GRADUATE TRAINEE MODULAR COURSE

ON
POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION
BASIC
By

Engr. A. O. Toki
Shift Electrical Maintenance Manager
Power Plant electrical Department
Power Plant division.




SYLLABUS OVERVIEW
LESSON 1; TYPES OF POWER GENERATION
LESSON 2; GENERATOR PARTS/COMPONENTS
LESSON 3; FREQUENCY AND VOLTAGE CONTROL
LESSON 4; POWER FACTOR
LESSON 5; SYNCHRONISATION OF GENERATOR
LESSON 6; LINE ELEMENTS & NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS
LESSON 7; TRANSFORMERS
LESSON 8; ENERGY TRANSPORTATION AND CONSIDERATION
LESSON 9; PROTECTIONS & MAINTENANCE OF POWER SYSTEMS
LESSON 10; GENERAL REVIEW







LESSON 1
WAYS OF GENERATING ELECTRIC POWER
Power generation (electrical) is the act of converting another form of energy into
electrical form. Literarily, it could be referred to as energy transformation from
one form to another. All other bulk forms of energy cannot be transported at real
time to the end users except electrically, these explains the importance of these
form of energy in the global world.
Existing methods of generating electrical power are;
1. ELECTRO- CHEMICAL; an electrochemical cell is a device capable of either
deriving electrical energy from chemical reactions, or facilitating chemical
reactions through the introduction of electrical energy. A common example
of an electrochemical cell is a standard 1.5-volt "battery".
An electrochemical cell consists of two half-cells. Each half-cell consists of
an electrode, and an electrolyte. The two half-cells may use the same
electrolyte, or they may use different electrolytes. The chemical reactions
in the cell may involve the electrolyte, the electrodes or an external
substance (as in fuel cells which may use hydrogen gas as a reactant).

2. SOLAR POWER; Solar power is produced by collecting sunlight and
converting it into electricity. This is done by using solar panels, which are
large flat panels made up of many individual solar cells.


This can be direct as with photovoltaic (PV), or indirect as with
concentrating solar power (CSP), where the sun's energy is focused to boil
water which is then used to provide power .
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into
electric current using the photoelectric effect. This is based on the
discovery by Alexander-Edmond Becquerel who noticed that some
materials release electrons when hit with rays of photons from light, which
produces an electrical current.
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking
systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The
concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power
plant.
3. WIND POWER GENERATION; Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are
caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the
irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind flow
patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and
vegetation. Humans use this wind flow, or motion energy, for many
purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even generating electricity.
The terms wind energy or wind power describes the process by which the
wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines
convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. A generator
converts this mechanical power into electricity.


This diagram shown above is a wind power plant with a group of wind
turbines generating electric energy for the utility grid. The electricity is sent
through transmission and distribution lines to homes, businesses, schools,
and so on.


4. HYDRO POWER GENERATION; This is the production of electrical power
through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is
the most widely used form of renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric
complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a
considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
than fossil fuel powered energy plants.
Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of the dammed
water driving a water turbine and generator. In this case the energy
extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in
height between the source and the water's outflow.



.
5. STEAM POWER GENERATION; In a steam power plant, fuels (such as
petroleum, coal, or biomass) are burned to heat water which turns into
steam, which goes through a turbine, which spins...turning the copper wire
(armature) inside the generator and generating an electric current.

A geothermal power plant is pretty much a steam power plant, since what
comes out of the earth is steam. Rainwater soaks into the ground and goes
down, down, down...far enough until it reaches a region which is really hot
(in Hawaii, that's about 6000 feet). A well is drilled, the steam comes out,
goes through a heat exchanger, and spins a turbine... turning the copper
wire (armature) inside the generator and generating an electric current. By
the time the steam has gone through the heat exchanger, it has cooled off
and become warm water. It is then re-injected into the ground.

In a gas turbine power plant, fuels are burned to create hot gases which go
through a turbine, which spins...turning the copper armature inside the
generator and generating an electric current.

In a nuclear power plant, nuclear reactions create heat to heat water,
which turns into steam, which goes through a turbine, which spins...turning
the copper armature inside the generator and generating an electric
current.








6 ICE- INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
An internal combustion engine is any engine that operates by burning its
fuel inside the engine. Our engines used in Flour mills of Nigeria plc are ICEs.
In contrast a steam engine burns its fuel outside the engine. The most
common internal combustion engine type is gasoline powered. Others include
those fueled by diesel, hydrogen, methane, propane, etc. Engines typically can
only run on one type of fuel and require adaptations to adjust the air/fuel
ratio or mix to use other fuels.
In a gasoline engine, a mixture of gasoline and air is sprayed into a cylinder.
This is compressed by a piston and at optimal point in the compression stroke;
a spark plug creates an electrical spark that ignites the fuel. The combustion of
the fuel results in the generation of heat, and the hot gases that are in the
cylinder are then at a higher pressure than the fuel-air mixture and so drive
the piston back down. These combustion gases are vented and the fuel-air
mixture reintroduced to run a second stroke. The outward linear motion of
the piston is ordinarily harnessed by a crankshaft to produce circular motion.
Valves control the intake of air-fuel mixture and allow exhaust gasses to exit
at the appropriate times.
Two-Stroke
The two-stroke type of internal combustion engine is typically used in utility or
recreational applications which require relatively small, inexpensive, and
mechanically simple motors (chainsaws, jet skis, small motorcycles, etc).
The two-stroke engine is simple in construction, but complex dynamics are
employed in its operation. There are several features unique to a two-stroke
engine. First, there is a reed valve between the air-fuel intake and the
crankcase. Air-fuel mixture enters the crankcase and is trapped there by the
one-way reed valve. Next, the cylinder has no valves as in a conventional four
stroke engine. Intake and exhaust are accomplished by means of ports -
special holes cut into the cylinder wall which allows fuel-air mixture to enter
from the crankcase, and exhaust to exit the engine. These ports are uncovered
when the piston is in the down position.
Air-fuel mixture is drawn into the crankcase from the carburetor or fuel
injection system through the reed valve. When the piston is forced down, the
exhaust port is uncovered first, and hot exhaust gases begin to leave the
cylinder. As the piston is now in the down position, the crankcase becomes
pressurized, and when the intake port into the cylinder is uncovered,
pressurized air-fuel mixture enters the chamber. Both the intake and exhaust
ports are open at the same time, which means the timing and air flow
dynamics are critical to proper operation. As the piston begins to move up,
the ports are closed off, and the air-fuel mixture compresses and is ignited;
the hot gases increase in pressure, pushing the piston down with great force
and creating work for the engine.
The major components of two-stroke engines are tuned so that optimum
airflow results. Intake and exhaust tubes are tuned so that resonances in
airflow give better flow than a straight tube. The cylinder ports and piston top
are shaped so that the intake and exhaust flows do not mix.
Some of the devices that might have a two-stroke engine include:
Lawn and garden equipment
Mopeds
Jet skis
Radio-controlled model planes
Some of the devices that might have a four-stroke engine include:
Today internal combustion engines in
Cars
Trucks
Motorcycles
Construction machinery and many others

Four-Stroke
The four-stroke internal combustion engine is the type most commonly used






for automotive and industrial purposes today (cars and trucks, generators,
etc). On the first (downward) stroke of the piston, fuel/air is drawn into the
cylinder. The following (upward) stroke compresses the fuel-air mixture,
which is then ignited - expanding exhaust gases then force the piston
downward for the third stroke, and the fourth and final (upward) stroke
evacuates the spent exhaust gasses from the cylinder. The four-stroke cycle is
more efficient than the two-stroke cycle, but requires considerably more
moving parts and manufacturing expertise. Diagram overleaf shows a four
stroke cycle analysis.








LESSON 2
GENERATOR PARTS/COMPONENTS
The term generator set refers to the alternator and its prime mover. With
emphasis on the generator sets in FMN plc, the domain of discussion will be on
ICE parts and the alternator parts on the electrical aspect.
MECHANICAL PARTS
Comprises the ICE and its associated working components i.e. turbo charger,
governor, starting mechanism etc. Overleaf is the diagram of an ICE petrol engine
with its labeled components.
The engine speed is monitored and controlled through a governor. The governor
ensures that the engine speed stays high enough to idle at the right speed and
that the engine speed will not raise too high when full power is demanded. The
governor is a simple mechanical device which first appeared on steam engines. It
operates on a diesel engine as shown in the diagram below.























The governor consists of a rotating shaft, which is driven by the diesel engine. A
pair of flyweights is linked to the shaft and they rotate as it rotates. The
centrifugal force caused by the rotation causes the weights to be thrown
outwards as the speed of the shaft rises. If the speed falls the weights move
inwards.

The flyweights are linked to a collar fitted around the shaft by a pair of arms. As
the weights move out, so the collar rises on the shaft. If the weights move
inwards, the collar moves down the shaft. The movement of the collar is used to
operate the fuel rack lever controlling the amount of fuel supplied to the engine
by the injectors.
Fuel Injection/ Control
Ignition is a diesel engine is achieved by compressing air inside a cylinder until it
gets very hot (say 400 C, almost 800 F) and then injecting a fine spray of fuel oil
to cause a miniature explosion. The explosion forces down the piston in the
cylinder and this turns the crankshaft. To get the fine spray needed for successful
ignition the fuel has to be pumped into the cylinder at high pressure. The fuel
pump is operated by a cam. In a petrol engine, the power is controlled by the
amount of fuel/air mixture applied to the cylinder. The mixture is mixed outside
the cylinder and then applied by a throttle valve. In a diesel engine the amount of
air applied to the cylinder is constant so power is regulated by varying the fuel
input. The fine spray of fuel injected into each cylinder has to be regulated to
achieve the amount of power required. Regulation is achieved by varying the fuel
sent by the fuel pumps to the injectors. The control arrangement is shown in the
diagram below. The fuel is pumped into an injector, which gives the fine spray of
fuel required in the cylinder for combustion.



The amount of fuel being applied to the cylinders is varied by altering the
effective delivery rate of the piston in the injector pumps. Each injector has its
own pump, operated by an engine-driven cam, and the pumps are aligned in a
row so that they can all be adjusted together. The adjustment is done by a
toothed rack (called the "fuel rack") acting on a toothed section of the pump
mechanism. As the fuel rack moves, so the toothed section of the pump rotates
and provides a drive to move the pump piston round inside the pump. Moving
the piston round alters the size of the channel available inside the pump for fuel
to pass through to the injector delivery pipe.


The fuel rack can be moved either by the driver operating the power controller in
the cab or by the governor. If the driver asks for more power, the control rod
moves the fuel rack to set the pump pistons to allow more fuel to the injectors.
The engine will increase power and the governor will monitor engine speed to
ensure it does not go above the predetermined limit. The limits are fixed by
springs (not shown) limiting the weight movement.
Engine Control Development
So far we have seen a simple example of diesel engine control but the systems
used today are more sophisticated. To begin with, the drivers control was
combined with the governor and hydraulic control was introduced. One type of
governor uses oil to control the fuel racks hydraulically and another uses the fuel
oil pumped by a gear pump driven by the engine. Some governors are also linked
to the turbo charging system to ensure that fuel does not increase before enough
turbocharged air is available. In the most modern systems, the governor is
electronic and is part of a complete engine management system.
Power Control
The diesel engine provides the drive for the main alternator which, in turn,
provides the generated power required. We can see from this therefore, that the
power required from the diesel engine is related to the electric power generated.
So, if we want more power from alternator, we must run faster to generate it.
Therefore, to get the optimum performance from the engine, we must link the
control of the diesel engine to the power demands being made on the alternator.
In the days of generators, a complex electro-mechanical system was developed to
achieve the feedback required to regulate engine speed according to generator
demand. The core of the system was a load regulator, basically a variable resistor
which was used to vary the excitation of the generator so that its output matched
engine speed. The control sequence (simplified) was as follows:
1. Driver moves the power controller to the full power position
2. An air operated piston actuated by the controller moves a lever, which
closes a switch to supply a certain voltage to the load regulator motor.
3. The load regulator motor moves the variable resistor to increase the
main generator field strength and therefore its output.
4. The load on the engine increases so its speed falls and the governor
detects the reduced speed.
5. The governor weights drop and cause the fuel rack servo system to
actuate.
6. The fuel rack moves to increase the fuel supplied to the injectors and
therefore the power from the engine.
7. The lever (mentioned in 2 above) is used to reduce the pressure of the
governor spring.
8. When the engine has responded to the new control and governor
settings, it and the generator will be producing more power.
In alternators, the load regulation is done electronically. Engine speed is
measured like modern speedometers, by counting the frequency of the gear
teeth driven by the engine, in this case, the starter motor gearwheel. Electrical
control of the fuel injection is another improvement now adopted for modern
engines. Overheating can be controlled by electronic monitoring of coolant
temperature and regulating the engine power accordingly. Oil pressure can be
monitored and used to regulate the engine power in a similar way.
Cooling
The diesel engine needs to work at an optimum temperature for best efficiency.
When it starts, it is too cold and, when working, it must not be allowed to get too
hot. To keep the temperature stable, a cooling system is provided. This consists
of a water-based coolant circulating around the engine block, the coolant being
kept cool by passing it through a radiator.
The coolant is pumped round the cylinder block and the radiator by an electrically
or belt driven pump. The temperature is monitored by a thermostat and this
regulates the speed of the (electric or hydraulic) radiator fan motor to adjust the
cooling rate. When starting, the coolant isn't circulated at all. After all, you want
the temperature to rise as fast as possible when starting on a cold morning and
this will not happen if you are blowing cold air into your radiator. Some radiators
are provided with shutters to help regulate the temperature in cold conditions.
The coolant pump is driven by a mechanical link or through a fluid coupling to
ensure that no damage is caused by sudden changes in engine speed. The pump
works such that coolant (H
2
O) is circulated through radiator(s) having cooling
fans. Air is blown by the fan to cool the water in the radiator. Some engines have
fans with an electrically or hydrostatically driven motor. A hydraulic motor uses
oil under pressure which has to be contained in a special reservoir and pumped to
the motor. It has the advantage of providing an in-built fluid coupling.
A problem with engine cooling is cold weather. Water freezes at 0 C or 32 F and
frozen cooling water will quickly split a pipe or engine block due to the expansion
of the water as it freezes. Some systems are "self draining" when the engine is
stopped and most in Europe are designed to use a mixture of anti-freeze, with
Glycol and some form of rust inhibitor. In cold weather, the engine pump/heater
arrangement is left running. Another reason for keeping diesel engines warm is
that the constant heating and cooling caused by shutdowns and restarts, causes
stresses in the block and pipes and tends to produce leaks.
Lubrication
Diesel engine needs lubrication. In an arrangement similar to the engine cooling
system, lubricating oil is distributed around the engine to the cylinders, crankshaft
and other moving parts. There is a reservoir of oil, usually carried in the sump,
which has to be kept topped up, and a pump to keep the oil circulating evenly
around the engine. The oil gets heated by its passage around the engine and has
to be kept cool, so it is passed through a radiator during its journey. The radiator
is sometimes designed as a heat exchanger, where the oil passes through pipes
encased in a water tank which is connected to the engine cooling system.
The oil has to be filtered to remove impurities and it has to be monitored for low
pressure. If oil pressure falls to a level which could cause the engine to seize up, a
"low oil pressure switch" will shut down the engine. There is also a high pressure
relief valve, to drain off excess oil back to the sump.
Turbo charger
A turbo charger is basically a system of an exhaust gas driven air compressor
which is divided into its two basic parts, the exhaust gas driven turbine/housing,
and the air compressor/housing joined together at the hip via a common shaft,
the function of one impacts the function of the other. The turbine is powered by
hot expanding exhaust gas, a lot of hot expanding exhaust gas, the more and the
hotter the expanding exhaust gas the better.



The exhaust turbine will not generate enough power to turn the air compressor
fast enough for it to work properly unless the engine is feeding the exhaust
turbine a lot of hot expanding exhaust gas, a condition that can only be created
when the engine is under a load. There is where the selection of transmission
gear ratios and the ring and pinion ratio play a critical part. The fact that the
engine must be under a load is the reason why, no matter how high you rev a
turbo charged engine with no load on it, you will not see the boost gauge move.
Effectively, a turbo charged engine is a normally aspirated engine until the turbine
and compressor spin up. To minimize turbo lag, it is imperative that the turbine
and the compressor are properly matched to the engine as well as the engine
being properly matched to the transmission gears, the ring and pinion gears, and
the tires.


Turbocharger flow with charger air Intercooler

Starting
Diesel engine cannot start by itself directly, so it needs some form of transmission
system to multiply torque when starting. There are three methods of doing this,
depending on the magnitude of the required starting torque: mechanical,
hydraulic or electric.




ELECTRICAL PARTS
An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy in the form of alternating current. Most alternators use a
rotating magnetic field but linear alternators are occasionally used. In principle,
any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator.
Principle of operation
Alternators generate electricity by the same principle as DC generators, namely,
when the magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is induced in the
conductor. Typically, a rotating magnet called the rotor turns within a stationary
set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts
across the conductors, generating an induced EMF, as the mechanical input
causes the rotor to turn

Diagram of a simple alternator with a rotating magnetic core (rotor) and stationary wire (stator)
The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Often
there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so that the rotating
magnetic field produces three phase currents, displaced by one-third of a period
with respect to each other.
The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction (in a "brushless"
alternator), by permanent magnets (in very small machines), or by a rotor winding
energized with direct current through slip rings and brushes. The rotor magnetic
field may even be provided by stationary field winding, with moving poles in the
rotor. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies
directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are usually
larger machines.

BRUSHLESS ALTERNATORS
Construction
A brushless alternator is composed of two alternators built end-to-end on one
shaft. Smaller brushless alternators may look like one unit but the two parts are
readily identifiable on the large versions. The larger of the two sections is the
main alternator and the smaller one is the exciter. The exciter has stationary field
coils and a rotating armature (power coils). The main alternator uses the opposite
configuration with a rotating field and stationary armature. A bridge rectifier,
called the rotating rectifier assembly, is mounted on a plate attached to the rotor.
Neither brushes nor slip rings are used, which reduces the number of wearing
parts.
Main alternator
The main alternator has a rotating field as described above and a stationary
armature (power generation windings).
Control system
Varying the amount of current through the stationary exciter field coils varies the
3-phase output from the exciter. This output is rectified by a rotating rectifier
assembly, mounted on the rotor, and the resultant DC supplies the rotating field
of the main alternator and hence alternator output. The result of all this is that a
small DC exciter current indirectly controls the output of the main alternator.
Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep output
voltage constant



LESSON 3
FREQUENCY AND VOLTAGE CONTROL IN
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
THREE-PHASE ALTERNATOR
The three-phase alternator, as the name implies, has three single-phase windings
spaced such that the voltage induced in any one phase is displaced by 120 from
the other two. A schematic diagram of a three-phase stator showing all the coils
becomes complex and it is difficult to see what is actually happening. The
simplified schematics of figure 3-8, view A, shows all the windings of each phase
lumped together as one winding. The rotor is omitted for simplicity. The voltage
waveforms generated across each phase are drawn on a graph, phase-displaced
120 from each other. The three-phase alternator as shown in this schematic is
made up of three single-phase alternators whose generated voltages are out of
phase by 120. The three phases are independent of each other.
Rather than having six leads coming out of the three-phase alternator, the same
leads from each phase may be connected together to form a wye (Y) connection,
as shown in figure 3-8, view B. It is called a wye connection because, without the
neutral, the windings appear as the letter Y, in this case sideways or upside down.
The neutral connection is brought out to a terminal when a single-phase load
must be supplied. Single-phase voltage is available from neutral to A, neutral to B,
and neutral to C.
In a three-phase, Y-connected alternator, the total voltage, or line voltage, across
any two of the three line leads is the vector sum of the individual phase voltages.
Each line voltage is 1.73 times one of the phase voltages. Because the windings
form only one path for current flow between phases, the line and phase currents
are the same (equal).


Figure 3-8. - Three-phase alternator connections.


A three-phase stator can also be connected so that the phases are connected
end-to-end; it is now delta connected (fig. 3-8, view C. Delta because it looks like
the Greek letter delta, &Delta). In the delta connection, line voltages are equal to
phase voltages, but each line current is equal to 1.73 times the phase current.
Both the wye and the delta connections are used in alternators.

FREQUENCY
The output frequency of alternator voltage depends upon the speed of rotation of
the rotor and the number of poles. When the speed is raised frequency goes high
and the lower the speed, the lower the frequency. The more poles there are on
the rotor, the higher the frequency is for a given speed.
When a rotor has rotated through an angle such that two adjacent rotor poles (a
north and a south pole) have passed one winding, the voltage induced in that
winding will have varied through one complete cycle. For a given frequency, the
more pairs of poles there are, the lower the speed of rotation. This principle is
illustrated in figure 3-12; a two-pole generator must rotate at four times the
speed of an eight-pole generator to produce the same frequency of generated
voltage. The frequency of any ac generator in hertz (Hz), which is the number of
cycles per second, is related to the number of poles and the speed of rotation, as
expressed by the equation


Where P is the number of poles, N is the speed of rotation in revolutions per
minute (rpm), and 120 is a constant to allow for the conversion of minutes to
seconds and from poles to pairs of poles. For example, a 2-pole, 3600-rpm
alternator has a frequency of 60 Hz; determined as follows:



A 4-pole, 1800-rpm generator also has a frequency of 60 Hz. A 6-pole, 500-rpm
generator has a frequency of

A 12-pole, 4000-rpm generator has a frequency of

More fuel into the ICE for example gives more power from the prime mover and
consequently more speed that leads to increased frequency.
Figure 3-12. - Frequency regulation.

VOLTAGE REGULATION
As we have said before, when the load on a generator is changed, the terminal
voltage varies (armature reaction/ internal drop). The amount of variation
depends on the design of the generator.
The voltage regulation of an alternator is the change of voltage from full load to
no load, expressed as a percentage of full-load volts, when the speed and dc field
current are held constant.

Assume the no-load voltage of an alternator is 250 volts and the full-load voltage
is 220 volts. The percent of regulation is

Remember, the lower the percent of regulation, the better it is in most
applications.
PRINCIPLES OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROL
In an alternator, an alternating voltage is induced in the armature windings when
magnetic fields of alternating polarity are passed across these windings. The
amount of voltage induced in the windings depends mainly on three things: (1)
the number of conductors in series per winding, (2) the speed (alternator rpm) at
which the magnetic field cuts the winding, and (3) the strength of the magnetic
field. Any of these three factors could be used to control the amount of voltage
induced in the alternator windings.
The number of windings, of course, is fixed when the alternator is manufactured.
Also, if the output frequency is required to be of a constant value, then the speed
of the rotating field must be held constant. This prevents the use of the alternator
rpm as a means of controlling the voltage output.
Thus, the only practical method for obtaining voltage control is to control the
strength of the rotating magnetic field. The strength of this electromagnetic field
may be varied by changing the amount of current flowing through the field coil.
This is accomplished by varying the amount of voltage applied across the field
cod.










LESSON 4
POWER FACTOR
Power factor is a concept applied to various machines and electrical devices in
industrial and commercial use. It is used to evaluate the reactive power
consumption of the electrical equipment in a given installation.
The power factor is the ratio of the active power P consumed in Watt to the
apparent power S imposed in VA, and it varies between zero and unity
depending on the equipment.
Power factor (cos ) = P(watt)/S(VA)
A good power factor is a value close to unity (pf =1 implies no reactive power
consumption and therefore no penalties billed by the utility if applicable). A poor
power factor is generally a value less than 0.92.
CAUSE OF LOW POWER FACTOR
Low power factor is caused by inductive loads (such as transformers, electric
motors, and high-intensity discharge lighting), which are a major portion of the
power consumed in industrial complexes. Unlike resistive loads that create heat
by consuming kilowatts, inductive loads require the current to create a magnetic
field, and the magnetic field produces the desired work. The total or apparent
power required by an inductive device is a composite of the following:
Real power (measured in kilowatts kW)
Reactive power, the nonworking power caused by the magnetizing current,
required to operate the device (measured in kilovars KVAR)

Reactive power required by inductive loads increases the amount of apparent
power (measured in kilovolt-amps kVA) in your distribution system. The increase
in reactive and apparent power causes the power factor to decrease.

WHY IMPROVE YOUR POWER FACTOR?
Some of the benefits of improving your power factor are as follows:
Your utility bill will be smaller. Low power factor requires an increase in the
electric utilitys generation and transmission capacity to handle the reactive
power component caused by inductive loads. Utilities usually charge a penalty fee
to customers with power factors less than 0.95. You can avoid this additional fee
by increasing your power factor.
Your electrical systems branch capacity will increase. Uncorrected power factor
will cause power losses in your distribution system. You may experience voltage
drops as power losses increase. Excessive voltage drops can cause overheating
and premature failure of motors and other inductive equipment

CORRECTING YOUR POWER FACTOR
Some strategies for correcting your power factor are:
Minimize operation of idling or lightly loaded motors.
Avoid operation of equipment above its rated voltage.
Replace standard motors as they burn out with energy-efficient motors.
Even with energy-efficient motors, however, the power factor is significantly
affected by variations in load. A motor must be operated near its rated capacity to
realize the benefits of a high power factor design.
Install capacitors in your AC circuit to decrease the magnitude of reactive
power.
Reactive power (measured in kVARs) caused by inductance always acts at a 90
angle to real power. Capacitors store kVARs and release energy opposing the
reactive energy caused by the inductor. This implies that inductance and
capacitance react 180 to each other. The presence of both in the same circuit
results in the continuous alternating transfer of energy between the capacitor and
the inductor, thereby reducing the current flow from the generator to the circuit.
When the circuit is balanced, all the energy released by the inductor is absorbed
by the capacitor. In the diagram below, the power triangle shows an initial 0.70
power factor for a 100-kW (real power) inductive load.

100KW
New VAR=33KVAR
New VA=105KVA Initial VAR=100KVAR

Initial VA=142KVA Capacitance VAR added=67KVAR

Before PF = 100/142 = 0.70 or 70%
After PF = 100/105 = 0.95 or 95%

The reactive power required by the load is 100 kW. By installing a 67-KVAR
capacitor, the apparent power is reduced from 142 to 105 kVA, resulting in a 26%
reduction in current. Power factor is improved to 0.95. Capacitor suppliers and
engineering firms can provide the assistance you may need to determine the
optimum power correction factor and to correctly locate and install capacitors in
your electrical distribution system


LESSON 5
SYNCHRONISATION OF GENERATOR

BENEFITS OF PARALLELED GENERATION
Some of the benefits of placing multiple generators in parallel include increased
reliability, expandability, flexibility, serviceability and cost effectiveness.
Reliability
The redundancy inherent in parallel power generation provides significantly
greater reliability for critical loads. For example, if the reliability of a standby
generator is defined at 98%, an N+1 configuration has a reliability of 99.96% and
an N+2 configuration has a reliability of 99.999%. In a parallel configuration, if one
generator fails, the most critical loads are redistributed among the other units in
the system. Given typical applications and load factors, the load requiring the
highest degree of reliability is often only a fraction of the total generation
capacity. Redundancy is achieved without the addition of costly under-utilized
generators.

Expandability
When sizing generators, it is often difficult to adequately plan for anticipated load
growth. If load projections are too aggressive, initial capital expenditures may be
higher than necessary. If load projections are too low, the facility may be left
without reliable standby power or may require expensive generator upgrades.
Generators are added as needed.

Flexibility
Utilizing multiple smaller generators instead of a single large unit offers greater
location flexibility. The ability to distribute weight over a wider area makes
rooftop installations more feasible. A lower profile makes installation in parking
garages and other restricted areas possible.

Serviceability
With multiple generators available, individual units can be taken out of service for
repair or maintenance without losing standby power for critical circuits. This
feature enhances reliability and reduces the need to bring a backup rental
generator to the site. Though failures of standby generators are not common, the
built-in redundancy of a parallel system provides multiple layers of protection for
critical circuits.

PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATORS
In summary, alternators are connected in parallel to:
(1) increase the output capacity of a system beyond that of a single unit
(2) serve as additional reserve power for expected demands, or
(3) permit shutting down one machine and cutting in a standby machine
without interrupting power distribution.
When alternators are of sufficient size, and are operating at different frequencies
and terminal voltages, severe damage may result if they are suddenly connected
to each other through a common bus. To avoid this, machines must be
synchronized as closely as possible before connecting them together. This may be
accomplished by connecting one generator to the bus (referred to as bus
generator), and then synchronizing the other (incoming generator) to it before
closing the incoming generators main power contactor. The generators are
synchronized when the following conditions are met:
Equal terminal voltages. This is obtained by adjustment of the incoming
generators field strength.
Equal frequency. This is obtained by adjustment of the incoming
generators prime-mover speed.
Phase voltages in proper phase relation. It is enough for you to know that
the above must be accomplished to prevent damage to the machines, it is
achieved during installation.
Each generator in the system will normally require four to six micro-controllers.
These controllers are a combination of analog and digital technology. A typical
two-generator system will have between nine and fourteen controllers (including
the master control section) to manage the speed governor, load-share controller,
synchronizer, voltage regulator, generator set controller, and protective relay.

Speed Control
Each generator in the system incorporates an electronic governor. The governor
controls engine speed and, as a result, generator frequency in what is called
isochronous speed control. This works fine for a single engine generator.
However, when multiple generators are paralleled, the engine speed is locked
into the speed of the other generators in the system. Generators do not
inherently share load.

Load Balancing
Each generator incorporates a load-share controller that constantly adjusts the
governors speed reference for its engine. This system balances load between the
generators but from a control loop standpoint.

Synchronizing
The third controller is an auto synchronizer. This controller matches the sine wave
of the generator with the sine wave of the generator bus and issues the command
to close the breaker tying them together.
Generator Paralleling
Voltage Regulation
The fourth controller normally controls alternator voltage for a single generator.
However, when multiple alternators are paralleled, the voltage is locked into the
voltage of the other units in the system. An alternator with a slightly higher
voltage set point will integrate its excitation setting open until it is carrying the
entire systems kVAR load. This system adjusts the voltage regulator references
using inputs from current transformers that are all connected in series.

Generator set Control /Protection
The fifth and sixth controllers are typically the generator set controller and a
protective relay. The controller monitors various engine and alternator
parameters and provides alarm for the protective relay that typically performs
synchronizing check and other functions.

Manual Control
To enhance the reliability of parallel systems, the panel boards are often wired
with a manual operation mode for when things go wrong. In manual mode, the
load share lines and cross current lines are opened and the control loops are
typically placed in an inherently more stable control mode (droop). It should be
noted that even in manual control mode, any given generator still requires four
mission critical controllers to function: governor, regulator, genset controller, and
protective relay.








LESSON 6
LINE ELEMENTS & NETWORK
CONFIGURATIONS
Electric power transmission or "high voltage electric transmission" is the bulk
transfer of electrical energy, from generating plant to substations located near to
population centers. This is distinct from the local wiring between high voltage
substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electricity distribution.
Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other, become high voltage
transmission networks. Historically, transmission and distribution lines were
owned by the same company, but over the last decade or so many countries have
introduced market reforms that have led to the separation of the electricity
transmission business from the distribution business.
Transmission lines mostly use three phase alternating current (AC), although
single phase AC is sometimes used.
Electricity is transmitted at high voltage (110 kV or above) to reduce the energy
lost in long distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead
power lines. Underground power transmission has a significantly higher cost and
greater operational limitations but is sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive
locations.
A key limitation in the distribution of electricity is that, with minor exceptions,
electrical energy cannot be stored, and therefore it must be generated as it is
needed. A sophisticated system of control is therefore required to ensure electric
generation very closely matches the demand. If supply and demand are not in
balance, generation plants and transmission equipment can shut down which, in
the worst cases, can lead to a major regional blackout. To reduce the risk of such
failures, electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national
or continental wide networks thereby providing multiple redundant alternate
routes for power to flow should (weather or equipment) failures occur. Much
analysis is done by transmission companies to determine the maximum reliable
capacity of each line which is mostly less than its physical or thermal limit, to
ensure spare capacity is available should there be any such failure in another part
of the network.


NETWORK EQUIPMENTS
Circuit breaker
A device to open or close an electric power circuit either during normal power
system operation or during abnormal conditions. A circuit breaker serves in the
course of normal system operation to energize or de-energize loads. During
abnormal conditions, when excessive current develops, a circuit breaker opens to
protect equipment and surroundings from possible damage due to excess current.
These abnormal currents are usually the result of short circuits created by
lightning, accidents, deterioration of equipment, or sustained overloads.
Formerly, all circuit breakers were electromechanical devices. In these breakers a
mechanism operates one or more pairs of contacts to make or break the circuit.
The mechanism is powered electromagnetically, pneumatically, or hydraulically.
The contacts are located in a part termed the interrupter. When the contacts are
parted, opening the metallic conductive circuit, an electric arc is created between
the contacts. This arc is a high-temperature ionized gas with an electrical
conductivity comparable to graphite. Thus the current continues to flow through
the arc. The function of the interrupter is to extinguish the arc, completing circuit-
breaking action.
In oil circuit breakers, the arc is drawn in oil. The intense heat of the arc
decomposes the oil, generating high pressure that produces a fluid flow through
the arc to carry energy away. At transmission voltages below 345 kV, oil breakers
used to be popular. They are increasingly losing ground to gas-blast circuit
breakers such as air-blast breakers and SF
6
circuit breakers.
In air-blast circuit breakers, air is compressed to high pressures. When the
contacts part, a blast valve is opened to discharge the high-pressure air to
ambient, thus creating a very-high-velocity flow near the arc to dissipate the
energy. In SF
6
circuit breakers, the same principle is employed, with SF
6
as the
medium instead of air. In the puffer SF
6
breaker, the motion of the contacts
compresses the gas and forces it to flow through an orifice into the neighborhood
of the arc. Both types of SF
6
breakers have been developed for EHV (extra high
voltage) transmission systems.
Two other types of circuit breakers have been developed. The vacuum breaker,
another electromechanical device, uses the rapid dielectric recovery and high
dielectric strength of vacuum. A pair of contacts is hermetically sealed in a
vacuum envelope. Actuating motion is transmitted through bellows to the
movable contact. When the contacts are parted, an arc is produced and
supported by metallic vapor boiled from the electrodes. Vapor particles expand
into the vacuum and condense on solid surfaces. At a natural current zero the
vapor particles disappear, and the arc is extinguished. Vacuum breakers of up to
242 kV have been built.
The other type of breaker uses a thyristor, a semiconductor device which in the
off state prevents current from flowing but which can be turned on with a small
electric current through a third electrode, the gate. At the natural current zero,
conduction ceases, as it does in arc interrupters. This type of breaker does not
require a mechanism. Semiconductor breakers have been built to carry
continuous currents up to 10,000 A.
Other transmission equipments are; cable/wire, ring mains units (RMU),
transformers etc.
In FMN plc. ring network is adopted to increase the reliability of the network.

LESSON 7
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A
varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in
the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary
winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF)
or voltage in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the
secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary
circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced
voltage in the secondary winding (V
S
) is in proportion to the primary voltage (V
P
),
and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (N
S
) to the number
of turns in the primary (N
P
) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an
alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making N
S
greater than N
P
,
or "stepped down" by making N
S
less than N
P
.
In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a
ferromagnetic core, air core transformers being a notable exception.
Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden
inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to
interconnect portions of power grids. All operate with the same basic principles,
although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the
need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in
nearly all electronic devices designed for household main voltage. Transformers
are essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes long distance
transmission economically practical.
Types
A wide variety of transformer designs are used for different applications, though
they share several common features. Important common transformer types
include:
Autotransformer

An autotransformer with a sliding brush contact
An autotransformer has a single winding with two end terminals, and one or more
terminals at intermediate tap points. The primary voltage is applied across two of
the terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from two terminals, almost always
having one terminal in common with the primary voltage. The primary and
secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common. Since
the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in
proportion to its number of turns. In an autotransformer part of the current flows
directly from the input to the output, and only part is transferred inductively,
allowing a smaller, lighter, cheaper core to be used as well as requiring only a
single winding. However, a transformer with separate windings isolates the
primary from the secondary, which is safer when using mains voltages.
An adjustable autotransformer is made by exposing part of the winding coils and
making the secondary connection through a sliding brush, giving a variable turns
ratio. Such a device is often referred to as a variac.
Autotransformers are often used to step up or down between voltages in the 110-
117-120 volt range and voltages in the 220-230-240 volt range, e.g., to output
either 110 or 120V (with taps) from 230V input, allowing equipment from a 100 or
120V region to be used in a 230V region.
Polyphase transformers.

Three-phase step-down transformer mounted between two utility poles
For three-phase supplies, a bank of three individual single-phase transformers can
be used, or all three phases can be incorporated as a single three-phase
transformer. In this case, the magnetic circuits are connected together, the core
thus containing a three-phase flow of flux. A number of winding configurations
are possible, giving rise to different attributes and phase shifts. One particular
polyphase configuration is the zigzag transformer, used for grounding and in the
suppression of harmonic currents.
Leakage transformers

Leakage transformer
A leakage transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a significantly
higher leakage inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a
magnetic bypass or shunt in its core between primary and secondary, which is
sometimes adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an
inherent current limitation due to the loose coupling between its primary and the
secondary windings. The output and input currents are low enough to prevent
thermal overload under all load conditionseven if the secondary is shorted.
Leakage transformers are used for arc welding and high voltage discharge lamps
(neon lamps and cold cathode fluorescent lamps, which are series-connected up
to 7.5 kV AC). It acts then both as a voltage transformer and as a magnetic ballast.
Instrument transformers
Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical
power systems, and for power system protection and control. Where a voltage or
current is too large to be conveniently used by an instrument, it can be scaled
down to a standardized, low value. Instrument transformers isolate
measurement, protection and control circuitry from the high currents or voltages
present on the circuits being measured or controlled.

Current transformers, designed for placing around conductors
A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its
secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil.
Voltage transformers (VTs), also referred to as "potential transformers" (PTs), are
designed to have an accurately known transformation ratio in both magnitude
and phase, over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer is
intended to present a negligible load to the supply being measured. The low
secondary voltage allows protective relay equipment and measuring instruments
to be operated at a lower voltages.
Both current and voltage instrument transformers are designed to have
predictable characteristics on overloads. Proper operation of over-current
protection relays requires that current transformers provide a predictable
transformation ratio even during a short-circuit.










LESSON 8
ENERGY TRANSPORTATION AND
CONSIDERATION
Overhead transmission
High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor
material is nearly always an aluminium alloy, made into several strands and
possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead
transmission but aluminium is lower in weight for equivalent performance, and
much lower in cost. Overhead conductors are a commodity supplied by several
companies worldwide. Improved conductor material and shapes are regularly
used to allow increased capacity and modernize transmission circuits. Conductor
sizes range from 12 mm
2
to 750 mm
2
, with varying resistance and current-carrying
capacity. Thicker wires would lead to a relatively small increase in capacity due to
the skin effect, that causes most of the current to flow close to the surface of the
wire.
Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110 kV and above.
Lower voltages such as 66 kV and 33 kV are usually considered sub-transmission
voltages but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less
than 33 kV are usually used for distribution. Voltages above 230 kV are
considered extra high voltage and require different designs compared to
equipment used at lower voltages.
Since overhead transmission lines are uninsulated, design of these lines requires
minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safety. Adverse weather
conditions of high wind and low temperatures can lead to power outages: wind
speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) can permit conductors to encroach operating
clearances, resulting in a flashover and loss of supply. Oscillatory motion of the
physical line can be termed gallop or flutter depending on the frequency and
amplitude of oscillation.
Underground transmission
Electric power can also be transmitted by underground power cables instead of
overhead power lines. They can assist the transmission of power across:
Densely populated urban areas
Areas where land is unavailable or planning consent is difficult
Rivers and other natural obstacles
Land with outstanding natural or environmental heritage
Areas of significant or prestigious infrastructural development
Land whose value must be maintained for future urban expansion and rural
development
Some other advantages of underground power cables:
Less subject to damage from severe weather conditions (mainly lightning,
wind and freezing)
Greatly reduced emission, into the surrounding area, of electromagnetic
fields (EMF). All electric currents generate EMF, but the shielding provided
by the earth surrounding underground cables restricts their range and
power.
Underground cables need a narrower surrounding strip of about 110
meters to install, whereas an overhead line requires a surrounding strip of
about 20200 meters wide to be kept permanently clear for safety,
maintenance and repair.
Underground cables pose no hazard to low flying aircraft or to wildlife, and
are significantly safer as they pose no shock hazard (except to the unwary
digger).
Much less subject to conductor theft, illegal connections, sabotage, and
damage from armed conflict.
Some disadvantages of underground power cables:
Undergrounding is more expensive, since the cost of burying cables at
transmission voltages is several times greater than overhead power lines,
and the life-cycle cost of an underground power cable is two to four times
the cost of an overhead power line. Above ground lines cost around $10
per foot and underground lines cost in the range of $20 to $40 per foot.
Whereas finding and repairing overhead wire breaks can be accomplished
in hours, underground repairs can take days or weeks, and for this reason
redundant lines are run.
Underground power cables, due to their proximity to earth, cannot be
maintained live, whereas overhead power cables can be.
Operations are more difficult since the high reactive power of underground
cables produces large charging currents and so makes voltage control more
difficult.
The advantages can in some cases outweigh the disadvantages of the higher
investment cost, and more expensive maintenance and management.
Most high voltage cables for power transmission that are currently sold on the
market are insulated by a sheath of cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE). Some cables
may have a lead or aluminium jacket in conjunction with XLPE insulation to allow
for fiber optics to be seamlessly integrated within the cable.Before 1960,
underground power cables were insulated with oil and paper and ran in a rigid
steel pipe, or a semi-rigid aluminium or lead jacket or sheath. The oil was kept
under pressure to prevent formation of voids that would allow partial discharges
within the cable insulation. There are still many of these oil-and-paper insulated
cables in use worldwide. Between 1960 and 1990, polymers became more widely
used at distribution voltages, mostly EPDM (ethylene propylene diene M-class);
however, their relative unreliability, particularly early XLPE, resulted in a slow
uptake at transmission voltages. While cables of 330 kV are commonly
constructed using XLPE, this has occurred only in recent decades.




LESSON 9
PROTECTIONS & MAINTENANCE OF POWER
SYSTEMS
GENERATOR PROTECTION
The frequency of failure in rotating machines is small, as a result of modern
design and improved materials. Yet failures do occur and can occur with serious
consequences of severe damage and long outages. Thus it is important that
abnormal conditions be recognized promptly and the trouble area isolated
quickly. Generators may be subject to a number of abnormal conditions, some of
which are:
1. Faults in the windings
2. Overload
3. Overheating (in windings or bearings)
4. Over speed
5. Loss of excitation (or loss of field)
6. Loss of prime mover (or motoring of the generator)
7. Unbalanced currents
8. Loss of synchronism (or out-of-step)
9. Overvoltage and Under voltage
10. Over- and Under frequency
11. Sub synchronous oscillations

Several of these conditions should not require automatic tripping of the machine,
as they may be corrected in a properly attended station while the machine
remains in service. Hence the protective devices will actuate alarms. Others, such
as faults, require fast removal of the generator from service.
In all cases, it is important to evaluate the cost (initial, operating and
maintenance) and degree of protection afforded. With the risk or danger
encountered if no protection is applied for the particular hazard. Engineering
judgment will determine how much protection to apply, and this amount will vary
with the size and importance of the machine.

Internal Generator Winding Faults
The winding faults that occur in the generator are:
1. Phase and ground faults in the stator and associated areas
2. Ground faults in the rotor and loss of field excitation
The faults inside the generator generally develop as a ground fault in one of the
phase windings, and often develop or spread to involve more than one phase.
Phase faults seldom occur, but when they do occur, large fault currents can flow.

Phase Fault Protection
By far, the most effective protection for such faults is the differential protection.
In a differential protection, the currents in each phase on either side of the
generator are compared in a differential circuit, and any unbalance or difference
current is used to operate an over current relay. This is shown below, where the
relay circuit for only one phase is shown.

Equipment to be
protected
(Generator)
I
1
I
2
I
1
- I
2
I
1
'
I
2
'


Fig: Differential Protection for Generator
For normal operation or faults outside the two sets of current transformers,

1
I
entering the generator equals

2
I leaving the machine in all phases (neglecting
the small internal losses and assuming perfect CTs). Consequently, the secondary
currents
1
I and
2
I are almost equal, and the current through the relay (
2 1
I I ) is
very small to initiate operation. But when a fault occurs inside the generator
winding between the two sets of CTs, one of the currents
1
I and
2
I suddenly
increases, decreases or flows in the reverse direction. In any case, the fault
current
2 1
I I I
f
now flows through the relay to operate it.

In actual fact, the CTs do not always give exactly the same secondary current for
the same primary current, even if they are commercially identical. This difference
is caused by variations in manufacturing and differences in secondary loading, i.e.,
unequal lengths of leads to the relay and unequal burdens of meters or
instruments that may be connected in one or both of the secondary windings.

Ground Fault Protection
Differential protection provides sensitive protection for generator phase faults,
but may not provide ground fault protection, depending on the grounding used.
And so the method of grounding affects the protection afforded by the
differential relays. The higher the grounding impedance, the less the fault current
magnitude and the more difficult it is for the differential relay to detect light
ground faults.
A separate ground relay in the grounded neutral will provide sensitive protection,
since it can best be set without regard to load current. As the grounding
impedance increases, it becomes difficult to apply a current-type relay. The lower
the relay pick-up current, the higher its burden on the Ct and the more difficult it
is to distinguish between ground faults and third harmonic unbalance which also
flows in the neutral. Third harmonic current may be as high as 10 15% of the
maximum generator output.
The ground relay may operate for ground faults beyond the generator, and hence
must include time delay to coordinate with any other relays it overlaps. A typical
case is the generator connected directly to a bus with other circuits. A fault on
one of the other circuits should not trip the generator when the fault should be
cleared by the relays on the faulted circuit. Insulation failure is the major cause for
most faults in the generator. They may start as turn-to-turn faults (inter-turn
faults) and develop into ground faults, or start as ground faults initially.

Unbalanced Fault Currents in Generator
Synchronous generators cannot withstand sustained unbalanced faults nearly as
well as they can withstand three-phase short circuits. The negative-sequence
currents which flow during those unbalanced faults induce high-frequency
currents which tend to flow in the surface of the solid rotor and in the non-
magnetic rotor wedges and retaining rings. The R I
2
-loss quickly raises the
temperature, and if the unbalanced faults persist, can cause destruction of the
generator. Negative-sequence relays are used as protection for unbalanced fault
currents situation.

Overload Protection in Generators
Current overload protection of generators is applied principally to provide back-
up protection for busbar or feeder faults rather than to protect the machine
directly. The AIEE standards specify that a machine shall be capable of
withstanding without injury a 30-second three-phase short circuit at its terminals
when operating at rated kVA and power factor and with fixed excitation at 5%
overvoltage.
Backup overcurrent protection with an overcurrent relay alone is difficult because
the synchronous impedance ( over pu X
d
and 1 . 1 ) limits the fault current on
sustained faults to about the same or less than maximum or rated load current,
making the fault current detection not easy. Thus voltage-controlled overcurrent
relays are used where the overcurrent unit cannot operate unless the voltage is
below a pre-determined value. Thus the overcurrent element can be set below
rated load, and will not operate until a fault reduces the voltage.
One hazard of all relays that rely on voltage is the inadvertent loss of voltage, and
consequent incorrect tripping of the generator. This fact should be recognised
and proper precautions taken through good design and adequate maintenance of
the voltage supply.

Overheating Protection in Generators
Overheating of the generator windings can result from many causes. Resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), which are temperature-resistance coils, are
embedded within the windings to provide indication. Many machines of 750 kW
and larger have these temperature detectors, which can be arranged to give
indication on an instrument, actuate an alarm or operate a relay.

Overspeed Protection in Generators
Overspeed protection is usually provided on the prime mover. It consists of a
centrifugal device operating from the shaft which operates the prime mover
directly by mechanical means. An over-frequency relay can be used to supplement
this for overspeed protection.

Over- or Underfrequency Protection in Generators
Faults in the system can result in a system break-up into islands, which leaves an
imbalance between available generation and the load. This results in either an
excess or insufficient power for the connected loads. An excess of power results
in over-frequency with possible overvoltage from reduced load demand. The drop
in voltage causes the voltage regulator to increase the excitation.
The result is overheating in both the rotor and stator. At the same time, more
power is being demanded with the generator unable to supply it at reduced
frequency. For utility generators, the generator controls should promptly adjust
the unit to the load demand, or system load shedding should adjust the load to
the available generation before a critical situation develops. Over- and
underfrequency relays should also be set.

Loss of Excitation (Loss of Field) Protection in Generators
It is important to keep the generator on the line as long as possible to supply load,
and particularly so where the machine represents a sizeable portion of the system
capacity. Thus an early warning of low excitation would give the operator an
opportunity to restore field if possible and avoid tripping. Tripping and the
resultant loss of load output, when not necessary, can precipitate system
breakdown and a major outage. On the other hand, if the machine and system
are headed for instability as a result of the loss of excitation, then the generator
should be automatically tripped. The trip relay has been designed with the above
objectives in mind. It is applicable to all types of machines and will protect against
varying degrees of abnormally low excitation.
The loss-of-excitation relay will:
1. alert the operator to any loss or low excitation which could damage the
generator or result in instability
2. alert the operator as quickly as possible in the event of loss of field, so that
the operator would have maximum time to correct the condition
3. trip the generator automatically, in the event that there is danger of system
instability.
Loss of excitation results from:
loss of field to the main exciter
accidental tripping of the field breaker
short circuits in the field circuits
poor brush contact in the exciter
latch failure of the field circuit breaker and
operating errors
When loss of excitation (partial or complete) occurs on a synchronous generator,
reactive power flows from the system into the machine. It is important to
remember that active load output (MW) is controlled by the prime mover input,
while reactive load output (MVAr) is controlled by the field or excitation.
If the power system is large enough to supply the deficiency in excitation through
the armature (field windings), then the synchronous machine will operate as an
induction generator.
In order to operate as an induction generator, the generator must lose
synchronism. Since the synchronous machine is not designed for this type of
operation, the generator output will oscillate slightly as the rotor oscillates in an
attempt to lock into synchronism.
This loss of synchronism does not require immediate tripping, unless there is an
accompanying decrease in the terminal voltage to a point where system
instability will occur. It generally takes a generator at least 2 to 6 sec to lose
synchronism.
A turbo-generator can safely run above synchronous speed with zero excitation
for about 2 or 3 minutes.
Reduced excitation results in a drop in terminal voltage of the generator, causing
the generator to draw reactive power from the system, thus further reducing the
system voltage (and leading to voltage instability). The ability of the system to
maintain stability is primarily a function of the size of the generator with respect
to the system and the action of the voltage regulators.
Loss-of-excitation protection to avoid unstable operation, potential loss of
synchronism and possible damage is very important, and is applied for all
synchronous machines. Such a protection is included in the excitation systems
supplied with the machine, but additional protection is recommended to operate
independently both as supplemental and back-up protection.
Distance relays are applied for this purpose. Furthermore, a directional power
relay or a VAR-type relay, connected to operate an inductive VAR from the
connected system, can be applied to detect loss of synchronism.

Generator Motoring (Loss of Prime Mover) Protection
The protection against generator motoring is primarily for the prime mover or the
system rather than for the generator unit. If the prime-mover supply is removed
while the generator is connected to the power system and the field excited, the
power system will drive the unit as a synchronous motor. This is particularly
critical for steam and hydro units.
For steam turbines, it causes turbine overheating and potential damage to the
turbine and turbine blades, and the protection is supplied by steam temperature
devices. With hydro turbines, low water flow can cause cavitations of the blades
on the turbine. Hydraulic flow indication provides protection against cavitations
of the hydro turbine blades on low water flow. Similar types of devices are used
on gas turbines.
As stated, motoring of the generator occurs as a result of deficiency in the prime
mover input to the AC generator. When this input cannot supply all the losses,
then the deficiency is supplied by absorbing real power from the system. As the
field excitation should remain the same, the same reactive power would flow as
before motoring. Thus during motoring, the real power will be into the machine,
while the reactive power may be either inductive (positive) or capacitive
(negative). Usually, the reactive power would be positive, as machines are not
generally operating with leading power factor.
Typical values of the reverse power required to motor a generator at synchronous
speed when the prime mover power input is lost, are as follows (given in
percentage of the nameplate kilowatts):
Steam turbines, condensing type : 1 3%
Steam turbines, non-condensing type : 3+ %
Hydro turbines : 0.2 2+%
Diesel engines : 25%
Gas turbines : 50+%
Various detection means are provided as part of the generator and control, but a
supplementary reverse power relay is recommended to provide added safety and
back-up protection. The power directional relay is connected to operate when
real power flows into the generator.

Loss of Synchronism (Out-of-Step) Protection
When loss of excitation, either partial or complete, occurs on a synchronous
generator, reactive power will flow from the system into the machine, and the
machine will operate as an induction generator. In order to operate as an
induction generator, the machine must first lose synchronism. Severe voltage dips
in the system can also cause the generator to lose synchronism. And so for many
generators, being out-of-step is mostly a system problem with the electrical or
load centre out in the transmission area.
The loss of synchronism or out-of-step protection is not generally applied to
rotating equipment, except to:
synchronous frequency changer sets interconnecting two systems, and to
synchronous motors or motor-generator sets where severe dips can cause
the machine to lose synchronism.
Where loss of synchronism or out-of-step protection is required, directional
power relays are used, which count the succession of power reversals (following
loss of excitation), and if a given number occurs within a specified time interval,
the relay sound an alarm or trips the machine off.

Overvoltage and Undervoltage Protection
Generators and transformers must not be subject to overvoltage, except for short
or transient excursions. With normal operation near the knee of the iron
saturation curve, small overvoltages result in significant exciting currents in
transformers, and excessive flux densities and abnormal flux patterns in
generators. These can cause severe and extensive damage.
The field excitation current at rated output is greater than that required at no-
load, and so it is important that the excitation be reduced correspondingly as load
is reduced. Normally, this is accomplished by the regulating system, but incorrect
voltage signals or other failures in the system can result in high overvoltage.
Generator voltage is proportional to frequency and the magnetic flux, and so
overvoltage protection should have a constant pickup as a function of the ratio of
voltage to frequency.
Sub-synchronous Oscillations Protection
The application of series compensation in long EHV transmission lines provides
increased power transmission and stability, but may result in subsynchronous
oscillations. This may also occur for a generator connected to a HVDC
transmission line.
The natural frequency
n
f of a system with
C
X capacitive reactance and
L
X
inductive reactance is given as:

L
C
s n
X
X
f f
Where
s
f is the synchronous or normal system frequency. Since
C
X is less than
L
X , the natural frequency
n
f is sub-synchronous. This results in problems in the
system, particularly in the generators. The rotor rotating at synchronous
frequency is turning faster than the magnetic field produced by the sub-harmonic
frequency. This results in negative slip and negative resistance effect, with the
generator tending to operate as an induction generator.
Another effect of the sub-frequency is to produce oscillating torques in the
generator, with additional transient torques occasioned by switching and faults in
the system network. There is the danger that these torques may produce rotor
damages.
Protective relays have been developed to detect sub-synchronous reactance. One
type measures torsional motion, another senses the level of sub-synchronous
currents in the armature.
The REF protection method is a type of "unit protection" applied to transformers
or generators and is more sensitive than the method known as differential
protection.

An REF relay works by measuring the actual current flowing to earth from the
frame of the unit. If that current exceeds a certain preset maximum value of
milliamps (mA) then the relay will trip to cut off the power supply to the unit.

Differential protection can also be used to protect the windings of a transformer
by comparing the current in the power supply's neutral wire with the current in
the phase wire. If the currents are equal then the differential protection relay will
not operate. If there is a current imbalance then the differential protection relay
operates.

REF protection is applied on transformers in order to detect ground faults on a
given winding more sensitively than differential protection.




TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Transformer Protection Principles
Transformers are a critical and expensive component of the power system. Due to
the long lead time for repair of and replacement of transformers, a major goal of
transformer protection is limiting the damage to a faulted transformer. Some
protection functions, such as over excitation protection and temperature-based
protection may aid this goal by identifying operating conditions that may cause
transformer failure.

Transformer Protection Overview
The type of protection for the transformers varies depending on the application
and the importance of the transformer. Transformers are protected primarily
against faults and overloads. The type of protection used should minimize the
time of disconnection for faults within the transformer and to reduce the risk of
catastrophic failure to simplify eventual repair. Any extended operation of the
transformer under abnormal condition such as faults or overloads compromises
the life of the transformer, which means adequate protection should be provided
for quicker isolation of the transformer under such condition.

Transformer Failures
Failures in transformers can be classified into
winding failures due to short circuits (turn-turn faults, phase-phase faults,
phase-ground, open winding)
core faults (core insulation failure, shorted laminations)
terminal failures (open leads, loose connections, short circuits)
on-load tap changer failures (mechanical, electrical, short circuit, overheating)
abnormal operating conditions (overfluxing, overloading, overvoltage)
external faults

Conditions Protection Philosophy
Internal
Winding Phase-Phase,
Phase-Ground faults
Differential (87T), overcurrent (51, 51N)
Restricted ground fault protection (87RGF)
Winding inter-turn faults Differential (87T), Buchholz relay,
Core insulation failure,
shorted laminations
Differential (87T), Buchholz relay, sudden
pressure relay
Tank faults Differential (87T), Buchholz relay and tank-
ground protection
Overfluxing Volts/Hz (24)
External
Overloads Thermal (49)
Overvoltage Overvoltage (59)
Overfluxing Volts/Hz (24)
External system short circuits Time overcurrent (51, 51G), Instantaneous
overcurrent (50, 50G)



Differential Characteristic
The major operating challenge to transformer differential protection is
maintaining security during CT saturation for external faults while maintaining
sensitivity to detect low magnitude internal faults. CT saturation reduces the
secondary output current from the CT, and causes a false differential current to
appear to the relay. Differential relays meet this challenge in the following ways:

the restraint current is based on the maximum measured winding current, as
opposed to the traditional magnitude sum of the currents. This ensures ideal
restraint for the actual fault condition, balancing sensitivity and security.
the differential element uses a dual slope-dual breakpoint characteristic. The
differential element can be set to account for both DC and AC saturation of the
CTs, ensuring security, while maintaining sensitivity.

Inrush Inhibit during Transformer Energization:
The transformer energization resembles the condition of an internal fault. If no
inhibiting mechanism is provided, the differential element will trip. The
magnetizing inrush current has significant 2nd harmonic content. The level of 2nd
harmonic current can be used to differentiate between inrush and a fault
condition. Good transformer relay(s) use two different 2nd harmonic modes to
inhibit the differential element for inrush.
2nd harmonic blocking 2nd harmonic restraint responds to the ratio of the
magnitudes of the 2nd harmonic and the fundamental frequency currents.
Adaptive 2nd harmonic blocking The adaptive 2nd harmonic blocking responds
to both magnitudes and phase angles of the 2nd harmonic and the fundamental
frequency currents. The differential element correctly distinguishes between
faults and transformer energization, when the 2nd harmonic current is less than
the entered 2nd harmonic setting. While levels of 2nd harmonic during inrush
often do not go below 20%, many transformers are susceptible of generating
lower 2nd harmonic current during energization. Setting the 2nd harmonic
restraint below 20% may result in incorrect inhibit of the differential element
during some internal fault events. The adaptive 2nd harmonic blocking allows
settings in the traditional 20% range, while maintaining the security of the
differential element against inrush.




An alternative method for inrush inhibit is also available, where either current,
voltage, or breaker status is used to indicate a de-energized transformer. The
threshold can be lowered during energization of the transformer as indicated
either by breaker contact, current or voltage sensing, and will last for a settable
time delay. This allows settings of less than 20% for inrush inhibit during
transformer energization.

Sensitive Ground Fault Protection to limit Transformer Damage
Differential and overcurrent protection do not provide adequate protection for
wye-connected windings with grounded neutrals. Faults close to the neutral
produce less fault current (as shown by the current distribution curve). The
restricted ground fault function can be used to provide differential protection for
such ground faults, down to faults at 5% of the transformer winding. Restricted
ground fault protection can be a low impedance differential function or a high
impedance differential function. The low impedance function has the advantage
to being able to precisely set the sensitivity to meet the application requirement.
This sensitive protection limits the damage to the transformer to allow quicker
repair. The restricted ground fault element uses adaptive restraint based on
symmetrical components to provide security during external phase faults with
significant CT error. This permits the function to maximize sensitivity without any
time delay.

Over-flux Protection
Transformer over-fluxing can be a result of
Overvoltage
Low system frequency
A transformer is designed to operate at or below a maximum magnetic flux
density in the transformer core. Above this design limit the eddy currents in the
core and nearby conductive components cause overheating which within a very
short time may cause severe damage. The magnetic flux in the core is
proportional to the voltage applied to the winding divided by the impedance of
the winding. The flux in the core increases with either increasing voltage or
decreasing frequency. During startup or shutdown of generator-connected
transformers, or following a load rejection, the transformer may experience an
excessive ratio of volts to hertz, that is, become overexcited. When a transformer
core is overexcited, the core is operating in a non-linear magnetic region, and
creates harmonic components in the exciting current. A significant amount of
current at the 5th harmonic is characteristic of over-excitation.

Winding hot-spot temperature protection
The transformer winding hot-spot temperature is another quantity that should be
used for protection of transformers. Protection based on winding hot-spot
temperature can potentially prevent short circuits and catastrophic transformer
failure, as excessive winding hot-spot temperatures cause degradation and
eventual failure of the winding insulation. The ambient temperature, transformer
loading, and transformer design determine the winding temperature.
Temperature based protection functions alarm or trip when certain temperature
conditions are met.
Good relays use compliant thermal models to calculate the winding hot-spot
temperature and the loss of life of the winding insulation. The top-oil
temperature may be directly measured, or calculated from the ambient
temperature, load current, and transformer characteristics. In addition, the
calculations may use a monthly model of ambient temperature, eliminating the
need for external connections to the transformer and relay. This winding hot-spot
temperature and transformer loss of life information is used in thermal overload
protection to provide alarming or tripping when unacceptable degradation of the
transformer winding insulation is occurring.

Application Capabilities
In addition, these relays are designed for both new and retrofit installations. New
installations typically use wye-connected CTs, and internally compensate for the
measured currents for the phase shift of the protected transformer. Traditional
installations may use delta-connected or wye-connected CTs that externally
compensate the measured currents for the phase shift of the protected
transformer.

Phase shift transformers
Phase shift transformers purposely introduce a variable phase shift between the
primary and secondary voltage. This phase shift is not a multiple of 30 degree, but
is adjustable in small increments, to allow operators to change the phase angle
between parts of the power system to control power flow in the system.


Buchholz relay
In the field of electric power distribution and transmission, a Buchholz relay, is a
safety device mounted on some oil-filled power transformer and reactors,
equipped with an external overhead oil reservoir called a conservator. The
Buchholz Relay is used as a protective device sensitive to the effects of dielectric
failure inside the equipment.
Depending on the model, the relay has multiple methods to detect a failing
transformer. On a slow accumulation of gas, due perhaps to slight overload, gas
produced by decomposition of insulating oil accumulates in the top of the relay
and forces the oil level down. A float switch in the relay is used to initiate an
alarm signal. Depending on design, a second float may also serves to detect slow
oil leaks.



If an arc forms, gas accumulation is rapid, and oil flows rapidly into the
conservator. This flow of oil operates a switch attached to a vane located in the
path of the moving oil. This switch normally will operate a circuit breaker to
isolate the apparatus before the fault causes additional damage. Buchholz relays
have a test port to allow the accumulated gas to be withdrawn for testing.
Flammable gas found in the relay indicates some internal fault such as
overheating or arcing, whereas air found in the relay may only indicate low oil
level or a leak.
Buchholz relays have been applied to large power transformers at least since the
1940's. The relay was first developed by Max Buchholz (1875-1956) in 1921