Water Treatment

Water Treatment
Hand Book
PREFACE
Aqua Designs was started with the mission of providing eco friendly solutions
which will be useful for individuals, industries and also to nature.
Since its inception, Aqua Designs has offered successful solutions on
environmental perspective which has created a unique place in the industrial
sector.
The vision of MD Mr. Suthakar is to spread the message of harvesting water,
reducing its usage, recycling and reuse. This vision transformed into collection
of data on water and its uses and sharing this knowledge with one and all in
order to make this world a lively place to live.
.......... and hence this book.
With best compliments from
S. Suthakar
Managing Director Aqua Designs
ABOUT US
Aqua Designs Offers A to Z solutions for water and waste water treatment. A
one Stop Shop for all types of consultancies in water and waste water
management.
Aqua Designs commitment to the environment, keeps it in the forefront of
product innovations, purification and recycling technologies.
Aqua Designs provides water solutions for Institutions, Industry, Municipal
Authorities, and Commercial and Public properties. The Company boasts of the
widest range of specialty water-related products and services that are ISO
9001:2000 certified by RINA of Italy.
Aqua Designs was the proud recipient of the prestigious Award for The Best
Upcoming Water Company 2006 2007given by the magazine Water Digest
in association with UNESCO, NDTV Profit & WES-Net India in order to
acknowledge those persons and Organizations, who have contributed toward
water and its industry.
Aqua Designs was also the proud winner of the Awards for Best Water
Treatment Project Industrial 2007-2008 & Best Water R&D and
Technological Breakthrough 2007-2008 instituted by Water Digest.
For the year 2008-2009, Aqua Designs added one more feather in its cap. It
bagged two more Awards instituted by the Water Digest for the categories Best
Consultancy & Best Water Conservation IT Park showing its strength in IT
Sector using MBR Technology.
A proven track record of offering A Z solutions was appreciated and the Best
Consultancy Award is the proof for that.
The Company has excellent marketing and sales team with a cumulative
experience beyond 100 years. It is one of the major reason for Aqua Designs
entering big corporate and Multi National Companies. Due to its expertise the
Company is able to offer competitive Designs and proposals, which keeps the
competitors at bay .This proven technology has made the company one of the
front runners in this field.
Aqua Designs success depends on its human resources. From Designs,
Proposals, Projects, Erection and commissioning to operation and
maintenance, it has proved its capability in the market which gives them a clear
edge over others in the market.
Aqua Designs is supported by its own State-of-the-Art Laboratory for testing
water, waste water, air & stack samples both for physiochemical and
microbiological parameters as per PCB norms and IS standards. We have the
facility to monitor stack emissions and ambient air quality...The facility is
certified under ISO 9001:2000. The Laboratory handles and supports all in
house requirements; specific client needs and also offers Pilot Plant studies.
Aqua Designs provides services starting from EIA to Designs to implementation
of Projects to Operation & Maintenance to Supply of Specialty Chemicals to run
the operations and finally to analyze the various products of the treatment
using its Laboratory facility.
Aqua Designs also has its own chemical manufacturing and fabrication facilities
to support its growing needs in business.
Aqua Designs was formed with the sole intention of suggesting eco friendly
solutions for Industries and Municipalities. The vision was to provide solutions
to varied sectors in par with the developed nations.
Aqua Designs not only offers the concepts and design to their customers, but
also stay with the customer and successfully operate the scheme for years.
The customer satisfaction has lead Aqua Designs to be successful in various
types of Industries ranging from Petrochemicals, Automobile, Food and
Beverages, Breweries and Distilleries, Chemicals, Electronics, Power Industries
etc.
Aqua Designs believes only in continual improvement. It keeps offering
innovative solutions to its customers. One such is the concept of Membrane Bio
Reactors technology for treating the Sewage. Aqua Designs has now set a trend
such that big IT Parks have started using MBR Technology.
Aqua Designs is leaping forward like a giant and nothing can stop it. In the near
future it aspires to be a Global leader. Aqua designs believes in Better the Best
and this has made everything possible.
CHAPTER 1
Impurities in Water ................................ ................................................................ ......................
CHAPTER 2
Filters ................................................................ ................................ ...........................................
CHAPTER 3
Iron Removal Filters ................................ ................................................................ .....................
CHAPTER 4
Ion Exchange ................................ ................................................................ ................................
CHAPTER 5
Softener ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................................
CHAPTER 6
Membrane System ................................ ................................................................ .......................
CHAPTER 7
Steam Boiler ................................ ................................................................ ................................
CHAPTER 8
Cooling Water Treatment................................ ................................ ................................ .............
CHAPTER 9
Pumps ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........................................
CHAPTER 10
Raw Water Treatment ................................ ................................ ................................ .................
CHAPTER 11
Industrial Waste Water Treatment ................................................................ ..............................
CHAPTER 12
Chemical Cleaning ................................ ................................................................ ........................
1
8
13
17
36
40
49
62
79
84
92
97
WATER SAMPLE TEST PROCEDURES ................................................................ ........................ 107
Phenolphthalein (P) Alkalinity Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ........ 109
Total (M) Alkalinity Test Procedures ................................................................ ....................... 110
Conductivity Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ................................... 112
pH-Electrometric Method Test Procedures ................................ ................................ ............. 113
Total hardness Test Procedures ................................ ................................ .............................. 114
Sulphite testing procedure ................................ ................................ ...................................... 115
Chloride Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 116
Checking Acid Solution Strength for Cleaning ................................ ................................ .......... 117
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT CONVERSION ...................................................... 118
BASICS................................ ................................ ................................ ..................................... 119
CHAPTER 1
01
Impurities in Water
Water impurities
Impurity in water technology is a relative term. For example Hardness is not
considered as an impurity in drinking water but in industrial water treatment
it leads to scaling of equipment and hence considered as an impurity.
Common impurities in water, their effect and method of removal are as follows:
Impurities Effect Method of removal
Can clog pipelines and
equipment can choke Ion
exchange resin and RO
membranes
Coagulation, setting
and filtration
Color Indication of organic, iron
etc. and can be harmful to
the unit operation ahead.
Coagulation, settling
filtration, followed by
activated carbon filter.
Organic matter Can foul Ion exchange
resins membranes and
may be detrimental to
process.
Coagulation, setting,
filtration, followed by
activated carbon
filtration.
Bacteria Will depend upon the type
of bacteria, can induce
corrosion and also harmful
to RO membrane.
Coagulation, filtration,
setting and super
chlorination, UV,
ozonation
Iron Red water, corrosi on,
deposit, interferes with
dyeing, bleaching etc.
Aeration, coagulation,
fi l trati on, fi l trati on
through Manganese
Zeolite
pH High pH or low pH can both
induce corrosion.
Ion exchange, addition
of acid or alkali.
Calcium,
Magnesium
(Hardness)
Scaling, cruds with soap
interfere with dyeing and
also harmful to other
process.
Ion exchange
Lime Soda
Turbidity
Suspended silica
02 WATER TREATMENT HAND BOOK
Sodium Unharmful when low in
concentration, increase
TDS, high concentration
can induce corrosion.
Ion Exchange through
cation H+ resin.
Reverse Osmosis
Bicarbonates,
Carbonates,
Alkalinity, Hydroxide
(Alkalinity)
Corrosion, foaming and
carry over
Acid addition
Ion Exchange by WAC
Resin Split stream by
hydrogen cation resin
Degassification after step
2 and 3
Sulphate Scaling if associated
with Calcium, harmful in
construction water.
Ion Exchange Reverse
Osmosis Evaporation
Electrolysis.
Chloride Corrosion Ion Exchange
Reverse Osmosis
Evaporation
Electrodylasis.
Nitrate Normally not found in
raw water. Harmful in
food processes
(especially baby food).
Ion Exchange
Reverse Osmosis
Silica Scaling and deposition
on equipment.
Ion Exchange
Carbon Dioxide Corrosion Open aeration,
Degasification, and
Vacuum deaeration.
Hydrogen Sulphide Corrosion Aeration, filtration
through Manganese
Zeolite, aeration plus
chlorination.
Oxygen Corrosion Deaeration
Addition of chemicals
likes sodium sulphite or
hydrazine.
03
Ammonia Corrosion especially of
Copper and Zinc
Aeration
Hydrogenations exchange if
ammonia is present in Ionic
form.
Free chlorine Corrosion By adding chemicals
Activated carbon
Definition of Terms
Total electrolyte:
Leakage:
Conductivity:
Resistivity:
Water Analysis Format
++ +
Total Cations= TC= Ca + Na all as CaCO
3
--
Total Anions=TA=T Alkalinity + Cl + SO + NO all as CaCO
4 3 3
++ ++
Total Hardness=TH= Ca + Mg as CaCO
3
- -- -
Total Alkalinity=T.Alk= HCO + CO + OH all as CACO
3 3 3
- -- -
EMA= Cl + SO + NO all as CaCO
4 3 3
Total Acid Ions=EMA + CO + SiO all as CaCO
2 2 3
Total electrolyte=TE=TC=TA
Total dissolved solids=TDS=TE + SiO
2
Electrolytes are strongly ionized compounds. TE is
numerically equal to either TC or TA (not some of both). SiO and CO being
2 2
weekly ionized are not included in total electrolyte.
Electrolyte or silica passing through the demineralizing unit due to
incomplete ion exchange.
The ability of a solution to carry current. Conductivity
measurement is used to indicate the purity of water. It is measured as micro
mhos or micro siemens/cm.
Resistivity is a measurement used for ultra pure water. Its unit is
megohm. Resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity
The following format which has been shown is for ease of designing
calculation where total cation or anion can be easily seen, matched for
correction of analysis and also for designing the Ion Exchange units. Water
testing laboratories normally do not give analysis for many ions in CaCO
3
units; example Chloride ion, given as Chloride (mg/liter) which should be
converted to CaCO ppm units, by multiplying by 1.41. Similar other ions,
3
which are not mentioned in CaCO units, should be converted to CaCO
3 3
units.
05
Substance Symbol Example Substance Symbol Example
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Ca++
Mg++
Na+
K+
125
105
100
0
Bicarbonates
Carbonates,
Hydroxides
Chlorides
Sulphate
Nitrate
HCO -
3
CO --
3
OH-
Cl-
SO --
4
No -
3
150
0
0
100
80
0
Total Cation TC 330 Total Anions TA 330
Total
Hardness
Ca + Mg 230 Alkalinity HCO - +
3
CO -- +
3
OH-
150
Equivalent
Mineral
Acidity
Cl-
So
4
No -
3
180
All the above are expressed as ppm CaCO
3
Iron Fe
express
ed in
mg/liter
as Fe
0.5 Silica
Carbon
Dioxide
SiO
2
Co
2
20
15
Substance Unit Example
Turbidity
Colour
Total Dissolved Solids
Suspend Solids
Acidity/Alkalinity
NTU
Hazen
Ppm
Ppm
pH
5 NTU
5 Hazen Unit
350 ppm
20 ppm
7.3
Conversion Factors for conversion to Calcium Carbonate
(CaCO )
3
Ions Symbol Ionic
weight
Equivalent
weight
To convert
to CaCO
3
multiply by
CATIONS
Aluminum Al+++ 27.0 9.0 5.56
Ammonium Nh4 + 18.0 18.0 2.78
Barium Ba ++ 137.4 68.7 .728
Calcium Ca+ 40.1 20.0 2.49
Copper Cu++ 63.6 31.8 1.57
Hydrogen H+ 1.0 1.0 50.0
Iron
(Ferrous)
Fe++ 55.85 27.8 1.80
Iron (Ferric) Fe+++ 55.85 18.6 2.69
Magnesium Mg++ 24.3 12.2 4.10
Manganese Mn++ 54.9 27.5 1.82
Potassium K+ 39.1 39.1 1.28
Sodium Na+ 23.0 23.0 2.17
07
ANIONS
Bicarbonate Hc0 -
3
61.0 61.0 0.82
Bisulphate HSO -
4
97.1 97.1 0.515
Bisulphite HSO -
3
81.1 81.1 0.617
Carbonate Co
3
60.0 30.0 1.67
Chloride Cl- 35.5 35.5 1.41
Fluoride F- 19.0 19.0 2.63
Hydroxide OH- 17.0 17.0 2.94
Nitrate No -
3
62.0 62.0 0.807
Phosphate
(monovalent)
H PO -
2 4
97.0 97.0 0.516
Phosphate
(divalent)
HOP
4
96.0 48.0 1.04
Phosphate
(trivalent)
Po
4
95.0 31.7 1.58
Sulphate So
4
96.1 48.0 1.04
Sulphide S 32.1 16.0 3.12
Sulphite So
3
80.1 40.0 1.25
Symbol Ions
Ionic
weight
Equivalent
weight
To convert
to CaCO
3
multiply by
08
CHAPTER 2
WATER TREATMENT HAND BOOK
Filters
Basic Operation of Filter
Sequence of Operation
Service:
Backwash:
Rinse :
Note
The basic operation of Pressure Filter, Dual Media Filter and Activated Carbon
and iron removal filters is same.
All Units operate in down flow mode, where the water enters from the top,
percolates through the media and treated water is collected from the bottom.
u The water to be filtered enters from the top of the shell,
percolates downward through the media and is drawn off from the
bottom.
u The water enters from the bottom of the vessel, passes
through the media and is drained from the top. This is called
BACKWASH and it is done to carry the dirt accumulated on the top.
Generally back washing is done once in every 24 hrs or when the
pressure drop exceeds 8 psi. (0.5 kg/cm2).
The water enters from the top passed through the media and is drained
off from the bottom.
When activated carbon is installed in a vessel, it should be soaked for 12 to 24
hours to remove trapped air and back washed to remove fines and stratify the
bed. A necessary maintenance item, periodic back washing removes solids
trapped in the carbon bed, as well as fine carbon particles. Since the
dechlorination reaction oxidizes the carbon surface, which slowly breaks down
the carbon structure, back washing is especially important in de-chlorination
applications. Frequency is determined by the solids content of the feed water.
Tests on activated carbon dechlorination systems indicate that regular back
washing of carbon beds helps preserve the dechlorination and filtering
efficiency. By back washing regularly and expanding the carbon by at least 30
percent, fouling or binding of the carbon bed does not occur.

Raw Water
Filter Media
Collecting System
Treated Water
Filter Media
Collecting System
Raw Water
Backwash
Dirty Water
09
CAUTION
Wet activated carbon removes oxygen from air. In closed or partially closed
containers and vessels, oxygen depletion may reach hazardous levels. If
workers must enter a vessel containing activated carbon, appropriate sampling
and work procedures for potentially low-oxygen spaces should be followed as
required by salutatory requirements.
Calculate area of vessel by required volumetric flow rate and the velocity as
mentioned in the following table.
Area (m2) = Volumetric Flow Rate (m3/hr)/ Velocity (m/hr) (1)
Based on above calculated area calculate diameter of the vessel by the
following formulae:

Diameter (m) = [Area (m2)/ 0.785] (2)
Thumb rules for designing a filter
Other requirements
10
Parameters Sand Filters
Dual Media
Filters
Activated
Carbon
Velocity (m3/m2/hr) 7.5 12 12-20 15-20
Effective size of
Media (mm)
0.45 - 0.6
(fine sand)
0.65 - 0.76
(Anthracite)
0.35 - 0.5
Uniform coefficient 1.6 max 1.85 <2(115 typical)
Density (kg/m3) 2650 1600
Parameters
Loss of head 0.03 M for clean bed to .2 to 3 M final
Length of run
between cleaning
12 to 24 hours or when the pressure
2
drop across the bed reaches 0.5 Kg/cm
Method of cleaning
Back washing at rate of 36 M/Hr or
24 m/hr with air scouring at 36 M/hr
at 0.35 to 0.5 kg/Cm2 pressure
Amount of wash water 1 to 4 %
Time for back washing 10 to 20 minutes
Time for air scouring 2 to 5 minutes
WATER TREATMENT HAND BOOK
Important points on Filter:
Quantity of Media
uNormally, pressure sand filter is used to filter suspended solids upto
30 ppm and dual filter for 50-55 ppm and water with higher
suspended solids would require coagulation. Output quality of water
from Pressure Sand Filter is 25 to 50 microns.
uNormally, velocity for Sand velocity is taken for water treatment /
3 2
residential filter are taken from 7.5 to 18 M /M /hr; for institutional
filters 20 to 30
3 2
uM /M /hr. For recirculation of water like swimming pool velocities
3 2
can be taken greater than 35 M /M /hr for low turbidity application
uHigher velocity will induce higher head loss through the bed and
frequency of backwash will increase.Back washing of filter should
always be carried out using clean water.
uWhenever air scouring is provided, it should be done before back
washing step.
uWhere strainers are provided at bottom, pebbles and gravels need
not be put.
3
Quantity of media is Calculated in Cubic Meters (M ) and then converted to
Kgs
The depth for various media is
Sand/ Anthracite 540 mm
Crushed Gravels 100 mm
Pebbles (1/2 to1/4) 100 mm
Pebbles (1 to1/2) 100 mm
Pebbles (11/2 to 1/4) 160 mm
Volume = Area* (depth/1000)
PROBLEM CAUSE REMEDY
Turbidity
Breakthrough
Change in
Raw water
Analyze water
Backwash
Loss of media
Broken Laterals
High backwash flow
Change the laterals or rectify.
Control Backwash
High Pressure Drop
across Bed
Media Dirty
Give Backwash If backwash does
not solve problem give extended
backwash Change Filter media
if Step 1 & 2 does not work
Mud Ball Formation
Change in Raw
Water Quality
Air Scour & Give extended
backwash Check pretreatment
if any Decrease Velocity Change
Media if nothing of above works.

Media
Height
11
Trouble Shooting of Filters
Filter Details
2
u Blower velocity is at 36 M / Hr at pressure is 0.5 Kg / cm
u minimum service Velocity is 7.5 M/ Hr
u Normal service Velocity is 9.0 M/Hr
u Maximum service Velocity is 7.5 M/ Hr
u Backwash velocity For Air scour type 24 M/Hr
u Backwash velocity For Non Air scour type 24 M/Hr
u Density of Media is 2600gm/cc
Model
Diameter
in mm
Bed Area
2
in M
Height on
straight
(HOS)in
M HVT
Height on
straight
(HOS) in
M for Air
scour type
Bed Depth
in Meters
500
0.20
1500
1400
1
1.5
600
0.28
1500
1400
1
2.1 3.83
1
1400
1500
0.51
800 1000
0.79
1500
1400
1
5.93 8.48
1
1400
1500
1.13
1200 1400
1.54
1500
1400
1
11.5 15.08
1
1400
1500
2.01
1600 1800
2.54
15 00
1400
1
19.05 23.55
1
1400
1500
3.14
2000 2200
3.80
1500
1400
1
28.50
Service
Flow (mini)
M3/Hr
Service
Flow
Normal)
M3/Hr
Service
Flow (Maxi)
M3/Hr
BW Flow
M3/Hr
For Air
Scouring
type
1.8 2.52 4.59 7.11 10.
17
13.
86
18.
09
22.
86
28.
26
34.
20
2.0 2.8 5.1 7.9 11.3 15.4 20.1 25.4 31.4 38.0
4.8 6.72 12.
24
18.
96
27.
12
36.
96
48.
24
60.
96
75.
36
91.
2
CHAPTER 3
13
Iron Removal Filters
Manganese Zeolite
(manganese Greensand)
Many water supplies contain quantities of iron & manganese that may be
detrimental to number of domestic and industrial use if not removed. Iron &
manganese removal is very important pretreatment step in Ion Exchange &
R.O. treatment.
uIron & manganese exists in water in the following forms
uInsoluble iron & manganese
uSoluble iron & manganese
uOrganic iron & manganese
uCombination of all three
Depending on the type of iron present in water different treatment methods are
adopted.
Manganese zeolite is a natural green
sand coated with manganese oxide
that removes Iron & manganese from
solution. The greensand is processed
by treating with manganous sulfate
and then with potassium
permanganate. This results in the
higher Oxides of manganese in and
on the green sand granules. The
resultant greensand is a manganese
zeolite with following characteristics.
S.No Type of impurity Removal method
1
Insoluble iron
& manganese
No oxidation required.
Simple Coagulation in
solid contact Unit
followed by filtration
Soluble iron & manganese
2
Oxidation by air, chlorine
& filtration Lime / Lime
soda softening Ion Exchange
3 Organic bound iron Coagulation by alum, settling
4 Combination of three above Manganese zeolite
Parameter
Colour
Density
Effective size
Uniformity coefficient
Mesh size
Attrition loss per
annum %
Bed Depth
(minimum)
Freeboard
Service flow rate
Backwash flow rate
3 2
2025 M /hr/M
3 2
5 12 M /hr/M
50% of bed depth
700 mm of
greensand and
300mm of anthracite
24 %
1660
1.6
0.30- 0.35 mm
3
1360Kg/M
Black
Removal process
Batch process (intermediate Regeneration)
Continuous KMnO feed system:
4
Reaction times
Manganese zeolite process is used in conjunction with above process when the
concentration is more or as a standalone process if the concentrations of Fe &
Mn are low.
There are two methods, which is normally employed for removal of Fe & Mn by
Manganese zeolite.
uBatch process (intermediate Regeneration)
uContinuous KMnO feed system
4
The regenerative batch process uses Manganese zeolite both as oxidizing
source and also as filter media. After the zeolite is saturated with metal ions, it
is regenerated with KMnO (potassium per manganate).
4
This process has its limitation. Batch process is employed when the
concentration of iron & manganese is small (i.e. < 2 PPM) and also if the
flowrate required is not very high. (Flow rate limited to about 5-6M/Hr)
The capacity of manganese zeolite is (0.09lbs iron or manganese / Cu Ft)
And the regeneration is done by 0.5 % KMnO . The amount of KMnO required is
4 4
3 2
about (0.18lbs of KMnO / Cu Ft of media). Backwashing at 20-25 M /Hr /M is
4
done once in 24 hours or when the pressure drop across the bed reaches to 7-8
psi, whichever is earlier.
Batch process is still used but is being replaced quite rapidly by continuous feed
system. In this process KMnO solution is added before the pressure filter that
4
contains dual media and manganese zeolite. The Anthracite on the top of
Manganese zeolite acts as a filter and removes the iron & manganese oxidized
by permanganate. MnO oxidizes the residual ions that are not oxidized by
2
permanganate. MnO also removes excess KMnO . When the bed gets
2 4
saturated with metal oxides, it is backwashed to remove all particulate
matters.
Permanganate is fed as 1-2 % solution directly to the inlet line. Contact time for
oxidation is about 2060 seconds; hence it is fed 20 '(50-60 mm) upstream
from the zeolite bed Alkali is added to low pH water for optimum removal but
utmost care should be taken during alkali addition due to precipitation problem
KMnO is used either in conjunction with chlorine or alone. KMnO dosage
4 4
differs depending on whether it is used alone or with chlorine.
15
Dosage of KMnO4
With chlorine
Without Chlorine
Birm
1 mg/liter ofCl / 1ppm of Fe
2
KMnO mg/liter = (0.2mg/literKMnO for 1ppm of Fe) + (2 mg/liter of
4 4
KMnO for 1ppm Of Mn) + (5mg/liter of KMnO for1ppm of H S)
4 4 2
KMnO mg/liter = (1.mg/literKMnO for 1ppm of Fe) + (2 mg/liter of KMnO for
4 4 4
1ppm Of Mn) + (5mg/liter of KMnO4 for 1ppm ofH S)
2
Birm is another type of manganese dioxide. It is a silicon dioxide core that has
been coated with manganese dioxide. This makes Birm much lighter than its ore
counterpart, less than 400gms/liter. The benefit of this type of product is that it
can be backwashed at a flowrate of 0.8Kg. / Liter. Birm does require dissolved
oxygen in the water for the precipitation of iron, where the manganese dioxide ore
does not. Birm relies on its ability to act as a catalyst between iron and oxygen. It
has a limited amount of MnO available, so it does not have the ability to supply
2
oxygen through a redox reaction. The oxygen content should be, at least,
equivalent to 15% of the total iron content. If the oxygen content is less than
15%, aeration is required. Birm is recommended on levels of iron less than 10
ppm. It can be utilized on higher concentrations, but the frequency of
regeneration (backwashing) becomes excessive. Birm has a capacity of
approximately 900 -1100 grams/Cu meter. It can treat up to 3 cubic meters of
water containing 10 ppm Fe as CaCO3. Birm should not be used on waters that
have oil or hydrogen sulfide, and the organic matter should not exceed 5 ppm. As
with any product, consult the manufacturer for operational guidelines. (Sybron
Chemicals).
CHAPTER 4
17
Ion Exchange
Ion Exchange Load Calculation
Let us take the following examples
Feed water analysis as ppm CaCO
3
Free CO - 15, Silica 5
2
Ion Exchange load w.r.t different unit operation
Cations
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Iron
Total
Unit as ppm CaCO3
210
40
120
5
0
375
Anions
Bicarbonate
Chloride
Sulphate
Nitrate
Total
200
70
85
20
375
Unit Operation
Softening
Dealkaization
Strongly acid
Cation(TC)
Weakly Basic Anion
Strongly acid Cation
after dealkalization
Strongly Basic Anion
after WBA
after Degassing
Strongly basic Anion
after degassing
and WBA
Total Anion (T.Alk
+ EMA ) +SiO
2
(Cl+SO +NO +SiO ) -
4 3 2
(Alkalinity + CO )
2
Total Anions
Total Anions EMA
Total Cations
Carbonate Hardness
EMA (SO +Cl+NO )
4 3
Total Cations
(Ca+Mg+Na+K)
HCO
3
Total Hardness
(Ca +Mg)
Ion Exchange Load
Concentration
(as ppm CaCO )
3
250
200
375
175
175
225
375
185 (assuming 5 ppm
leakage of CO )
2
10 ppm (assuming 5
ppm leakage )
Ion Exchange load w.r.t different unit operation
uMatch total cations to total cations to total Anions. They should be equal.
(Error of +_ 5% can be considered)
uRefer to the table for calculating the Resin Quantity. The Ion Exchange
load can be taken as mentioned in the table.
Sizing consideration for Ion Exchange System
Approximate regenerate Level and operating Capacity
Design parameters
Ion Exchange Resin Quantity (liters) = [Flow (m3/hr)* Ion
Exchange load(ppm)* Time] / Ex.capacity of Resin (gms/liter)
Parameters
Velocity*
Bed Depth
Free Board *
Type of
Internal
Cation
15-20 M/hr
900-2000 mm
60-100%
Hub/radial
Strain on plate
Hub/radial
Strain on plate
60-100%
900-2000mm
15-20 M/hr
Anion Mixed bed
30-44 M/hr
1000-2000 mm
60-100%
Hub/radial
Strain on plate
Degassifier
50-70 M/hr
2400-3600
mm
Rasching rings
Pall rings
Parameters
Regenerant
flowrate
Total rinse
Displacement
Rinse
Backwash
velocity
Fast Rinse
Unit
3 3
M /Hr/M
BV
BV
3 2
M /Hr/M
3 3
M /Hr/M
16
6
1.5
5
4
WAC SAC
4.8
5
1.5
9
16
WBA
2.1
5
1.5
6
8
SBA Type 1
4
5
1.5
6
8
SBA Type 2
4
5
1.5
6
8
Parameters
Regeneration level
gm/L Cation
Regeneration level
gm/L ANION
EC for CATION
gm CaCO3/L
EC for ANION
gm CaCO3/L
WAC
110
110
SAC
80
54
WBA
55
50
SBA Type 1
80
35
SBA Type 2
80
25
MB
80
80
40
20
19
4 % NaOH contains 41.75 gms NaOH per liter
50 % NaOH contains 763 gms NaOH per liter
99% NaOH contains 803 gms NaOH per liter
4 % HCl contains 40.72 gms HCl per liter
32 % HCl contains 479.2 gms HCl per liter
Following different schemes of DM / Ion exchange systems are possible
depending upon the application and the outlet water quality required
Detailed parameters on the quality of water required in various
industries is given in Chapter 9.
SA Strong Acid Resin (H+)
SA*- Strong Acid Resin (Na+)
WB Weak Base Anion Resin
D Degasser
SB Strong Base Anion Resin
WC Weak Acid Cation Resin
MB Mixed bed (mixture of Strong Acid Cation Resin (H+) and
strong base anion resin (OH-)
Ion exchange systems
Note:
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
# Type Of DM/ Ion Exchange
Systems
Application Outlet Water
Quality
1
Removal of silica,
removal of CO2 is
not required
Conductivity <
50 micro mhos
2
Where CO2 and
silica removal is
required, low
alkalinity water
Conductivity <
30 micro mhos,
silica < 0.5
ppm
3
Where CO2
content is high,
i.e. high alkalinity
water
Conductivity <
30 micro mhos,
silica < 0.5
ppm
4
EMA and alkalinity
high in raw water
Conductivity <
30 micro mhos,
silica < 0.5
ppm
SA WB
SA SB
SA D SB
SA D WB SB
Service
Regeneration
Raw Water is passed through ion exchange unit till the required quality of water is
being produced. This is known as service cycle. When the resin stops producing
desired quality water, the Resin is said to be exhausted and will have to be
regenerated. Service flow can be down flow (top to bottom) or upflow (bottom to
top).
The restoration of resin back to its original form is called Regeneration.
Depending upon the resin, regeneration is usually done by using acid, alkali or
common salt. These chemicals are known as regenerant.
Sequence of Regeneration for down flow unit is :-
1. Backwash
2. Chemical injection
3. Displacement (slow rinse)
4. Fast rinse or Final rinse
In the up flow unit upward wash is only done for a minute or so.
5

High EMA and
high alkalinity
in raw water
Hardness > =1
Alkalinity
Conductivity <
30 micro mhos,
silica < 0.5 ppm
6

Softening,
where only
hardness to be
removed
Hardness less
than 5 ppm as
CaCO3
7

Dealkalization
when only
temporary
hardness is
present
10 % of the
influent
alkalinity TDS
reduction upto
alkalinity
removal
8

Dealkalization
alkalinity with
permanent
hardness
10 % of the
influent
alkalinity TDS
reduction
alkalinity
removal
9

Low
conductivity
water required
MB is installed
after SBA
Conductivity <
1 micro mhos,
silica < 0.002
ppm
10

When ultrapure
water is
required for
pharmaceutical
or electronic
industries
Conductivity <
0.02 micro
mhos,
resistivity 14-18
mega ohms
silica < 0.002
ppm

WC SA D WB SB
SA*
WC
D
SA*
SA D
MB1
MB1 MB2
21
Operation of Ion Exchange unit

Backwash
Chemical Injection
Downflow Coflow Regeneration
Regeneration Tank
1
2
3
4
5
4
5
Slow Rinse
3
Fast Rinse
5
1
1 Raw water
2 Backwash outlet
3 Chemical Injection inlet
4 Power water for ejector
5 Drain for chemical and
final rinse
Upflow Countercurrent Regeneration

Power Water
Regenerant Flow
Power Water
Drain Drain
Raw water or feed water Final Rinse
1
Raw water or feed water
Final Rinse
1
2
3
3
4
5
5
6
6
2
Chemical Injection Slow Rinse
Final
Rinse
23
Typical Regeneration Efficiencies for different type of resins
Typical Regeneration level ranges for single resin column
Resin Type /
Configuration
Regeneration System
Typical Regeneration
Efficiencies (%)
Strong Acid Cation
Co-current HCl
Counter-current HCl
Co-current H SO
2 4
Counter-current H SO
2 4
200-250
120-150
250-300
150-200
Weak Acid Cation
Weak Acid Cation
+ Strong Acid Cation
Strong Base Anion
Type 1
Strong Base Anion
Type 2
Weak Base Anion
Co-current
Counter current
Co-current
Counter-current
120-150
150-200
125-140
250-300
140-220
105-115
105-115
Regenerant System
Regenerant Level
g/liter
Typical operating
capacity mg/liter
Co-current Regeneration
Hcl
H SO
2 4
NaOH
Counter current Regeneration
Hcl
H SO
2 4
NaOH
60 - 80
60 - 80
60 - 80
60 - 80
60 - 80
60 - 80
40 60
45 65
30 40
50 70
55 75
55 75
Design Guide lines for Operating and Designing Resin
System
Note:-
Degasser
These are only for help. Actual data
should be obtained from the resin manufacturer.
Most resins have similar data.
The forced-draft degasifier blows an air stream
countercurrent to the water flow.
The undesirable gas escapes through the vent
on the top of the aerator. A disadvantage to this
process is that the water is saturated with
oxygen after aeration.
Parameter Guideline
Swelling
Strong Acid Cation Na H
Weak Acid Cation H Ca
Strong Base Anion Cl OH
Weak Base Anion Free base Cl
5-8 %
15-20 %
15-25 %
15-25 %
Bed Depth Minimum
Cocurrent single Resin
Counter current Single Resin
Backwash Flow Rate
SAC Resin
WAC Resin
SBA Resin
WBA Resin
Flow Rates
Service/Fast Rinse
Co-current Regeneration
Counter- current Regeneration
Total Rinse Requirements
SAC Resin
WAC Resin
SBA Resin
5-60M/hr
1-10 M/hr
5-20M/hr
2-6 Bed Volumes
3-6 Bed Volume
3-6 Bed Volume
2-4 Bed Volume
10-25 M/hr
10-20 m/hr
5-15 M/hr
3-10M/Hr
750 mm
1000 mm
25
Packing Data
Ceramic Raschig ring There are 145 pieces of raschig ring per liter.
The ring size is 38 mm X 38 mm and weighs about 6 kg.
Ring
Size
mm
Number
of rings
in 1 M3 of
random
packing
Free
Volume
3 3
M /M
Packing
Surface
Area
2 3
M /M
Hydraulic
radius of
passage
Equivalent
Diameter
of
Packing
D=4r
Mass of
3
1 M of
rings Kg
25 X 25
X 3
53200 0.74 204 0.00363 0.01452 532
35 X 35
X 4
20200 0.74 140 0.00555 0.02220 505
50 X 50
X 4
6000 0.785 87.5 0.00900 530 0.0360
Degassifier Height and Raschig rings Heights
3 2
Degassifier Flow & Area (velocity taken is 60 m /h/m )
Inlet CO
2
ppm
Outlet CO
2
ppm
Degassifier
Heights Meters
Raschig rings
Heights Meters
500
200
150
100
50
35
8
5
2
8
5
2
8
5
2
8
5
2
8
5
2
8
5
2
4.26
4.90
5.49
3.65
4.26
4.90
3.65
3.65
4.26
3.04
3.65
4.26
2.43
3.04
3.65
2.43
3.04
3.65
2.90
3.20
3.96
2.29
2.59
3.35
2.00
2.43
3.04
1.67
2.13
2.89
1.21
1.67
2.43
1.21
1.37
2.13
Degassifier
3
Flow M /Hour
Cross Sectional
2
Area in M
Internal Diameter
Of degasser in mm
Required air flow
3
rate in M /Hour
5
7.5
10
12.5
15
17.5
20
22.5
25
27.5
30
35
40
45
50
0.083
0.125
0.167
0.208
0.250
0.291
0.333
0.375
0.416
0.458
0.500
0.583
0.667
0.750
0.833
325
400
460
512
560
600
650
691
728
764
800
862
925
977
1030
75
112.5
150
187.5
225
262.5
300
337.5
375
412.5
450
525
600
675
750
27
Failure to produce specified quality of water
The failure to produce specified quality treated water will depend upon the specific
Ion Exchange unit. The causes for deteriorating water quality from each Ion
Exchanged bed are given in the tabulated form. Quality of water can also
deteriorate due to resin fouling. Various types of foulants which can contaminate
the Ion Exchange resin.
Defects Causes Remedies
1.Change in
Raw water
Composition
Service
cycle
Exceeding
Specification
Faulty
regeneration
Loss of ion
exchange
Resin
Increase in TDS
% change in Na/TC
or Alk/TA
Flow meter not working
or out of calibration
Conductivity meter not
working or working
inaccurately
Check, rectify or replace
Check power to conductivity
meter Calibrate meter
Cell dirty, Replanitinize.
Insufficient chemical
Weak regenerant (less
Chemical or too much
dilution water) Poor
distribution of regenerant
Ejector not functioning
or Chemical going very
slowly
Check and follow proper
regeneration Check and rectify.
Faulty internal distributor or
broken strainer on top in
pack bed system.Insufficient
power water flow at required
pressure to ejector Check
rubber lining above ejector,
check for chokage in ejector,
air lock in vessel or if every
thing is ok change faulty
ejector.
Obtain new water analysis and
Set water meter to new capacity.
Calculate new capacity to
the increased load.
High Backwash in
Downflow system
Chemical attack by
Oxidizing agent like
chlorine Excessive
high pressure flow
rate Broken Strainers
in Upflow system/
Upset supporting bed
or damaged underdrain.
Air sucking through
ejector in Pack bed
system
Reduce Backwash flow rate.
Dechlorinate. Check performance
of ACF Unit. If no ACF unit
is there, use reducing agent
(like sodium sulphite).
Check & Rectify. Do not
exceed specification Check for
resin in effluent or resin or in
resin trap.. Change strainer
Rectify bottom distributor.
This happens sometime during
injection. Take care
Fouling of
Ion Exchange
material
Channeling
or short
Circuiting
High Pressure
drop across
resin bed
Pump not
delivering
Excessive turbidity in raw
water Excessive Resin fines
Resin degraded Excessive
high flow rates or operating
pressure Cross
Contamination of Resin
in Mix bed
Oxidized iron or manganese
in raw water(Normally
effects cation)Excessive
turbidity in raw
See fouling of resins Short
circuiting for possible
cause Resin Dirty
See in Fouling of Resin
Use Clean regenerant
chemical, Use DM water
for dilution
See foul i ng of resi ns
Short circuiting for possible
cause Resin Dirty
Obstructions in pipelines
pump Vessel s et c.,
Damaged Rubber lining
Valves not properly opened
Strainer clogged due to dirt
and resin fines
1 Air, chlorine or other
oxidizing agent can oxidize
iron and manganese
Pretreatment with any of
the above Cleaning by Hcl
for cation or by Brine
for Anion
Restricted
flow
1. See pump trouble
shooting chart for cause
1. See Pump Trouble
Shooting for solution
Inspect pipeline clean and
remove obstruction. Replace
pipe with good rubber
lining or rectify Open valve
fully (except control valve)
Clean strainers (For removal
of resin)
Excessive
Rinsing
Organic Fouling of Anion
Ion Exchange Resin
Brine Treatment. For
extreme Condition Sodium
hypochlorite dosing, Should
be done under supervision
29
Improper
Regeneration
Increased Concen-
-tration of sulphuric
acid in cation
regeneration Regen-
-erant dosage too low
or too weak Inadequate
backwash Damage
underdrain or internal
distributor
See method of
Regeneration Use
correct method of
regeneration Give
extended backwash
(30 minutes or more)
to clean the resin bed.
Replace or Rectify
Low service
flow rate
Very slow service rate
increases leakage from
unit (will reflect on
anion unit )
Have storage system
and operate at higher
flow or use recycle
system.Minimum linear
velocity should not fall
3 2
below 2 M /Hr /M
Valve leakage Defective Valve
Replace Note :- Valve
Leakage can give
wrong reading in
instruments & water
analysis
Nominal aging
of Resin
Cation Life 5 to
10 years
Anion Resin 3 to
5 years
1 Replace old resin
Attrition Loss
3 to 5 % per
annum
1 Top up resin lost
Inadequate
mixing of Resin.
Applies to
Mixed Bed only
Improper Drain
down Air Mixing
time too short
Not Enough air
Water should not be
totally drained after
rinsing. The level of
water should always
be above resin bed
Air mixing should be
done for minimum of
ten minutes Check air
requirement & blower
capacity
Problem of
middle collector
in mixed bed
Can be caused by
leakage of cation
Resin Improper
dilution of
regenerant
Broken collector
Add Cation Resin to
make up Loss or add
inert resin Check
Change
Indian standard grade for the commonly used
regeneration chemicals
Hydrochloric Acid -- IS 265
Sulphuric Acid -- IS 266
Sodium Hydroxide -- IS 252 (Tech/Rayon Grade 46% lye)
IS 1021 (Pure Grade - Flakes)
Sodium Carbonate -- IS 251 (Tech Grade)
Sodium Sulphite -- IS 247 (Tech Grade)
Sodium chloride -- IS 297 (Tech Grade)
Alum -- IS 260 (Tech Grade)
Recommended impurity level for Hydrochloric Acid
Concentration and density of HCl solution
Impurity Maximum level
Fe
0.01%
Other metals(total) 10 ppm
Organic Matter 0.01 %
H SO as SO3
2 4
0.4 %
Oxidants(HNO ,Cl )
3 2
5 ppm
Suspended matter as turbidity
0
Inhibitors none
Percent
Sp.Gravity
Grams/Liter
1
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
1.0032 10.03
1.0082 20.16
1.0181 40.72
1.0279 61.67
1.0376 83.01
1.0474 104.7
1.0574 126.9
1.0675 149.5
1.0776 172.4
1.0878 195.8
1.0980 219.6
1.1083 243.8
1.1187 268.5
1.1290 293.5
1.1392 319.5
1.1493 344.8
1.1593 371.0
1.1691 397.5
1.1789 424.4
31
Recommended impurity level for Sodium Hydroxide
Concentration and density of NaOH solution
Recommended impurity level for Sodium Chloride
Concentration and density of NaCl solution
NaCl
NaClO
3
Na CO
2 3
Fe
Heavy metals(Total)
SiO
2
Na SO
2 4
0.2 %
50 ppm
5 ppm
10 ppm
0.75%
30 ppm
0.6%
Percent
Sp.Gravity
Grams/Liter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
16
20
26
30
36
40
46
50
1.0095
1.0207
1.0318
1.0428
1.0538
1.0648
1.0758
1.0869
1.0979
1.1089
1.1751
1.2191
1.2848
1.3279
1.3900
1.4300
1.4873
1.5253
10.10
20.41
30.95
41.71
52.69
63.89
75.31
86.95
98.81
110.9
188.0
243.8
334.0
398.4
500.4
572.0
684.2
762.7
Sulphate 0.6%
Magnesium and Calcium 30 ppm
Specific Gravity
Percent Grams/Liter
1.005
1.012
1.027
1.041
1.056
1.071
1.086
1.101
1.116
1.132
1.148
1.164
1.180
1.197 26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
1
311.2
283.2
256.0
229.5
203.7
178.5
154.1
130.2
107.1
84.47
62.47
41.07
20.25
10.05
Concentration and density of H SO solution
2 4
Common conversion factors for ion exchange calculation
Flow Rate
Other Parameters
Percent Sp.Gravity
Grams/Liter
1
1.5
2
3
4
5
10
15
20
30
40
50
98
100
1.005
1.008
1.012
1.018
1.025
1.032
1.066
1.109
1.140
1.219
1.303
1.395
1.906
1.944
10.05
15.12
20.24
30.54
41.00
51.60
106
166.1
228
365.7
521.2
1799
1831
697.5
To convert from To Multiply by
Kgr/ft3 as CaCO3 g CaO/Litre 1.28
Kgr/ft3 as CaCO3 g CaCO3/Litre 2.29
Kgr/ft3 as CaCO3 eq/litre 0.0458
g CaCO3/litre Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3) 0.436
g CaO/litre Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3) 0.780
To convert from
3
U.S. gpm/ft
2
U.S. gpm/ft
U.S. gpm
To
BV/hr
M/hr
M3/hr
3
U.S. gpm/ft
Multiply by
8.02
2.45
0.227
7.446
BV/min
33
Parameter To convert from To
Multiply by
Pressure drop PSI/ft MH O/M of Resin
2
2.30
Regenerant
concentration
Ibs/ft3 g/litre 16.0
PSI/ft
2
G/cm /M 230
Density Ibs/ft3 g/litre 16.0
Rinse requirement U.S. gal/ft3 BV 0.134
1 gallon of water weighs 8.33 pounds
1 Cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds
1 cubic centimeter of water weighs 1 gram
1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram
1 cubic meter of water weighs 1 metric ton
1 metric ton = 2240 lb.
Water analysis conversion factor
Anions
Substance
Atomic /molecular
weight
Equivalent
Weight
To CaCO
3
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Iron (ferrous)
Iron (ferric)
Aluminium
Barium
Strontium
40.0
24.3
23.0
39.1
55.8
55.8
27.0
137.4
87.6
20
12.25
23.0
39.1
27.9
18.6
9.0
68.7
43.8
43.8
4.12
2.17
1.28
1.79
2.69
5.56
0.73
1.14
Substance
Atomic /
molecular weight
Equivalent
Weight
To CaCO
3
Bicarbonate
Carbonate
Chloride
Sulphate
Nitrate
Phosphate
Sulphide
Co2
Silica
61.0
60.0
35.5
95.1
62.0
95.0
32.1
44.0
60.1
61.0
60.0
35.5
48.0
62.0
31.7
16.0
44
60.1
0.82
0.83
1.41
1.04
0.81
1.58
3.13
1.14
0.83
Set-Points for Brine regeneration to remove organic fouling
Parameter
Units
First
Caustic
Regeneration
Salt
Regeneration
Subsequent
Caustic
Regeneration
Quantity of
Regenerant
Gm/liter 32 112 32
Regenerant
Strength
% 3.5 15 5
640 745.6 912 Grams
/liter
Quantity of
dilute
Regenerant
Volume of
Regenerant
Liter/liter
of resin
0.9246 0.6968 0.6432
1.92 1.6 2.8
3 3
M /Hr/M
of resin
Flow Rate of
Regenerant
20 25 20 Minutes Time for
Regeneration
Flow Rate of
Rinse Water
3 3
M /Hr/M
of resin
1.6 4 1.6
Time for
Rinsing
Minutes 10 15 10
35
CHAPTER 5
Softener
(Basic ion exchange process)
STEP 1
Note:
STEP 2
Important points on Softener
Thumb rules of designing a Softener
To select resin quantity (liters) for a particular hardness (ppm) for a
particular output (m3) per regeneration per hour based on regeneration level
160 gm/liter, ion exchange capacity = 55, TDS limit = 1500 ppm, refer TABLE 1
Resin Quantity = Load (ppm as CaCO ) * Flow * time
3
Ex. Capacity
For example
Load = Hardness = 100 ppm as CaCO
3
Flow = 5M3 /hr
Time = (Service cycle) = 12 hrs.
Ex. Capacity = 60 gm as CaCO
3
Resin Quantity = 100 * 5 * 12
60
Na / TC and TDS and correction factor should be applied.
Actual Resin Quantity = 60 * correction due Na/TC factor * Correction due to TH
factor = 60 * 0.96 * 0.97 = 56 (approximately)
Hence Ion Exchange load for designing a softener is 56. These calculations are
based on Ion Exchange resin and will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer
resin.
To select vessel model for a selected resin quantity, approx. flow
3 2 3 2
rates based on linear velocity- min (8 M /M /hr) and max (25 M /M /hr), and
free board 5-100 %, refer TABLE 2
Regeneration level, hardness leakage desired and correction factors can be
found from resin supplier's graph.
Suggested vessel selection chart for softeners
TABLE 1: STEP 1 To select resin quantity ( liters) for a particular hardness
(ppm) for a particular output(m3) per regeneration per hour based on
regeneration level 160 gm/liter, ion exchange capacity = 55, TDS
limit=1500 ppm)
Output
b/w
Regen-
-eration
(OBR M3)
Resin Qty
in liters for various hardness
5
10
13.5
27.0
22.5
45.0
Hardness
= 150
ppm
Hardness
= 250
ppm
Hardness
= 350
ppm
Hardness
= 500
ppm
Hardness
= 650
ppm
Hardness
= 800
ppm
Hardness
= 1000
ppm
31.5 45.0 58.5 72.0 90.0
180.0 144.0 117.0 90.0 63.0
= 100 liters
37
15
20
25
35
30
45
55
75
65
40
50
85
95
60
70
80
100
90
39.0
52.5
66.0
79.5
91.5
105.0
118.5
132.0
144.0
157.2
171.0
184.5
198.0
210.0
223.0
237.0
250.5
262.5
65.0
87.5
110.0
132.5
152.5
175.0
197.5
220.0
240.0
262.0
285.0
307.5
330.0
350.0
372.0
395.0
417.5
437.5
91.0
122.5
154.0
111.3
213.5
245.0
276.5
308.0
336.0
366.8
399.0
430.5
462.0
490.0
521.0
553.0
584.5
612.5
135
180
225
270
315
360
405
450
495
540
585
630
675
720
765
810
855
900
175.5
234.0
292.5
351.0
409.5
468.0
526.5
585.0
643.5
702.0
760.5
877.5
936.0
994.5
1053.0
1111.5
1170.5
819.0
216.0
288.0
360.0
432.0
504.0
576.0
648.0
720.0
792.0
864.0
936.0
1008.0
1080.0
1152.0
1224.0
1296.0
1368.0
1440.0
270.0
360.0
450.0
540.0
630.0
720.0
810.0
900.0
990.0
1080.0
1170.0
1260.0
13500
1440.0
1530.0
1620.0
1710.0
1800.0
TABLE 2: STEP 2 To select vessel model for a selected resin
quantity, approx. flow rates based on linear velocity min=8
m3/m2/hr and max=25 m3/m2/hr, and free board 5-30 %
Resin
Qty
(liters)
Approx.
Flow Rate
Min-max
LPH
Free
Board
(%)
Vessel
Model
Capacity
(liters)
13.5
22.5
27.0
160-500
160-500
160-500
8 %
20 %
33 %
6 x 32
(14.6 liters)
6 x 35
(16. l liters)
6 x 35
(18.0)
7 x 40
(24.5 ltrs)
212-663 9 %
212-663 20 %
7 x 44
(27.1 ltrs)
276-865 16 %
8x40
(31.4 ltrs)
276-865 29 %
8x44
(34.9 ltrs)
350-1,093 26 %
9x35
(33.9 ltrs)
60
415-1,295 6 %
10x54
(63.8 ltrs)
584-1,825 30 %
12x48
(78.5 ltrs)
70
584-1,825 12 %
12x48
(78.5 ltrs)
704-2,200 50 %
13x54
(106 ltrs)
80 704-2,200 33 %
13x54
(106 ltrs)
90 704-2,200 18 %
13x54
(106 ltrs)
100 704-2,200 6 %
13x54
(106 ltrs)
822-2,570 50 %
14x65
(150 ltrs)
Resin
Qty
(liters)
Approx.
Flow
Rate
Min-max
LPH
Free
Board
(%)
Vessel
Model
Capacity
(liters)
31.5 350-1,093 8 %
9x35
(33.9 ltrs)
415-1,295 27 %
10x35
(40.1 ltrs)
415-1,295 48 %
10x40
(46.5 ltrs)
39 415-1,295 3 %
10x35
(40.1 ltrs)
415-1,295 19 %
10x40
(46.5 ltrs)
415-1,295 33 %
10x44
(51.7 ltrs)
45 415-1,295 3 %
10x40
(46.5 ltrs)
415-1,295 15 %
10x44
(51.7 ltrs)
415-1,295 22 %
10x47
(55.0 ltrs)
415-1,295 42 %
10x54
(63.8 ltrs)
>100
<140
>140
<180
>180
<240
>240
<300
>300
<430
>430
<650
>650
<950
>950
<1250
> 1250
<1700
822-
2,570
1,000-
3,140
1,400-
4,370
1,900-
6,000
2,300-
7,300
3,700-
11,600
5,400-
16,800
9,400-
29,448
16,000-
50,240
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
14x65
(150 ltrs)
16x65
(182 ltrs)
18x65
(250 ltrs)
21x62
(310 ltrs)
24x62
(450 ltrs)
30x72
(710 ltr)
36x72
(1020 ltr)
48x72
(1840 ltr)
63x64
(2500 ltr)
39
CHAPTER 6
Membrane System
Conventional and membrane process solutions to common water problems
Pretreatment water quality for membrane processes
Suspended matter
Turbidity NTU
SDI
Ionic content
Iron, mg/L
(ferrous)
Manganese
mg/L
Silica mg/L(w/o)
in concentrate
Chemical Feed
Residual
Chlorine ppm
Scale inhibitor
mg/l in
concentrate
Acidification pH
Maximum feed
o
temperature C
Maximum LSI
with Scale
inhibitor
Spiral CA Spiral PA EDR
<1.0
<4.0
<2.0
<0.5
<160
<1.0
12-18
5.5-6.0
40
Note
<1.0
<4.0
<2.0
<0.5
<160
ND
12-18
4-10
45
+2.45-+2.8
<5
<15
<0.1
<0.1
<saturation
in feed
ND
As required
As required
43
2.1
Turbidity Suspended solids
Biological contamination
Coagulation/flocculation
Media filtration
Disinfection
Microfiltration
Constituent of
concern
Conventional
process
Membrane
process
Color
Odor
Volatile organics
Activated carbon
Cl, + media filtration
aeration
Ultrafiltration
Hardness
Sulfates
Manganese
Iron
Heavy metals
Lime softening
ion exchange
Oxidation, filtration
Ion exchange
Coagulation/flocculation
Nanofiltration
Total dissolved
solids Nitrate
Distillation
Ion exchange
Reverse osmosis
Electrodialysis
41
Note:- Type of Membrane PA = polyamide, CA = Cellulose Acetate and EDR =
Electrodialysis Reversal CA membranes work in Narrow pH range 5.5-6.0 and
require acidification to prevent hydrolysis. Therefore, the Langelier Saturation
Index of the existing concentrate tends to be low enough and scale inhibitor for
calcium carbonate scale is not required.
Troubleshooting Guide
CHECK VERIFY EFFECT
Pressure drop
between
feed and reject.
Has not increased
by more than 15%.
More than 15% indicates
fouling of feed path and
membrane sur f ace.
Requires cleaning
Pressure drop
between feed
and permeate
Has not increased by
more than 15%.
More indicates fouling
of membrane surface.
Requires cleaning.
Permeate
conductivity
Has not increased
by more than 15%.
More indicates fouling
of membrane surface.
Requires cleaning.
Acid dosing
Is within
recommended
value.
More can cause membrane
damage or sulfate scaling.
Less can cause carbonate
scaling or metal oxide
fouling.
Instruments
Reading
Verify by calibration
and carry out of lab
check of the
parameters the
instrument is
monitoring.
Wrong operation False
sense of security that
everything is OK.
pH meter
calibration
& control
The pH control l er
generally controls acid
dosing pumps. The pH
controller should be
calibrated periodically
and tripping of dosing
pump to the set point
should be checked.
More or less acid dosing
than required.Effect
of this has already been
mentioned earlier.
Foulants & Their Impact
Foulants
Possible
Location
Pressure
drop
Permeate
Flow
Salt
Passage
Metal Oxide
Colloidal
Fouling
Scaling
Biological
Fouling
Organic
Fouling
2
Oxidant(Cl )
Abrasion
(carbon,Silt)
O-ring or
glue leaks
Recovery too
high
St
1 Stage
St
1 Stage
Last Stage
Any Stage
All Stages
St
1 Stage
(Most Severe)
st
1 Stage
Random
All stages
Normal to
increased
Normal to
increased
Increased
Normal to
increased
Normal
Normal to
increased
Decreased
Normal to
decreased
Decreased
Decreased
Decreased
Decreased
Decreased
Decreased
Increased
Increased
Normal to
increased
Normal to
Decreased
Normal to
increased
Normal to
increased
Increased
Normal to
increased
Decreased to
increase
Increased
Increased
Increased
Increased
O ring
Probing with 'plastic
tube and by measuring
how far it has been
inserted.
Failure can lead to increase
salt passage, increase
permeate flow. Decrease
pressure drop.
Brine valve Should not be closed fully.
If fully closed, 100%
recovery will result and
cause membrane damage
due to precipitation of
inorganic salt.
43
Cleaning of RO Membrane
Symptom of fouling
Indications that the system requires cleaning
Types of Foulants
Types of Membrane Cleaning Solutions
RO membranes get fouled with suspended solids contained in the feedwater or
with sparingly soluble salts, as minerals are concentrated. Pretreatment is
done to reduce the fouling potential of feedwater but inspite of that fouling
occurs over a period of time.
1. Decrease in Product flow.
2. Increase in salt passage.
3. Increase in differential pressure
4. Deterioration in permeate quality
5. Increase in the differential pressure across the RO stage.
1. A 10 to 15 % decline in normalized Product flow.
2. A 10 % increase in salt passage.
3. 15 % increase in differential pressure.
1. Inorganic fouling Like Calcium Scales or Metal Oxides
2. Organic Fouling Example Humic Acid
3. Particulate Deposition or colloidal fouling Particulate matter
4. Biofouling
The number of formulation for cleaning solutions is varied but we are
mentioning only the common type of cleaners used for most common fouling
problems.
Foulant
Inorganic Salts
Metal Oxides (Iron)
Inorganic Colloids
(silt)
Biofilms
Organics
Cleaning Chemicals
0.2 % HCl
0.5 % Phosphoric Acid
2.0 % Citric Acid
0.5 % Phosphoric Acid
1.0 % Sodium Hydrosulphite
o
0.1%Sodium Hydroxide,30 C
0.025 % Sodium Dodecylsulphate
o
0.1 % NaOH, 30 C
o
0.1 % NaOH, 30 C
1 % Sodium salt of ETDA and
0.1 % NaOH
0.025 % Sodium Dodecylsulphate
o
0.1 % NaOH 30 C
0.1% sodium triphosphate 1.0 %
Sodium salt of ETDA
Remarks
Flux
Number of Elements:
Osmotic pressure
Selection of Feed pumps
Scaling of Membrane Process
The throughput of a pressure-driven membrane filtration system expressed as
flow per unit of membrane area (e.g., gallons per square foot per day (gfd) or
liters per hour per square meter (Lmh).
If the water quality is better, higher flux that can be used without causing
excessive fouling.
When the flux has been set and the element area (a
function of the specific membrane selected) is known, the required number of
elements can be calculated:
2
Number of elements =Permeate Flow (LPD)/(LMH)*Active Membrane area (M )
Recovery Rate = (Permeate Flow rate / Feed flow rate)*100
Osmotic pressure can be defined as the pressure and potential energy
difference that exists between two solutions on either side of a semipermeable
membrane.
A rule of thumb for osmosis is that 1 psi of osmotic pressure is caused by every
100 ppm (mg/l) difference in total dissolved solids concentration (TDS).
Feed pumps should be selected on the basis of high efficiency. Variable
frequency drives now are commonplace in brackish water RO Plants. These
frequency drives should also be selected on similar basis. Typical feed pump
energy requirements for brackish water RO plants range from 0.5 to 2 kWh/M3
and for seawater it is less than 3 kWh/M3 with the use of energy recovery
device.
Scaling is predicted by Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) or at a higher ionic
strength the Stiff & Davis Index predicts the scaling tendency more accurately.
Type of Water
System Operating Water
2 3 2
Flux (gpd/ft ) & (M /M .d)
Municipal wastewater (sewerage)
Treated River or Canal water
Surface Water (lakes/Reservoir)
Deep Wells (low turbidity)
RO Permeate Water
Surface seawater
Beach well seawater
8-12 - or 0.33-0.49
8-14 or 0.33-0.57
8-14 or 0.33-0.57
14-18- or 0.33-0.73
20-30 or 0.81-1.22
7-10 - or 0.29 0.40
7-10 - or 0.29 0.40
45
uIf pH >pHs (or pHsd) then water is saturated with calcium carbonate.
uIf pH <pHs (or pHsd) then water is unsaturated.
uA positive value of index indicates tendency towards scaling.
uWith the scale inhibitors available nowadays an LSI <+2.4 can be
easily controlled.
uCirculating a muriatic acid solution can easily redissolve carbonate
scale. Lowering the pH during operation can also dissolve it.
uIn predicting the solubility limits of sulphate two points are important.-
ua) Modern RO membranes reject divalent ions very well. Therefore it is
reasonable to assume a zero
percent salt passage when calculating the concentrating factor CF.
ub) Compounds are more soluble in the concentrate than in feed water.
The solubility product constant Ksp of each compound increases with
ionic strength.
uAs a rule of thumb, the scale inhibitor dosages for RO systems are
calculated as concentrations in the concentrate of 12 18 Mg/liter. This
value is then converted to a feed water dosage using the CF for design
recovery and assuming zero percent salt passage.
uThere are four important pieces of information needed to predict
the product and concentrate composition and volume:
uRecovery rate, (Ret): -The recovery rate is limited by the
concentration of sparingly soluble salts in the feed water. Lowering the
pH and adding anti-scalants can increase the potential recovery rate.
The other determining factor is the configuration of the membrane
system. Each element can recover approximately 10 percent of the
feed flow as product. Generally, 50 percent recovery is assumed for a
6-element vessel.
uRejection rate: -Manufacturers lists a rejection rate for chloride and
one for sulfate or other divalent ions for NF membranes. For greater
accuracy, use a weighted average based on the feed water
composition. For instance, if the feed water has a ratio of 3: 1 mono-
valent to multi-valent ions and the rejection rates are 90 percent for
chloride and 99.5 percent for sulfate, the weighted average rejection
rate would be Rejection = (0.75*0.9)+(0.25*0.995) / (0.75+0.25)
=0.924 If the goal is to minimize concentrate volume, choose a
membrane with a very high rejection. However, if the goal is to
minimize concentrate TDS, choose a membrane that will produce the
target water quality. NF membranes are sufficient in many cases.
To predict the product and concentrate composition and
volume:
uFeed water-dissolved solids concentration, C, in mg/L.
uTarget delivery water concentration after blending, C, in mg/L.
uAccurate product and concentrate concentration prediction
calculations that take concentration polarization into consideration
can get quite complex, but do no provide that much more accuracy in a
first pass cost estimate.
Product concentration, Cp in mg/L:
Cp= Cf (1-Rejection) / Recovery
Concentrate concentration Cc in mg/L
Cc =Cf* Rejection / (1-Recovery)
The maximum amount of blend water that can be mixed with the membrane
product and still achieve the target water quality is calculated as follows,
assuming filtered feed water is used for the blend water:
Qb = Qt (Ct- Cp) / (Cf-Cp)
Where Qb is the maximum blend volume in m3/day, Q, is the target volume in
m3/day, and Ct is the target dissolved solids concentration in mg/L. If there is a
component of the blend water that is more limiting than the total dissolved
solids, there are two options. Either plan to remove that component from the
blend water or use the concentration of that component in the blend water for
Cf and the estimated remaining concentration of it in the membrane product
water for Cp.
As an example, consider the following situation:
Cf = 900 mg/L with 0.5 mg/L manganese
Rejection = 0.95
Recovery = 0.85
Ct = 300 mg/L with less than 0.05 mg/L manganese
Cp = 900*(l-0.95)/0.85 = 56 mg/L
Cb = (300-56)/ (900-56) = 0.29 or 29 percent blending with feed water.
When the manganese concentration is considered as the limiting component:
Cf = 0.5 mg/L manganese
Rejection = 0.95 Recovery = 0.85
Ct = Less than 0.05 mg/L manganese
Cp = 0.05*(l-0.95) / 0.85 = 0.03 mg/L
Cb = (0.05-0.03) / (0.5-0.03) = 0.04 or 4 percent blending with feed water.
47
If the blend water is filtered with greensand or the manganese is removed in
some other way, the higher level of blending is possible, otherwise not.
However it is decided, once the blend volume has been established, the
membrane process feed, product, and concentrate flows are set (all in
m3/day):
Qp = Qt- Qb
Qf = Qp / Recovery
Qc = Qp (1-Recovery) / (Recovery)
Using the following assumptions:
Feed water is being pumped from a tank of approximately the same height as
the membrane skid, 10 meters of pipe Pipe is a 10 cm (4 in.) in diameter for 20-
cm (8-in.) modules and 5 cm (2 in.) for 10 cm (4 in.) module.
Horsepower (Hp) without energy recovery
Hp = hg+0.5v2+p*Qf*1000/(746*Ef)
Horsepower (Hp) with energy recovery
Hp = (hg+0.5v2+p)(1-Er)*Qf*1000/746
Where h is height difference between top of tank and membrane inlet in m,
2
g is gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s
v is velocity = Q / pipe area, m/s,
3
Qf = membrane feed flow, m /sec,
1000 = mass of one m3 of water in kg,
746 = conversion factor from J/s to hp,
Ef= combined Efficiency of Pump and Motor
E recovery = energy recovery in decimal, 0.20 - 0.30 depending on concentrate
pressure.
Pump Horsepower for RO
CHAPTER 7
49
Steam Boiler
Steam Boiler System
List of Problems Caused by Impurities in Water
The principal components of a steam boiler system include a steam boiler,
condensate return tank, condensate pump, deaerator, feedwater pump, steam
traps, low water flame cut-off controller, chemical feeder, and make-up water
treatment equipment. However, depending on the size of the system and the
end use of the steam, other components may include a converter or heating
coils, unit heater, steam sparger, jacketed steam cooker, and/or steam
sterilizer
Impurity(Chemical
Formula)
Problems
Common Chemical
Treatment Methods
Alkalinity (HCO -,
3
2-
CO and CaCO )
3 3
Carryover of feedwater into
steam,produce CO in steam
2
leading to formation of
carbonic acid (acid attack)
Neutralizing amines,
filming amines,
combination of both,
and lime-soda.
Hardness (calcium
and magnesium
salts, CaCO )
3
Primary source of scale in
heat exchange equipment
Lime softening,
phosphate, chelates
and polymers
3+
Iron (Fe and
2+
Fe )
Causes boiler and water
line deposits
Phosphate, chelates
and polymers
Oxygen (O )
2
Oxygen scavengers,
filming amines and
deaeration
Corrosion of water lines,
boiler, return lines, heat
exchanger equipment,etc.
(oxygen attack)
Corrosion occurs
when pH drops
below 8.5
pH
pH can be lowered by
addition of acids and
increased by addition
of alkalis
Hydrogen Sulfide
(H S)
2
Corrosion Chlorination
Chlorination
Scale in boilers
and cooling water
systems
Scale in boilers and
cooling water
systems
Troubleshooting Water system for Boiler
Condition Possible Cause Action
Hardness in
Boiler feed
Water
Improper functioning
of Water softener

Infiltration of raw
water at converters.
Regenerate/repair
water softener.
Take condensate
samples at all
steam converters
to pinpoint place
of infiltration. Make
necessary repair.
Dissolved oxygen
in Feedwater
exceeds the
recommended
range.
Deaerator malfunction.
Feedwater pump
sucking air at the
seal.
Insufficient sodium
sulfite residual.
Check deaerator press
/temp.Check deaerator
valve to ensure the
most effective opening.
Repair feedwater pump
seal.
Consistently low
Chemical residual
in system(General).
Testing reagent
shelf life expired.
Chemical feed
pump inoperative
or out of adjustment.
Restriction in the
chemical feedline.
Mistake in chemical
identification.
Inadequate amount
of treatment chemical.
Makeup water increase
due to lead in the
system (boiler section
or condensate).
Replenish test reagents.
Repair or adjust chemical
feed pump.
Clean or replace chemical
feedline.
Make sure the chemical
you are using is what
you want. Increase
chemical dosage. Inspect
boiler and condensate
piping system for any
indication of leaks. Make
sure drain valves on
condensate receiving
tanks are closed.
Check boiler blowdown
valves to ensure 100%
shut-off. Check continuous
blowdown valves setting.
Low phosphate
residual.
Increased hardness
in feedwater.
Wrong type/choice
of phosphate.
Check water softener. See
action for Hardness in
boiler feed water. Select
phosphate based on the
needed Po4 percent to
ensure the highest quality
for the hardness content.
51
Boilers
Boilers use varying amounts of water to produce steam or hot water, depending
on their size. They require make up water to compensate for uncollected
condensate or to replace blow down water. These units have a tendency to
develop leaks as they age.
Low sulfite
residual.
Chemicals feed pump
inoperative.
An increase of oxygen
content
in feedwater.
Improper sampling
or testing technique.
Check sulfite feed
system and make necessary
adjustment/repair.
Check deaerator operation
and make necessary
adjustment/repair.
Increase sodium sulfite
feed rate. Collecting Water
Samples. Test for sulfite
first. Stir sample smoothly.
Total dissolved
solids exceed
the
recommended
range.
Insufficient boiler
blowdown.
Excessive chemical
addition.
Increase blowdown rate.
Adjust the surface blow
down valve.
Analyze boiler water to
determine treatment
chemical residual and
make adjustments.
High total
di s s o l ve d
s o l i ds i n
condensate.
Boiler water carryover
with the steam.
Too much amine
injected.
Infiltration of raw
water at converters.
Active corrosion
occurring in the
system.
Reduce the total dissolved
solids in the boiler by
blowdown. Make sure water
level is not too high.
Reduce amine injection,
but maintain the
recommended pH.
Take condensate samples
at all steam converters and
test for hardness and TDS
to find the point of
infiltration. Make necessary
repair.
Analyze the condensate for
iron/copper content. Ensure
amine treatment is reaching
all points in the condensate
system.
Water Efficiency Opportunities:
1. Install a condensate return system
2. Locate and repair leaks
3. Limit blow down
4. Establish an effective corrosion and scale program
5. Install automatic controls to treat boiler make up water.
A condensate returns system
reuses condensate water as make-up water. This can save up to 50-70
percent of the water used and can save energy as well.
Boilers can develop leaks in steam traps and
the distribution system. Escaping steam wastes both water and energy.
Adjust blow down limits to near the minimum required
to properly flush the system and maintain desired water quality.
Regularly
inspect boiler water and fire tubes. Reducing scale by chemical treatment
or mechanical removal will increase heat transfer and energy efficiency
and will reduce the amount of blow down necessary to maintain water
quality.
Eliminate systems that mix condensate with cool fresh water for blow down to
the sewer.
Water Treatment Recommendation
A
1.The make-up water treatment to these systems depends on the
boiler pressure and the end use of the steam.
2.The make-up should preferably be softened for low pressure
steam boiler.
3.The make-up must be softened & dealkalized for steam boiler
systems when the total alkalinity concentration in the make-up
is high (i.e., systems where the boiler is blown down to control
alkalinity rather than TDS).
4. In boiler system where silica controls the blowdown, the
make up water should be demineralized.
1.Sodium sulphite must be added at a point after mechanical
deaeration such that a residual sulphite concentration of 30-60
ppm (50 100 ppm Na SO ) is maintained in the boiler water.
2 3
2.It does not matter if the sulphite concentration is more but
it should not be less than 30 ppm SO or 50 ppm Na SO .
3 2 3
3.The sulphite-oxygen reaction may be catalyzed by adding
5 ml of cobaltous chloride solution per 100 g of sodium sulphite.
B
1. If the pH of the boiler water is less than 10.5, caustic must be
added to the boiler.
2. If the pH of the boiler water is greater than 11.5, the
blowdown rate must be increased and the caustic addition
must be decreasedthe boiler water pH level must be
10.5-11.5 pH.
C
53
Note:- For Details See Boiler Water Treatment Manual.
1. If the boiler water total alkalinity concentration is greater than
700 ppmCaCO , then the blowdown rate must be increased and
3
the caustic or trisodium phosphate addition must be decreased.
2. The boiler water total alkalinity concentration must be less
than 700 ppm CaCO ;
3
1. If the boiler water hydroxide alkalinity concentration is less
than 150 ppm CaCO , caustic or tri-sodium phosphate must be
3
added to the boiler water.
2. Alternately, if the boiler water hydroxide alkalinity concentration
is greater than 300 ppm CaCO , the blowdown rate must be
3
increased and the caustic or tri-sodium phosphate addition
must be decreasedthe boiler water hydroxide alkalinity
must be 150-300 ppm CaCO
3
1. If the phosphate is added upstream of the boiler feed pumps,
hexameta phosphate must be used since tri-sodium phosphate
would precipitate hardness salts, thus increasing the wear on
pump seals. Hexameta phosphate on the other hand keeps
hardness in solution until it reaches the boiler, at which point
the alkalinity and increased temperature there converts it to
trisodium phosphate;
2. If the phosphate is added directly to the boiler water, either
hexameta or tri-sodium phosphate may be used;
3. If the phosphate is being consumed more rapidly than tri-
sodium phosphate is being added (i.e.,hardness in leakage
into the system), hexameta phosphate should be used at least
temporarily because it has a higher phosphate concentration
and thus a higher capacity for hardness than tri-sodium
phosphate;
4. When hexameta phosphate is used, its conversion to tri-
sodium phosphate in the boiler effectively reduces the
OH alkalinity concentration and the pH level of the boiler
water;
1. If the pH level of the condensate return is less than 8.5, a
neutralizing amine such as morpholine must be added to the
feedwater after the make-up location.
2. If the pH level of the condensate return is greater than
9.5, the amine addition must be decreased the condensate
return pH level must be 8.5-9.5.
3. If problems persist in achieving proper pH levels in the
condensate return system, seek the advice of the water
treatment consultant. If there is no condensate return,
amine must not be added
In conjunction with the above controls and regulation of boiler
blowdown, the boiler water neutralized total dissolved solids
must be controlled within the limits of 1500-3000 ppm (or
2000-4000 micromhos/cm).
H
F
E
D
G
Note
Hydrazine Sulphate oxygen scavenging should only be used with drum
type boilers. Drum boilers have blowdown facilities. TDS levels should be
monitored more rigorously when using hydrazine sulphate as an oxygen
scavenger, since TDS levels may increase with the formation of ferrous
sulphate.
Excessive oxygen
content in deaerator
effluent
Temperature in storage
tank does not correspond
within 5 F of
saturation temperature
of the steam
The venting is not sufficient. Increase
venting by opening the manually
operating vent valve.
The steam pressure reducing valve
not working properly. Check valve for
free operation.
Check water and, if possible, steam
flow rates vs. design. Trays or scrubber
and inlet valves are designed for specific
flow ranges.
Spray nozzle not working. There could
be deposit or sediment on the nozzle
on the spring broken or seat. Leaking
stuffing boxes of pump upstream of
deaerator can be the cause Repair
stuffing box or seal with deaerated water.
Excessive consumption
of oxygen scavenger
Trays collapsed-possibly from interrupted
steam supply or sudden supply of cold
water causing a vacuum. Condensate
may be too hot. Water entering the
deaerating heater must usually be cooled
if the temperature.
55
Chemical dosage
Oxygen scavenger
Sodium sulphite
Hydrazine
7.88 ppm of sodium sulphite is required to remove 1ppm of dissolved oxygen.
This requirement is for pure sodium sulphite. 93 % pure sodium sulphite will
require 10 ppm of sodium sulphite per ppm of oxygen. The amount of catalyst
required is 0.25 %
Theoretically 1 ppm of Hydrazine reacts with 1 ppm of dissolved oxygen. In
practice of 1.5 to 2 ppm is used for 1 ppm of dissolved oxygen
Amine Requirement
Amount of amine required for maintaining pH of 8.0 in water containing 10 ppm
CO2
Morpholine 37 ppm: - It has a specific gravity of 1.002 and has a pH of 9.7 for
100-ppm solution
Cyclohexylamine 15 ppm: - It has a specific gravity of 0.86 and has a pH of
10.7 for 100-ppm solution
Suggested dosage of Sodium sulphite & Hydrazine
Dosage of Sodium sulphite
Recommended Hydrazine Residual
2
Boiler pressure (Kg/Cm ) Ppm Na SO .
2 3
14.00
21.00
31.00
42.00
52.00
64.00
70.00
105.00
80-90
60-70
45-60
30-45
25-30
15-20
Not recommended
Not recommended
2
Drum pressure (Kg/Cm ) Residual Hydrazine in ppm.
63.00 0.1-0.15
0.1-0.15
105.00 0.05-0.10
175.00 0.02-0.03
210.00 0.01-0.02
70.00
Notes
Amine Limits
Note:-
Cyclohexylamine is not for use in systems having a feedwater alkalinity
more than 75 ppm
These system lengths are for classification only and are not absolute. For
example a medium length system may have more of the characteristics of
a long system if lines are poorly insulated or because of bad design.
These should not come in contact with food products and hence any
steam in contact with milk and other such products should not have amine.
Amine Limitation
Cyclohexylamine Not to exceed 10 ppm in steam.
DEAE
Not to exceed 10 ppm in steam.
Hydrazine Zero in steam
Morpholine Not to exceed 10 ppm in steam.
Octadecylamine Not to exceed 3 ppm in steam.
Type of Amine Conditions Amount needed
Ammonia Co Absent
2
0.2 ppm to give pH 9.0
Cyclohexylamine
Co Absent
2
CO2 Present
1 ppm to give pH 9.0
2.3 parts per part of CO to give pH
2
8.1 (corresponds to bicarbonate)
2.0 parts per part of CO to give
2
pH 7.4
1.4 ppm per ppm of Co
2
to give pH of 7.0
57
Limits on Boiler water conditions for an effective
treatment program
NOTE
Chemical requirements for feed water and boiler for low
and medium pressure boilers:
Feed Water:
Ortho-Phosphate
Hydroxyl Alkalinity (Causticity)
Sodium Lignosulfonate (as tannic acid)
Range
BIS Standard for Feed water and Boiler Water
st
1 Standard (10392-1982)
Boiler
Pressure
psig(kg/
2
cm )
Maxi-
-mum
TDS
(ppm)
Maxim
um Con
ductivity
( mho)
Maxi-
-mum
Silica
(ppm)
Range
Sulfite
(ppm
SO )
3
Range
Phosph
ate(pp
mPO )
4
Range
Alkalini
ty(ppm
CaCO )
3
*Lign
osulphon
ate
(ppm)
1-15
(1.05)
6000 9000 200 30-60 30-60 300-500 70-100
16-149
(1.12-10.5)
4000 6000 200 30-60 30-60 220-500 70-100
70-100 220-500 30-60 30-60 150 6000 4000
150-299
(10.5-20)
300-449
(20-30)
450-599
(31-40)
600-749
(41-52)
750
(>52)
3500
3000
2500
2000 3000
3750
4500
5250 90
40
30
20
20-40
20-40
15-30
15-30
30-60
30-60
30-60
30-60 170-425
170-425
170-425
180-450 70-100
60-90
50-80
40-90
Parameters
Total
Hardness
pH Value
Dissolved
Oxygen
Silica
Upto20Kg
2
/cm
2
21 Kg/cm
2
- 39Kg/cm
2
40Kg/cm
2
- 59Kg/cm
Unit
<10 <1.0 <0.5
ppm as
CaCO
3
8.5-9.5 8.5-9.5
8.5-9.5
0.1 0.02 0.01
As ppm
5 0.5
As ppm
SiO
2
Boiler water
<0.4 of
Caustic
Alkalinity
15
As ppm
SiO
2
<0.4 of
Caustic
Alkalinity
Parameters
Upto20
2
Kg/cm
2
21 Kg/cm to
2
39 Kg/cm
2
40Kg/cm
2
59Kg/cm
Unit
Total
Hardness
Not
Detectable
Not
Detectable
Not
Detectable
Total
Alkalinity
700 500 300
As ppm
CaCO
3
11.0
to 12.0
11.0 to
12.0
10.5 to
11.0
pH Value
Residual
Sodium
Sulphite
30 to
50
20 to
30
--
ppm as
Na SO
2 3
0.1 to
1.0
0.1 to
0.5
0.05 to
0.3
ppm as
N H
2 4
Residual
Hydrazine
Ratio Na SO
2 4
/Caustic Al
kalinity (NaOH)
Ratio Na SO /
2 4
Totallkalinity
(as NaOH)
Above
0.4
Above
0.4
Above
0.4
Phosphate
Total
Dissolved
Solids
Silica
20 to
40
15 to
30
5 to
20
ppm as
PO
4
3500 2500
Caustic
alkalinity
350 200 60
As ppm
CaCO
3
1500
ppm
Above
2.5
Above
2.5
Above
2.5
59
ASME Guidelines for Water Quality in Modern Industrial
Water Tube Boilers for Reliable Continuous Operation
ABMA Standard Boiler Water Concentrations for Minimizing
Carryover
This value will limit the silica content of the steam to 0.25 ppm as a function of
selective.
Boiler Feed Water Boiler Water
Drum
Pressure
(psi)
2
(kg/cm )
Iron
(ppm
Fe)
Copper
(ppm
Cu)
Total
Hardness
(ppm
CaCO )
3
Silica
(ppm
SiO )
2
Total
Alkalin
ity**(ppm
CaCO )
3
Specific
Conductance
(micro mh
os/cm)(unn
eutralized)
0-300
(0-20)
301-450
(21-30)
451-600
(31-42)
601-750
(43 52)
751-900
(53-63)
901-1000
(64-70)
1001-1500
(71-105)
1001-1500
(71-105)
0.100
0.050
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.020
0.010
0.010
0.050
0.025
0.020
0.020
0.015
0.015
0.010
0.010
0.300
0.300
0.200
0.200
0.100
0.050
0.0
0.0
150
90
40
30
20
8
2
1
700*
600*
500*
400*
300*
200*
0***
0***
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
150
100
Drum
Pressure
(psig)
Boiler Water
Total
Silica*(ppm
SiO )
2
Specific**
Alkalinity
(ppm CaCO )
3
Conductance
(micromhos
/cm)
0-300
301-450
451-600
601-750
751-900
901-1000
1001-1500
1501-2000
150
90
40
30
20
8
2
1
700
600
500
400
300
200
0
0
7000
6000
5000
5000
3000
2000
150
100
Boiler Water Limits
Silica Levels Allowed in Boiler Water
Boiler Pressure
psig
TDS Alkalinity
Suspended
Solids
Silica*
0 to 300
301 to 450
451 to 600
601 to 750
751 to 900
901 to 1000
1001 to 1500
1501 to 2000
Over 2000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1250
1000
750
500
700
600
500
400
300
250
200
150
100
300
250
150
100
60
40
20
10
5
125
90
50
35
20
8.0
2.5
1.0
0.5
Boiler Pressure (psi) Allowable Silica (as ppm SiO )
2
0-15 150
16-149 150
150-299 150
300-449 90
450-599
40
600-749
30
750
20
61
CHAPTER 8
Cooling Water Treatment
Description of Process
Objective for Cooling Water Treatment
Factors important for cooling System
Cooling towers are heat exchangers that are used to dissipate large heat loads
to the atmosphere. They are used in a variety of settings, including process
cooling, power generation cycles, and air conditioning cycles. All cooling towers
that are used to remove heat from an industrial process or chemical reaction
are referred to as industrial process cooling towers (IPCT). Cooling towers used
for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), are referred to as comfort
cooling towers (CCT). Cooling towers are classified as either wet towers or dry
towers. Dry towers use a radiator like cooling unit instead of water evaporation.
The following four basic objectives for Cooling Water Treatment are
1. Minimize problems from corrosion, scale, deposition, and growth to obtain
maximum efficiency.
2. Implementation and control must be "do-able" with a minimum input of
labor and money.
3. Cost effective as possible considering the total water system capital and
operating costs.
4. Must be environmentally acceptable.
Following steps are necessary to optimize the cycle of concentration (COC) for
a cooling tower and evaluate cooling water requirement or replacement
1. Evaluate the cooling system
2. Determine the water quality constituents sand concentration limits for
cooling system protection
3. Evaluate water treatment requirements
4. Choosing monitoring and maintenance requirement
Create a plan to change chemistry or flow rates, if problem occurs.
63
Equipment Material of construction
Cooling tower Wood, Plastic, Metal and fiber glass
Heat exchangers(Chillers,
Jacketed vessel, etc)
Copper, copper alloy, SS, &
galvanized steel tubes
Covers of Heat exchangers &
Support plates
Mild steel Water lines may be
of copper
Piping for cold water Mild steel (MS), PVC, Stainless steel
(SS) and fiber glass
Type of Material Effect of impurity
GI Pipes
Corrosion (white rust) at High TDS
and pH above 8.5 or less than 6.5
Stainless steel
Corrosion due to chloride, Chloride above
200 ppm can create problem in Ss304
when deposit forming conditions exist but
if no deposit forming surface can withstand
around 1000 ppm Cl. 316 SS can withstand
about 5000 ppm Cl even with deposit
forming surface
Mild steel
Highly corrosive due to solids and also
due to acidic or basic conditions
Oxygen also corrosive to mild steel
Copper & Copper
alloys
Corrosion to ammonia
Wood
Natural decay. Can get
chemically attacked.
Plastic
Corrosion resistant. Biomass can
get built up on plastic film
Cooling Tower Maintenance Schedule
Daily/Weekly Periodic Annual
1.Test water sample for
proper concentration of
dissolved solids. Adjust
bleed water flow as needed.
2.Measure the water treat-
-ment chemical residual
in the circulating water.
Maintain the residual
recommended by your
water treatment specialist.
3.Check the strainer on
the bottom of the collection
basin and clean it if
necessary.
4.Operate the make-up
water float switch manually
to ensure proper operation.
5.Inspect all moving parts
such as drive shafts,pulleys,
and belts.
6.Check for excessive
vibration in motors, fans,
and pumps.
7.Manually test the vibration
limit switch by jarring it.
8.Look for oil leaks in
gearboxes.
9.Check for structural
deterioration, loose
connectors, water leaks,
and openings in the casing.
10.During periods of cold
weather, check winterization
equipment. Make sure any
ice accumulation is within
acceptable limits.
1.Check the distribution
spray nozzles to ensure
even distribution over
the fill.
2.Check the distribution
basin for corrosion,leaks,
and sediment.
3.Operate flow control
valves through their
range of travel and
re-set for even water
flow through the fill.
4.Remove any sludge
from the collection basin
and check for corrosion
that could develop into
leaks.
5.Check the drift elimina
tors, air intake louvers,
and fill for scale build-up.
Clean as needed.
6.Look for damaged or
out- of-place fill elements.
7.Inspect motor supports,
fan lades, and other
mechanical parts for
excessive wear or cracks.
8.Lubricate bearings and
bushings. Check the level
of oil in the gearbox. Add
oil as needed.
9.Adjust belts and pulleys.
10.Make sure there is proper
clearance between the fan
blades and the shroud.
11.Check for excessive
vertical or rotational replay
in the gearbox output
shaft to the fan.
1.Check the casing
basin,and piping
for corrosion and
decay.Without
proper mainte
-nance,cooling
towers may suffer
from corrosion
and wood decay.
Welded repairs
are especially
susceptible to
corrosion. The
protective zinc
coating on galva
-nized steel towers
is burned off
during the welding
process. Prime
and paint any
welded repairs
with a corrosion
resistant coating.
2.Leaks in the
cooling tower
casing may allow
air to bypass the
fill. All cracks,
holes, gaps, and
door access panels
should be properly
sealed.Remove
dust, scale, and
algae from the
fill, basin, and
distribution spray
nozzles to
maintain proper
water flow.
65
Cooling Tower Inspection Process
Cooling Water Monitoring
Generally, the cooling tower structure and system should be inspected every
six months in temperate climates. In more tropical and desert climates the
interval should be more frequent, in accordance with equipment manufacturer
and engineering recommendations. A list of items that need to be inspected is
shown below:
uWooden structural members: - Look for rotten and broken boards,
loose hardware and excessive fungal growth. The plenum area after
the drift eliminators is the most likely to suffer wood rot, since biocides
added to the water do not reach this area. Pay particular attention to
structural members in this area.
uOther structural members: - Check concrete supports and
members for excessive weathering and cracking. Look for metal
corrosion. On fiberglass ductwork and piping, check for cracking and
splitting.
uWater distribution throughout the tower should be uniform. Check
piping for leaks.
uFans should be free of excessive vibration. Check mounts for
deterioration and looseness. Examine blade leading edges for fouling,
corrosion and dirt buildup. Check the fan stack for integrity, shape and
stack-to-blade clearance.
uInspect for broken fill, debris in the fill, scale on fill water outlet.
uLook for debris and plant growth in the drift eliminator. Make sure the
eliminator is not broken or missing altogether.
uCheck for alga growth, scale and plugged nozzles in the hot water bay
(cross flow towers). Nozzles should be checked monthly during the
cooling season.
uRecord all observations on the Operator Checklist. This should include
gearbox oil levels, oil additions (frequent refills could be a sign of
bearing wear or leaks), water data, chemical inventories and hot
water bay observations.
uBe sure to keep the water log sheet records up to date. Maintain a
record of necessary components, control ranges, control capabilities
(especially for calcium, pH, alkalinity, biocide, chemical feeds,
conductivity, possible phosphate content.) Follow water treatment
procedures closely.
uPeriodically check the water appearance for turbidity and foam.
uInspect wet surfaces for evidence of slime, algae or scale. Do the same
for submerged surfaces. Use a corrosion coupon to monitor system
corrosion rates where potential corrosion problems are indicated.
uMonitor chemical additions for visible and uniform flow and proper
rate.
Treatment
Chlorination
Filtration
Sulphuric acid
Inhibitors
Antiscalant

Antifoulant
Fouling in cooling system
Reasons of Fouling
Silt introduced by the makeup water
Dirt from air
If fouling is not controlled, it will
result in heavy deposits inside
cooling water tubes, resulting in
reduced tube diameter.
Reaction of residues from chemical treatment
Microbiological debris
Products produced by corrosion such as
hydroxides and insoluble salts
Fouling is controlled by filtration and
by chemicals and oxidation by
chlorine and or ozone
Selection of capacity of side stream filter
% reduction of undissolved solids Select 80 %
Time desired for reduction in hours = t=
select maximum in 48 hours
48 hours maximum
Blowdown = b in M3/hrs b=100 M3/Hrs
V= total volume of cooling system M3 6000
Filtration rate F= v/t Log
e
[(100)/(100-%reduction)]-b
Microorganism
Bacteria, algae and fungi present in cooling water decreases the efficiency of heat
transfer in cooling tower and condensers.
Chlorine is the most widely used chemical in industry as oxidizing agent for destruction
and dissolution of microorganism
Chlorine is only effective when pH is between 6 to 7
Cooling water pH %of HOCl for effective
oxidation
6 97
7 76
8 24
9 3
At pH 7 in CW system every 1 ppm Cl
2
dosed only 0.76
ppm is used as oxidizing agent for control of
microorganism
General guidelines for chlorine dosing of reasonably good water
Cooling Water System Estimated Chlorine dosage

uHeat exchangers can also be monitored for heat transfer performance
to give an early warning of water treatment deficiencies. Small side
stream test heat exchangers are available commercially for
monitoring cooling water site fouling. Biological growth can rapidly
cause systems to get fouled. Slime appearing on a submerged coupon
is a good indicator that there is a problem. Submerged coupons, which
are found in the cooling tower reservoir, indicate growth in less
accessible areas of the cooling tower.
67
Makeup water for CW
circulation water
Recirculation cooling
water system
Cooling Water System
Once Through inland Lake
/river/seawater
Estimated Chlorine dosage
Continuous dosing of 1-2 ppm + shock
dosing of 3-5 ppm for 15 minutes after
every 8 hour cycle
Continuous 1-2 ppm. Shock dose
of 3-5 ppm
Continuous 1-2 ppm.
Calculation of H SO Dosing System
2 4
CW circulation rate CWR=34000
Makeup water percentage
P=2
M=150
M Alkalinity to be
maintained ppm
A=140
M.Alkalinity in Makeup
water ppm
C=2 Cycle of concentration
Acid dosing
Required AH
(CWR*P/100
*Q) /1000
=34000*
0.02*130/
1000=88.4
kgs at 98 %
Quantum of
M.Alkalinity ppm
Q=[(A*C)-M]=[(140*2)
-150]=130
H SO %
2 4
Sp.Gr Dosing
98 1.826
D=AH/
Sp.Gr
=88.4/
1.826
=48.4
lph
o
Dosage Quantity at 30 C
Impact of Water quality Parameters on Cooling Systems
Iron
Water Quality
Parameters
Treatment Impact on System
Hardness
(Ca +Mg )
Scaling Calcium scaling
more troublesome because
of inverse solubility of
s ome c al c i um s al t s )
Magnesium salt problematic
whenn silica levels high.
Softening by external
treatment Antiscalant
Descaling if scaling
has taken place
Alkalinity mainly
due bicarbonate
Can be corrosive. Useful in
p r e d i c t i n g C a l c i u m
carbonate scale potential
Dealkalization
Silica
Difficult to remove
silica deposit
TSS Apart from makeup water,
SS can also be present as
corrosion and deposit by
products. Can be cause of
Under deposit corrosion by
adhering to bio film.
Pretreatment like
coagulation and
clarification Side
stream filtration
Ammonia
Ideal nutrient for Micro
organism, Highly corrosive
to copper, Reduces chlorine
effectiveness as Disinfectant
B r o m i n e b e t t e r
disinfectant in presence
of Ammonia Air stripping
Phosphate
Problem when in high
concentration (Ca>1000
ppm) & (PO4 >20 ppm)
Calcium Phosphate deposit
Close monitoring of
Blowdown. Proper
use of dispersant
Chloride
Cor r os i ve at hi gher
concentration For SS 300
ppm considered corrosive
but for other metals >1000
ppm considered corrosive
Forms undesirable foulants
with Phosphate.Deactivates
specialized polymers used
to inhibit calcium phosphate
scaling.
BOD Indication of Bio growth Oxidizing Biocide
Zinc
Good at low levels but can
contribute to deposit at
higher level
Manure for microorganism Organism
Galvanized Corrosion Heavy Metal
69
Non Oxidizing Biocides
SS-suspension & Sol=Solution (Source Technical Data sheet of Vulcan
Chemicals).
Material Formula Form
%
active
Min
Dose
ppm
Max
Dose
ppm
Feed
Time
Min
pH
Max
pH
Methylene-
bis-
thiocya-
-nate
SCN-
CH -
2
SCN
SS 10 25 50 1/wk 6 8
1
2
Tetrahydro
3,5-
Dimethyl-
2H-1-3,5-
Thiadia-
zone-2-
Thione
C H
5 10
N S
2 2 Sol 24 30 60 1/wk 6.5 14
Na Dime-
thyl
Dithio-
carbamate
C H NS
3 6 2
Na
Sol 30 20 40 1/wk 7 14
Dibromo-
Nitrilo-
Propion-
-amide
C H N
3 2 2
OBr Sol 20 6 15 1/wk 6 8
(Chloro)
Methyl-
isothiazolin
one
C H NOS
4 4
Cl &
C H NOS
4 5
Sol 1.15 25 50 1/wk 6 9.5
Glutaral
dehyde
O=CH
(CH )
2 3
CH=O
Sol 45 25 100 1/wk 6 14
14
14
6
6
1/wk
1/wk
120
120
30
30
9.4 Sol
Sol
RC H
6 5
(CH )
3 3
NCl
Alkyl-
Benzyl-
Dimethyl
Ammonium
Chloride
Dioctyl-
Dimethyl
Ammonium
Chlorite
50
(C H )
6 17 2
(CH )
3 2
NCl
3
4
5
6
7
8
Oxidizing Biocides:
C5H6N2
O2ClBr
solid
0.2 0.5 C 7 10
NaBr varies
38%
as
NaBr
2.0 4.0 C 7 10
Chlorine
Dioxide
Chlorine
Calcium
Hypochl-
orite
Sodium
Hypochl-
orite
(I)
Sodium
Hypochl-
orite(D)
Lithium
Hypochl
orite
Trichloro
Isocyanuric
acid
Sodium
Dichloro
Isocyanuric
acid
Bromo,
Chloro,
Dimethyl
Hydantion
Material Formula Form
%
FAC
Feed
Type
Min
pH
Max
pH
Residual
Require-
ments
Min
Dose
ppm
Max
Dose
ppm
ClO2 sol 0.2 0.5 C 5 9
Sodium
Bromide-
Chlorine
Cl2
gas
100 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
Ca
(OCl)2
solid 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5 65
NaOCl solution 12 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
NaOCl solution 5 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
LiOCl solid 35 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
(CON
Cl)3
solid 89 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
(CON)3
Cl2 Na
solid 56 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
71
Diagnostic Indicators for Cooling Systems
Metals:
Copper>0.25 mg/l
Iron>1.0 mg/l
Zinc>0.5 mg/l OR
Measured corrosion
rates
Copper>0.2MPY
Mild steel piping>3 MPY
Mild steel Hex tubing>
0.5 MPY
Galvanized steel>4 MPY
Additives:
Chlorine > 0.5 mg/l
Ozone >0.2 mg/l
Carbon dioxide>
5 mg/l
pH < 7.0
Water velocity:
> 3 feet/sec @ >150F
> 5 feet/sec @ 120F
> 8 feet/sec @ <90F
Conductivity outside
the manufacturer's
recommended range
The water consumption
rate has increased
greatly.
Possible Problem Possible Solution
High corrosion rate
Inadequate chemical
dosage control Use of
conditioning chemicals
containing copper or
zinc
Improve corrosion
protection through
use of an additive or
by ot her means
I mpr ove addi t i ve
dosage control and/or
monitoring Eliminate
use of addi t i ves
contai ni ng copper
or zi nc Consi der
r epl aci ng copper
components or piping
Leaks or system failure
High rate of corrosion
of copper piping;could
cause leaks or system
failure
Overuse of these
oxidizing chemicals
l e ads t o hi gh
corrosion rates
Reduce or stabilize
addi ti ve dosage
Improve monitoring
Install an automatic
conductivity probe
controlled oxidizing
agent feed system.
C o p p e r o x i d e
protection is inhibited
Raise pH
Inadequate
pH control
Impl ement pH
control Check
dosage of low-pH
additives
Reduce recirculation
rate Increase line size
R e p l a c e c o p p e r
elements with non
metallic parts or other
non copper parts
Syst em operat i on
not optimized Possible
misuse of additives
Improper blowdown
rate
Investigate: System
settings Chemical
dosing rates Blow
down system operation
The heat load to the
system has greatly
increased. Possible
massive system leak.
Check if additional heat
load has been added
on the system today.
Check the system for
leaks. Inspect sanitary
sewer and storm sewer
manholes on site for
unusually high flows.
Indicator
Cooling water distribution headers in all plants are generally of carbon steel
without any protective lining. In some places Hume pipe are also used to severe
corrosion.
Fertilizers Stainless steel and carbon steel
Oil refineries general admiralty brass but in some cases combination of
admiralty brass and carbon steel
Petrochemicals- Combination of 90-10 Copper Nickel, admiralty brass, SS and
carbon steel
LPG Plants- mainly carbon steel
Acrylic Fiber Plants Stainless steel, Copper Nickel and carbon steel
Chilling and refrigeration - 90-10 copper Nickel, Copper / SS
Air compressor & Nitrogen Plants Admiralty Brass
Power plants Copper-Nickel /Copper /SS
Control limits for various cooling water treatments
Coolers and condensers (tube Bundles)
Table1
Characteristics Unit Normal Normal
SHMP + Zn SHMP+CrO +Zn
4
Maximum Maximum
pH Mg/L 6.3 6.8 6.5-7.0 7.0
MO Alkalinity Mg/L
*1 *1
Ca Hardness Mg/L 200-300 300 200-300 300
500 300-500 500 300-500 Mg/L Total hardness
Chloride as Cl Mg/L 200-300
*2
300
200-300
*2
300
1000 800-1000 1000 800-1000 Mg/L Sulphate as SO4
Silica as SiO2 Mg/L 75-100 100 75-100 100
30 20-30
*3
30 (50)
20-30
(30-50)
Mg/L TSS
Organo Phosphate
(HEDP) as PO4
Mg/L
Total Inorganic
Phosphate as PO4
Mg/L 15-20
*4
25
10-15
*4
15
*4
30
20-25

Mg/L Chromate as CrO4
Zinc Sulphate
as Zn
Mg/L 3-5
*4
5
2-3
*4
3
Polymeric
dispersant
TDS Mg/L 1200-1500 1500 1500-2000 2000
Mg/L 5-10 10
1
2
14
12
7
13
9
10
6
3
11
8
4
5
*1-MO Alkalinity will find its own level based on pH to be maintained.
*2- In case of stainless steel exchangers, chloride levels will be low
depending on design.
*3- With polymeric dispersant
*4 Actual inhibitors levels depend on operating conditions
73
Table2
*1-MO Alkalinity will find its own level based on pH to be maintained.
*2- In case of stainless steel exchangers, chloride levels will be low
depending on design.
*3- With polymeric dispersant
*4 Actual inhibitors levels depend on operating conditions
Zn+O-PO4+
Polymer
Zn +HEDP
Zn +HEDP +
SHMP (max)
Characte
ristics
Unit Normal
Maxi
mum
Normal
Maxi
mum
Nor
mal
Maxi
mum
pH Mg/L
7.58.0 8.0 1
2 MO Alkalinity Mg/L
*1 *1 *1
Ca Hardness Mg/L
300-
400
400 300-400 400 300-400 400 3
4 Total hardness Mg/L
600-
800
800 600-800 800 600-800 800
5
Chloride as Cl Mg/L
200-300
*1
300
200-300
*2
300
200-300
*2
300
6
Sulphate as
SO
4
Mg/L
800-
1000
1200 800-100 1200
800-
1000
1200
7 Silica as SiO
2
Mg/L 75-100 125 75-100 125 75-100 125
8
TSS Mg/L 30-50 50 20-30
*3
(30-50)
30
)*3
(50
20-30
*3
(30-50)
30
)*3
(50
9
Organo Phos
phate(HEDP)
as PO
4
Mg/L
*4
8-10
*4
10
*4
4-6
*4
4-6
10
Total Inorga
nic Phosp-
-hate as PO
4
Mg/L
*4
6-8
*4
8
11
Orthophos
phate as PO
4
Mg/L
*4
8-10
*4
15
12
Zinc Sulphate
as Zn
Mg/L 1-1.5 1.5 2-3 3 1.5-2 2
Polymeric
dispersant
13
Mg/L 20-30 50 5-10 10 15-20 20
14 TDS Mg/L 1500-
2000
2000 1500-
2000
2000 1500-
2000
Puckorius Scaling Index
Factor "A" FOR Total dissolved Solids
The Langelier Saturation Index and Ryznar Stability Index were originally
developed to identify scaling (calcium carbonate) and corrosion tendencies of
water in supply piping. These indexes, which are still in wide use today, are
considered very conservative. Most scaling and corrosion conditions identified
by these indexes can typically be controlled by specialty chemicals. Their
usefulness is therefore limited, but because of their common use, the following
calculation procedure is provided The Puckorius Scaling Index modifies the
Ryznar Stability Index by calculating the pH of the bulk water, and thus, more
accurately predicts scaling conditions.
LSI = (measured pH) - (pHs). A positive value indicates scale; a negative value,
no scale.
RSI = (2 pHs) - (measured pH). A value below 6 means scale; above 6, no
scale.
Calculating pH of saturation (pHs).
The pH of saturation (pHs) can be determined from the relationship between
various characteristics of water. The following factors and formula are used in
determining the pHs:
(1) Factors Needed to Calculate pHs:
A = Total Dissolved Solids (ppm), table B-1
B = Temperature (oF), table B-2
C = Calcium Hardness (ppm as CaCO3), table B-3
D = Total Alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3), table B-4
(2) pHs = 9.30 + A + B - (C + D)
Calculation of Calcium Carbonate Saturation Index
Factor "B" FOR Temperature
Total Solid
Mg /liter
Value of
A
50
100
600
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0.07
0.1
0.18
0.2
0.22
0.24
0.25
0.26
o
C
o
F Value of B
0-1 32-34 2.6
2-6
36-42 2.5
7-9 44-48 2.4
10-13 50-56 2.3
14-17 58-62 2.2
18-21 64-70 2.1
2.1 72-80 2.0
28-31 82-88 1.9
32-37 90-98 1.8
38-43 100-110 1.7
44-50 112-122 1.6
51-55 124-132 1.5
56-64 134-146 1.4
65-71 148-160 1.3
72-81 162-178 1.2
75
Factors "C" for Calcium Hardness (as ppm CaCO3)* Zero
to 1000 ppm
Calcium Hardness
As CaCO3
Value of C
10-11
12-13
14-17
18-22
23-27
28-34
35-43
44-55
56-69
70-87
88-110
111-138
139-174
175-220
221-270
271-340
341-430
440-550
551-690
691-870
871-1000
2.0
1.8
2.2
2.1
1.3
1.1
1.2
1.0
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.9
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.9
2.6
2.3
2.5
2.4
Calcium Hardness
As CaCO3
Value of C
10-11
12-13
14-17
18-22
23-27
28-34
35-43
44-55
56-69
70-87
88-110
111-138
139-174
175-220
221-270
271-340
341-430
440-550
551-690
691-870
871-1000
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.+
3.0
Equilibrium pH Value (pHeq) determined from Total
Alkalinity
Example 1
Example 2
Water from a cooling tower has a TDS of 1,000 ppm, calcium hardness of 500
ppm (as CaCO ), total alkalinity of 100 ppm (as CaCO ) and measured pH of
3 3
8.2. The hottest temperature on the waterside of the heat exchanger is 120oF.
pHs = 9.30 + A + B - (C + D)
pHs = 9.30 + 0.20 + 1.57 - (2.30+2.00) = 6.77
Water from a cooling tower has a total alkalinity of 100 ppm (as CaCO ) and a
3
measured pH of 8.2 (same as example 1). From table 5, the pHeq is 7.47.
PSI = (2pHs) - (pHeq) = 2 (6.77) - 7.47
= 13.54 - 7.47 = 6.07
RSI = (2pHs) - (measured pH) = 13.54 -
8.2 = 5.34
LSI = (measured pH) - (pHs) = 8.2 -
6.77 = +1.43
The pHeq may also be calculated as follows:
pH eq = 1.485 log TA + 4.54 where TA denotes total alkalinity.
7.14
7.77
8.08
8.29
8.44
8.57
8.67
8.76
8.84
8.91
7.24
7.81
8.10
8.30
8.46
8.58
8.67
8.77
8.85
8.92
7.33
7.84
8.15
8.32
8.47
8.59
8.68
8.78
8.85
8.92
7.44
7.88
8.15
8.34
8.48
8.60
8.70
8.79
8.86
8.93
6.89
7.68
8.03
8.25
8.41
8.54
8.65
8.74
8.82
8.90
Alkalinity
ppm
Alkalinity, ppm CaCO3, tens
hundreds 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
7.47
7.91
8.17
8.35
8.49
8.61
8.71
8.79
8.87
6.00
7.53
7.94
8.19
8.37
8.51
8.62
8.72
8.80
8.88
6.45
7.59
7.97
8.21
8.38
8.52
8.63
8.73
8.81
8.89
6.70
7.64
8.00
8.23
8.40
8.53
8.64
8.74
8.82
8.89
7.03
7.73
8.05
8.27
8.43
8.56
8.66
8.75
8.83
8.90
77
Scaling Indices versus conditions
Selection of capacity for side stream Filter for cooling tower
F=V/t log [(100) / (100-% reduction)]-b
e
% of reduction of undissolved solids (select 80 %)
t= time desired for reduction in hours (select maximum of 48 hours)
b= blowdown rate in m3/hr
V= total volume of cooling system in M3
Example for V=6000 M3, t=48 hours and b=100 M3/Hr
F=100 M3/H
LSI
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.5
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
PSI/RSI
3.0
4.0
5.0
5.5
5.8
6.0
6.5
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Condition
Extremely severe scaling
Very severe scaling
Severe scaling
Moderate scaling
Slight scaling
Stable water, no scaling, no tendency to dissolve scale
No scaling, very slight tendency to dissolve scale
No scaling, slight tendency to dissolve scale
No scaling, moderate tendency to dissolve scale
No scaling, strong tendency to dissolve scale
No scaling, very strong tendency to dissolve scale
CHAPTER 9
79
Pumps
Introduction
Types of Pump
Characteristics of different types of pumps
Pumps play a vital role in any water treatment system. Pump moves liquid from
one place to another. Hence selection of pump is very critical in all water
treatment system. Here we are giving general guideline, which will help, in
discussing with the pump manufacturer or supplier.
The three types of pump most commonly employed are Centrifugal, Rotary and
Reciprocating. Each class of pump is further divided into.
Pump Class Type
Centrifugal
Volute
Diffuser
Regenerative turbine
Vertical Turbine
Mixed Axial Flow
Axial flow (Propeller)
Single stage and
Multistage. See
manual on pumps
Rotary
Gear
Vane
Cam & Piston
Screw
Lobe
Shuttle Block
Reciprocating
Direct acting
Power(including Crank
& Flywheel)
Diaphragm
Piston
Simplex
Duplex
Triplex
Characteristics Centrifugal Rotary Reciprocating
Discharge Flow Steady steady steady
Usual Maximum
suction lift (Meters)
4.6 6.7 6.7
Liquid handled
Clean, clear dirty
abrasive and liquids
with high solid
content.
Viscous,
Nonabrasive
Clean and clear
Discharge
Pressure range
Low to high Medium Low to high
0.87 1.34 1.77 2.54 4.46 8.18 11.8 18.9 36.3 71.0
1.44 2.23 2.94 4.23 7.43 13.6 19.6 31.5 60.5 118
2.02 3.12 4.12 5.92 10.4 19.1 27.5 44.0 84.8 166
2.88 4.46 5.88 8.45 14.9 27.3 39.2 63.0 121 236
5.77 8.92 11.8 16.9 29.7 54.5 78.4 126 242 473
8.65 13.4 17.7 25.4 44.6 81.8 118 189 363 710
14.4 22.3 29.4 42.3 74.3 136 196 315 605 1180
Liter/sec 1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100 200
Average
efficiency
Total head
in meters
5
7
10
20
30
50
70
100
200
300
500
34 44 50 58 66 72 75 78 81 83
0.15 1.23 0.30 0.43 0.75 1.47 1.96 3.15 6.05 11.8
0.20 0.31 0.41 0.59 1.04 1.91 2.75 4.4 8.48 16.6
0.29 0.45 0.59 0.85 1.49 2.73 3.92 6.3 12.1 23.6
0.58 0.89 1.18 1.69 2.97 5.45 7.84 12.6 24.2 47.3
Usual capacity
range
Smallest to
largest
available
Small to
medium
Relatively
small
How increased
head affects capacity
Decrease None
Decrease and None
for duplex and triplex
Power input
Depends on
specific speed
Increase Increase
How decreased
head affects
capacity
Increase None
Increases
marginally
Power input
Depends on
specific speed
Decrease Decrease
81
Basic guideline for selecting Pump
Specific speed of impeller
Pressure and Specific Gravity
Power Absorbed by pump
1. Sketch the proposed piping layout. Base the sketch on actual job condition.
Single line diagram can be used
2. Determine the required capacity of pump. The required capacity is the flow
rate, which has to be handled at a particular pressure. Once the flow rate
has been determined a suitable factor of safety is applied. In any case it
should not be less than 10 %
3. Compute the total head on pump
4. Analyze the liquid conditions. Obtain complete data on liquid to be
pumped.
5. Select the class and type as given in the table
6. Evaluate the pump chosen for installation. Check specific speed, impeller
type and operating efficiency.
,
Nq=3.65*n*Q / H Where n= speed in rpm
H= head in meters,
Q= discharge in Cubic meter /sec
This calculation allows comparison of all types of rotodyanmic pump on equal
footing.
Pressure developed by pump is proportional to specific gravity of liquid.
P=H, Where Y is the specific gravity
H in meters = Pressure in absolute atmosphere/ Sp.Gravity
H in Feet = Pressure psi/Sp.
Power = *Q*H /C *n, Where Y is Sp.Gravity
1
Q Discharge rate (capacity) in Cubic meter /sec
H= head in Meter
C = 75 for power in Metric HP
1
= 76.04 for power in British HP
= 101.98 for power in Kw
3
=1000 kgf/M at 4C
Motor, brake, and water horsepower can be calculated as follows:
Mhp = Brake horsepower / Motor efficiency
Bhp = Water horsepower / pump efficiency
Whp = head (ft) x flow (gpm) /3960
To better understand the performance and operating characteristics of pumps,
operators should become familiar with the pump curve that is supplied by the
manufacturer for each pump.
Formulas required for pump Calculation
Pump curves usually show three curves on one sheet:
uThe head-capacity curve shows the discharge in gallons per minute
(gpm) the pump will deliver against various heads when operated at
the proper speed. This curve shows that as the head increases, the
discharge decreases, until there is no further discharge. Conversely,
as head decreases, flow increases.
uThe second curve, also plotted against flow, shows the efficiency at
which the pump operates at various points on the head capacity curve.
This curve shows that no pump is 100% efficient, due to internal
friction losses. The highest efficiency that can be hoped for is around
85%. Efficiency can be expected to decrease with age and wear.
uThe third curve, the brake horsepower curve, shows power consumed
plotted against flow. If we know the total head at which the pump is
operating, we can use the curve to find the gallons pumped. The power
required by the pump, as well as the pump efficiency, can also be read
from the curve for any set of conditions. This curve shows that it
usually takes more horsepower to pump more water: the lower the
flow, the lower the horsepower required, and the higher the flow, the
higher the horsepower required.
83
CHAPTER 10
Raw Water Treatment
Objectives
Selection of Water Treatment Processes
The objectives of a public water supply water system are to provide safe and
aesthetically appealing water to the customers without interruption and at a
reasonable cost- an adequate quantity of water at sufficient pressure for fire
protection and industrial water for manufacturing.
Selection of a suitable water treatment process for a given utility is always a
complex and diverse task. Conditions are likely to be different for different water
utility. Adoption of an appropriate water treatment process by a water utility is
influenced by the necessity to meet the regulatory guidelines, the desire of the
utility and its customers to meet other water quality standards and objectives and
the need to provide water service at the lowest reasonable cost. A water
treatment plant should be designed considering the fact that it should supply
continuous and safe water to the customers regardless of the raw water
characteristics and the environmental conditions. Hence, the selection of
treatment process is important in the plant design. The ultimate plant design has
a system that is proven to be simple, effective, reliable, durable and cost-
effective.
The design of water treatment plant starts with the preliminary studies that
include:
1. Design period;
2. Water supply areas identifying the areas to be served;
3. Population estimating the present and future population;
4. Estimating maximum daily water demand;
5. Evaluation and selection of the water source;
6. Size of the treatment plant;
7. Location of the treatment plant site; and
8. Financing.
The selection of package treatment plants and special proprietary devices or
processes should be based on proper consideration of:
Raw water condition and demand variability;
1. Operation and maintenance;
2. Servicing, repairs or replacement; and
Operational flexibility.
85
Water Treatment Processes
Aeration
Coagulation
Flocculation
Aeration is the process of bringing water and air into close contact in order to
remove dissolved gases, such as carbon dioxide, and to oxidize dissolved
metals such as iron. It can also be used to remove volatile organic chemicals
(VOC) in the water. Aeration is often the first major process at the treatment
plant. During aeration, constituents are removed or modified before they can
interfere with the treatment processes. Examples of aeration processes include
diffused mechanical nozzle spraying, multiple tray cascading and packed
power type.
The first step destabilizes the particle's charges. Coagulants with charges
opposite those of the suspended solids are added to the water to neutralize the
negative charges on dispersed non-settlable solids such as clay and color-
producing organic substances.
Once the charge is neutralized, the small-suspended particles are capable of
sticking together. The slightly larger particles formed through this process and
called microflocs, are not visible to the naked eye. The water surrounding the
newly formed microflocs should be clear. If it is not, all the particles' charges
have not been neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to completion.
More coagulant may need to be added.
Following the first step of coagulation, a second process called flocculation
occurs. Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from
submicroscopic microfloc to visible suspended particles.
The microflocs are brought into contact with each other through the process of
slow mixing. Collisions of the microfloc particles cause them to bond to produce
larger, visible flocs called pinflocs. The floc size continues to build through
additional collisions and interaction with inorganic polymers formed by the
coagulant or with organic polymers added. Macroflocs are formed. High
molecular weight polymers, called coagulant aids, may be added during this
step to help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight, and increase
settling rate. Once the floc has reached it optimum size and strength, the water
is ready for the sedimentation process.
Sedimentation
Filtration
Disinfection
Sedimentation basins are used to settle out the floc before going to the filters.
Some type of sludge collection device should be used to remove sludge from
the bottom of the basin.
Removal of suspended solids by filtration plays an important role in the natural
treatment of groundwater as it percolates through the soil. It is also a major
part of most water treatment. Groundwater that has been softened or treated
through iron and manganese removal will require filtration to remove floc
created by coagulation or oxidation processes. Since surface water sources are
subject to run-off and do not undergo natural particles and impurities.
Iron and manganese in water also promote the growth of iron bacteria, a group
of organisms that obtains its energy for growth from the chemical reaction that
occurs when iron and manganese mix with dissolved oxygen. These bacteria
form thick slime growths on the walls of the piping system and on well screens.
Such shines are rust-colored from the iron and black-colored from the
manganese. Variations in flow can cause these slime growths to come loose,
resulting in dirty water in the system.
The object of disinfection is to kill disease-causing organisms present in the
water. With regard to water treatment, disinfection refers to the destruction of
most intestinal or fecal bacteria. Sometimes disinfection is not complete. Some
viruses and especially some protozoa, such as Giardia or cryptosporidium,
could survive the disinfection process. The only method of complete protection
is to sterilize the water by boiling it for a period of 15 to 20 minutes
The methods of disinfection practical in public water supplies are chlorination,
ozonation, use of ultra-violet light, and over-liming. Potassium permanganate,
iodine, bromine, and silver are also used, but less frequently. Chlorination is so
widely used that the term disinfection and chlorination are almost the same in
waterworks practice.
Coarse Screen
Coarse screens, often termed bar screens or racks, and must be provided
to intercept large, suspended or floating material. Such screens or racks
are made of l/2-inch to 3/4-inch metal bars spaced to provide 1- to
3-inch openings.
Fine Screen
Surface waters require screens or strainers for removal of material too
small to be intercepted by the coarse rack, These may be basket-type,
in-line strainers, manually or hydraulically cleaned by back washing
or of the traveling type, which are cleaned by water jets. Fine screen,
clear openings should be approximately 3/8 inch.
87
Design Parameters for Water Treatment Processes
Forced or induced draft aeration devices should be designed to ensure
even water distribution, adequate counter currents of air and proper
external exhausting. As a guide, the loading should be within the range
of 0.7 to 3.4 L/s per m of total tray area (0.8 to 4 gpm/ft.) and 5 or
more trays used with separations not less than 150 mm (6 inches).
Where pressure aeration is proposed for oxidation purposes,
consideration should be given to compressed air quality and mixing, the
scaling potential of the water and subsequent air release. Aerators
should have a bypass and provisions should be made for inspection
and cleaning of the devices. Exhaust gases should be vented outside
the building.
To achieve proper coagulation, high intensity rapid mixing is considered
necessary. It is recommended that rapid mixing be accomplished by
either an in- line-mixing device or mixing in a separate process tank.
Typical energy gradients (G values) would be in the range of 1000
sec-1. It is recommended that some flexibility be provided in rapid
mix design if possible.
The design of flocculation systems should allow for low velocities and
avoidance of rapid acceleration to ensure maintenance of a good floc.
When designing a flocculation process, selection of the mode of mixing
and determination of the physical relations and characteristics of the
flocculation tanks and clarifiers (sedimentation tanks) are among the
first decisions to be made; either hydraulic mixing or mechanical mixing
may be chosen. Where sedimentation follows flocculation, the
retention time for floc formation should be at least 30 minutes.
This process is designed to remove a majority of the settleable solids
by gravitational settling, thereby maximizing the downstream unit
processes such as filtration. The factors that influence sedimentation
efficiency include: Surface overflow rate (also known as surface
loading rate); Inlet and outlet arrangements; type of sedimentation
tank; Raw water characteristics and local climate conditions. There are
three main configurations for sedimentation tanks: horizontal
rectangular basins; upflow sedimentation tanks; and upflow clarifiers
with sludge blanket.
Aeration
Coagulation
Flocculation
Sedimentation
Design Data
Equipment
Design
Parameter
Typical
Design
Values
Unit Remarks
Coarse
Screen
Coarse
Screen
0.050.08 Meter /sec
Design should
have provision
for disposing
Debris removed
by screens
Fine Screen Velocity 0.4 0.8 Meter /sec
Aeration Tray type
Water velocity
Air requirement
Tray spacing
Area required
Cascade Type
Head
Area
Flow velocity
Spray Type
Head
Nozzle diameter
Nozzle spacing
Nozzle discharge
Basin are
Spray pressure
0.8-1.5
7.5
30-75
50-160
1.0-3.0
85-105
0.3
1.2-9
2.5-4.0
0.6-3.6
5-10
105-320
about 70
3 2
m /m /min
m3/m3
water cm
2 3
m /m .s
meter
2 3
m /m .s
m/s
meter
cm
meter
liter/sec
2 3
m /m .s
kPa
Coagulation
Rapid Mix
Detention
time Velocity
gradient Gt
0.2-5
700-1000
4
3X10
4
6X10
Min
-1
S
Flocculation
Slow Mix
Detention
time Velocity
gradient
Gt
0.2-5
15-60
4
1X10
4
15X10
89
Sedime-
-ntation
Rectangular Tanks
Surface overflow rate:
Detention time:
Water depth:
Width/Length
Weir loading:
Upflow Clarifiers
Detention(settling)
time:
Water depth:
Weir loading:
Upflow velocity
Sludge Blanket
Clarifiers
Detention (settling)
time:
Weir loading:
Upflow velocity:
Flocculation time
0.8 2.5
1.5 3
3 5
> 1/5
< 11
1.3 1.9
1 3
3 5
7
< 3
1 3
1 2
7 - 15
< 0.6
20
Meter/Hr
Hour
Meter
3
M /Hr.M
Meter/Hr
Hour
Meter
3
M /Hr.M
m/h
Meter/Hr
Hour
3
M /Hr.M
m/h
minutes
Filtration
Rapid sand
filter Filtration
Rate Backwash
rate Air scour
system Minimum
filtration cycle
Filter media
depths Dual
Media Silica
Anthracite
Pressure Filters
Filtration rate
120-140
37-50
37-73
24
>24(600)
>200
>450
<15
3 2
M /M .day
3 2
M /M .Hr
3 2
M /M .Hr
Hour
Inches
(mm)
mm
mm
M/hour
Taste &
Odour
Control
A e r a t i o n a s
described before.
KMnO Dosage
4
PAC dosage
0.5-2.5
0.5-5
Mg/liter
Mg/liter
PAC is
Powdered
activated
carbon. The
dosage of
PAC can at
times go upto
50 mg/L
Disinfe-
-ction
Chlorine Dose
Chlorine residual
Ozone dose
1-5
0.5-1
1-5
Mg/liter
Mg/liter
Mg/liter
Fluoride
Fluoride Dose
0.7-1.2 Mg/liter
Detention Parameters for Sedimentation for various
coagulants in Water treatment
Type of Treatment
Overflow Rate
3 2
M /M /day
Detention
Time hours
Channel Loadings
M3/M/Day
Alum coagulation
Iron coagulation
Lime-soda
coagulation
20-30
28-40
28-45
2-8
2-8
4-8
150-220
200-275
200-275
Membrane
Processes
Microfiltration
(MF)
Pore size
Pressure
Ultrafiltration
(UF)
Pore size
Pressure
Nanofiltration
(NF)
Pore size
Pressure
Reverse osmosis
(RO)
Pore size
Pressure
0.1 0.2
0.7 1.4
(10 20)
0.003 0.01
0.7 7.8 (10-40)
0.001 0.005
5.3 10.6 (150)
<1 nm
> > 14 (200)
m
kg/cm2
psig
m mm
kg/cm2
psig
m mm
kg/cm2
psig
kg/cm2(psi)
Distribution Velocity in mains
Pressure
1-2
138-1000
M/sec
kPa
91
CHAPTER 11
Industrial Waste Water Treatment
Industrial Pretreatment Processes
Wastewater Unit operation
Physical
The treatment of industrial wastewater involves the same processes as
those used in the treatment of civil water. However, because of specific
compositions, the systems tend to vary. The chemical-physical type
processes are especially important for the removal of inorganic matter. The
basic processes used are
Screening is removal of coarse solids by use of a straining device.
Sedimentation is gravity settling of pollutants out of the wastewater.
Flotation is the use of small gas bubbles injected into the wastewater,
which causes pollutant particles in the wastewater to rise to the
surface for subsequent removal.
Air stripping is removal of volatile and semi-volatile organic
compounds from wastewater by use of airflow.
u
u
u
u
Unit Operation
Physical
Chemical
Biological
Screening
Comminution
Flow equalization
Sedimentation
Flotation
Granular medium Filtration
Precipitation
Adsorption
Disinfection
Dechlorination
Other Chemical Processes
Activated sludge Process
Aerated Lagoon
Trickling Filters
RBC
Pond Stabilization
Anaerobic digestion
Biological nutrient removal
93
Chemical
Biological
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
Neutralization is adjustment of alkalinity and acidity to the same
concentration (pH 7).
Precipitation is addition of chemicals to wastewater to change the
chemical composition of pollutants so that the newly formed
compounds settle out during sedimentation.
Coagulation is use of chemicals to cause pollutants to agglomerate
and subsequently settle out during sedimentation.
Adsorption is use of a chemical, which causes certain pollutants to
adhere to the surface of that chemical.
Disinfection is use of a chemical (or other method such as ultraviolet
radiation) to selectively destroy disease-causing organisms.
(Sterilization is the destruction of all organisms.)
Breakpoint chlorination is the addition of chlorine to the level that
chloramines will be oxidized to nitrous oxide and nitrogen, and
chlorine will be reduced to chloride ions.
Air activated sludge is an aerobic process in which bacteria consume
organic matter, nitrogen and oxygen from the wastewater and grow
new bacteria. The bacteria are suspended in the aeration tank by the
mixing action of the air blown into the wastewater. This is shown
schematically in Figure 1. There are many derivations of the activated
sludge process, several of which are described in this section.
High purity oxygen activated sludge is an aerobic process very similar
to air activated sludge except that pure oxygen rather than air is
injected into the wastewater.
Aerated pond/lagoon is an aerobic process very similar to air activated
sludge. Mechanical aerators are generally used to either inject air into
the wastewater or to cause violent agitation of the wastewater and air
in order to achieve oxygen transfer to the wastewater. As in air
activated sludge, the bacteria grow while suspended in the
wastewater.
Trickling filter is a fixed film aerobic process. A tank containing media
with a high surface to volume ratio is constructed. Wastewater is
discharged at the top of the tank and percolates (trickles) down the
media. Bacteria grow on the media utilizing organic matter and
nitrogen from the wastewater.
Rotating biological contactor (RBC) is a fixed film aerobic process
similar to the trickling filter process except that the media is supported
horizontally across a tank of wastewater. The media upon whom the
bacteria grow is continuously rotated so that it is alternately in the
wastewater and the air.
Oxidation ditch is an aerobic process similar to the activated sludge
process. Physically, however, an oxidation ditch is ring-shaped and is
equipped with mechanical aeration devices.
Bio-Chemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Activated Sludge
Trickling filter or RBC
Aerated lagoon
Oxidation ditch
Total Suspended
Solids (TSS)
Sedimentation
Screening
Flotation
Chemical precipitation
Nitrogen
Nitrification/denitrification
Air stripping
Breakpoint chlorination
Phosphorus
Biological treatment
Air stripping
Heavy metals
Evaporation
Membrane process
Fats, Oil and
Grease (FOG)
Coagulation
Flotation
Membrane process
Volatile Organic
Compounds
Air stripping
Carbon adsorption
Pathogens
Chemical disinfection
UV radiation
ozonation
Pollutant Pretreatment Processes
95
Pretreatment
Process
Items to Look for in the Field
for Efficient Operation
Physical
Screening
No blinding or clogging of screens, no
excessive build-up of material on the screen
Sedimentation
Low flow rate, no short circuiting of flow, no
floating sludge, scum removal if appropriate
Centrifugation
Air stripping
No scaling of packing and piping, or freezing
problems at low temperatures
Chemical
Neutralization
pH monitoring, automated chemical
feed, adequate mixing
Precipitation
Automated chemical feed system, adequate
mixing & contact timer
Coagulation
Adsorption
Efficient means of regeneration is key
to performance
Disinfection
Biological
Activated sludge
Fine bubble aeration, even distribution of air
and mixing, dissolved oxygen concentration
monitoring, air flow turndown capability, no
bulking/floating sludge
Trickling filter
Method for positive air circulation, even
& periodic dousing of filter media
Rotating biological
contactor (RBC)
Steady shaft rotation
CHAPTER 12
97
Chemical Cleaning
General Guidance
Pre-Operational Cleaning
Chemical cleaning of water systems can be divided into two classifications: pre-
operational and remedial. Pre-operational cleaning is performed to prepare the
water-contacted metal surfaces to receive chemical treatment, which provides
protection from scale, corrosion, and microbiological growth. Remedial
cleaning is performed to restore water systems that have been fouled with
scale, corrosion products, and microbiological growth due to inadequate or
ineffective water treatment. Cleaning, particularly remedial cleaning is often
performed by outside contractors familiar with cleaning procedures,
techniques, and safety. It should be noted that if the water system is
significantly scaled, the chemical treatment program was obviously inadequate
and was not properly designed, set-up, controlled, or applied. After cleaning
has been completed, the chemical treatment program and QC program must
be improved so the same problem does not recur. Use of a well-designed QA
program would have produced identification and notification of potential and
developing problems before they became serious. Pre-operational cleaning is
often performed by contractors responsible for the fabrication of the water
system before turning it over to the military installation. Water system
operations personnel must assess the effectiveness of any cleaning process
that has been performed.
Pre-operational cleaning can be performed on all new systems or pieces of
equipment installed in any existing system, including new boiler tubes or new
chiller copper tube bundles. New piping and coils will usually be contaminated
with materials such as mill scale, rust, oil, and grease resulting from the
fabrication, storage, and installation of the equipment. Pre-operational
cleaning is performed to remove these materials and prepare metal surfaces to
receive corrosion protection from chemical treatment. Pre-operational
cleaning agents that are used include detergents, wetting agents, rust
removers, and dispersants. These cleaning agents have a pH in the range of 9
to 11. Water systems containing piping or components constructed of
galvanized steel and aluminum should not be subjected to procedures that
require high pH (greater than 8.5) because this would contribute to initiating
corrosion of these surfaces.
The requirement for performing a pre-operational cleaning process is usually
written into the specification for new construction of a water system that must
be performed by a mechanical contractor. The mechanical contractor is
required to perform the work as directed in the specifications. However, if the
specifications are not appropriate for the specific system, including
consideration of all system metallurgy, the cleaning process may contribute to
corrosion to mild steel, galvanized steel, copper, or aluminum, or it may result
in incomplete cleaning of dirty and corroded metal surfaces. A qualified
inspector should review the specifications or qualified independent consultant
to ensure that cleaning agents and procedures have been specified
appropriately.
Remedial Cleaning
Safety and Environmental Issues
Contracting Cleaning Services
Reasons for Cleaning
Types of Deposits
Remedial cleaning is performed to restore a water system that is fouled with
scale, corrosion products, or microbiological biomass due to inadequate or
ineffective waters treatment. The problem could have resulted from using
improper chemical technology, failure to maintain treatment levels within
control parameters or the failure of pretreatment equipment. The cleaning
agents used for remedial cleaning usually include acids, chelants, neutralizing
agents, and specialty cleaning chemicals.
Remedial cleaning may pose safety issues for personnel handling acids,
caustics, and various chemicals. There could also be environmental concerns
associated with chemical disposal. Inexperienced personnel should not
perform the chemical cleaning of an industrial water system.
For some cleaning jobs, such as large boilers and cooling towers, it may be
advisable to engage a service company specializing in chemical cleaning. If the
cleaning service is contracted, it is vital that adequate lines of communication
be established, and that safety procedures employed by the service company
comply with military regulations. An orientation meeting should be scheduled
between military installation personnel and the service company
representatives. At that time, the scope of the work can be defined, proper
procedures initiated, and the nature of the hazards described thoroughly. The
use of proprietary cleaning chemicals or chemical formulations may be
involved; disclosure of the use and nature of these chemicals should be made
at the orientation meeting. Military policies and restrictions can also be
explained.
Maintenance of an effective water treatment program is essential to minimize
scale and corrosion problems in industrial water systems; however, scale and
deposits that form will require remedial cleaning (descaling). If not removed,
these scale and water-caused deposits may impact the safety of operations
personnel, interfere with heat transfer, and cause excessive damage to, or
destruction of, the water-using equipment. Cleaning is not appropriate for the
removal of deposits when corrosion of the system has advanced to the point
where a large number of leaks may result from the removal of the deposits.
The deposits that occur in water systems can be inorganic mineral salts and
corrosion products or organic (oily) or biological in nature. Deposits range in
composition from very dense crystalline structures, to very porous and loosely
bound materials, to gelatinous slimes. Most of the deposits formed from water
constituents consist of corrosion products such as iron and copper oxides,
mineral scales, or mixtures of these materials.
99
Waterside Deposits Located in Heat Exchangers
Boiler Deposits
Remedial Cleaning Procedure
Cleaning Methods
Mechanical Methods
Chemical Methods
Water deposits located in heat exchangers are usually carbonate-based scales,
while steamside deposits may be a mixture of metallic oxides and organic
residuals from lubricating oil, particularly where reciprocating-type engines are
used. In steam systems, the oxides are usually iron and copper, resulting from
aggressive condensate. Microbiological deposits may form in cooling systems
from bacterial or algae growths, or from decomposition products of various
microorganisms.
Boiler deposits may take various forms. In low-pressure boilers using a
relatively hard feedwater, deposits are essentially calcium and magnesium,
silicates, sulfates, carbonates, phosphates and hydroxides, plus some
organics. Deposits may also contain considerable amounts of silica, iron, and
copper. These deposits can be spongy or porous or relatively hard and glass-
like. Deposits of the latter characteristic occur where silica is present in
appreciable quantities in the boiler water. Deposits in medium-pressure to
high-pressure boiler systems usually are mixtures of iron and copper oxides
and phosphates. Dense deposits may tend to form in high-heat transfer areas.
Considerable quantities of sludge-type accumulations may be found in
downcomers, mud drums, waterwall headers, crossover tubes, and areas of
low water circulation in the boiler.
Cleaning procedure information and procedures presented in this Chapter are
general in nature and must be modified to fit specific applications. Because
contractors perform most cleanings, these procedures are provided only for
general information.
There are two methods generally adopted for cleaning
1. Mechanical
2. Chemical
Mechanical methods are the oldest techniques used for removing deposits. To
perform an adequate mechanical-type cleaning, the equipment to be cleaned
may need to be partially or entirely dismantled. Even when equipment is
dismantled, some areas may be extremely difficult to reach and clean.
Chemical cleaning has largely replaced mechanical process equipment
cleaning as the most satisfactory method of removing deposits; however,
mechanical methods such as wire brushing, tumbling, scraping, and abrasive
blasting with sand and grit are still employed in special applications.
In this method acid or alkali is generally used for cleaning. At times there are
other chemicals which are also used for cleaning.
Cleaning Agents
General Guidance and Procedures for Preparing Cleaning Solutions
Hydrochloric (Muriatic) Acid
Example Procedure for 10% Solution
Cleaning agents may be broadly classified as being acid, alkaline, organic, or
solvent cleaners. There is no general or universal cleaner that removes all
deposits. The selection of a solvent or cleaning agent is based on the material's
ability to remove or dissolve the deposit, as well as on cost considerations,
safety hazards, and the effect of the cleaning material on the metals involved.
General guidance and procedures for preparing cleaning solutions of inhibited
hydrochloric (muriatic) acid and inhibited sulfamic acids are provided in
paragraphs below. Inhibited acid contains special chemical inhibitors that
prevent the acid cleaner from attacking the base metal while allowing the acid
to remove the unwanted corrosion product or scale deposit.
Inhibited hydrochloric (muriatic) acid in strengths of 5 to 20% is very effective
for removing calcium scale and iron oxide; however, for most applications, a
10% solution is adequate. The following formulation is for a 10% hydrochloric
acid solution. It can be used for removing scale consisting primarily of
carbonates with lesser amounts of phosphates, sulfates, and silicates. This
type of scale is typically found in a steam boiler system containing copper alloys
that has been treated with a phosphate-based program. Depending on the
specific descaling application, some of these ingredients can be omitted from
the formulation.
The following is an example procedure that can be used to make 3785 liters
(1000 gallons) of a 10% solution:
1. Add 1079 liters (285 gallons) concentrated (36% strength) hydrochloric
acid, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E 1146,
Specification for Muriatic Acid (Technical Grade Hydrochloric Acid), to
approximately 2271 liters (600 gallons) of water.
2. Add the proper amount of a corrosion inhibitor, Military Specification MIL-I-
17433, Inhibitor, Hydrochloric Acid, Descaling and Pickling, recommended
by the manufacturer to the diluted acid solution. The inhibitor must be
compatible with hydrochloric acid and must not precipitate under any
condition during the cleaning operation.
3. In a separate tank containing about 284 liters (75 gallons) of water:
4. Add 39 kilograms (85 pounds) of the chemical (1,3) diethylthiourea to
complex any copper and keep it from depositing. Do not use the
diethylthiourea as the corrosion inhibitor required in paragraph 9-
2.2.1(step 2) above.
5. Add 55 kilograms (120 pounds) of ammonium bifluoride, technical grade,
to help dissolve certain iron and silica scales.
6. Add 3.79 liters (1 gallon) of wetting agent,
Add the dissolved diethylthiourea, ammonium bifluoride, and wetting agent to
the diluted acid solution. Add sufficient water to obtain 3785 liters (1000
gallons).
101
Carbonate Deposits.
Phosphate Deposits
Metallic Oxides
Silica and Sulfate Scale
Hydrochloric Acid Limitations
Sulfamic Acid
Carbonate deposits dissolve rapidly in hydrochloric acid, with evolution of free
carbon dioxide. The escaping carbon dioxide tends to create some circulation or
agitation of the acid, which ensures the continual contact of fresh acid with the
scale. Once the carbonate has been dissolved from a mixed deposit, a loose,
porous structure may be left behind. This residual material can be effectively
removed from the equipment either mechanically or by washing with high-
pressure water.
The removal of phosphate deposits can usually be accomplished by using
hydrochloric acid; however, phosphate deposits have a tendency to dissolve
rather slowly. To minimize the total cleaning time, a temperature of 49 to 60 C
(120 to 140 F) is usually necessary to remove a predominantly phosphate scale.
Most metallic oxides found in deposits can be removed with hydrochloric acid. The
rate of dissolution is a function of temperature and solution velocity. If copper
oxides are present on steel surfaces, special precautions are needed to prevent
copper metal plate-out on the steel.
Heavy silica and sulfate scale is almost impossible to remove with hydrochloric
acid. Special chemicals and procedures are required to remove this scale.
Hydrochloric acid is not used to clean stainless steel because the chloride ion in
the acid solution may cause pitting or stress corrosion cracking. Hydrochloric acid
is not used for removing scale from galvanized steel surfaces since the galvanizing
will corrode. Aluminum is not cleaned using hydrochloric acid.
Sulfamic acid is an odorless, white, crystalline solid organic acid that is readily
soluble in water. An inhibited sulfamic acid compound, in a dry powder form, is
available. A 5 to 20% solution (2 to 9 kilograms to approximately 38 liters of water
[5 to 20 pounds to approximately 10 gallons of water]) is used for removing scale
from metal surfaces. The following information pertaining to sulfamic acid should
be considered.
uCarbonate deposits are dissolved in sulfamic acid in a similar manner as
in hydrochloric acid. All the common sulfamate salts (including calcium)
are very soluble in water.
uThe dry powder form of sulfamic acid is safer to handle than a liquid
solution of hydrochloric acid; however, aqueous solutions of sulfamic acid
are much slower in action and require heating to remove scale. The
sulfamic acid solution is heated to a temperature in the range of 54 to 71
oC (130 to 160 oF) to obtain the same fast cleaning time that is achieved
by using hydrochloric acid at room temperature. Sulfamic acid is more
effective on sulfate scale than hydrochloric acid.
uInhibited sulfamic acid, used at temperatures up to 43 oC (110 oF),
will not corrode galvanized steel. Its use is recommended for
removing scale in cooling towers, evaporative condensers, and other
equipment containing galvanized steel. In general, sulfamic acid can
be applied to equipment while it is operating but should be drained
from the system after a few hours, and the concentration of the
normally used corrosion inhibitor should be increased several-fold to
protect the metal surfaces.
uCommercially prepared descaling compounds consisting of
concentrated or diluted inhibited acid (containing 7 to 28% of the acid
and inhibitor) may be purchased under various trade names at prices
4 to 30 times the cost of the ingredients themselves if purchased as
generic chemicals.
uAdvertisements of some of these products may contain claims that
the acid does not attack cotton clothing and skin. These claims are
usually based on a very dilute solution of the acid that causes a
minimal attack on clothes and skin; however, the cost of the cleaning
process may be increased because a higher quantity of dilute product
may be needed. Be aware that handling acid in any strength must be
performed with considerable care, caution, and adherence to safety
procedures.
uThe cost of diluted acid is expensive; therefore, concentrated acid of
government specifications should be purchased and diluted to usable
strengths. The necessary corrosion inhibitors can be added to the
dilute acid solution. Users of small quantities of acid cleaners (possibly
less than 38 liters [10 gallons] of diluted acid per year) may not be
able to justify purchasing undiluted acid and spending the time, cost,
and effort to prepare the cleaning solution.
uThe unit to be cleaned must be isolated from other parts of the system.
For systems that cannot be isolated by the closing of valves, isolation
may be accomplished using rubber blankets, wooden bulkheads with
seals, inflatable nylon or rubber bags, rubber sponge-covered plugs,
or blind flanges and steel plates with rubber seals.
uDecide whether to clean using a soaking process or by circulating the
cleaning solution. In either case, temporary piping or hose lines will be
required to connect the cleaning solution mixing tanks or trucks to the
unit, with return lines to tanks or drains. Proper precautions and
adequate provisions must be made to protect equipment, isolate
control lines, replace liquid level sight glasses with expendable
materials, and provide suitable points for checking temperatures.
uThe entire cleaning procedure/process must be developed in detail
before starting chemical cleaning operations. Factors to be considered
include: the methods for controlling temperatures; the means of
mixing, heating, and circulating the chemical solution; proper venting
of dangerous gases from equipment to a safe area.
Cleaning Preparation
103
Methods for Removing Scale
Recirculating Cleaning Process for Boilers
Removing scale may be accomplished by circulating the inhibited acid solution
through the equipment or by soaking the equipment in a tank of inhibited acid.
Before starting any descaling process, check the acid to make sure it is properly
inhibited. You may check the acid by placing a mild steel coupon into a beaker
containing the prepared, diluted acid. You should notice no reaction around the
coupon. If you observe a reaction generating hydrogen gas bubbles around the
coupon, add more inhibitor.
The following example is an appropriate procedure for cleaning small boilers or
other systems using a hot recirculating inhibited acid solution:
1. Fill the boiler or system with preheated (71 to 77 oC [160 to 170 oF])
dilutes inhibited acid solution.
2. Allow the dilute inhibited acid solution to remain in place for 8 hours.
Circulate the acid solution for approximately 15 minutes each hour at a
rate of about 3.15 liters per second (50 gallons per minute) to ensure good
mixing.
3. Keep the temperature of the acid solution preheated at 71 to 77 oC (160 to
170 oF). Measure and record the temperature at least once every 30
minutes.
4. Check and record the acid strength at least every hour
5. Drain the system by forcing the acid solution out using 276 to 345
kilopascals (40 to 50 pounds per square inch gauge) nitrogen; follow
Specification A-A-59503, Nitrogen, Technical, Class 1. If leaks develop
when the system is under nitrogen pressure, you must use an alternate
method for removing the acid, such as pumping.
o o
6. Fill the boiler with preheated (65 to 71 C [150 to 160 F]) water and soak at
this temperature for 15 minutes.
7. Drain under nitrogen pressure of 276 to 345 kilopascals (40 to 50 pounds
per square inch gauge).
8. Prepare this mild, acid-rinse solution: Add 7.57 liters (2 gallons) of
hydrochloric acid (ASTM E 1146 or IS 226) for each 3785 liters (1000
gallons) of water. Also add corrosion inhibitor, in the amount recommended
by the manufacturer.
o o
9. Fill the boiler with the preheated (71 to 77 C [160 to 170 F]) mild acid-
rinse solution and soak for 30 minutes.
10. Drain the mild acid-rinse solution under nitrogen pressure at 276 to 345
kilopascals (40 to 50 pounds per square inch gauge). Maintain a positive
pressure of nitrogen in the boiler to prevent outside air from leaking inside.
o
11. Fill the boiler with the passivating solution preheated to 65 to 71 C (150 to
o o
160 F), circulate for 10 minutes, and hold in the boiler at 65 to 71 C for an
additional 30 minutes.
Drain and rinse boiler until the pH of the rinse water is pH 8 to 10.
Circulating Method without Heat
Fill and Soak Method
The steps below describe a typical process for descaling smaller equipment,
such as enclosed vessels or hot water heater coils, without heating the inhibited
acid solution:
1. Note that an acid cleaning assembly may consist of a small cart on which is
mounted a pump and an 18.9- to 189-liter (5- to 50-gallon) steel or
polyethylene tank with a bottom outlet to the pump.
2. Install sill cocks at the bottom of the water inlet of the heat exchanger and
the top of the water outlet so that a return line can be connected directly
from the acid pump and from the heat exchanger to the acid tank.
3. Prepare an inhibited acid cleaning solution
4. Pump the acid solution into the heat exchanger through the hose
connection. Continue circulation until the reaction is complete, as
indicated by foam subsidence or acid depletion.
5. If the scale is not completely removed, check the acid strength in the
system If the acid strength is less than 3%, add fresh acid solution and
continue circulation until the remaining scale is removed. Usually an hour
of circulation is adequate.
6. Drain the heat exchanger.
7. Neutralize remaining acid by circulating a 1-% sodium carbonate (soda
ash) solution {about 3.6 kilograms per 38 liters (8 pounds per 100
gallons)}for about 10 minutes.
8. Rinse thoroughly with water until the pH of the rinse water is pH 8 to 10.
1. Prepare an inhibited dilute acid solution in a container of suitable size.
2. Depending on the item to be cleaned and the types of scale involved, you
may want to place an agitator (mixer) in the tank or install a pump outside
the tank to circulate the acid solution. A method to heat the acid may be
required, such as a steam coil. All equipment must be explosion-proof and
acid-resistant.
3. Immerse the item to be cleaned in the dilute acid solution. Continue
soaking until the reaction is complete as indicated by foam subsidence or
acid depletion.
4. If the scale is not completely removed, check the acid strength. If it is less
than 3%, add additional acid and continue soaking the items until the
remaining scale is dissolved. Usually 1 to 2 hours of soaking is adequate.
5. Remove item from tank.
6. To neutralize remaining acid, immerse the item in a 1% sodium carbonate
(soda ash) solution (about 3.6 kilograms per 38 liters [8 pounds per 100
gallons]) for 2 to 3 minutes.
Rinse the item thoroughly with water.
105
Checking Acid Solution Strength
Apparatus:
Reagents:
Method:
Results:
The initial strength of the dilute inhibited acid will vary from 5 to 20%, although
10% is typical. The strength of the acid decreases since acid is consumed in
dissolving the scale. The strength of the acid solution should be measured
periodically during a cleaning operation. When the acid strength falls below
3%, the solution may be discarded since most of its scale-dissolving capability
will have been used. Use the following procedure to check the acid strength:
1. Burette, 25 milliliters (0.8 ounce) automatic (for sodium hydroxide
solution)
2. Bottle, with dropper, 50 milliliters (2 ounces) (for phenolphthalein
indicator solution)
3. Graduated cylinder, 10 milliliters (0.3 ounce)
4. Casserole, porcelain, heavy duty, 210-milliliter (7.1-ounce) capacity
5. Stirring rod
1. Sodium hydroxide solution, 1.0 normality (N)
2. Phenolphthalein indicator solution, 0.5%
1. Measure 10 milliliters of acid solution accurately in the graduated cylinder.
2. Pour into the casserole.
3. Add 2 to 4 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to the casserole and
stir.
4. Fill the automatic burette with the 1.0 N sodium hydroxide solution; allow
the excess to drain back into the bottle.
5. While stirring the acid solution constantly, add sodium hydroxide solution
from the burette to the casserole until color changes to a permanent faint
pink. This is the endpoint. Read the burette to the nearest 0.1-milliliter
(0.003-ounce).
For hydrochloric acid: Percent hydrochloric acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium
hydroxide x 0.36.
For sulfamic acid: Percent sulfamic acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium hydroxide
x 0.97
WATER SAMPLE
TEST
PROCEDURES
107
WATER SAMPLE TEST PROCEDURES
Purpose of Testing
Testing Techniques
Testing of industrial water is done to determine the amount of treatment
chemicals in the water so that dosage levels can be properly regulated. These
tests are the only known means of having reliable operations, as far as the
water is concerned.
Accurate test results depend on following good basic laboratory procedures and
techniques.
1. Water analyses require certain chemical apparatus. These are scientific
instruments and are to be treated as such. The apparatus should be
HANDLED WITH CARE!
2. It is necessary to keep everything in GOOD ORDER at all times. Have a
place for everything and everything in its place! Be sure all bottles are
properly labeled and avoid mixing bottles! All bottles should be tightly
closed. Keep any reserve stock of solutions and reagents in cool, dark
place.
3. All equipment and apparatus should be kept CLEAN! Unless this is done,
the tests will not be reliable and errors will be introduced. Thoroughly rinse
and dry all glassware immediately after use. If color apparatus are
employed, do not expose to heat or to direct sunlight. If any liquid is spilled
on any of the equipment or apparatus, wipe off at once and dry.
4. MEASURE CAREFULLY! The apparatus are precision instruments that are
capable of very fine measurements. The results will be off if improper
amounts of samples are taken, if incorrect volumes of solution are added, if
the burette is not read correctly, of if the methods prescribed on the
following pages are not performed exactly as written.
5. The SUSPENDED MATTER OR SLUDGE will generally settle to the bottom if
the sample is allowed to stand before testing. The clear water can then be
used for the tests, making it unnecessary to filter (except for specific
o
tests). Theoretically, all water analyses should be made at 77oF (25 C);
however, no appreciable error will be introduced if the test is made
o o
between 68 and 86 F (20 to 30 C). In general, the shorter the time
between the collection and the analysis of the sample, the more reliable
will be the results.
When the water sample color interferes with the analysis, it may be necessary
to filter the sample through activated charcoal, except for the sulfite and nitrite
tests.
Phenolphthalein (P) Alkalinity Test Procedure
APPARATUS:
METHOD:
EXAMPLE:
Graduated Cylinder, 50 ml, Plastic
Bottle, w/Dropper (for Phenolphthalein Indicator) 2 oz
Casserole, Porcelain, Heavy Duty, 200 ml Capacity
Stirring Rod, Plastic
REAGENTS:
Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution, N/50
Phenolphthalein Indicator Solution, 1 percent
Measure the amount of water to be tested in the graduated cylinder. The
amount should be based on the expected results of the test according to the
following:
Pour into the casserole.
Add 6 drops of Phenolphthalein Indicator Solution to the casserole and
stir. If the water does not change to a red color, there is no
phenolphthalein alkalinity present and the P reading is reported as
zero. If the water does change to red color, P alkalinity is present
and the test should be continued.
Squeeze the rubber bulb to force the Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution
from the bottle to fill the burette just above the zero mark; then allow
the excess to drain back automatically into the bottle.
While stirring the water constantly, add Standard Sulfuric Acid slowly
from the burette to the casserole until the red color disappears and the
water resumes the original color of the sample before the
Phenolphthalein Indicator Solution was added. This is the end point.
Read the burette to the nearest 0.1-ml.
RESULTS: The P alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) is calculated as follows: P
alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) = (ml acid) x (factor)
4.3 ml of N/50 sulfuric acid were required to change the color of a 50 ml sample
of water from red to colorless:
P alkalinity = 4.3 x 20 = 86 ppm as CaC

u
u
u
u
u
P Alkalinity Expected,
As CaCO
3
Less than 100
More than 100
Sample Size
50ml
20ml
Factor
20
50
109
Total (M) Alkalinity Test Procedures
APPARATUS:
METHOD:
RESULTS:
Burette, 10 ml, Automatic (for N/50 Sulfuric Acid) (item 1001)
Graduated Cylinder, 50 ml, Plastic (item 1004)
Bottle, w/Dropper (for Mixed Indicator) 2 oz (item 1005)
Casserole, Porcelain, Heavy Duty, 200 ml Capacity (item 1003)
Stirring Rod, Plastic (item 1006)
REAGENTS:
Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution, N/50 (item 2001)
Mixed Indicator Solution, (item 2036)
Measure the amount of water to be tested in the graduated cylinder. The
amount should be based on the expected results of the tests according to the
following:
Add 10 drops of Mixed Indicator Solution to the casserole and stir. If
the water changes to a light pink color, free mineral acid is present.
There is no mixed indicator alkalinity, and the M reading is reported
as zero. If the water changes to a green or blue color, M alkalinity is
present and the test should be continued.
Squeeze the rubber bulb to force the Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution
to fill the burette to just above the zero mark; then allow the excess to
drain back automatically into the bottle.
While stirring the water constantly, add Standard Sulfuric Acid
Solution slowly from the burette to the casserole until the green or
blue color changes to light pink. This is the end point. Read the burette
to the nearest 0.1-ml.
The M alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) is calculated as follows:
M alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) = (ml acid) x (factor)
u
u
u
u
M Alkalinity Expected,
As CaCO3
Sample Size Factor
Less than 100
More than 100
50ml
20ml
20
50
EXAMPLE:
NOTES:
5.9 ml of N/50 sulfuric acid were required to change the color of a 50 ml sample
of water from green to light pink:
M alkalinity = 5.9 x 20 = 118 ppm as CaCO3
uIf the end point color is difficult to see, repeat the entire test using 15
drops of Mixed Indicator Solution.
uJust before the end point is reached, the green or blue color fades to a
light blue color and then becomes light pink. The end point is the first
appearance of a permanent pink color.
Value of P & M
Alkalinity
Bicarbonate
Alkalinity
Carbonate
Alkalinity
Hydroxide
Alkalinity
Total
Alkalinity
P= Zero
P< 1/2M
P=1/2M
P>1/2M
M
M-2P
Nil
Nil
Nil
2P
2P
2(M-P)
Nil
Nil
Nil
2P M
M
M
M
M
111
Conductivity Test Procedure
Apparatus
Conductivity Meter & cell
Procedure
Results
In general, there are two types of conductivity meters. One has an electrode
that is put into a cell containing the water to be tested. The other has a small
cup mounted on the meter into which the water to be tested is poured. Either
type of meter may be automatically temperature compensated, or the meter
may require a temperature correction. The meter may indicate TDS or
conductivity as micromhos, but either measurement represents the same
characteristic of the water sample. Where the meter is designed to give either
measurement, it is important to always use the same measurement to avoid an
error.
Thermometer
Beaker
Graduated cylinder
Determine the cell constant if necessary, either directly with a standard
potassium chloride solution (say 0.002N) or by comparison with a cell the
constant of which is known accurately. (In the later case, the concentration
and nature of the electrolytes in the liquid which is used for the comparison
should be the same and should be similar respectively to those of the liquids
with which the cell is likely to be used in practice.
Use some of the samples to washout the conductivity cell thoroughly. Fill the
conductivity cell with the sample. Measure the conductivity in accordance with
the instruction of the instrument manufacturer.
Depending upon the type of meter used, the results are read as either
conductivity in micromhos or TDS in ppm. The relationship between these
measurements when these procedures are used is as follows:
TDS, ppm = 0.66 x Conductivity, micromhos
Conductivity, micromhos = 1.5 x TDS, ppm.
pH-Electrometric Method Test Procedures
Apparatus
METHOD:
Notes:
pH Meter, Complete
Beaker, 150 ml,
Heavy Duty Plastic (3 each)
Wash Bottle, 500 ml, Heavy Duty Plastic
Reagents
Standard pH Buffer Solution, pH-4
Carefully follow the procedures provided with the pH meter. They should be
similar to the following:
uTurn the meter from standby to on position.
uStandardize instrument by immersing the electrode(s) into two
different Standard pH buffer Solutions in the test beaker as follows:
(a.) Place electrode(s) in pH-7 Buffer Solution and adjust the meter to
read pH-7.(b). Place electrode(s) in the second pH Buffer Solution,
either the pH-4 or pH-10, depending on the suspected range of the
unknown sample to be tested, and adjust the meter to the same pH.
uRemove electrode(s) and thoroughly wash with distilled or condensate
water.
uImmerse the electrode(s) in the water sample and turn the meter to
test or pH position and read meter.
uRinse the electrodes with distilled or condensate water and turn the
instrument to the standby position. Do not turn off.
uWhen not in use, keep the glass electrodes soaking in a pH-4 Buffer
Solution.
uWhen not in use, keep the plastic cap on the reference electrode.
Some reference electrodes must be kept full of electrolyte. Follow the
instrument instructions on this.

113
Total hardness Test Procedures
Introduction
Reagent required
Procedure
Calculation
Hardness is defined as the sum of the calcium and magnesium ions in water
expressed in milligrams per liter (or ppm) as calcium carbonate. Hardness tests
should be done on softeners to make sure they are functioning and deaerator
water to make sure no contamination is occurring.
This test is based on the determination of the total calcium and magnesium
content of simple by titration with a sequestering agent in the presence of
organic dye sensitive to calcium and magnesium ions. The red to blue color
change endpoint is observed when all calcium and magnesium ions are
sequestered.
Hardness tests should be conducted on water softeners and condensate but not
on boiler water as elevated iron concentrations can lead to chemical
interference and poor test results.
Hardness Reagent 0.01 M
Hardness Buffer
Hardness Indicator Powder
Rinse the graduated cylinder and beaker or a test tube with the sample
to be tested. Fill the graduated cylinder to 50 mL and add this water to
the beaker or a test tube
If hardness is expected to be greater than 100 take a 50 ml sample
and if less than 100 then the sample can be of 20 ml
Add 5 drops of Hardness Buffer to the beaker using the plastic pipette.
Swirl to mix.
Add 1 spoon of Hardness Indicator Powder. Swirl to dissolve
completely. The sample will turn red if hardness is present. If the
sample is blue, the hardness level is completed to be zero.
If the sample colour is purple or red, add standard hardness titrating
solution slowly from the burette to the beaker until the purple or red
colour changes to blue. This is the end point. Read to nearest 0.1 ml
For a 50 mL sample, ppm Hardness as CaCO = mL of Hardness
3
Reagent X 20.
For a 20 mL sample, ppm Hardness as CaCO = mL of Hardness
3
Reagent X 50.
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
Sulphite testing procedure
Introduction
Reagents required
Procedure
Calculation
Sulfite is used in boiler feedwater conditioning to prevent oxygen pitting by the
removal of dissolved oxygen. It is necessary to maintain an excess sulfite level
to ensure rapid and complete oxygen removal. This test is based on the
reaction of sulfite with iodine in acidic solution. The iodide-iodate titrant
generates iodine in the acidic solution. This iodine is consumed in a reaction
with excess sulfite. At the endpoint, excess iodine combines with the indicator
to form a blue colour.
Iodide-Iodate Reagent N/40
Acid Starch Indicator Powder
Phenolphthalein Indicator
Rinse the graduated cylinder and beaker or a test tube with the sample
to be tested. Fill the graduated cylinder to 50 mL and add this water to
the beaker or a test tube
If sulphite is expected to be greater than 100ppm take a 50-ml sample
and if less than 100 ppm then the sample can be of 20 ml
Add 1 drops of Phenolphthalein Indicator to the beaker using the
plastic pipette. Swirl to mix.
If the sample remains colourless proceed with step 5. If the sample
turns pink add Acid Starch indicator Powder one, 1gram at a time until
the sample becomes colorless. Swirl to mix between each addition of
indicator.
Fill the Titration Burette to the zero mark with Iodide-Iodate Reagent
N/40. Add the reagent slowly to the Erlenmeyer flask with constant
stirring. Continue to titrate until a permanent blue color develops in
the sample. Read the titrated volume from the burette.
For a 50 mL sample,
Ppm sulphite as CaCO = mL of Iodide-Iodate Reagent X 20.
3
For a 20 mL sample,
Ppm sulphite as CaCO = mL of Iodide-Iodate Reagent X 50.
3
u
u
u
u
u

115
Chloride Test Procedure
Apparatus:
Reagents
Procedure
Results
Example
Burette, 10 ml Automatic (for Mercuric Nitrate Solution)
Graduated Cylinder, 50 ml, Plastic
Casserole, Porcelain, Heavy Duty, 200 ml Capacity
Stirring Rod, Plastic
Bottle, w/Dropper, 2 oz (for Chloride Indicator Solution)
Standard Mercuric Nitrate Solution, 0.0141 N
Chloride Indicator Solution
Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution, N/50
Measure the amount of water to be tested in the graduated cylinder.
The amount should be based on the expected results of the tests
according to the following:
Add 1.0 ml of Chloride Indicator Solution to the water in the casserole
and stir for 10 seconds. The color of the water should be a green-blue
color at this point.
Add the standard Sulfuric Acid Solution a drop at a time until the water
turns from greenblue to yellow.
Squeeze the rubber bulb to force the Standard Mercuric Nitrate
Solution from the bottle to fill the burette just above the zero mark;
then allow the excess to drain back automatically into the bottle.
While stirring the sample constantly, add Standard Mercuric Nitrite Solution
slowly from the burette to the casserole until a definite purple color appears.
This is the end point.(The solution will turn from green-blue to blue a few drops
from the end point.) Read the burette to the nearest 0.1-ml.
The Chloride, in ppm C1, is calculated as follows:
Chloride, ppm C1 = (ml of Mercuric Nitrate 0.2) x factor.
11.2 ml of 0.0141 N Mercuric Nitrate Solution was required to change the color
of a 50-ml sample of water from a green-blue to purple.
Chloride = (11.2 0.2) x 20 = 220 ppm)

u
u
u
u
u
Chloride Expected as Cl
Less than 20 ppm
More than 20 ppm
Sample Size
50ml
20ml
Factor
10
20
Checking Acid Solution Strength for Cleaning
Apparatus:
Reagents:
Method:
Results:
The initial strength of the dilute inhibited acid will vary from 5 to 20%, although
10% is typical. Since the acid is consumed by dissolving the scale, the strength
of the acid decreases. The strength of the acid solution should be measured
periodically during a cleaning operation. When the acid strength falls below
3%, the solution may be discarded since most of its scale-dissolving capability
will have been used. Use the following procedure to check the acid strength:
Burette, 25 milliliters (0.8 ounce) automatic (for sodium hydroxide solution)
Bottle, with dropper, 50 milliliters (2 ounces) (for phenolphthalein indicator
solution)
Graduated cylinder, 10 milliliters (0.3 ounce)
Casserole, porcelain, heavy duty, 210-milliliter (7.1-ounce) capacity
Stirring rod
Sodium hydroxide solution, 1.0 normality (N)
Phenolphthalein indicator solution, 0.5%
Measure 10 milliliters of acid solution accurately in the graduated
cylinder.
Add 2 to 4 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to the casserole
and stir.
Fill the automatic burette with the 1.0 N sodium hydroxide solution;
allow the excess to drain back into the bottle.
While stirring the acid solution constantly, add sodium hydroxide
solution from the burette to the casserole until color changes to a
permanent faint pink. This is the endpoint. Read the burette to the
nearest 0.1-milliliter (0.003-ounce).
For hydrochloric acid:
Percent hydrochloric acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium hydroxide x 0.36
For sulfamic acid:
Percent sulfamic acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium hydroxide x 0.97
u
u
u
u
u
117
Units and
Measurement
conversion
BASICS
Length
Area
Volume
Density
Mass
Velocity
Volume Flow
Mass Flow
1 m = 39. 37 " | in = 3,281 ' | feet
-2
1 in | " = 25.40 mm = 2,54010 m
1 ft | ' = 304. 8 mm = 0.3048 m
1 m = 10.76 ft = 1550 in
-2
1 ft = 9,29010 m
-4
1 in = 6,45210 m
1 m = 6,102104 in
1 m = 35.31 cf | ft = 264.2 US Gallon
-2
1 cf | ft = 2,83210 m = 28.32 Liter | dm
-2
1 in = 1,639105m = 1,63910 Liter | dm
-3
1 US Gallon = 3,78510 m = 3,785 Liter | dm
-3
1 UK Gallon = 4,54610 m = 4,546 Liter | dm
3
1 mn Air=38.04 SCF Air=1.292 kg Air
-2 3 -2
1 SCF Air =2,62910 mn Air=3,39710 kg Air
-2
1 kg/m = 6.24310 lb/ft
1 lb/ft = 16.02 kg/m
1 kg = 2.205 lb | lbs
1 lb | lbs = 0.4536 kg
1 m/s = 3.281 ft/s
1 m/s = 196.9 ft/min | FPM
-3
1 FPM = 5.08010 m/s
1 ft/sec. = 0.3048 m/s
1 m/h = 0.5885 CFM | ft/min
1 CFM = 1.699 m/h
3
1 SCFM = 1.577 mn /h Air (only)
1 kg/h = 2.205 lb/h
1 lb/h = 0.4536 kg/h
119
Pressure
Kinematic Viscosity
Temperature
Heat Load | Power
Specific Heat
1 bar = 14.50 psi
1 bar = 100.0 kPa
1 bar = 0.9869 Atm.
1 mbar = 0.7501 mm Hg | Torr
1 mbar = 10.20 mm WG
1 mbar = 100.0 Pa
-2
1 psi | lbf/in = 6,89510 bar
-2
1 psi | lbf/in = 6,80410 Atm.
1 psi | lbf/in = 6,895 kPa
1 Pas = 1.000 cP
1 Pas = 0. 6720 lb/ (fts)
1 cP = 1,00010-3 Pas | Ns/m
1 cP = 1,00010-3 kg/ (ms)
1 lb/ (fts) = 1.488 Pas
1 lb/ (fts) = 1488 cP | mPas
C | Celsius = 5 (F 32) / 9
F | Fahrenheit = 32 + 9 C / 5
Heat Content & Energy
1 kJ | KNm = 0.9478 Btu
1 kJ | KNm = 0.2388 Kcal
1 Btu = 1.055 kJ
1 Btu = 0.2520 Kcal
1 kcal = 4,187 kJ
1 kcal = 3.968 Btu
1 kWh = 859.8 Kcal
1 kW = 3412 Btu/h
1 kW = 859.8 Kcal/h
1 Btu/h = 2,93110-4 kW
1 Btu/h = 0.2520 Kcal/h
1 kcal/h = 1,16310-3 kW
1 kcal/h = 3.968 Btu/h
1 Boiler HP = 9.81 kW
1 kJ/ (kgK) = 0.2388 Btu/ (lbF)
1 kJ/ (kgK) = 0.2388 kcal/ (kgC)
1 Btu/ (lbF) = 4,187 kJ/ (kgK)
1 kcal/ (kgC) = 4,187 kJ/ (kgK)
Common conversion factors for ion exchange
calculation
To Convert To Multiply by
Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3)
Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3)
Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3)
g CaCO3/litre
g CaO/litre
g CaO/Litre
g CaCO3/Litre
eq/litre
Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3)
Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3)
1.28
2.29
0.0458
0.436
0.780
U.S.gpm/ft3
U.S.gpm/ft2
U.S gpm
BV/min
BV/hr
M/hr
3
M /hr
U.S. gpm/ft3
8.02
2.45
0.227
7.46
Capacity
Flow Rate
Pressure drop
Density
Rinse requirement
PSI/ft
MH O/M of Resin
2
G/cm/M
2.30
230
U.S. gal/ft3 BV 0.134
Lbs/ft3 gm/litre
16.0
121
Water Equivalents
One U.S. gallon - 0.1337 cubic foot
One U.S. gallon - 231 cubic inches
One U.S. gallon - 0.833 British Imp gallons
One U.S. gallon - 3.785 Liters
One U.S. gallon - 3785 cubic cm (Milliliters)
One U.S. gallon water - 8.33 Pounds (Lb)
One cubic foot - 7.48 U.S. gallons
One cubic foot of water - 62.43 Pounds
One litre/second - 15.9 (US) gal/Min
One cubic meter per hour - 4.4 (US) gal/min
One kgr / sq. cm - 14.2 pounds/sq. inch
One Pound/1000 gel - 120 parts per million
One inch/minute rise rate - 0.625 gpm/sq.ft
One cubic meter - 1000 liter
One cubic meter - 264.2 U.S gallons
One cubic meter - 220 British Imp gallons
.001
.001
.1
.1
.0583
.0583
.07
.07
.0004
.0004
1 Part per
million
(1 ppm)
1 milli
gram per
litre (1mg
/litre)
1
1
1
1
Water
Analysis
Conver-
-sion
table
Parts
per
million
(ppm)
Milli-
-grams
per
liter
mg/L
Grams
per
Liter
gms/L
Parts
per
hund-
-red
thous
and
pts/
100000
Grains
per U.S.
gallons
grs/U.S
gal
Grains
per
British
Imp
gallon
grs/Im
gal
Kilogr
ains
per
cubic
foot
Kgr/
cu.ft
1
.01
100
1
58.3
.583
70
.7
.435
.00436
1 gram
per
litre(1m
/litre)
1 Parts
per
hundred
thousand
1pt /100
0000)
1000
10
1000
10
Water Analysis Conversion Table for Units Employed: Equivalents
.017
.014
2.294
.0583
0.583
1
.833
.583
1.04
1.71
1.43
229.4
.07
0.7
1.2
1
.7
1.24
1
.833
134
.1
1
1.71
1.43
1
1.79
1.2
1
161
.0560
0.560
0.958
0.800
0.560
1
.0075
.0052
1
.020
.20
.343
.286
.20
.357
1 Grain
per U.S
gallon(1
gr/U.S gal)
1 Grain
per
British
Imp gal-
-lon (1
gr /Imp
gal)
1 Kilograin
per cubic
foot (1 kgr
/cu.ft)
1 Parts per
million
(1 ppm)
1 Part per
hundred
thousand
(1 pt
/100000)
1 Grain per
US gallon
(1 gpg)
1 English
or Clark
degree
1 French
Degrees
(1.French)
1 German
Degrees
(1 German)
17.1
14.3
2294
1
10
17.1
14.3
10
17.9
17.1
14.3
2294
0.1
1
1.71
1.43
1
1.79
Water
Analysis
Conver-
-sion
table
Parts
per
million
(ppm)
Milli-
-grams
per
liter
mg/L
Grams
per
Liter
gms/L
Parts
per
hund-
-red
thous
and
pts/
100000
Grains
per U.S.
gallons
grs/U.S
gal
Grains
per
British
Imp
gallon
grs/Im
gal
Kilogr
ains
per
cubic
foot
Kgr/
cu.ft
123
Indian standard grade for the commonly used
regeneration chemicals
Regeneration Chemicals
Hydrochloric Acid
Sulphuric Acid
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Sulphite
Sodium chloride
Alum
IS Number
IS 265
IS 266
IS 252 (Tech/Rayon Grade 46% lyes)
IS1021 (Pure Grade - Flakes)
Is251 (Tech Grade)
Is251 (Tech Grade)
IS 297 (Tech Grade)
Is260 (Tech Grade)
Brief List of Reference
Betz Handbook
Demineralization by Ion exchange S. Applebaum Academic press
Reverse osmosis by Zahid Amjad Van Nostrand Reinhold (NY)
Membrane Manual Dow Chemical Company
Army Engineering Publications- Public bulletin No. 420-49-05
CIBO Energy efficiency handbook
WARE Boiler book on-line
Chemical Treatment of Cooling Water in Industrial Plantsby Timothy Keister
(Basic Principals and Technology) ProChemTech International, Inc.
Brockway, Pennsylvania
Glegg handbook
Water and Wastewater by Hammer and Hammer
Dorfner, K., Ion Exchangers, Properties and Applications, Ann Arbor Science,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, 972
Kunin, R., Ion Exchange Resins, Robert E. Krieger Publ. Co., Huntington, N.Y.,
1957
Nachod, F. C. and Schubert, J., editors, Ion Exchange technology, Academic
Press, New York, N.Y., 1957
Water treatment technology program Report no 29
Pure water handbook by osmonics
"Pretreatment of Industrial Wastes," Manual of Practice No. FD-3
Public Works Technical Bulletin 420-49-21 Boiler water treatment lessons
learned
Public Works Technical Bulletin 420-49-22 Cooling water treatment lessons
learned
(Published by the U.S. Army Installation Support Center)
International site for Spirax Sarco
Industrial Water Treatment Primer TYNDALL AFB, FL 32403-6001
Sedifilt.com
Web site of N.E.M Business Solutions
Website of Portland water bureau
How to Manage Cooling Tower Water Quality by Ken Mortensen in RSES journal
_5-03pd
And many more
125
Aqua Designs India Limited
Off 200 Feet Road,
Kolathur, Chennai - 600 099, India
Phone : +91 44 37171717
Fax : +91 44 37171737
Email : sales@aquadesigns.in
Web : www.aquadesigns.in

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