legal and oliti2al instru(ent on t)e
)oriHon "or t)e de"ense o" )u(an rig)ts+ su2) instru(ent does not
oerate in a so2ial !a2uu(& It is t)e 9)ole 2ulture o" rese2t "or )u(an
rig)ts t)at (ust 3e rein"or2ed in A"ri2a& Hu(an rig)ts (ust not 3e ta'en
"or granted+ not only 3y Heads o" states 3ut also 3y e!ery 2itiHen& T)e
"irst ste in a2)ie!ing t)is 9ould 3e 3y edu2ating all 2itiHens on t)eir
rig)ts and )o9 to rote2t t)e(&
2.4
089 SUMMARY
In t)is unit you )a!e learnt a3out t)e A"ri2an Hu(an and $eoles Rig)ts
and t)e sa"e guard 3y esta3lis)ing t)e A"ri2an Co((ission on Hu(an
and $eoles Rig)ts+ t)e (andate o" t)e 2o((ission and t)e ro2edure
e(3ar'ed on 3y t)e 2o((ission&
.& State t)e (andate o" t)e A"ri2an Co((ission o" Hu(an and
$eolesF Rig)ts
2& Ho9 2an an indi!idual lay 2o(laint 3e"ore t)e A"ri2an
Co((ission on $eoles and Hu(an Rig)tsJ
Ray OnyeguE C2::.D& Legal $rote2tion o" Wo(enFs Rig)ts+ $u3lis)ed 3y
S)elter Rig)ts Initiati!e&
A"ri2an C)arter on Hu(an and $eoles Rig)ts CRati"i2ation and
#n"or2e(entD A2t+ 2a& .: La9s o" t)e Bederation o" Nigeria
CLBND .;;:&
$ro"& I& O& S(it)E La9 and *e!elo(ent in Nigeria&
2.0
MODULE 0
Unit . T)e Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(ent $ro2edureD Rules
Unit 2 Relie" A!aila3le Uon an Ali2ation "or %udi2ial Re!ie9
Unit @ Oerati!e Conditions "or $rerogati!e Orders
Unit 4 Originating Noti2e o" Motion
UNIT . THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
4ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURE5 RULES
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. #n"or2e(ent $ro2edure
@&2 T)e #A6arte Ali2ation
@&@ Ali2ation "or Su3stantial Rig)ts
@&4 Bunda(ental Rig)t #n"or2e(ent $ro2edure
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
T)e .;;; Constitution 2on"ers a se2ial jurisdi2tion on t)e Hig) Court
"or t)e urose o" en"or2e(ent o" t)e "unda(ental rig)ts ro!isions& It
ro!ides t)at PAny erson 9)o alleges t)at any o" t)e ro!isions+ o" t)is
2)ater )as 3een+ is 3eing or li'ely to 3e 2ontra!ened in any state in
relation to )i( (ay aly to a Hig) Court in t)at state "or redress& T)e
2onstitution e(o9ers t)e C)ie" %usti2e o" Nigeria to (a'e rules 9it)
rese2t to t)e ra2ti2e and ro2edure o" a Hig) Court "or t)e urose o"
"unda(ental )u(an rig)ts en"or2e(ent&
289 O:;ECTIVES
W)en you )a!e 2o(leted t)is unit+ you s)ould 3e a3le to7
identi"y and eAlain t)e en"or2e(ent ro2edure in "unda(ental
)u(an rig)ts 2ases
eAlain eA6arte ali2ation
understand t)e "unda(ental rig)ts Cen"or2e(ent ro2edureD
Rules&
2.<
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. T"% En2or%'%nt Pro%dur%
T)ere are !arious stages in ro2essing "or en"or2e(ent o" )u(an rig)ts
under t)e Nigeria la9& T)ese stages in!ol!e 2o(lian2e 9it) so(e
adje2ti!al ro!isions o" t)e )u(an rig)ts rules6 t)e Plea!eQ Pti(eQ and
Pa""ida!itQ ro!ision&
.8 T"% E1-7#rt% #77$!#t!on
T)e "irst ste in en"or2ing )u(an rig)ts under t)e Rules is to 3ring a
(otion eA6arte "or lea!e to en"or2e "unda(ental )u(an rig)ts& T)e
(otion suorted 3y a state(ent setting out+ t)e na(e and des2rition o"
t)e ali2ant t)e relie" soug)t+ and t)e grounds on 9)i2) t)e relie" is
soug)t and an a""ida!it !eri"ying t)e "a2ts relied on&
T)e urose o" t)e lea!e is to deter(ine reli(inary (atters su2) as
9)et)er+ prima facie+ t)ere are grounds on 9)i2) it 2an 3e assu(ed t)at
t)e ali2antFs rig)ts )a!e 3een !iolated and as su2)+ i" is ne2essary to
ut t)e rose2ti!e resondents on noti2e so t)at t)e 2ourt+ a"ter )earing
3ot) sides to t)e disute 2an 2onsider in details t)e 2o(laint in t)e
ali2ation&
Eawehimi 4 Ailu C.;=<D4 NWLR Ct 0<D <;<& It is not ne2essary+ at t)e
"irst stage+ "or t)e 2ourt to 2o(re)ensi!ely eAa(ine t)e ali2ants
2o(laint under to de2ide 9)et)er to grant eA6arts ali2ation&
2 A77$!#t!on 2or Su(&t#nt!*% R%$!%2
T)e neAt ste a"ter o3taining lea!e is to ro2eed to get t)e su3stanti!e
relie"& T)is (ay 3e 3y (otion on noti2e or 3y originating su((ons and
t)ere (ust 3e a (ini(u( o" eig)t 2lear days 3et9een t)e ser!i2e o" t)e
noti2e o" (otion or su((ons and t)e day na(ed "or )earing unless t)e
2ourt dire2t ot)er9ise A2=P12 A %gonji C2::2D B& W& L& R& .=;@+
.;:.&
Bailure to ser!e t)e 2ourt ro2ess goes to t)e root o" t)e roer
ro2edure in litigation& T)e a""ida!it o" ser!i2e (ust gi!e t)e na(es and
addresses o" and t)e la2e and date o" ser!i2e on all ersons 9)o )a!e
3een ser!ed 9it) t)e (otion or su((ons&
T)e Motion or Su((ons (ust 3e entered "or )earing 9it)in "ourteen
days a"ter t)e grant o" lea!e& W)ere+ )o9e!er+ ersonal li3erty is
in!ol!ed as is al9ays t)e 2ase in )u(an rig)t a3uses in Nigeria V t)en
t)e 2ourt is gi!en )e o9er to order t)e release o" t)e detainee e!en at
t)e eA6arte stage&
2.=
/82 Fund#'%nt#$ R!,"t& 4En2or%'%nt Pro%dur%5 Ru$%&F
.CAC 4D#t% o2 Co''%n%'%nt: . ;#nu#r-F .CB95
In eAer2ise o" t)e o9ers 2on"erred 3y se2tion 42 su3se2tion C@D o" t)e
2onstitution o" t)e Bederal Reu3li2 o" Nigeria+ t)e C)ie" %usti2e o"
Nigeria )ere3y (a'es t)e "ollo9ing RulesE
Ord%r .
0D T)ese Rules (ay 3e 2ited as t)e Bunda(ental Rig)ts
C#n"or2e(ent $ro2edureD Rules+ .;<;&
<D In t)ese RulesE
aD Iali2ationF in2ludes an ali2ation "or )e lea!e o" t)e 2ourtE
3D I2onstitutionF (eans t)e Constitution o" t)e Bederal Reu3li2 o"
Nigeria+ .;<;&
2D IjudgeF (eans t)e judge o" t)e 2ourtE
dD Ilegal reresentati!eF (eans a erson ad(itted to ra2tise in t)e
Sure(e Court o" Nigeria 9)o )as 3een retained 3y or assigned
to a art to reresent )i( in t)e ro2eedings 3e"ore t)e 2ourtE
eD Ioriginating su((onsF (eans e!ery su((ons ot)er t)an a
su((ons in a ending 2ause or (atterE
"D Irison suerintendentF (eans t)e erson in 2)arge o" t)e rison
or any ot)er la2e in 9)i2) t)e 2o(lainant is restrained or
2on"ines&
gD IregistrarF (eans t)e registrar o" t)e 2ourt )earing t)e ali2ation
or o" any 2ourt to 9)i2) an order is dire2tedE
)D IrulesF (eans t)ese Rules or any a(end(ent t)ereto and in2ludes
t)e "or(s aended to t)ese Rules&
iD IstateF (eans one o" t)e 2o(onent arts o" t)e Bederal Reu3li2
o" Nigeria&
A77$!#t!on 2or L%#*%
.D Any erson 9)o alleges t)at any o" t)e "unda(ental rig)ts
ro!ided "or in t)e Constitution and to 9)i2) )e is entitled+ )as
3een+ is 3eing+ or li'ely to 3e in"ringed (ay aly to t)e 2ourt in
t)e State 9)ere t)e in"ringe(ent o22urs or is li'ely to o22ur+ "or
redress&
2D No ali2ation "or an order en"or2ing or se2uring t)e en"or2e(ent
9it)in t)at State o" any su2) Rig)ts s)all 3e (ade unless lea!e
t)ere"ore )as 3een granted in a22ordan2e 9it) t)is rule&
@D An ali2ation "or su2) lea!e (ust 3e (ade eA6arte to t)e
aroriate 2ourt and (ust 3e suorted 3y a state(ent setting
out t)e na(e and des2rition o" )e ali2ant+ t)e relie" soug)t+
and t)e grounds on 9)i2) it is soug)t+ and 3y an a""ida!it
!eri"ying t)e "a2ts relied on&
2.;
4D T)e ali2ant (ust "ile+ in t)e aroriate 2ourt+ t)e ali2ation
"or lea!e not later t)an t)e day re2eding t)e date o" )earing and
(ust at t)e sa(e ti(e lodge in t)e said 2ourt enoug) 2oies o" t)e
state(ent and a""ida!it "or ser!i2e on any ot)er arty or arties as
t)e 2ourt (ay order&
4D T)e 2ourt or judge (ay+ in granting lea!e+ i(ose su2) ter(s as
to gi!ing se2urity "or 2osts as it or )e t)in's "it&
0D T)e granting o" lea!e under t)is rule+ i" t)e 2ourt or judge so
dire2ts+ s)all oerate as a stay o" all a2tions or (atters relating to+
or 2onne2ted 9it)+ t)e 2o(laint until t)e deter(ination o" t)e
ali2ation or until t)e 2ourt or judge ot)er9ise orders&
T!'% 2or A77$-!n, 2or L%#*%
.D Lea!e s)all not 3e granted to aly "or an order under t)ese Rules
unless t)e ali2ation is (ade 9it)in t9el!e (ont)s "or( t)e
date o" t)e )aening o" t)e 2ourt+ (atter+ or a2t 2o(lained o"+
or su2) ot)er eriod is so res2ri3ed+ t)e delay is a22ounted "or to
t)e satis"a2tion o" t)e 2ourt o" judge to 9)o( t)e ali2ation "or
lea!e is (ade&
2D W)ere t)e e!ent+ (atter+ or a2t 2o(lained o" arose out o" a
ro2eeding 9)i2) is su3je2t to aeal and a ti(e is li(ited 3y la9
"or t)e 3ringing o" t)e aeal+ t)e 2ourt or judge (ay adjourn t)e
ali2ation "or lea!e until t)e aeal is deter(ined or t)e ti(e "or
aeal )as eAired&
Ord%r 2
4D W)en lea!e )as 3eing granted to aly "or t)e order 3eing as'ed
"or+ t)e ali2ation "or su2) order (ust 3e (ade 3y noti2e o"
(otion or 3y originating su((ons to t)e aroriate 2ourt+ and
unless t)e 2ourt or judge granting lea!e )as ot)er9ise dire2ted+
t)ere (ust 3e at least eig)t 2lear days 3et9een t)e ser!i2e o" t)e
(otion or su((ons and t)e day na(ed t)erein "or t)e )earing&
Bor( No& . or 2 in t)e aendiA (ay 3e used as aroriate&
4D T)e (otion or su((ons (ust 3e entered "or )earing 9it)in .4
days a"ter su2) lea!e )as 3een granted&
0D T)e (otion or su((ons (ust 3e ser!ed on all ersons dire2tly
a""e2ted+ and 9)ere it relates to ro2eedings in or 3e"ore a 2ourt+
and t)e o3je2t is eit)er to 2o(el t)e 2ourt or an o""i2er t)ereo" to
do any a2t in relation to t)e ro2eedings or to -uas) t)e( or any
order (ade t)erein+ t)e (otion or su((ons (ust 3e ser!ed on
t)e registrar o" t)e 2ourt+ t)e ot)er arties to t)e ro2eedings and
9)ere any o3je2tion to t)e 2ondu2t o" t)e judge is (ade+ on t)e
judge&
22:
<D An a""ida!it gi!ing t)e na(es and addresses o"+ and t)e la2e and
date o" ser!i2e on all ersons 9)o )a!e 3een ser!ed 9it) t)e
(otion or su((ons+ (ust 3e "iled 3e"ore t)e (otion or su((ons
is listed "or )earing+ and+ i" any erson 9)o oug)t to )a!e 3een
ser!ed under aragra) C@D )as not 3een ser!ed+ t)e a""ida!it
(ust state t)e "a2t and t)e reason 9)y ser!i2e )as not 3een
e""e2ted+ and t)e said a""ida!it s)all 3e 3e"ore t)e 2ourt or judge
on t)e )earing o" t)e (otion or su((ons&
=D I" on t)e )earing o" t)e (otion or su((ons t)e 2urt or judge is o"
t)e oinion t)at any erson 9)o oug)t to )a!e 3een ser!ed 9it)
t)e (otion or su((on )as not 3een ser!ed+ 9)et)er or not )e is a
erson 9)o oug)t to )a!e 3een ser!ed under aragra) C@D+ t)e
2ourt or judge (ay adjourn t)e )earing on su2) ter(s+ i" any+ as it
or )e (ay dire2t in order t)at t)e (otion or su((ons (ay 3e
ser!ed on t)at erson&
II& .D 2oies o" t)e state(ent in suort o" t)e ali2ation "or
lea!e under Order . rule 2C@D o" Order 2 and su3je2t to
aragra) C2D o" t)is rule+ no grounds s)all 3e relied uon
or any relie" soug)t at t)e )earing o" t)e (otion or
su((ons eA2et t)e grounds and relie" set out in t)e said
state(ent&
0D t)e 2ourt or judge (ay+ on t)e )earing o" t)e (otion or su((ons
allo9 t)e said state(ent to 3e a(ended+ and (ay allo9 "urt)er
a""ida!its to 3e used i" t)ey deal 9it) ne9 (atter arising out o"
any a""ida!it o" any ot)er arty to t)e ali2ation+ and 9)ere t)e
ali2ant intends to as' to 3e allo9ed to a(end )is intention and
o" any roosed a(end(ent o" )is state(ent to e!ery ot)er arty+
and (ust suly to e!ery su2) ot)er arty+ 2oies o" su2) "urt)er
a""ida!its&
<D #!ery arty to t)e ali2ation (ust suly to any ot)er arty
2oies o" t)e a""ida!it 9)i2) )e rooses to use at t)e )earing&
III& Se!eral Ali2ations Relating to t)e Sa(e In"ringe(ent
W)ere se!eral ali2ations relating to t)e in"ringe(ent o"
a arti2ular Bunda(ental Rig)t are ending against se!eral
ersons in rese2t o" t)e sa(e (atter+ and on t)e sa(e
grounds+ t)e ali2ations (ay 3e 2onsolidated 3y order o"
t)e 2ourt or judge )earing t)e ali2ations&
22.
Ord%r /
I8 A77$!#t!on to Iu#&" An- Pro%%d!n,&
.D In t)e 2ase o" an ali2ation "or an order to re(o!e any
ro2eedings "or t)e urose o" t)eir 3eing -uas)ed+ t)e ali2ant
(ay not -uestion t)e !alidity o" any order+ 9arrant+
2o((it(ents+ 2on!i2tion+ in-uisition or re2ord unless 3e"ore t)e
)earing o" t)e (otion or su((ons )e )as ser!ed a 2erti"ied 2oy
t)ereo" toget)er 9it) a 2oy o" t)e ali2ation on t)e Attorney6
General o" t)e Bederation or o" t)e State in 9)i2) t)e ali2ation
is 3eing )eard as t)e 2ase (ay 3e+ or a22ounts "or )is "ailure to do
so to t)e satis"a2tion o" t)e 2ourt or judge )earing t)e (otion or
su((ons&
2D W)ere an order to re(o!e any ro2eedings "or t)e urose o"
t)eir 3eing -uas)ed is (ade+ in any su2) 2ase+ t)e order s)all
dire2t t)at t)e ro2eedings s)all 3e -uas)ed "ort) 9it) on t)eir
re(o!al into t)e 2ourt 9)i2) )eard t)e ali2ation&
Ord%r 4
I& Ali2ation "or $rodu2tion and "or Release o" $erson Restrained&
.D In an ali2ation 9)ere t)e ali2ant 2o(lains o"
9rong"ul or unla9"ul detention+ t)e 2ourt or judge to
9)o( t)e ali2ation is (ade eA6arte (ay (a'e an order
"ort)9it) "or )is release "ro( su2) detention+ or (ay&
aD dire2t t)at an originating su((ons as in t)e Bor( 2 in t)e
AendiA 3e issued or t)at an ali2ation t)ere"ore 3e
(ade 3y noti2e o" (otion+ as in t)e Bor( @E
3D adjourn t)e eA6arte ali2ation so t)at noti2e t)ereo" (ay
3e gi!en to t)e erson against 9)o( t)e order "or t)e
release o" t)e ali2ant is soug)t&
2D T)e su((ons or noti2e o" (otion (ust 3e ser!ed on t)e
erson against 9)o( t)e order "or t)e release o" t)e
ali2ant is sout) and on su2) ot)er ersons as t)e 2ourt or
judge (ay dire2t+ and+ unless t)e 2ourt or judge ot)er9ise
dire2ts+ t)ere (ust 3e at least "i!e 2lear days 3et9een t)e
ser!i2e o" t)e su((ons or (otion and t)e date na(ed
t)erein "or t)e )earing o" t)e ali2ation&
@D #!ery arty to an ali2ation under Rule . (ust suly to
e!ery ot)er arty 2oies o" t)e a""ida!it 9)i2) )e rooses
to use at t)e )earing o" t)e ali2ation&
II& Wit)out rejudi2e to Rule .C.D+ t)e 2ourt or judge )earing an
ali2ation 9)ere t)e ali2ant 2o(lains o" 9rong"ul or
unla9"ul detention (ay+ in its or )is dis2retion+ order t)at t)e
222
erson restrained 3e rodu2ed in 2ourt+ and su2) order s)all 3e a
su""i2ient 9arrant to any suerintendent o" a rison+ oli2e o""i2er
in 2)arge o" t)e oli2e station+ oli2e o""i2er or 2onsta3le in
2)arge o" t)e 2o(lainant+ or any ot)er erson resonsi3le "or )is
detention o" t)e rodu2tion in 2ourt o" t)e erson under restraint&
III W)ere an order is (ade "or )e rodu2tion o" a erson restrained
t)e 2ourt o" judge 3y 9)o( t)e order is (ade s)all gi!e
dire2tions as to t)e 2ourt or judge 3e"ore 9)o(+ and t)e date on
9)i2)+ t)e order is returna3le&
I1& .D Su3je2t to aragra)s C2D and C@D+ an order "or t)e
rodu2tion o" t)e erson restrained (ust 3e ser!ed
ersonally on t)e erson to 9)o( it is dire2ted&
2D I" it is not ossi3le to ser!e su2) an order ersonally+ or i"
it is dire2ted+ to a oli2e o""i2er+ or a rison suerintendent
or ot)er u3li2 o""i2ial+ it (ust 3e ser!ed 3y lea!ing it 9it)
any ot)er erson or o""i2ial 9or'ing in t)e o""i2e o" )e
oli2e o""i2er+ or e) rison or o""i2e o" t)e suerintendent
or )e o""i2e o" )e u3li2 o""i2ial to 9)o( t)e order is
dire2ted&
=D I" t)e order is (ade against (ore t)at one erson+ t)e
order (ust 3e ser!ed in t)e (anner ro!ided 3y t)e rule
on t)e erson "irst na(ed in t)e order and 2oies (ust 3e
ser!ed on ea2) o" t)e ot)er ersons in t)e sa(e (anner&
;D T)ere (ust 3e ser!ed 9it) t)e order Cin t)e Bor( 4 in t)e
AendiAD "or )e rodu2tion o" t)e erson restrained a
noti2e Cin t)e Bor( 4 in t)e AendiAD stating t)e 2ourt or
judge 3e"ore 9)o(+ and t)e date on 9)i2) t)e erson
restrained is to 3e 3roug)t&
V8 R%turn to t"% Ord%r 2or R%$%#&%
.D T)e return to an order "or )e release o" a erson restrained
(ust 3e endorsed on or anneAed to t)e order and (ust
state all t)e 2ause or justi"i2ations o" t)e detainer o" )e
erson restrained&
2D T)e return (ay 3e a(ended+ or anot)er return su3stituted
t)ereo"+ 3y lea!e o" t)e Court o" judge 3e"ore 9)o( t)e
order is returna3le&
VI8 Proceedings at Hearing of Motion or Summons After Order
has been Returned.
W)en a return to t)e order )as 3een (ade+ t)e return s)all "irst 3e
read in oen 2ourt and an oral ali2ation t)en (ade "or
dis2)arging or re(inding t)e erson restrained or a(ending or
22@
-uas)ing t)e return+ and 9)ere t)at erson is 3roug)t u in 2ourt
in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e order+ )is legal reresentati!e s)all 3e
)eard "irst+ ten e) legal reresentati!e "or t)e State or "or any
ot)er o""i2ial or erson restraining )i(& T)e legal reresentati!e
"or t)e erson restrained 9ill t)en 3e )eard in rely&
1II& An order "or t)e release o" a erson restrained s)all (a'e in 2lear
and si(le ter(s )a!ing regard to all t)e 2ir2u(stan2es&
Ord%r 0
R!,"t o2 An- Ot"%r P%r&on or :od- to (% H%#rd
Any erson or 3ody 9)o desires to 3e )eard in rese2t o" any
ali2ation (otion+ or su((ons+ under t)ese Rules+ and aears to t)e
2ourt or judge to 3e a roer erson or 3ody to 3e )eard+ s)all 3e )eard
not9it)standing t)at )e or it )as not 3een ser!ed 9it) t)e 2oy o" t)e
ali2ation+ (otion or su((ons&
Ord%r @
I8 Ord%r& W"!" t"% Court C#n M#+%F #nd E22%t o2
D!&o(%d!%n%
.D At t)e )earing o" any ali2ation+ (otion or su((ons
under t)ese Rules+ t)e 2ourt o" judge 2on2erned (ay (a'e
su2) orders+ issue su2) 9rits+ and gi!e su2) dire2tions as it
or )e (ay 2onsider just or aroriate "or e) urose o"
en"or2ing or se2uring t)e en"or2e(ent o" any o" t)e
Bunda(ental Rig)ts ro!ided "or in t)e Constitution to
9)i2) t)e 2o(lainant (ay 3e entitled&
2D In de"ault o" o3edien2e o" any order (ade 3y t)e 2ourt or
judge under t)ese Rules+ ro2eedings "or t)e 2o((ittal o"
t)e arty diso3eying su2) an order 9ill 3e ta'enE order o"
Co((ittal is in t)e Bor( 0 o" t)e AendiA&
CASES TO ILLUSTRATE THE PROVISIONS OF THE RULES
At t)is jun2ture+ it is desira3le 9e eAa(ine t)e ro!isions o" t)e
Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(ent $ro2edureD Rules+ .;<; in t)e lig)t o"
de2ided 2ases on 3ot) sides o" t)e s2ale& T)e "irst eAa(le is t)e
2ele3rated 2ase o" Shuga0a A0dulrahaman Darman A. !inister of
Internal Affairs and 'thers.
,
T)e "a2ts 9ere t)at S)uga3a
A3dulra)a(an *ar(an 9as a (e(3er o" t)e de"un2t Great Nigeria
$eoleFs $arty CGN$$6a oliti2al artyD and at t)e (aterial ti(e t)e
(ajority leader in t)e ,orno State House o" Asse(3ly& T)e Bederal
Minister o" Internal A""airs+ in a urorted eAer2ise o" o9ers 2on"erred
224
on )i( under t)e I((igration A2t+ .;0@+ issued an order dated %anuary
24+ .;=: and u3lis)ed in an eAtraordinary Bederal Go!ern(ent GaHette
No& < 1ol& 0< 2lassi"ied s)uga3a as a ro)i3ited i((igrant& On t)e sa(e
day and in 2o(lian2e 9it) t)e order+ an o""i2ial o" t)e Ministry o"
Internal A""airs ro2eeded to S)uga3aFs )ouse and t)ereuon eAe2uted
t)e order 3y deorting S)uga3a "ro( Nigeria& On 3e)al" o" S)uga3a+ )is
la9yer in!o'ed t)e jurisdi2tion o" t)e Hig) Court o" ,orno State under
se2tion 42 o" t)e .;<; Constitution and alied "or Order "or en"or2ing
and se2uring t)e en"or2e(ent o" )is "unda(ental rig)ts and redress "or
!iolation& Counsel "or t)e resondents o3je2ted t)at t)e roer
ro2edure )ad not 3een "ollo9ed& It 9as )eld o!erruling t)e o3je2tion+
t)at t)e ro2edure to 3e "ollo9ed is guided 3y t)e Bunda(ental Rig)ts
C#n"or2e(ent $ro2edureD Rules+ .;<;>9)ere lea!e )as 3een granted to
aly "or t)e order 3eing as'ed "or+ t)e ali2ation "or su2) order (ust
3e (ade 3y noti2e o" (otion or originating su((ons to t)e aroriate
2ourt& It 9as "urt)er )eld t)at in see'ing redress "or in"ringe(ent o" )is
"unda(ental rig)ts+ any erson 2an 2lai( da(ages6 under t)e
Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(ent $ro2edureD Rules .;<;&
In su(+ 9)at (atters in t)e 2ir2u(stan2es is t)at t)e roer ro2edure as
laid do9n 3y t)e Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(ent $ro2edureD Rules
.;<; (ust 3e s2ruulously "ollo9ed& Ot)er9ise t)e ali2ation (ay "ail
e!en i" t)e li3erty o" t)e ali2ant is at sta'e& A good eAa(le is t)e
2ase o" 1awrence 'lusegun Adeyemo 4. 2ommissioner of Police 'yo
State ,
&
In t)is 2ase t)e ali2ant re-uested t)e 2ourt "or a 9rit o" )a3eas
2orus under Order 2 o" t)e Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(ent
$ro2edureD Rules+ .;<;+ rat)er t)an under t)e Ha3eas Corus La9&
Under Order 2C.DC4D o" t)e Bunda(ental Rig)ts Rules+ as 9e )a!e seen+
an ali2ant is enjoined to ser!e all arties 9)o are or (ig)t 3e
interested in t)e ro2eedings& ,ut t)e ali2ant in t)is 2ase "ailed to
2o(ly 9it) t)e ro!ision& Alt)oug) t)e a""e2ted arty )ad ut u
aearan2e+ )e raised a reli(inary o3je2tion to t)e ali2ation "or non6
2o(lian2e 9it) t)e statutory 2onditions. =a0alain <. , Cas )e t)en
9asD+ stru2' out t)e ali2ation on t)e ground t)at Order 2C.D C4D is
(andatory 9)et)er t)e ali2ation is "or (anda(us+ 2ertiorari or )a3eas
2orus&
It is rat)er 2on!enient 9e 2ontinue 9it) t)e dis2ussion "ro( t)e oint o"
!ie9 o" t)e Relie" a!aila3le uon an Ali2ation "or %udi2ial Re!ie9F
3e"ore 9e e(3ar' on t)e analysis o" t)e t9o ot)er 2ategories o"
Re(edies i&e& $u3li2 La9 Re(edies and $ri!ate La9 Re(edies+ as
stated a3o!e& T)e ideal situation is to )a!e all t)e re(edies+ 9)et)er
u3li2 or ri!ate 9it)in t)e rea2) o" a litigant in one a2tion as s)o9n
a3o!e under t)e 2onstitutional ro!ision&
224
489 CONCLUSION
In t)is unit+ 9e )a!e eAlained t)e land relating to t)e "unda(ental
Rig)ts Cen"or2e(entD ro2edure rules+ #A6arte ali2ation+ t)e
relations)i 3et9een t)e ro!ision o" t)e .;;; 2onstitution o" t)e "ederal
reu3li2 o" Nigeria and t)e "unda(ental rig)t Cen"or2e(entD ro2edure
rules&
089 SUMMARY
?ou )a!e learnt t)at in a de(o2rati2 so2iety t)e 2onstitution is
sa2rosan2tE t)e 2onstitution entails and 2ontains essentially t)e
en3odu(ents o" t)e (ost "unda(ental rules rin2ile and institution
9)i2) 2onstitute t)e "a3ri2 o" t)e state& It is t)e )ar(onious relations)i
3et9een all t)e organs ere2ted 3y t)e 2onstitution t)at )els to 3ring
order+ sanity and good go!ern(ent into t)e so2iety&
.D Identi"y and eAlain t)e en"or2e(ent ro2edure in "unda(ental
)u(an Rig)t 2ases&
2D #Alain #A6arte6ali2ation
T)e .;;; 2onstitution o" t)e "ederal Reu3li2 o" Nigeria&
Indi!idual Rig)ts under t)e .;;; Constitution #dited M& A& Ajo(o and
,olaji O9asanoye&
220
UNIT 2 RELIEFS AVAILA:LE UPON AN
APPLICATION FOR ;UDICIAL REVIEW
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!es
@&: Main Content
@&. Order 4@E Rule 47 *elay in Alying "or Relie"
@&2 Order 4@ Rule 4E Mode o" Alying "or %udi2ial Re!ie9
@&@ Order 4@ Rule 0E State(ent and A""ida!its
@&4 Order 4@ Rule <7 Clai( "or *a(ages
@&4 Order 4@ Rule =7 Ali2ation "or *is2o!ery+ Interrogation+
Cross6#Aa(ination et2
@&0 Order 4@ Rule .:7 Sa!ing "or $erson A2ting in O3edien2e
to Manda(us
@&< Order 4@ Rule ..7 Consolidation o" Ali2ations
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
On an ali2ation "or judi2ial re!ie9+ in t)e 9ords o" $ro"essor S& A&
S(it)+
P666664@+ it is no9 ossi3le "or a 2ourt to a9ard in a single ro2eeding
any one or (ore o" t)e rerogati!e orders o" 2ertiorari+ ro)i3ition or
(anda(us+ a de2laration or an injun2tion in2luding an injun2tion t)at
statutorily rela2ed t)e in"or(ation in t)e nature o" -uo 9arrantD& In
addition a 2lai( "or da(ages (ay also 3e (ade+ 3ut+ it 9ould see(+
only 9)en t)e ali2ation in2ludes one or (ore o" t)e ot)er "or(s o"
relie" t)at (ay 3e granted on an ali2ation "or judi2ial re!ie9& T)e
rerogati!e 9rit o" )a3eas 2orus+ 9)i2) (a'es o22asional aearan2es
in ad(inistrati!e la9+ (ay not 3e soug)t on an ali2ation "or judi2ial
re!ie9 and re(ains go!erned 3y its o9n rules o" ro2edure&
289 O:;ECTIVES
At t)e end o" t)is unit and t)e rele!ant readings+ you s)ould 3e a3le to7
des2ri3e t)e asi2 ro!ision o" judi2ial re!ie9
t)e stes to ta'e in alying "or judi2ial re!ie9&
22<
/89 MAIN CONTENT
It (ust 3e -ui2'ly added )ere t)at in Nigeria under t)e Uni"or( Hig)
Court Rules+ PAli2ation "or %udi2ial Re!ie9Q is ro!ided "or as in all
t)e ro!isions o" Order 4@ o" t)e Rules o" t)e Sure(e Court in #ngland
-uoted a3o!e and our o9n Order 4@ o" t)e Uni"or( Hig) Court Rules in
Nigeria& T)ey are identi2al i" not eAa2tly t)e sa(e in essen2e& As a
(atter o" "a2t+ so(e states o" t)e Bederation+ "or eAa(le+ ,endel (now
Delta and #do8 and Lagos States )a!e re6ena2ted t)e sa(e Order 4@ in
t)e Uni"or( Hig) Court Rules as t)eir o9n Order 4@ 9)ilst 5aduna
State (a'es it Order 4@+ ,ut in su3stan2e t)ey are t)e sa(e and all t)e
states no9 )a!e Order 4@ in one "or( or t)e ot)er&
I" t)e 2ourt grants lea!e it (ay i(ose su2) ter(s as to 2osts and as to
gi!ing se2urity as it t)in's "it&
W)ere an ali2ation "or lea!e is re"used 3y a judge t)e ali2ant (ay
aeal or (a'e a "res) ali2ation to anot)er 2ourt&
i&D I" t)e relie" soug)t is an order o" ro)i3ition or 2ertiorari and t)e
2ourt so dire2ts+ t)e grant s)all oerate as a stay o" t)e
ro2eedings 9)i2) t)e ali2ation relates until t)e deter(ination
o" t)e ali2ation or until t)e 2ourt ot)er9ise ordersE
ii&D I" any ot)er relie" is soug)t+ t)e 2ourt (ay at any ti(e grant in t)e
ro2eedings su2) interi( relie" as 2ould 3e granted in an a2tion
3egan 3y 9rit&
/8. Ord%r 4/M Ru$% 4: D%$#- !n A77$-!n, 2or R%$!%2
T)is rule see(s to say t)at I#-uity aids t)e !igilantF in t)at 9)ere in any
2ase t)e 2ourt 2onsiders t)at t)ere )as 3een undue delay in (a'ing an
ali2ation "or judi2ial re!ie9 or in a 2ase "or 2ertiorari+ t)e ali2ation
"or lea!e under Rule @ a3o!e is (ade a"ter t)e rele!ant eriod )as
eAired+ t)e 2ourt (ay re"use to grant lea!e "or t)e (a'ing o" t)e
ali2ation or any relie" soug)t on t)e ali2ation+ i"+ in t)e oinion o"
t)e 2ourt+ t)e granting o" )e relie" soug)t 9ould 3e li'ely to 2ause
su3stantial )ards)is to or su3stantially rejudi2e t)e rig)ts o" any
erson or 9ould 3e detri(ental to good ad(inistration& In t)e 2ase o" an
ali2ation "or an order o" 2ertiorari to re(o!e any judg(ent+ order+
2on!i2tion or ot)er ro2eedings "or t)e urose o" -uas)ing it+ t)e
rele!ant eriod is t)ree (ont)s a"ter t)e date o" t)e ro2eedings&
T)e a3o!e is 9it)out rejudi2e to any statutory ro!ision 9)i2) )as t)e
e""e2t o" li(iting t)e ti(e 9it)in 9)i2) an ali2ation "or judi2ial
re!ie9 (ay 3e (ade&
22=
/82 Ord%r 4/ Ru$% 0M Mod% o2 #77$-!n, 2or )ud!!#$ R%*!%3
W)en lea!e )as 3een granted to (a'e an ali2ation "or judi2ial re!ie9+
t)e ali2ation s)all 3e (ade 3y originating (otion to a judge in
2)a(3ers or 9)ere t)e 2ourt so dire2ts+ t)e ali2ation (ay 3e (ade 3y
(otion to a %udge sitting in oen 2ourt&
T)e noti2e o" (otion or su((ons (ust 3e ser!ed on all ersons dire2tly
a""e2ted and 9)ere it relates to any ro2eedings in or 3e"ore a 2ourt and
t)e o3je2t o" t)e ali2ation is eit)er to 2o(el t)e 2ourt or an o""i2er o"
t)e 2ourt to do any a2t in relation to t)e ro2eedings or to -uas) t)e( or
any ot)er order (ade t)erein+ T)e noti2e or t)e su((ons (ust also 3e
ser!ed on t)e 2ler' or registrar o" t)e 2ourt and 9)ere any o3je2tion to
t)e 2ondu2t o" t)e %udge is to 3e (ade+ on t)e judge&
Unless t)e 2ourt granting lea!e )as ot)er9ise dire2ted+ t)ere (ust 3e at
least ten days 3et9een t)e ser!i2e o" t)e noti2e o" (otion or su((ons
and t)e day na(ed t)erein "or t)e )earing&
A (otion s)all 3e entered "or )earing 9it)in .4 days a"ter grant o"
lea!e& See 2hief =. Ainyede 4. A0iola Isialu P 'rs, (6.>,86 %!1&
)*,& Motion 9as entered a"ter 2= daysE 2onse-uently t)e grant 9as
regarded as lased+ si(ilarly in /he ;ueen 4. 2ustomary 2ourt 3rade A
Ilesha and 'rs. (6.?68 W%1& 7?,, t)e (otion 9as to 3e "iled 9it)in .4
days 3ut not "iled+ it 9as )eld t)at ti(e 2ould not 3e eAtendedE
2onse-uently+ order de2ree nits lased&
An a""ida!it gi!ing t)e na(es and addresses o"+ and t)e la2es and dates
o" ser!i2e on+ all ersons 9)o )a!e 3een ser!ed 9it) t)e noti2e o"
(otion or su((ons (ust 3e "iled 3e"ore t)e (otion or su((ons is
entered "or )earing and+ i" any erson 9)o oug)t to 3e ser!ed under t)e
rule )as not 3een ser!ed+ t)e a""ida!it (ust state t)at "a2t and t)e reason
"or itE and t)e a""ida!it s)all 3e 3e"ore t)e 2ourt on t)e )earing o" t)e
(otion or su((ons&
I" on t)e )earing o" )e (otion or su((ons t)e 2ourt is o" t)e oinion
t)at any erson 9)o oug)t to )a!e 3een ser!ed )as not 3een ser!ed+ t)e
2ourt (ay adjourn t)e )earing on su2) ter(s+ i" any+ as it (ay dire2t in
order t)at t)e noti2e or su((ons (ay 3e ser!ed on t)e erson&
/8/ Ord%r 4/ Ru$% @M St#t%'%nt #nd A22!d#*!t&
Coies o" t)e state(ent in suort o" an ali2ation "or lea!e under Rule
@ a3o!e (ust 3e ser!ed 9it) t)e noti2e o" (otion or su((ons and no
grounds s)all 3e relied uon or any relie" soug)t at t)e )earing eA2et
t)e grounds and relie" set out in t)e state(ent& T)e State !& $residnet+
22;
Ije3u6Ig3o X Nort) Grade , Custo(ary Court C.;0;D. NMLR 0=& t)e
Co((ittal Warrant 9as not eA)i3ited 9)i2) is a !iolation o" Order 4@
Rule 0C.D RSC 9)i2) 9as t)e ali2a3le Order as o" t)at date&
T)e 2ourt (ay+ )o9e!er+ on t)e )earing o" t)e (otion or su((ons
allo9 t)e ali2ant to a(end )is state(ent+ 9)et)er 3y se2i"ying
di""erent or additional grounds or relie" or ot)er9ise+ on su2) ter(s+ i"
any+ as it t)in's "it and (ay allo9 "urt)er a""ida!its to 3e used i" t)ey
deal 9it) ne9 (atters arising out o" an a""ida!it o" any ot)er arty to t)e
ali2ation&
W)ere t)e ali2ant intends to as' to 3e allo9ed to a(end )is state(ent
or to use "urt)er a""ida!its+ )e s)all gi!e noti2e o" )is intention and o"
any roosed a(end(ent to e!ery ot)er arty&
#a2) arty to t)e ali2ation (ust suly to e!ery ot)er arty on
de(and and on ay(ent o" e) roer 2)arges 2oies o" e!ery a""ida!it
9)i2) )e roosed to use at t)e )earing+ in2luding in t)e 2ase o"
ali2ant+ t)e a""ida!it in suort o" t)e ali2ation "or lea!e under Rule
@&
/84 Ord%r 4/ Ru$% A: C$#!' 2or D#'#,%&
On an ali2ation "or judi2ial re!ie9 t)e Court (ay+ 9)ere t)e ali2ant
2lai(s "or da(ages as a relie"+ a9ard da(ages to t)e ali2ant+ i"7
iD )e )as in2luded in t)e state(ent in suort o" )is ali2ation "or
lea!e under Rule @ 2lai( "or da(ages arising "ro( any (atter to
9)i2) t)e ali2ation relates+ and
iiD t)e Court is satis"ied t)at i" t)e 2lai( )ad 3een (ade in an a2tion
3egun 3y t)e ali2ation at e) ti(e o" (a'ing )is ali2ation+ )e
2ould )a!e 3een a9arded da(ages&
/80 Ord%r 4/ Ru$% B: A77$!#t!on 2or D!&o*%r-F
Int%rro,#t!onF Cro&&-E1#'!n#t!on %t
Unless t)e 2ourt ot)er9ise dire2ts+ an interlo2utory "or judi2ial re!ie9
(ay )e (ade to t)e judge not9it)standing t)at t)e ali2ation "or
judi2ial re!ie9 )as 3een (ade 3y (otion+ in t)is 2onne2tion
Iinterlo2utory ali2ation in2ludes an ali2ation "or an order dis(issing
t)e ro2eedings 3y 2onsent o" t)e arties&
W)ere t)e relie" soug)t is or in2ludes an order o" 2ertiorari to re(o!e
any ro2eedings "or t)e urose o" -uas)ing t)e(+ )e ali2ant (ay not
-uestion t)e !alidity o" any order+ 9arrant+ 2o((it(ent+ 2on!i2tion+ in6
-uisition or re2ord unless 3e"ore t)e )earing o" t)e (otion or su((ons
2@:
)e )as lodged in t)e aroriate (Attorney-3eneralCs8 o""i2e a 2oy
t)ereo" !eri"ied 3y a""ida!it or a22ounts "or )is "ailure to do so to t)e
satis"a2tion o" t)e 2ourt )earing t)e (otion or su((ons&
W)ere an order o" 2ertiorari is (ade in su2) a 2ase t)e order s)all dire2t
t)at t)e ro2eedings s)all 3e granted on re(o!al to t)e 2ourt+ 3ut e)
2ourt (ay in addition to -uas)ing it+ re(it t)e (atter to t)e lo9er 2ourt+
tri3unal or aut)ority 2on2erned 9it) a dire2tion to re2onsider it and
rea2) a de2ision in a22ordan2e 9it) t)e "indings o" t)e 2ourt&
W)ere t)e relie" soug)t is a de2laration+ an injun2tion or da(ages and
t)e 2ourt 2onsiders t)at it s)ould not 3e granted on an ali2ation
judi2ial re!ie9 3ut (ig)t )a!e 3een granted i" it )ad 3een soug)t in an
a2tion 3egun 3y 9rit 3y t)e ali2ant at t)e ti(e o" (a'ing t)e
ali2ation+ t)e 2ourt+ (ay+ instead o" re"using t)e ali2ation+ order t)e
ro2eedings to 2ontinue as i" t)ey )ad 3een 3egun 3y 9ritE and Order 2=
Rule =+ s)all aly as i"+ in t)e 2ase o" an ali2ation (ade 3y (otion+ it
)ad 3een (ade 3y su((ons&
/8@ Ord%r 4/ Ru$% .9: S#*!n, 2or P%r&on At!n, !n
O(%d!%n% to M#nd#'u&
No a2tion or ro2eedings s)all 3e 3egun or rose2uted against any
erson in rese2t o" anyt)ing done in t)e o3edien2e to an order o"
(anda(us&
/8A Ord%r 4/ Ru$% ..: Con&o$!d#t!on o2 A77$!#t!on&
W)ere t)ere is (ore t)an one ali2ation ending against se!eral
ersons in rese2t o" t)e sa(e (atter and on t)e sa(e grounds t)e 2ourt
(ay order t)e ali2ations to 3e 2onsolidated&
It is desira3le 9e note at t)is stage t)at t)e a3o!e des2ri3ed ro2edure+
ese2ially under t)e Uni"or( Hig) Court $ro2edure Rules+ )as not
2)anged t)e s2oe o" or grounds on 9)i2) ea2) o" t)e re(edies (ay 3e
granted& Ho9e!er+ it s)ould 3e noted t)at t)e (erit o" t)e ne9 aroa2)
is t)at t)e $rerogati!e Orders 2an no9 3e 2lai(ed along 9it) t)e $ri!ate
La9 Re(edies o" *a(ages+ Injun2tion and *e2laration& We )ardly need
to say again t)at 3e"ore t)e ne9 disensation+ ese2ially Order 4@+ t)is
9as not ossi3le in (any arts o" Nigeria+ until .;<; as s)o9n a3o!e& A
serious de"e2t o" rerogati!e re(edy ro2edure is its in2o(ati3ility
9it) t)e ro2edure "or o3taining ri!ate la9 re(edy&
.2
a litigant under
t)e Uni"or( Hig) Court Rules 2an no9 as'+ as a (atter o" rin2ile+ "or
all ossi3le re(edies in t)e alternati!e& T)at is )o9 it s)ould 3e& ,ot)
t)e re(edies o" ri!ate la9+ su2) as Ide2laration+ injun2tion and
da(ages 2an no9 3e soug)t in one a2tion 9it) t)e rerogati!e re(edies
2@.
o" 2ertiorari+ ro)i3ition and (anda(usF& One 2an no9 say 9it)
2on"iden2e t)at t)e 2onstitutional ro!isions and t)e Uni"or( Hig)
Court $ro2edure Rules )a!eE
Q created a uniform fle$i0le and comprehensi4e code of
procedure for the e$ercise 0y the High 2ourt of its
super4isory jurisdiction o4er proceedings and decisions of
inferior courts, tri0unal or other 0odies or persons charged
with the performance of pu0lic acts and duties. At the same
time the new pro4isions ha4e eliminated, procedural
technicalities relating to the machinery of administrati4e law,
mainly 0y remo4ing procedural differences 0etween the
remedies which an applicant was formerly re:uired to select
as eh most appropriate to his case.
6-
It (ay 3e true t)at t)e ro3le( o" duality o" ro2edure is no9 3e)ind us
in Nigeria in t)is area o" 2onstitutional 2u( ad(inistrati!e la9 as s)o9n
a3o!e+ )o9e!er+ it is still ne2essary to 2onsider t)e oerati!e 2onditions
"or rerogati!e orders in an ali2ation "or judi2ial re!ie9+ 9)i2) 9e
no9 2onsider anon&
489 CONCLUSION
In t)is unit you )a!e learnt a3out judi2ial Re!ie9 and t)e ro2edure "or
alying "or judi2ial re!ie9&
089 SUMMARY
In t)is unit 9e )a!e eAlained judi2ial re!ie9 as a ro2ess and t)e
ro2ess o" alying "or judi2ial re!ie9
.D *es2ri3e t)e ter( judi2ial re!ie9
2D W)at is t)e 2onse-uen2e o" delay in alying "or judi2ial re!ie9J
Oye(o and ?a'u3u7 Constitutional La9 in Nigeria& I3adan7 %ator
$u3lis)ers .;;=&
#se Male(i7 T)e Nigeria Constitutional La9&
2@2
UNIT / OPERATIVE CONDITIONS FOR
PREROGATIVE ORDERS
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!e
@&: Main Content
@&. Order o" Manda(us
@&2 Order o" $ro)i3ition
@&@ Order o" Certiorari
@&4 [uo Warranto CNo9 an Injun2tionD
@&4 Condu2t o" t)e Ali2ant "or %udi2ial Re!ie9
@&0 #!iden2e in Ali2ation "or %udi2ial Re!ie9
@&< OR*#R 4.
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
Alt)oug) 9e )a!e said+ and indeed in an eAer2ise o" t)is nature+ 9e are
ri(arily 2on2erned 9it) t)e ra2ti2e and ro2edural rules rat)er t)an
su3stanti!e la9+ it is still ne2essary i" 9e are to get a 2o(lete i2ture o"
all t)e issues in!ol!ed "or us to 2onsider ea2) o" t)e rerogati!e orders
to 'no9 t)e oerati!e 2onditions in an ali2ation "or judi2ial re!ie9+
9e s)all no9 start 9it) (anda(us
.4
and (ention its "i!e 2)ara2teristi2s&
289 O:;ECTIVE
W)en you )a!e studied t)is 2ourse+ you s)ould 3e a3le to7
outline t)e oerati!e 2onditions "or rerogati!e orders&
/89 MAIN CONTENT
/8. Ord%r o2 M#nd#'u&
,e"ore an ali2ant "or judi2ial re!ie9 2an su22eed in in!o'ing
(anda(us t)ere (ust 3e an i(erati!e u3li2 duty i(osed on so(eone
and not just a dis2retionary o9er to a2t&
.4
se2ondly+ t)e ali2ant (ust
)a!e (ade a re-uest "or t)e er"or(an2e o" t)e duty and e) re-uest (ust
)a!e 3een re"used& T)irdly t)e ali2ant (ust )a!e a su3stantial
ersonal interest in t)e er"or(an2e o" t)e duty 2on2erned& T)e "ourt) is
t)at 9)ere t)ere is a re(edy e-ually 2on!enient+ 3ene"i2ial and
e""e2tual+ an order o" (anda(us 9ill not 3e (ade&
.0
ant lastly+ e) 2ourt
2@@
to 9)i2) ali2ation "or (anda(us is (ade (ust itsel" )a!e jurisdi2tion
to entertain and grant it&
.<
/82 Ord%r o2 Pro"!(!t!on
In an ali2ation "or judi2ial re!ie9+ an order o" ro)i3ition 9ill not
issue against a 3ody 9)i2) does not a2t as a judi2ial tri3unal in any legal
sense&.= it 9ill also not issue against a 3ody in rese2t o" a (inisterial
or legislati!e a2t&.;
Li'e (anda(us+ ro)i3ition 9ill not issue on t)e ali2ation o" a
stranger& In ot)er 9ords t)e do2trine o" locus standi+ 9)i2) is dis2ussed
a3o!e+ )as its art to lay in an ali2ation "or an order o" ro)i3ition&
/8/ Ord%r o2 C%rt!or#r!
T)e (ain 2)ara2teristi2 o" 2ertiorari is t)at it issues not 3e2ause o" any
ersonal injury to t)e ali2ant+ 3ut 3e2ause o" t)e need to 2ontrol t)e
(a2)inery o" justi2e in t)e general u3li2 interest& It is (eant to ensure
t)at in"erior 2ourts or any3ody entrusted 9it) t)e er"or(an2e o"
judi2ial and -uasi6judi2ial "un2tions 'ee 9it)in t)e li(its o" t)e
jurisdi2tion 2on"erred uon t)e( 3y t)e statutes 9)i2) 2reate t)e(& In
s)ort it deals 9it) t)e jurisdi2tion+
2:
o" an in"erior tri3unal& Certiorari
9ill not issue against Suerior Court o" Re2ord li'e t)e Hig) Court+
2.
S)aria Court o" Aeal and t)e Custo(ary Court o" Aeal
22
/84 Iuo W#rr#nto 4No3 #n In)unt!on5
T)e in"or(ation in t)e nature o" -uo 9arranto 9)i2) originally 9as 9rit
9as itsel"+ in .;=@ rela2ed in its )o(e 2ountry #ngland 3y an order o"
injun2tion& T)e essential o" -uo 9arranto+ l sin2e its essen2e is to
2)allenge t)e usuration o" a u3li2 o""i2e+ is t)at t)e o""i2e in -uestion
(ust 3e one )eld under or 2reated 3y t)e State&
2@
Anot)er essential is
t)at t)e o""i2e (ust 3e o" a u3li2 nature and su3stanti!e and not (erely
t)e "un2tion and e(loy(ent o" a deuty or ser!ant )eld at t)e 9ill and
leasure o" ot)ers&
24
t)e )older (ust )a!e eAer2ised t)e o""i2eE a (ere
2lai( to it is not su""i2ient to "ound a -uo 9arranto& Ho9e!er+ an
ad(ission to t)e o""i2e is su""i2ient user to "ound a -uo 9arranto&
24
As
usual+ t)e ali2ant (ust )a!e su""i2ient interest V locus standi. T)is
no9 leads us to 9)at a(ounts to su""i2ient interest 3e"ore alying "or
lea!eE in ot)er 9ords t)e Clo2us standing o" t)e ali2ant& And lo2us
standi )as 3een su""i2iently dis2ussed in C)ater .2& We no9 treat t)e
-uestion o" 2ondu2t o" ali2ant "or judi2ial re!ie9&
2@4
/80 Condut o2 t"% A77$!#nt 2or ;ud!!#$ R%*!%3
An ali2ant 9)o 9ants judi2ial re!ie9& Must (a'e )is ali2ation "or
any o" t)e relie"Fs as soon as )e 3e2o(es a9are o" t)e 2ause o"
2o(liant& As seen under t)e rule t)ere is ti(e li(it 9it)in 9)i2) to
aly& Alt)oug) t)e 2ourt )as dis2retion )er+ it is al9ays 3etter i" t)e
ali2ation is (ade 9it)in t)e ti(e li(it& I" t)e ali2ant is )o9e!er
alying "or lea!e out o" ti(e t)e ali2ant (ust 3e on noti2e and not
eA6arte so as to a""ord t)e ot)er arties an oortunity o" o3je2ting i"
t)ey so 9is) and good reasons "or t)e delay (ust 3e ad!an2e& It )as
3een )eld in Al)aji S)ittu Ajose !& A& Olateju X Anor& 40 t)at t)e "a2t
t)at t)e ali2ant 9as una9are o" t)e roer 2)annel "or 3ringing )is
ali2ation 9as not a su3stantial reason& It s)ould 3e noted t)at no
ali2ation "or an eAtension o" ti(e to 3ring an ali2ation "or 2ertiorari
2an 3e 3roug)t in t)e Court o" Aeal or in t)e Sure(e Court 3e2ause
t)e Rules o" t)ose 2ourts do not (a'e ro!isions "or t)is&
2<
An ali2ant "or judi2ial re!ie9 (ust s)o9 ut(ost u0errima fides& He
(ust dis2lose all (aterial "a2ts and (a'e no "alse state(ents to t)e 2ourt
9)en alying "or lea!e& Ot)er9ise on dis2o!ery o" any "alse state(ent
a"ter lea!e )as 3een granted+ t)e 2ourt (ay re"use to (a'e an order& An
ali2ant 9)o )as 9ai!ed an o3je2tion t)at )e (ay )a!e as to t)e
jurisdi2tion o" t)e 2ourt (ay 3e re"used relie" i" jurisdi2tion is 2on2erned
only 9it) de"e2ts in reli(inary ro2edural re-uire(ents& On t)is
rin2ile+ a 2ourt (ay re"use a lainti"" an order o" 2ertiorari to re(o!e
an a2tion to t)e Hig) Court on t)e ground o" la2' o" jurisdi2tion+ an
a2tion 9)i2) )e )as )i(sel" initiated in an in"erior 2ourt&
2=
&
/8@ E*!d%n% !n A77$!#t!on 2or ;ud!!#$ R%*!%3
We )a!e seen t)at t)e ra2ti2e in an ali2ation "or judi2ial re!ie9 is to
"irst and "ore(ost o3tain t)e lea!e o" t)e 2ourt& T)e ali2ation 9)et)er
during ter( or !a2ation (ust 3e suorted 3y a state(ent+ setting out
t)e na(e and des2rition o" t)e ali2ant+ t)e relie" 3eing soug)t and t)e
grounds uon 9)i2) it is 3eing soug)t and also 3y an a""ida!it !eri"ying
t)e "a2ts relied on& I" (ore t)an one relie" is 3eing soug)t t)is (ust 3e so
2ontained in t)e state(ent& It (ust also 3e indi2ated in t)e alternati!eE
and i" da(ages are 3eing 2lai(ed+ t)is (ust also 3e 2ontained in t)e
state(ent& T)e oint o" e()asis )ere is t)at i" t)e a3o!e is s2ruulously
"ollo9ed t)en an ali2ation in rese2t o" any o" t)e rerogati!e orders
s)ould 3e resol!ed solely on a""ida!it e!iden2e& I" )o9e!er t)e
a""ida!its (ani"est t)e "a2t t)at oral e!iden2e is ne2essary it 9ill 3e
ad(itted&
2;
In su(+ t)e "oregoing is t)e ro2edure 3y 9)i2) ali2ation is (ade "or
judi2ial re!ie9 in t)is 2ountry today& We )a!e already dealt 9it) t9o
2@4
(et)odsE ali2ation t)roug) t)e 2onstitutional ro!ision as lay do9n
3y se2tion 42 o" t)e .;<; Constitution and se2ondly ali2ation "or
judi2ial re!ie9 under t)e rerogati!e orders& T)e t)ird (et)od is
ali2ation "or 9rit o" )a3eas 2orus 9)i2) is a 'ind o" ali2ation "or
judi2ial re!ie9& In t)e lig)t o" all t)ese 9e )ardly need to say t)at
duality 9as t)e 3ane o" our la9 o" ro2edure in t)is 2ountry 3e"ore t)e
introdu2tion o" 2onstitutional i(ortan2e 3e2ause it is an instru(ent o"
t)e rote2tion o" t)e "unda(ental rig)t to ersonal li3erty 9it) its o9n
ro2edure -uite distin2t and di""erent "ro( t)e one ro!ided under t)e
Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(ent and $ro2edureD Rules& .;<;&
*is2ussed a3o!e& Its -uality+ nature and use 9ere duly eAounded 3y t)e
de"un2t Court o" Aeal o" Western State in Co((issioner o" $oli2e !&
Ag3aje a 2ase already dis2ussed& T)us7
T)e 9rit o" )a3eas 2orus is a rerogati!e ro2ess "or se2uring t)e
li3erty o" t)e su3je2t 3y a""ording an e""e2ti!e (eans o" i((ediate
release "ro( unla9"ul or unjusti"ia3le detention 9)et)er in rison or in
ri!ate 2ustody& T)e urose is to in-uire into t)e 2auses "or 9)i2) a
su3je2t )as 3een deri!ed o" )is li3erty& ,y it+ t)e Hig) Court and t)e
%udges o" t)at 2ourt+ at t)e instan2e o" t)e su3je2t aggrie!ed+ 2o((and
t)e rodu2tion o" t)at su3je2t+ and in-uire into t)e 2ause o" )is
i(rison(ent or detention+ i" t)ere 3e no legal justi"i2ation "or t)e
detentionE t)e arty is ordered to 3e release& T)e 9rit is ali2a3le as a
re(edy in all 2ases o" 9rong"ul deri!ation o" ersonal li3erty& #!en
9)ere t)e restraint is i(osed on 2i!il grounds under 2lai( o" aut)ority+
t)e legal !alidity o" t)at 2lai( (ay 3e in!estigated and deter(ined&
At t)is jun2ture+ it is 3etter 9e set out seriati( t)e Order under t)e
Uni"or( Hig) Court $ro2edure Rules sin2e 9e are dealing 9it)
ro2edure in t)is 2)ater+ "or 2on!enien2e+ 9e 9ill ta'e IOrder 4.F o"
Ondo State Hig) Court CCi!il $ro2edureD Rules CO&*&S& No& .= o" .;=<D
as our se2i(en 9)i2) ro!ides&
/8A ORDER 4.
H#(%#& Cor7u& Pro%%d!n,&
.& W)ere a erson is alleged to 3e 9rong"ully detained+ an
ali2ation (ay 3e (ade "or an order t)at )e 3e rodu2ed in
2ourt "or t)e urose o" 3eing released "ro( detention&
2& CiD No ali2ation under rule . s)all 3e (ade unless lea!e
t)ere"ore )as 3een granted in a22ordan2e 9it) t)is rule&
iiD Ali2ation "or su2) lea!e s)all 3e (ade eA6arte to t)e
2ourt and s)all 3e suorted 3y a state(ent stating out t)e
na(e and des2rition o" t)e ali2ant+ t)e relie" soug)t+
2@0
and t)e grounds on 9)i2) it is soug)t+ it s)all also 3e
suorted 3y an a""ida!it !eri"ying t)e "a2ts relied on&
.. T)e a""ida!it !eri"ying t)e "a2ts relied on in (a'ing t)e
ali2ation s)all 3e (ade 3y t)e erson detained+ 3ut 9)ere t)e
erson detained is una3le+ o9ing to t)e detention to (a'e t)e
a""ida!it+ t)e ali2ation s)all 3e a22o(anied 3y an a""ida!it to
t)e li'e e""e2t (ade 3y so(e ot)er erson+ 9)i2) s)all also state
t)at t)e erson detained is una3le to (a'e t)e a""ida!it )i(sel"&
.2 T)e ali2ant s)all "ile+ in t)e 2ourt+ t)e ali2ation "or lea!e not
later t)an t)e day re2eding t)e date o" )earing+ and s)all at t)e
sa(e ti(e lodge in t)e 2ourt enoug) 2oies o" t)e state(ent and
a""ida!it "or ser!i2e on any arty or arties as t)e 2ourt (ay
order&
.@ T)e 2ourt or judge (ay+ in granting lea!e+ i(ose su2) ter(s as
to gi!ing se2urity "or 2osts as it or )e t)in's "it&
.4 T)e 2ourt or judge (ay&
aD (a'e an order "ort)9it) "or t)e release o" t)e erson 3eing
detained t)e ro!ision o" aragra) . not9it)standingE
3D dire2t t)at an originating su((ons 3e issued in Bor( 2 o" t)e
Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(entD Rules+ .;<;+ or t)at t)e
ali2ation 3e (ade 3y noti2e o" (otion in Bor( @ o" t)e
Bunda(ental Rig)ts C#n"or2e(entD Rule .;<;E
2D adjourn t)e eA6arte ali2ation so t)at noti2e t)ereo" "or t)e
release o" t)e erson detained is soug)t&
.4 T)e su((ons or noti2e o" (otion s)all 3e ser!ed on t)e erson
against 9)o( t)e order "or t)e release o" t)e erson detained is
soug)t and on su2) ot)er ersons as t)e 2ourt or judge (ay
dire2t+ and+ unless t)e 2ourt or judge ot)er9ise dire2ts+ t)ere s)all
3e at least "i!e days 3et9een t)e ser!i2e o" t)e su((ons or
(otion and t)e date na(ed t)erein "or t)e )earing o" t)e
ali2ation&
.0 #!ery arty+ to an ali2ation under rule . s)all suly to e!ery
ot)er arty 2oies o" t)e a""ida!its 9)i2) )e rooses to use at
t)e )earing o" t)e ali2ation&
i& An ali2ation "or a 9rit o" )a3eas 2orus ad
testi"i2andu( or o" )a3eas 2orus ad resondendu( s)all
3e (ade on a""ida!it&
ii& An ali2ation "or an order to 3ring u a risoner+
ot)er9ise t)an 3y 9rit o" )a3eas 2orus+ to gi!e e!iden2e
2@<
in any 2ause or (atter+ 2i!il or 2ri(inal 3e"ore any 2ourt+
tri3unal or justi2e+ s)all 3e (ade on a""ida!it&
.< A 9rit o" )a3eas 2orus s)all 3e in Bor( ;4+ ;0 or ;< in t)e
AendiA+ 9)i2)e!er is aroriate&
$er)as it is desira3le 9e oint out )ere t)at t)e .;<2 Hig) Court Rule
o" Lagos State ro!ides "or t)is (atter in its Order 4@ rules ;6.<+ 9)i2)
rule are su3stantially t)e sa(e as t)ose o" Order 44 o" t)e Rules o" t)e
Sure(e
489 CONCLUSION
In t)is unit 9e )a!e learnt a3out ro2edure "or t)e en"or2e(ental
Hu(an Rig)t&
089 SUMMARY
T)e rig)t to da(ages is an ase2t o" t)e issues o" 2onstitutional re(edies
and re(edies a!aila3le as a (atter o" 2onstitutional rig)ts "or redness o"
2onstitutional 9rongs&
.D Write s)ort note on Ha3eas 2orus&
2D Identi"y Ha3eas 2orus ro2eedings&
A89 REFERENCE6FURTHER READINGS
Oye9o and ?a'a3u7 C.;;=D& Constitutional La9 in Nigeria& I3adan %ato
$u3lis)ers&
O& #se Male(i7 T)e Nigeria Constitutional La9&
2@=
UNIT 4 ORIGINATING NOTICE OF MOTION
CONTENTS
.&: Introdu2tion
2&: O3je2ti!e
@&: Main Content
@&. Conditions "or Grant o" Re(edy
@&2 Its $la2e in $u3li2 La9
@&@ T)e #""i2ien2y o" t)e Re(edy
@&4 Se2i"i2 $er"or(an2e
4&: Con2lusion
4&: Su((ary
.89 INTRODUCTION
An injun2tion is an order o" t)e 2ourt 9)i2) restrains a erson "ro(
ursuing a se2i"i2 2ourse o" a2tion or 9)i2) 2o(els su2) a erson to
do an a2t 9)i2) )e 9ould not ot)er9ise )a!e done !oluntarily& An
injun2tion 2an t)us 3e 3roadly 2lassi"ied as (andatory and ro)i3itory&
,ut 9)i2)e!er "or( it ta'es+ an injun2tion is eit)er eretual or
interlo2utory&
An injun2tion is eretual i"+ a22ording to $ro"essor %egede+ it is 3ased
on â "inal deter(ination o" t)e rig)ts o" t)e arties and is intended
er(anently to re!ent in"ringe(ent o" a rig)t and o3!iate t)e ne2essity
o" 3ringing an a2tion a"ter e!ery su2) in"ringe(ent& T)e order does not
ne2essarily last "or e!er+ 2ontrary to 9)at t)e des2rition or ter(inology
o" t)e order i(lies&^ W)at t)e ter( si(ly (eans is t)at ^t)e order
settles er(anently t)e eAisting disute 3et9een t)e arties+ 3eing an
order t)at is (ade only a"ter 3ot) arties to t)e disute )a!e 3een gi!en
t)e oortunity o" 3eing )eard and t)e (erits and de(erits o" t)e
disutantsK 2ontentions 2onsidered^&
289 O:;ECTIVE
Students s)ould 3e a3le to identi"y7
t)e !arious ro2edures in instituting an originating su((ons
2@;
/89 MAIN CONTENT
T)e order o" eretual injun2tion is (ade+ t)ere"ore+ to re!ent a
2ontinuous in"ringe(ent o" a rig)t and a 2ontinuous re2ourse to t)e
2ourt "or suita3le re(edies "or su2) in"ringe(ent&
T)ere are ot)er !ariants o" injun2tion& An injun2tion (ay 3e (andatory
or ro)i3itory& O" arti2ular interest is die use to 9)i2) injun2tion is ut
in t)e area o" u3li2 la9& T)e singular i(ortan2e o" an order o"
injun2tion is t)at it is "ir(+ e""e2ti!e and oerates in ersona(& T)e "a2t
t)at t)e order 2o(es 9it)in t)e 2lass des2ried as Knegati!eK injun2tion
6t)at is an order 9)i2) ro)i3its an a2tion does not in any 9ay derogate
"ro( its e""i2a2y& Bor e!en a negati!e injun2tion 2an 3e ignored only at
t)e ris' o" going to jail& Bor 2ourts )a9 al9ays loo'ed at a diso3edien2e
o" an injun2tion as an a""ront on t)eir aut)ority and t)e terse 3ut sti""
9arning o" N9o'edi+ %& Cas )e t)en 9asD in God9in O(u(u'a !&
Celetine U3ani X Ors& s)ould re(ind any rose2ti!e 2onten(or a3out
t)e ris' )e is ta'ing&
In t)at 2ase+ t)e judge )ad issued an interlo2utory injun2tion against t9o
o" t)e litigants 3e"ore )is 2ourt in a 2i!il a2tion& T)e order 9as
disregarded& It is trite la9 t)at a diso3edien2e o" an order o" injun2tion
2onstitutes a 2onte(t o" t)e 2ourt& In t)e su3se-uent trial o" t)e
2onte(t issue+ t)e judge said7 Î 2annot see )o9 t)e 2ourt 2an stand 3y
and allo9 its aut)ority to 3e !eri"ied in su2) a 2onte(tuous (anner 3y
arties to a suit 3e"ore it&^ T)e t9o 2onte(nors 9ere+ t)ere"ore+
2o((itted to t9o (ont)sK i(rison(ent "or 3rea2) o" t)e order&
Iluyo(ade and #'a o3ser!e t)at dou3ts )a!e 3een eAressed as to
9)et)er an injun2tion 9ould lie against t)e go!ern(ent or any o" its
deart(ents or o""i2ers in t)eir o""i2ial 2aa2ity& $ro"essor Wade
eAlains t)at ^t)e o3je2t o" t)is is to re!ent t)e Cro9nKs i((unity
3eing stulti"ied 3y su3stituting an o""i2ial as de"endant+ sin2e t)e 9)ole
oint o" t)e i((unity is t)at t)e (a2)inery o" 2entral go!ern(ent s)all
not 3e 3roug)t to a )alt 3y an injun2tion&^ ,ut Lord *enning )as ta'en
t)e !ie966 t)at an injun2tion (ig)t issue e!en i" it 9ould result in 2)aos&
T)e !ie9 eAressed 3y $ro"essor Wade does not+ )o9e!er+ (ean t)at it
is not in any 9ay ossi3le to dire2t an injun2tion against an o""i2er o" t)e
state& He )i(sel" ad(its t)at t)e reason 9)y injun2ti!e re(edies are not
eAtended to t)e Cro9n or state is ro3a3ly 3e2ause ^t)e statutory duties
o" t)e &Cro9n+ as oosed 9 t)ose o" se2i"i2 (inisters and go!ern(ent
deart(ent+ are !ery "e9& I" t)ey 9ere nu(erous and i(ortant^+ )e
adds+ ^so(e re(edy "or t)eir en"or2e(ent 9ould 3e indisensa3le&^
24:
Not)ing suorts t)e assertion (ore t)an t)e long list o" 2ases^ in 9)i2)
(inisters or go!ern(ent o""i2ials )a!e 3een restrained "ro( doing
arti2ular a2ts& T)e statutory duties are+ in "a2t+ 3e2o(ing ^nu(erous
and i(ortant^& ?et+ t)is trend is )a(ered 3y t)e relu2tan2e o" t)e
2ourt to grant an injun2tion against t)e state (inister 9)en t)e o""i2ial is
^2arrying out "un2tions 2on"erred on )i( 3y statute as a reresentati!e
or as an o""i2er o" t)e Cro9n&^
T)e osition is a little 2on"using+ and in t)is 2ountry 9e s)ould 3e
2are"ul to 9)at eAtent 9e i(ort t)e #nglis) rules into our resent
2onstitutional arrange(ent&
Bro( t)is 2on"used state o" t)e la9+ t9o dedu2tions 2an 3e (ade& Birst+
t)e role o" a (inister or 2o((issioner as an indi!idual 9)o deri!es )is
aut)ority dire2tly "ro( a statute (ust 3e searated "ro( )is a2ti!ities as
an agent o" t)e state& In t)e "or(er 2ase+ a (inister (ay 3e restrained i"
)e a2ts in a (anner in2onsistent 9it) t)e o9er 2on"erred on )i( under
t)e ena2t(ent& In Attorney6General o" ,endel State !& Attorney6General
o" t)e Bederation Ors& t)e lainti"" 2lai(ed a(ong ot)er relie"s+ an
injun2tion restraining all o""i2ers+ ser!ants and "un2tionaries o" t)e
go!ern(ent "ro( oerating t)e Re!enue Allo2ation A2t 9)i2) )ad 3een
assented to 3y t)e resident& A"ter de2laring t)e A2t a nullity+ t)e
learned 2)ie" justi2e said&
Binally+ all o""i2ers+ ser!ants and "un2tionaries o" t)e
go!ern(ent o" t)e Bederal Reu3li2 o" Nigeria or any 9ell
as non6statutory origin+ 9)ere su2) illegalities tend to
injure t)e u3li2 9el"are&
T)e s'et2)y )istori2al a22ount gi!en so "ar )as 3een (ade ne2essary
3e2ause Nigeria )as 3een assi(ilated into t)e #nglis) 2o((on la9
syste( and )as+ in "a2t+ re2ei!ed !irtually 9)olesale t)e #nglis)
do2trines o" e-uity into t)e 3ody o" its la9s&
Se2tion 44C.D o" t)e La9 CMis2ellaneous $ro!isionsD A2t .;@; ro!ided
t)at ^t)e 2o((on la9 o" #ngland and t)e do2trines o" e-uity s)all 3e in
"or2e in Lagos and+ in so "ar as t)ey relate to any (atter 9it)in t)e
eA2lusi!e legislati!e 2o(eten2e o" t)e "ederal legislature+ s)all 3e in
"or2e else9)ere in t)e "ederation^&

,ut eAress la9 as to t)e aut)ority o" t)e Nigerian 2ourts to grant an
injun2tion is to 3e "ound in t)e Sure(e Court A2t .;0: and t)e Hig)
Court La9s o" t)e !arious states o" t)e "ederation& Se2tion .0C3D o" t)e
Bederal Sure(e Court A2t e(o9ers t)e 2ourt+ in its original
jurisdi2tion+ to grant all e-uita3le re(edies& In arti2ular+ se2tion 22 o"
t)e A2t e(o9ers it to ^(a'e an interi( order or grant any injun2tion
9)i2) t)e 2ourt 3elo9 is aut)orised to (a'e or grant&&&^ T)e 2ourts
24.
3elo9 are t)e Court o" Aeal and t)e Hig) Courts and it is to 3e noted
t)at ea2) )ig) 2ourt is !ested 9it) t)e o9er to grant injun2tion+ eit)er
er(anently or "or a s)ort duration&
Se2tion = o" t)e Western Nigeria Hig) Court La9 .;44 !ests in t)e state
)ig) 2ourt âll t)e jurisdi2tion+ o9ers and aut)orities 9)i2) 9ere
!ested in or are 2aa3le o" 3eing eAer2ised 3y Her MajestyKs Hig) Court
o" %usti2e in #ngland^ and+ "or a!oidan2e o" dou3t+ se2tion 2: ro2eeds
to say t)at t)e 2ourt under t)e La9 (ay ^grant a (anda(us or
injun2tion&&& in all 2ases in 9)i2) it aears to t)e 2ourt to 3e just or
2on!enient to do so^&
^T)e 2o(3ined e""e2t o" t)e a3o!e ro!isions^+ says $ro"essor %egede+ is
to 2on"er on 3ot) t)e Sure(e Court and t)e )ig) 2ourts a 9ide
dis2retion in t)e a9ard o" injun2tion^&
In t)e "ield o" u3li2 la9 t)e )ands o" t)e 2ourts )a!e 3een "urt)er
strengti.ened 3y t)e ro!isions 2ontained in t)e Nigerian Constitution
9)i2) 9iden t)e s2oe o" t)e jurisdi2tion o" all suerior 2ourts o" re2ord
and gi!e t)e( an una(3iguous aut)ority to eAer2ise âll in)erent
o9ers and san2tions o" a 2ourt o" la9^& Su2) in)erent o9ers in2lude
t)e a9ard o" e-uita3le re(edies+ in2luding t)e granting o" a de2ree o"
injun2tion&
/8. Cond!t!on& 2or Gr#nt o2 R%'%d-
Li'e e!ery e-uita3le re(edy+ an injun2tion+ 9)et)er (andatory or
ro)i3itory+ is granted in u3li2 la9 at t)e dis2retion o" t)e 2ourt& T)is
dis2retion is+ )o9e!er+ eAer2ise on settled rin2iles& Unless 2ertain
(ini(u( 2riteria are satis"ied it does not aear t)at t)e 2ourt 9ill 3e
in2lined to de2ree an order o" injun2tion&
Bour 2riteria 2an easily 3e identi"ied& Birst+ an injun2tion 9ill 3e granted
to rote2t !ested legal rig)ts& T)is is 2lear "ro( t)e de2ision in A& O&
I3en9elu ! La9al& In t)at judg(ent+ Madari'an+ %SC said7
T)e golden rule is t)at 9)ere a lainti""Ks legal rig)t )as
3een in!aded and t)ere is a 2ontinuan2e o" su2) in!asion+
)e is entitled to an injun2tion&
T)e ro3a3ility t)at t)e injury 9)i2) )as o22urred is li'ely to 3e
2ontinued (ust 3e a real oneE 9)ere t)e injury are)ended or
t)reatened is (erely se2ulati!e+ 2ourts )a!e )eld t)e(sel!es una3le to
de2ree an order o" injun2tion& In Sa(uel Oye3anji Ogunsola ! S&L&
A'intayo X Anor+ "or instan2e+ 9)ere t)e issue in t)e 2lai(s )ad 3een
o!erta'en 3y e!ents+ Ogun3iyi+ %& said ^t)e role o" t)e 2ourt is to 6
deter(ine disutes and not to 9rite oinions& T)at (ay in t)e long run
242
a(ount not only to a "utile a2ade(i2 eAer2ise+ 3ut also in all ro3a3ility
lead to "urt)er "ruitless litigation and a 3rea2) o" t)e ea2e as 9ell^&
In Leslie B Tate ! T)e Senior I((igration O""i2er+ )o9e!er+ t)e
lainti"" 9as a3le to esta3lis) a real t)reat to )is rig)t and )e su22eeded
in o3taining an order in )is "a!our& Tate 9as an alien resident in Nigeria&
Bor reasons 9)i2) are not -uite (aterial to t)is dis2ussion+ t)e senior
i((igration o""i2er ser!ed on )i( a noti2e o" )is deortation "ro( t)e
2ountry& He too' out a 9rit to 2)allenge t)e order and t)en soug)t an
interlo2utory injun2tion to restrain t)e de"endant "ro( deorting )i(
ending t)e "inal deter(ination o" )is suit t)en 3e"ore t)e 2ourt& Co'er+
%& Cas )e t)en 9asD granted t)e order+ saying t)at )e )ad ^no dou3t a3out
t)e justi2e o" allo9ing t)e lainti"" to stay in t)e 2ountry until t)e
deter(ination o" )is 2ase nor )as any e!iden2e o" in2on!enien2e to
any3ody 3een addu2ed or argued^&
Ho9e!er+ in #((anuel Ojo Wey ! Lagos #Ae2uti!e *e!elo(ent
,oard t)e 2ourt re"used to (a'e an order 3e2ause t)e interest soug)t to
3e rote2ted 9as rose2ti!e and )ad not 2rystallised into a real legal
rig)t&
$lainti""s )ad soug)t an interlo2utory injun2tion to restrain t)e
de"endants "ro( ulling do9n t)eir )ouses and eje2ting t)e( "ro(
o22uation t)ere"ro(& T)ey t)oug)t+ "ro( t)eir o3ser!ations o" 9)at
9as )aening around+ t)at t)e de"endants 9ere going to do t)is+ t)oug)
t)ere 9as no t)reat t)at it 9ould+ in "a2t+ 3e done& T)e 2ourt re"used to
(a'e t)e order& A33ott+ %& said7
&&&t)e lainti""s t)in' or anti2iate t)at t)eir )ouses (ay 3e
ulled& T)at is not enoug)& T)e (ere rose2ts o" injury
does not gi!e a rig)t to t)e relie" as'ed "or )ere&&& and I a(
not satis"ied t)at t)e injury+ i" it 3e done+ is anyt)ing (ore
t)an in rose2t at t)e (o(ent^&
Legal rig)ts 9)i2) 9ill suort t)e issuan2e o" an order o" injun2tion
in2lude t)e rig)t to e(loy(ent+ "reedo( o" (o!e(ent+ and t)e
in!asion o" ri!a2y& T)e rig)ts to (e(3ers)i o" 2lu3s and asso2iations+
to )old u3li2 o""i2es+ and to roagate ideas are a(ong t)e rig)ts 9)i2)
t)e 2ourts are in2lined to rote2t 3y injun2tion& T)ere are e!en judi2ial
aut)orities to t)e e""e2t t)at 9)ere ri!ate interests are ese2ially
a""e2ted 3y t)e eAe2ution or non6er"or(an2e o" u3li2 duties an
injun2tion (ig)t issue to rote2t su2) ri!ate interests&
Se2ondly+ an injun2tion 9ill not 3e granted 9)ere t)e a2t 2o(lained o"
)as 3een 2o(leted^+ t)e ro2eedings no9 in 2ourt )a!e 3e2o(e stale+
24@
or t)e order 9ill not 3e en"or2ea3le& Â 2ourt 9ill not order a erson to
do t)at 9)i2) is i(ossi3le^&
T)irdly+ a 2ourt 9ill not also de2ree an injun2tion 9)ere se2i"i2
re(edies are ro!ided or so(e ot)er re(edies 9ould 3e e-ually or (ore
e""i2a2ious& Indeed+ 9)ere da(ages 9ill (eet t)e justi2e o" t)e 2ase+ t)e
2ourt 9ill not order an injun2tion&
In an interlo2utory injun2tion+ t)e 2ourts )a!e 2onsistently stated t)at t)e
3alan2e o" 2on!enien2e is an i(ortant ele(ent in t)e 2onsideration
9)et)er to grant t)e order or not& T)e K3alan2e o" 2on!enien2eK (eans no
(ore t)an t)at t)e erson 9)o is li'ely to 2o(e o"" 9orse i" t)e order is
gi!en )as t)e 3alan2e o" 2on!enien2e on )is side& T)us+ in Leslie Tate !
Senior I((igration O""i2er+ t)e 2ourt granted t)e order 3e2ause t)e
alternati!e 9ould 3e t)at t)e lainti"" 2ould 3e 3undled out o" t)e
2ountry 3e"ore t)e su3stanti!e 2ase 9as )eard& In t)e eAer2ise o" t)is
dis2retion+ t)e 2ourt (ig)t eAtra2t an underta'ing as a ri2e o" t)e
injun2tion "ro( t)e ali2ant&
T)e 2ourt 9ill generally not grant an injun2tion o" an interi( nature
unless t)e (atter is ese2ially urgent& #!en 9)ere one )as already 3een
granted+ it is at t)e dis2retion o" t)e 2ourt to dis2)arge su2) injun2tion&
In Bederal #le2toral Co((ission ! A"ola3i Oredoyin t)e Bederal Court
o" Aeal dis2)arged an interi( injun2tion restraining B#*#CO "ro(
2arrying on t)e re!ision o" t)e !otersK list in Lagos State 3e2ause t)ere
9as no real urgen2y "or it+ and (oreo!er+ ^t)e order (ade in 2ourt
3elo9 is "ar6rea2)ing and )as t)e e""e2t o" re!enting t)e B#*#CO and
its o""i2ials "ro( 2arrying out t)eir 2onstitutional "un2tions^&
Bourt)ly+ 2ourts )a!e al9ays "elt relu2tant to de2ree an injun2tion in
2ir2u(stan2es in 9)i2) it is ut out o" t)eir rea2) to suer!ise su2)
order& In #s)ug3ayi #le'o ! ,addeley+ one o" t)e grounds on 9)i2) t)e
re"usal o" t)e order 9as 3ased 9as t)at Mr& ,addeley 9ould not 3e in a
osition to 2o(ly and e!en i" )e did t)e su3stanti!e )older o" t)e o""i2e
o" go!ernor 9ould not 3e 3ound sin2e t)e order 9as to oerate in
ersona(& In e""e2t+ t)e order 9ould 3e rendered nugatory&
T)is )iloso)y o" t)e 2ourts is+ o" 2ourse+ t)e (ain reason 9)y
injun2tion is in"re-uently (ade against t)e state or state "un2tionaries
9)o are in 2ontrol o" all en"or2e(ent aaratus o" t)e state& T)is attitude
o" t)e 2ourts is 3ased on t)e (aAi( t)at e-uity does not)ing in !ain&
$ro"essor Wade 2o((ents7

So "ar as t)ey go+ t)e de2isions suggest t)at t)e injun2tion
(ay no9 3e less tig)tly tied to ersonal legal rig)t t)an is
244
t)e de2laration and t)at it (ay o!erla t)e rerogati!e
re(edies 9)i2) (ay 3e a9arded on a (ore li3eral 3asis&
/82 It& P$#% !n Pu($! L#3
T)e State(ent o" $ro"essor Wade -uoted a3o!e eAlains t)e aat)y o"
t)e 2o((on la9 la9yers in see'ing an injun2tion 9)ere a jo3 )as to 3e
er"or(ed or so(e rig)ts are in!aded 3y u3li2 organs o" state&
Înjun2tion is not used in t)is 2ountry as a re(edy in ad(inistrati!e
ro2eedings^+ a22ording to $ro"essor Ga(er+ ^3e2ause eit)er 2ertiorari
or a2tion "or de2laration 9ill o"ten 3e (ore aroriate^& ,ut t)en it
does not (ean t)at it is not used&
$er)as t)e 2riti2al 2onsideration in t)e 2)oi2e o" re(edies is to 'ee in
(ind t)e "a2t t)at t)e (ain oint o" 2onta2t 3et9een 2itiHen and u3li2
aut)orities is in u3li2 duties 9)i2) (ay (ore 2on!eniently 3e en"or2ed
3y (anda(us or 3are de2laration&
Ho9e!er+ t)e er"or(an2e or non6er"or(an2e o" u3li2 duties 3y
go!ern(ent "un2tionaries and 2ororate institutions does not 2onstitute
t)e only a2ti!ity a3out 9)i2) t)e 2itiHen (ay 2o(lain& T)ere is a )ost
o" ot)er interests 9)i2) (ay need to 3e rote2ted& Su( interests (ay
in2lude t)e re!ention o" a 3rea2) o" 2ontra2t+ t)e rig)t not to 3e li3eled
or !eri"ied 3y s2urrilous 9ritings or literature+ t)e rig)t to rote2tion
"ro( t)e oeration o" odious la9s or 3y6la9s+ t)e re!ention o" t)e
!iolation o" "unda(ental and ot)er rig)ts+ and re!ention o" 9rongs
done to a 2itiHen& T)ese areas o" go!ern(ental a2ti!ities 9)ere
injun2tion is a3out t)e (ost otent re(edy+ are 3eyond t)e s2oe o"
(ere de2laratory judg(ents and 2o(letely outside t)e ro!in2e o"
rerogati!e orders&

T)e 2itiHen 2an see' injun2tion to restrain a u3li2 3ody or institution
"ro( 2o((itting a 3rea2) o" t)e 2ontra2t 3et9een t)e(& Con!ersely+ a
u3li2 aut)ority (ay+ 9it) e-ual 2on!enien2e+ re-uest "or a (andatory
injun2tion 9)i2) 2o(els a 2itiHen or ot)er 3odies to do an a2t& In
Attorney Genera/ ! Col2)ester Cororation a (andatory injun2tion 9as
soug)t 3ut 9as re"used 3e2ause t)e 2ontra2t as'ed to 3e er"or(ed 9as
une2ono(i2al& T)e 2ourt 9ill en"or2e a 2ontra2t 3y injun2tion only i" it
is reasona3le&
Cases O" en"or2e(ent o" a 2ontra2t 3y an injun2tion in ad(inistrati!e
la9 are not (any& T)is is 3e2ause+ as already stated+ o" t)e 2ase 9it)
9)i2) t)e alternati!e rerogati!e re(edy o" ro)i3ition 2an 3e o3tained&
Most reorted 2ases 9)ere injun2tion 9as soug)t in!ol!ed 2ontra2t o"
e(loy(ent in t)e u3li2 ser!i2e In Ogunye ! Uni!ersity o" Lagos+ t)e
2ourt granted an interlo2utory injun2tion to restrain t)e de"endant "ro(
244
utting into e""e2t t)e later 9ritten to t)e lainti"" 3y t)e uni!ersity
2oun2il urorting to ter(inate )is e(loy(ent& Si(ilarly+ in *r&
Adesegun ,anjo ! T)e Uni!ersity o" I3adan 5ayode #so+ C&%& Cas )e
t)en 9asD+ in granting an injun2tion+ .aid7
I (ust say straig)t a9ay t)at t)e 2ourt 9ould not "or2e an
un9illing e(loyer to ro!ide 9or' "or )is e(loyee&&
,ut so long as t)e le2turer or e(loyee is reared to
ser!e t)e uni!ersity 9)at 9ill t)e lainti"" lose i" I re"use
t)is KorderJ He 9ill lose all t)e enjoy(ents&&& t)at is+
o!erseas study lea!e+ art6"urnis)ed residential
a22o((odation or )ousing allo9an2e in lieu+
suerannuating 3ene"its and a 2ar allo9an2e&&& To (y
(ind+ t)e 3alan2e o" in2on!enien2e 9eig)s )ea!ily against
t)e ali2ant i" I re"use t)e order soug)t&&& I 9ill eAer2ise
(y dis2retion to grant an injun2tion ending t)e
deter(ination o" t)e suit&
T)e 2ourts are generally ^not deterred 3y t)e "a2t t)at an injun2tion
against a u3li2 aut)ority is a arti2ularly drasti2 stes+ 3ringing t)e
(a2)inery o" go!ern(ent to a )alt& T)ey do not lend a ready ear to leas
o" ad(inistrati!e in2on!enien2e^& Nor are t)e 2ourts (o!ed 3y t)e
i(e2uniosityKs o" a 2ororate ad(inistrati!e 3ody or institution& T)us+
in Nigerian Sulies Manu"a2turing Co& ! Nigeria ,road2asting
Cororation+ t)e )ig) 2ourt re"used t)e lea against an injun2tion to
restrain a 3rea2) o" 2ontra2t 3y t)e 2ororation& T)e 2ororation 3ad
resisted t)e ali2ation "or an injun2tion+ 2ontending t)at it 2ould not
"ul"ill t)e 2ontra2t 3e2ause t)e "inan2ial osition o" t)e 2ororation 9as
re2arious& Le9is+ I&S&C& said ê!en i" t)e "inan2ial stringen2y )ad 3een
ro!ed+ 9)i2) 9as not+ t)is 9ould+ in our judg(ent not )a!e 3een a
ground "or re"using t)e lainti""s 2lai(s^& T)e Sure(e Court restrained
t)e 3rea2) o" t)e 2ontra2t&
Aart "ro( restraining 3rea2) o" 2ontra2t+ an injun2tion is 'no9n to
)a!e 3eat a9arded to re!ent injury to t)e reutation o" anot)er& ,ut in
t)is rese2t t)e lainti"" (ust ro!e an înjury+ eAisting or are)ended&
In Sola Sora'i ! Soleye+ 9)ere t)e lainti"" sued t)e de"endant+ a
er(anent se2retary in t)e go!ern(ent o" 59ara State t)e sure(e
2ourt )eld t)at7
We o3ser!e t)at t)e de"endant is e(o9ered to grant a
er(it to t)e ali2ant to lea!e t)e se2i"ied area and to
su2) ter(s and 2onditions to t)e er(it as )e dee(s
eAedient> I" )e does not do so 9e 2onsider t)at t)e
ali2ant )as (ade out a 2ase "or 3eing er(itted to attend
t)is 2ourt>Q
240
A22ordingly+ t)e order soug)t 9as (ade 3y t)e 2ourt&
/8/ T"% E22!!%n- o2 t"% R%'%d-
T)e o3je2t o" an injun2tion o" 9)ate!er 'ind+ as already noted+ is
to o3ser!e er"or(an2e or non6er"or(an2e o" an a2t& Ho9
e""e2ti!e )as t)is re(edy 3een in t)e real( o" u3li2 la9J
To 3e a3le to ans9er t)is -uestion o3je2ti!ely+ it is ne2essary to 2onsider
t)e t)ree 2lasses o" arties in!ol!ed in u3li2 ad(inistration to 9)o( or
to 9)i2) an order o" injun2tion (ig)t 3e dire2ted& T)ese are u3li2
o""i2ers+ 2ororations or institutional ar(s o" go!ern(ent+ and t)e 2)ie"
eAe2uti!e&
Wit) regard to indi!idual o""i2ers+ it see(s t)at an injun2tion (ay 3e an
e""e2ti!e tool to 2o(el or restrain er"or(an2e o" a2ts 9)i2) are
rejudi2ial to t)e interest o" indi!idual (e(3ers o" t)e 2o((unity& And
sin2e an injun2tion oerates in ersona(+ it is 9it)in t)e o9er o" t)e
2ourt to en"or2e it in "or( o" a 2o((ittal "or 2onte(t i" an order is
diso3eyed 9)en issued against an o""i2er&
In t)e 2ase o" 2ororation a2ting Wider so(e statutory aut)ority t)e
ro3le( )as al9ays 3een one o" identi"ying t)e aroriate organ
against 9)i2) t)e order is to 3e (ade& T)is is arti2ularly so 9)ere t)e
a2t to 3e restrained or done is to 3e 2arried out 3y t)e 2ororation in its
2ororate status& T)e 2ourt (ay get round t)e ro3le( 3y (a'ing t)e
order against t)e o""i2ers o" t)e 2ororation 9)o are 2onsidered as t)e
âlter ego^ o" t)e 3ody& T)e Sure(e Court )as (ade it lain in I3adan
City Coun2il ! Odu'ale+ t)at t)e 2)air(an o" a lo2al go!ern(ent is t)e
alter ego o" t)at 3ody and )is o(issions are+ t)ere"ore+ dee(ed to 3e
t)ose o" t)e 2oun2il itsel"&
Until t)e re2ent 2ase o" A6G& o" ,endel State ! A6G o" t)e Bederation X
Ors&+ it 9as not 2lear i" an injun2tion 2ould issue against an o""i2er o" t)e
go!ern(ent a2ting as agent o" t)e go!ern(ents& ,ut t)e un2ertainty )as
no9 3een re(o!ed& It see(s t)at 9)ere an order is dire2ted against a
u3li2 o""i2er or an as2ertaina3le+ 2lass o" o""i2ers+ an injun2tion (ay
e-ually 3e en"or2ed against )i( or against any (e(3er o" t)e 2lass&
T)e 2)ie" eAe2uti!e 6t)e )ead o" state and t)e state go!ernors6are in a
ri!ileged osition& ,y se2tion o" t)e Nigerian Constitution .;;;+ t)ey
are i((uned "or( legal ro2eedings in t)eir 2aa2ities and in
2onse-uen2e+ una(ena3le to t)e san2tions o" all judg(ents and orders
o" a 2ourt o" la9& T)ere"ore+ 9)ere a go!ern(ent is restrained "ro(
24<
doing an a2t 3y an order o" a 2ourt+ it 9ould aear t)at an injun2tion
against a go!ernor+ e!en in a de(o2rati2 setting+ is useless&
Alt)oug) an injun2tion issues at t)e dis2retion o" t)e 2ourt+ it is
a3solutely essential t)at 2ourts s)ould eAer2ise t)is dis2retion in "a!our
o" (e(3ers o" t)e u3li2 9)ere an a2t or o(ission o" go!ern(ent
"un2tionaries t)reatens t)eir !ested rig)t& T)is is arti2ularly ne2essary
9)en it is noted t)at t)e restri2tion on t)e 2ourts in de2reeing an
injun2tion+ 9)i2) 9ill )a!e t)e e""e2t o" an order o" se2i"i2
er"or(an2e o" a 2ontra2t+ is sel"6i(osed& Ît&&& is not a jurisdi2tional
3ar 3ut (erely a general rin2ile regulating t)e eAer2ise o" dis2retion^&
It is true t)at Lord *enning said in ,rad3ury !& #n"ield London
,oroug) Coun2il t)at an injun2tion 9ould issue e!en i" 2)aos 9ould
result+ 3ut t)at is only in rese2t o" a 3rea2) o" statute& T)e learned lordKs
oinion 2annot it see(s+ 3e stret2)ed to 2o!er restraint on a 3rea2) o"
2ontra2t or ot)er 2o(laints outside t)e s)ere o" statute&
T)ere are reasons to 3elie!e t)at a (andatory injun2tion to ay (oney
or da(ages (ay 2on!eniently 3e en"or2ed against statutory 3odies& In
t)e 2ase o" go!ern(ent deart(ent and ot)er institutional organs 2reated
under t)e 2onstitution+ t)e ro3le( o" en"or2e(ent o" a (andatory
injun2tion is 3oot) ra2ti2al and legal+ 9)ere t)e judg(ent to 3e
en"or2ed in!ol!es ay(ent o" (oney&
T)e ra2ti2al ase2t ta'es t9o di(ensions7 T)e "irst is )o9 t)e (oney to
satis"y t)e order is to 3e "oundE and se2ondly+ t)e instru(ent o"
en"or2e(ent&
Wit) regard to t)e "irst+ deart(ents and 2o((issions )a!e su3!ention
aro!ed "or t)e( 3y t)e legislature on an annual 3asis& #!ery
eAenditure is tied to a arti2ular ite( or roje2t and a deart(ent or
2o((ission (ay not send (oney on an ite( not aro!ed 3y t)e
legislature& W)ere is t)e (oney to satis"y su2) an order to 2o(e "ro(
eA2et it is su3se-uently aut)oriHed 3y t)e legislatureJ T)e lainti""
3e2o(es )elless 3e2ause t)e 2oer2i!e instru(ents o" en"or2e(ent
3elong to t)e go!ern(ent and it 9ould 3e to eAe2t it to t)e (eans o"
en"or2e(ent against itsel"& T)e 2ase o" S)uga3a A3dulra)a(an *ar(an
!& Minister o" Internal A""airs X Ors& ro!es t)is "a2t 3eyond dou3t&
T)e legal ase2t "lo9s "ro( t)e ra2ti2al one& Ho9 2an a (andatory
order 3e o3eyed 9)en+ alt)oug) t)e go!ern(ent re-uests "or "unds "ro(
die legislature+ t)e latter re"uses to aro!eJ T)e 2ourt 2annot 2o(el
arlia(ent to aro!e arti2ular ite(s o" eAenditureE neit)er 2an it
2o((it any o""i2er o" t)e 2ororation "or 2onte(t+ sin2e non6
2o(lian2e (ust 3e deli3erate to attra2t t)e san2tion& In e""e2t+ 9)ere a
24=
2ourt (a'es su2) an order on su2l. a 3ody in su2) a 2ir2u(stan2e+ it
9ould )a!e done so in !ain&
An a(end(ent introdu2ed into se2tion 24. o" t)e Constitution .;<;
9ould )a!e oened a 2)annel o" en"or2e(ent o" re(edies against t)e
state and its agen2ies& ,y a ne9 su3se2tion C4D o" se2tion 24. o" t)e
2onstitution it 9as ossi3le to 2o(el t)e attorney6general 3y an order
o" (anda(us to issue a "iat "or ay(ent o" a judg(ent 3y a (inistry or
eAtra6(inisterial deart(ent& Cororations and arastatals 9ere not
2o!ered 3y t)e ne9 2onstitutional ro!ision and it aears ay(ent 3y
t)ose 3odies (ig)t 3e "or2ed 3y a 9rit o" atta2)(ent& ,ut die ro!ision
is not art o" t)e .;;; 2onstitution&
/84 S7%!2! P%r2or'#n%
Se2i"i2 er"or(an2e and (anda(us are t9in re(edies in u3li2 la9&
,ot) ensure t)at a ositi!e a2t is dale& T)e 3asi2 di""eren2e 3et9een
t)e( is t)at 9)ile t)e "or(er is a re(edy a!aila3le in 3ot) ri!ate and
u3li2 la9+ t)e latter is 2on"ined solely to u3li2 la9&
T)e e-uita3le re(edy o" se2i"i2 er"or(an2e is arti2ularly ro(inent
in t)e real( o" t)e la9 o" 2ontra2t+ 3ut its use a re(edy in u3li2 la9 is
!ery (u2) in dou3t& T)is is 3e2ause (ost go!ern(ent a2ti!ities are
2arried on 3y u3li2 o""i2ers as agents o" t)e state and+ as 9e )a!e seen+
no a2tion lay to en"or2e a 2ontra2t against t)e Cro9n eA2et 3y etition
o" rig)t&
T)ere"ore+ it 9ill 3e are2iated 9)y $ro"essor Ga(er+ t)oug)
2on2eding t)at Pse2i"i2 er"or(an2e&&& (ay 3e o3tained against an
ad(inistrati!e agen2y&&& on t)e sa(e grounds as against any ot)er
de"endantQ+ goes on "urt)er to say t)at it 9ould not lie against t)e
Cro9n&
T)e -uestion t)en is7 On 9)at grounds and in 9)at 2ir2u(stan2es 9ill
2ourt de2ree order o" se2i"i2 er"or(an2e against a u3li2 3ody or+ to
use t)e 9ords o" $ro"essor Ga(er+ âd(inistrati!e agen2y^J
T)e 2urrent edition o" Hals3uryKs La9s o" #ngland is 2o(letely silent
on t)e a!aila3ility o" t)e re(edy o" se2i"i2 er"or(an2e in
ad(inistrati!e la9& T)is is resu(a3ly due to t)e e()ati2 ro!ision in
t)e Cro9n $ro2eedings A2t .;4< t)at no injun2tion or order o" se2i"i2
er"or(an2e s)all issue against t)e Cro9n&
T)e resent state o" t)e la9 in #ngland 2annot+ )o9e!er+ justi"y an
in"eren2e t)at t)e order 9ill not 3e de2reed in t)is 2ountry against a
go!ern(ent deart(ent or (inistry& In t)e "irst la2e+ t)ere is not)ing in
24;
any Nigerian statutes e-ui!alent to se2tion 2. o" t)e #nglis) A2t&
Se2ondly+ se2tion 0 and 2<2 o" t)e Nigerian Constitution e(o9er t)e
2ourts to entertain a2tions in relation to Pall (atters 3et9een ersons+ or
3et9een go!ern(ent or aut)ority and any erson&&& "or t)e deter(ination
o" (y -uestions as to t)e 2i!il rig)ts and o3ligations o" t)at ersonQ&
T)e grant o" an order o" se2i"i2 er"or(an2e against t)e go!ern(ent
2an t)ere"ore+ not 3e a re(ote ossi3ility in Nigeria&
489 CONCLUSION
In t)is unit+ you )a!e eAa(ined in details t)e ter( injun2tion and
se2i"i2 er"or(an2e& ?ou )a!e learnt a3out t)e "un2tions o" ea2)&
T)e unit also loo' at t)e !arious re(edy a!aila3le to a litigant and t)e
e""i2a2y o" t)at re(edy&
089 SUMMARY
In t)is unit 9e see injun2tion as an order o" t)e 2ourt 9)i2) restrains a
erson "ro( ursuing a se2i"i2 2ourse o" a2tion or 9)i2) 2o(els su2)
a erson to do an a2t 9)i2) )e 9ould not ot)er9ise )a!e done
!oluntarily&
.D *is2uss t)e e""i2a2y o" injun2tion re(edy&
2D W)at is se2i"i2 er"or(an2e
%ustus A& So'e"un7 Issues in 2onstitutional La9 and $ra2ti2e in Nigeria&
An #ssay in Honour o" Olu Onagoru9a& Ago6I9oye7 COla3isi
Ona3anjo La9 "a2ultyD 2::2&
24:

National Open University of Nigeria: Course Code:-Law 242

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