Consumer Behavior Models in Tourism

Analysis Study
Muhannad M.A Abdallat, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Hesham El Sayed El - Emam, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor

Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Faculty of Tourism and Archeology
King Saud University
ABSTRACT
The theories of consumer decision-making process assume that the
consumers purchase decision process consists of steps through which the
buyer passes in purchasing a product or service. However, this might not be
the case. Not every consumer passed through all these stages when making a
decision to purchase and in fact, some of the stages can be skipped depending
on the type of purchases.
The reasons for the study of consumers helps firms and organizations improve
their marketing strategies by understanding issues such as
The psychology of how consumers think, feel, reason, and select between
different alternatives !e.g., brands, products"#
The psychology of how the consumer is influenced by his or her
environment !e.g., culture, family, signs, media"#
The behavior of consumers while shopping or making other marketing
decisions#
$imitations in consumer knowledge or information processing abilities
influence decisions and marketing outcome#
1
How consumers motivation and decision strategies differ between products,
that differ in their level of importance or interest that they entail for the
consumer# and
How marketers can adapt and improve their marketing campaigns and
marketing strategies to more effectively reach the consumer.
2.2Consumer Behavior
The study of consumer behavior focuses on how individuals make decisions to
spend their available resources !time, money, effort" on consumption-related
items !%chiffman and &anuk, '(()". The field of consumer behavior covers a
lot of ground. *ccording to %olomon !'((+", consumer behavior is a study of
the processes involved when individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or
dispose of products, services, ideas, or e,periences to satisfy needs and
desires.
The official definition of consumer behavior given by -elch !'((." is /the
process and activities people engage in when searching for, selecting,
purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services so as to
satisfy their needs and desires. -ehavior occurs either for the individual, or in
the conte,t of a group, or an organization. 0onsumer behavior involves the use
and disposal of products as well as the study of how they are purchased.
1roduct use is often of great interest to the marketer, because this may
influence how a product is best positioned or how we can encourage increased
consumption.

*ndreason !'(+2" proposed one of the earliest models of consumer behavior.

This model is shown in 3igure 4.'.The model recognizes the importance of
information in the consumer decision-making process. 5t also emphasizes the
importance of consumer attitudes although it fails to consider attitudes in
relation to repeat purchase behavior.
!
Perceived "eliefs,
#orms,
$alues of significant others%
Other customer
Decision-makers
5nformation
&
'ntrinsic
attri"utes
()trinsic
attri"utes
Price
availa"ility
Advocate
impersonal
sources
'ndependent
impersonal
sources
Advocate
personal
sources
'ndependent
personal
sources
'nformation
storage
Attitudes
to*ards
sources
Filtration
Personality
Direct
e)perience
+eliefs
,ants
,ant strength
Feelings
Disposition
Search
Select
#o
action
Attitudes to*ards
product, su"stitutes,
complement
'ncome, "udget piorities,
physical capacity,
household capacity
-*nership
-ther
purchase
decisions
Hold
Key
Direct Flo*s
Feed"ac.s
es
!o
Fi"ure #.$ Andreason, A.% &$'() Attitudes and *onsumer +eha,ior- A Decision Model in !e. %esearch in
Marketin" &ed. l. Preston/. 0nstitute o1 +usiness and Economic %esearch, 2ni,ersity o1 *ali1ornia, +erkeley, pp%1/01
1onstraints
* second model, which concentrates on the buying decision for a new
product, was proposed by Nicosia !'()+". This model is shown in 3igure 4.4.
The model concentrates on the firm6s attempts to communicate with the
consumer, and the consumers6 predisposition to act in a certain way. These
two features are referred to as 3ield 7ne. The second stage involves the
consumer in a search evaluation process, which is influenced by attitudes.
This stage is referred to as 3ield Two. The actual purchase process is referred
to as 3ield Three, and the post-purchase feedback process is referred to as
3ield 3our. This model was criticized by commentators because it was not
empirically tested !8altman, 1inson and *ngelman, '()9", and because of the
fact that many of the variables were not defined !$unn, '():".
1erhaps, the most fre;uently ;uoted of all consumer behavior models is the
Howard-%heth model of buyer behavior, which was developed in '(+(. This
model is shown in 3igure 4.9. The model is important because it highlights
the importance of inputs to the consumer buying process and suggests ways
in which the consumer orders these inputs before making a final decision.
The Howard-%heth model is not perfect as it does not e,plain all buyer
behavior. 5t is however, a comprehensive theory of buyer behavior that has
been developed as a result of empirical research !Horton, '(.:".
%chiffman and &anuk !'(()" mentioned that many early theories
concerning consumer behavior were based on economic theory, on the
notion that individuals act rationally to ma,imize their benefits
!satisfactions" in the purchase of goods and services. * consumer is
generally thought of as a person who identifies a need or desire, makes
2
a purchase, and then disposes of the product during the three stages in
the consumption process in 3igure4.4 !%olomon, '((+"
2.2.1 NICOSIA MODE
This model focuses on the relationship between the firm and its potential
consumers. The firm communicates with consumers through its
marketing messages !advertising", and the consumers react to these
messages by purchasing response. $ooking to the model we will find
that the firm and the consumer are connected with each other, the firm
tries to influence the consumer and the consumer is influencing the firm
by his decision.
3ield '

*ttitude
3ield 4 %earch
*nd evaluation
7f mean<end!s"
=,perience relation!s"
!1reaction field"
>otivation
3ield :
3eedback

3ield 9 *ct of
1urchase
1urchasing
-ehavior
!i"ure2#2. Ni$osia Model o% Consumer De$ision &ro$esse
Sour$e' Ni$osia( )1*+,-.

3essage
()posure
Su"field 1
Firms
Attri"ute
Su"field
1onsumers
Attri"utes
4(specially
Predisposition
Search
and evaluation
Decision
4Action5
1onsumption
0
The Nicosia model is divided into four ma?or fields
!ield 1' The $onsumer attitude .ased on the %irms/ messa"es.
The first field is divided into two subfields.
The first subfield deals with the firms marketing environment and
communication efforts that affect consumer attitudes, the competitive
environment, and characteristics of target market. %ubfield two specifies
the consumer characteristics e.g., e,perience, personality, and how he
perceives the promotional idea toward the product in this stage the
consumer forms his attitude toward the firms product based on his
interpretation of the message.
!ield 2' sear$h and evaluation
The consumer will start to search for other firms brand and evaluate the
firms brand in comparison with alternate brands. 5n this case the firm
motivates the consumer to purchase its brands.
!ield 0' T he a$t o% t he 1ur$hase
The result of motivation will arise by convincing the consumer to
purchase the firm products from a specific retailer.
!ield 2' !eed .a$3
This model analyses the feedback of both the firm and the consumer
after purchasing the product. The firm will benefit from its sales data as
a feedback, and the consumer will use his e,perience with the product
affects the individuals attitude and predispositions concerning future
messages from the firm.
6
The Nicosia model offers no detail e,planation of the internal factors,
which may affect the personality of the consumer, and how the
consumer develops his attitude toward the product. 3or e,ample, the
consumer may find the firms message very interesting, but virtually he
cannot buy the firms brand because it contains something prohibited
according to his beliefs. *pparently it is very essential to include such
factors in the model, which give more interpretation about the attributes
affecting the decision process.
2.2.2 4O5ARD#S4ET4 MODE
This model suggests three levels of decision making
'. The first level describes the e,tensive problem solving. *t this level
the consumer does not have any basic information or knowledge about
the brand and he does not have any preferences for any product. 5n this
situation, the consumer will seek information about all the different
brands in the market before purchasing.
4. The second level is limited problem solving. This situation e,ists for
consumers who have little knowledge about the market, or partial
knowledge about what they want to purchase. 5n order to arrive at a
brand preference some comparative brand information is sought.
9. The third level is a habitual response behavior. 5n this level the
consumer knows very well about the different brands and he can
differentiate between the different characteristics of each product, and
he already decides to purchase a particular product. *ccording to the
Howard-%heth model there are four ma?or sets of variables# namely
7
a- In1uts.
These input variables consist of three distinct types of stimuli
!information sources" in the consumers environment. The marketer in
the form of product or brand information furnishes physical brand
characteristics !significative stimuli" and verbal or visual product
characteristics !symbolic stimuli". The third type is provided by the
consumers social environment !family, reference group, and social
class". *ll three types of stimuli provide inputs concerning the product
class or specific brands to the specific consumer.
5nputs 1erceptual 0onstructs $earning 0onstructs
7utputs
%timuli display
!i"ure 2#0 A Sim1li%ied Des$ri1tion o% the Theory o% Buyer
Behavior
Sour$e' 4o6ard( and Sheth(&102 )1*,*-
Significative
a% 8uality
"% Price
c% Distinctive
d% Service
e% Availa"ility
Sym"olic
a% 8uality
"% Price
c% Distinctive
d% Service
e% Availa"ility
Social
a% Family
"% 9eference
groups
c% Social class
Purchase
'ntention
Attitude
+rand
1omprehe
n/ sion
Attention
-vert
search
Stimulus
am"iguity
Attention
Percept/
ual "ias
1onfidence
Attitude
3otives
1hoice
1riteria
+rand
1ompre/
hension
'ntention
:
.- &er$e1tual and earnin" Constru$ts,
The central part of the model deals with the psychological variables
involved when the consumer is contemplating a decision. %ome of the
variables are perceptual in nature, and are concerned with how the
consumer receives and understands the information from the input
stimuli and other parts of the model. 3or e,ample, stimulus ambiguity
happened when the consumer does not understand the message from
the environment. 1erceptual bias occurs if the consumer distorts the
information received so that it fits his or her established needs or
e,perience. $earning constructs category, consumers goals, information
about brands, criteria for evaluation alternatives, preferences and
buying intentions are all included. The proposed interaction 5n between
the different variables in the perceptual and learning constructs and
other sets give the model its distinctive advantage.
$- Out1uts
The outputs are the results of the perceptual and learning variables and
how the consumers will response to these variables !attention, brand
comprehension, attitudes, and intention".
d- E7o"enous)E7ternal- varia.les
=,ogenous variables are not directly part of the decision-making
process. However, some relevant e,ogenous variables include the
importance of the purchase, consumer personality traits, religion, and
time pressure.
The decision-making process, which Howard-%heth >odel tries to
e,plain, takes place at three 5nputs stages %ignificance, %ymbolic and
1;
%ocial stimuli. 5n both significative and symbolic stimuli, the model
emphasizes on material aspects such as price and ;uality. These stimuli
are not applicable in every society. @hile in social stimuli the model
does not mention the basis of decision-making in this stimulus, such as
what influence the family decisionA This may differ from one society to
another.
3inally, no direct relation was drawn on the role of religion in influencing
the consumers decision-making processes. Beligion was considered as
e,ternal factor with no real influence on consumer, which give the model
obvious weakness in anticipation the consumer decision.
2.2.0 EN8E#9OAT#BAC95E MODE
This model was created to describe the increasing, fast-growing body of
knowledge concerning consumer behavior. This model, like in other
models, has gone through many revisions to improve its descriptive
ability of the basic relationships between components and sub-
components, this model consists also of four stages#
!irst sta"e' de$ision#1ro$ess sta"es
The central focus of the model is on five basic decision-process stages
1roblem recognition, search for alternatives, alternate evaluation !during
which beliefs may lead to the formation of attitudes, which in turn may
result in a purchase intention" purchase, and outcomes. -ut it is not
11
necessary for every consumer to go through all these stages# it depends
on whether it is an e,tended or a routine problem-solving behavior.
!i"ure 2#2.The En"el#9ollat#Bla$36ell Model o% Consumer
Behavior.
Sour$e' En"el ( Bla$36ell( and Miniard()1**:- 1a"e No *:
Se$ond sta"e' In%ormation in1ut
*t this stage the consumer gets information from marketing and non-
marketing sources, which also influence the problem recognition stage
of the decision-making process. 5f the consumer still does not arrive to a
specific decision, the search for e,ternal information will be activated in
Stimuli<
3ar.eter/
Dominated,
other
()posure
()ternal
search
Attention
1omprehension
Perception
=ielding>
Acceptance
9etention
Dissatisfaction
Satisfaction

3

(

3

-

9

=
Pro"lem
9ecognition
Search
'nternal
search
-utcomes
Purchase
Alternative
evaluation
'ndividual
1haracteristics
<
3otives
$alues
?ifestyle
Personality
+eliefs
Attitude
'ntention
Social
'nfluences
<
1ulture
9eference
group
Family
Situational
'nfluences
'nput
'nformation
Processing
Decision Process
$aria"les 'nfluencing
Precision Process
1
order to arrive to a choice or in some cases if the consumer e,perience
dissonance because the selected alternative is less satisfactory than
e,pected.
Third sta"e' in%ormation 1ro$essin"
This stage consists of the consumers e,posure, attention, perception,
acceptance, and retention of incoming information. The consumer must
first be e,posed to the message, allocate space for this information,
interpret the stimuli, and retain the message by transferring the input to
long-term memory.
!ourth sta"e' varia.les in%luen$in" the de$ision 1ro$ess
This stage consists of individual and environmental influences that affect
all five stages of the decision process. 5ndividual characteristics include
motives, values, lifestyle, and personality# the social influences are
culture, reference groups, and family. %ituational influences, such as a
consumers financial condition, also influence the decision process.
This model incorporates many items, which influence consumer
decision-making such as values, lifestyle, personality and culture. The
model did not show what factors shape these items, and why different
types of personality can produce different decision-makingA How will we
apply these values to cope with different personalitiesA Beligion can
e,plain some behavioral characteristics of the consumer, and this will
lead to better understanding of the model and will give more
comprehensive view on decision-making.
1!
2.2.2 Bettman/s In%ormation &ro$essin" Model o% Consumer
Choi$e
-ettman !'()(" in his model describes the consumer as possessing a
limited capacity for processing information. He implicate that the
consumers rarely analyze the comple, alternatives in decision making
and apply very simple strategy.
5n this model there are seven ma?or stages.
Sta"e No. 1' &ro$essin" $a1a$ity
5n this step he assumes that the consumer has limited capacity for
processing information, consumers are not interested in comple,
computations and e,tensive information processing. To deal with this
problem, consumers are likely to select choice strategies that make
product selection an easy process.
Sta"e No. 2' Motivation
>otivation is located in the center of -ettman model, which influence
both the direction and the intensity of consumer choice for more
information in deciding
3otivation
@oal
hierarchy
Processing
capacity
Attention
'nformation
acAuisition
and
evaluation
Decision
Processes
1onsumption
and
learning
processes

Perceptual
encoding
Perceptual
Scanner
and
interrupt
mechanisms
interrupt
interpretation
and
response
3emory
search
()ternal
search
Scanner
and
interrupt
mechanisms
'nterrupt
interpretation
and
response
Scanner
and
interrupt
mechanisms
'nterrupt
interpretation
and
response
Scanner
and
interrupt
mechanisms
'nterrupt
interpretation
and
response
1&
!i"ure 2.: the Bettman In%ormation#&ro$essin" Model o% Consumer
Choi$e
Sour$e' Bettman. )1*+*-. &1 2;2
-etween the alternatives >otivation is provided with hierarchy of goals
mechanism that provides a series of different sub-goals to simplify the
choice selection. This mechanism suggests that the consumers own
e,perience in a specific area of market and he doesnt need to go
through the same hierarchy every time to arrive at a decision, which
make this mechanism serves as an organizer for consumer efforts in
making a choice. No concern was given on religious motives, and how
religion may motivate the consumer in his decision. >ost of the general
12
theories of motivation such as >aslows hierarchy of needs !'()C"
emphasizes self-achievement, the need for power, and the need for
affiliation.
Sta"e No. 0' Attention and 1er$e1tual en$odin".
The component of this step is ;uite related to the consumer6s goal
hierarchy. There are two types of attention# the first type is voluntary
attention, which is a conscious allocation of processing capacity to
current goals. The second is involuntary attention, which is automatic
response to disruptive events !e.g., newly ac;uired comple,
information". -oth different types of attention influence how individuals
proceed in reaching goals and making choices. The perceptual
encoding accounts for the different steps that the consumer needs to
perceive the stimuli and whether he needs more information.
Sta"e No. 2' In%ormation a$<uisition and evaluation
5f the consumer feels that the present information is inade;uate, he will
start to look for more information from e,ternal sources. Newly ac;uired
information is evaluated and its suitability or usefulness is assessed.
The consumer continues to ac;uire additional information until all
relevant information has been secured, or until he finds that ac;uiring
additional information is more costly in terms of time and money.
Sta"e No. :' Memory
5n this component the consumer keeps all the information he collects,
and it will be the first place to search when he need to make a choice. 5f
10
this informations is not sufficient, no doubt he will start looking again for
e,ternal sources.
Sta"e No. ,' De$ision &ro$ess
This step in -ettmans model indicates that different types of choices are
normally made associated with other factors, which may occur during
the decision process. %pecifically, this component deals with the
application of heuristics or rules of thumb, which are applied in the
selection and evaluation of specific brand. These specific heuristics a
consumer uses are influenced by both individual factors !e.g.,
personality differences" and situational factors !e.g., urgency of the
decision"# thus it is unlikely that the same decision by the same
consumer will apply in different situation or other consumer in the same
situation.
Sta"e No. +' Consum1tion and earnin" &ro$ess
5n this stage, the model discusses the future results after the purchase
is done. The consumer in this step will gain e,perience after evaluating
the alternative. This e,perience provides the consumer with information
to be applied to future choice situation. -ettman in his model emphasize
on the information processing and the capacity of the consumer to
analyze this information for decision making, but no e,planation was
given about the criteria by which the consumer accepts or refuses to
process some specific information.
16
2.2.: Sheth#Ne6man 8ross Model o% Consum1tion =alues
*ccording to this model, there are five consumption values influencing
consumer choice behavior. These are functional, social, conditional,
emotional, and epistemic values. *ny or all of the five consumption
values may influence the decision. Darious disciplines !including
economics, sociology, several branches of psychology, marketing and
consumer behavior" have contributed theories and research findings
relevant to these values, !%heth et al. '(('". =ach consumption value in
the theory is consistent with various components of models advanced
by >aslow !'()C", &atona !'()'", &atz !'(+C", and Hanna !'(.C". 3ive
consumption values form the core of the model
!i"ure 2#,' The %ive values in%luen$in" Consumer Choi$e Behavior
Sour$e' Sheth( Ne6man( and 8ross )1**1- &11:*#1+;
The %irst value' !un$tional value
To %heth et al. !'(('" the functional value of an alternative is defined as
EThe perceived utility ac;uired from an alternative for functional,
utilitarian, or physical performance. *n alternative ac;uires functional
1onsumer 1hoice +ehavior
Functional $alue 1onditional
$alue
Social
$alue
(motional $alue
(pistemic
$alue
17
value through the possession of salient functional, utilitarian, or physical
attributes. 3unctional value is measured on a profile of choice
attributes.E
Traditionally, functional value is presumed to be the primary driver of
consumer choice. This assumption underlies economic utility theory
advanced by >arshall !'.(C" and %tigler !'(2C" and popularly
e,pressed in terms of Erational economic man.E *n alternatives
functional value may be derived from its characteristics or attributes,
!3erber, '()9" such as reliability, durability, and price. 3or e,ample, the
decision to purchase a particular automobile may be based on fuel
economy and maintenance record.
-y identifying the dominant function of a product !i.e., what benefits it
provides", marketers can emphasize these benefits in their
communication and packaging. *dvertisements relevant to the function
prompt more favorable thoughts about what is being marketed and can
result in a heightened preferences for both the ads and the product,
!%olomon '((+#'+C".
&atz !'(+C" developed the functional theory of attitudes. He identifies
four attitudes based on the functional values
'" Ftilitarian function. The utilitarian function is related to the basic
principles of reward and punishment. @e develop some of our attitude
toward products simply based on whether these products provide
pleasure or pain.
1:
4" Dalue-e,pressive function. *ttitude that performs a value-e,pressive
function e,presses the consumers central values or self-concept. *
person forms a product attitude not because of its ob?ective benefits, but
because of what the product says about him or her as a person.
9" =go-defensive function. *ttitude formed to protect the person, either
from e,ternal threats or internal feelings, perform an ego-defensive
function. =,ample of this function is deodorant campaigns that stress
the dire, embarrassing conse;uences of being caught with underarm
odor in public.
:" &nowledge function. %ome attitude is formed as a result of a need for
order, structure, or meaning. This need is often present when a person
is in an ambiguous situation or is confronted with a new product.
The se$ond value' So$ial value
%heth et al. !'(('#'+'" defined social value of an alternative as
EThe perceived utility ac;uired from an alternative association with one
or more specific social groups. *n alternative ac;uires social value
through association with positively or negatively stereotyped
demographic, socioeconomic, and cultural-ethnic groups. %ocial value is
measured on a profile choice imagery.E
%ocial imagery refers to all relevant primary and secondary reference
groups likely to be supportive of the product consumption. 0onsumers
ac;uire positive or negative stereotypes based on their association with
varied demographic !age, se,, religion", socioeconomic !income,
;
occupation", cultural<ethnic !race, lifestyle", or political, ideological
segments of society.
0hoices involving highly visible products !e.g., clothing, ?ewelry" and
good service to be shared with others !e.g., gifts, products used in
entertaining" are often driven by social values. 3or e,ample, a particular
make of automobile is being chosen more for the social image evoked
than for its functional performance. =ven products generally thought to
be functional or utilitarian, are fre;uently selected based on their social
values.
The third value' Emotional value
%heth et al. !'(('# '+'" defined emotional value of an alternative as
EThe perceived utility ac;uired from an alternatives capacity to arouse
feelings or affective states. *n alternative ac;uires emotional value
when associated with specific feelings or when precipitating those
feelings. =motional values are measured on a profile of feelings
associated with the alternative.E
0onsumption emotion refers to the set of emotional responses elicited
specifically during product usage or consumption e,perience, as
described either by the distinctive categories of emotional e,perience
and e,pression !e.g., ?oy, anger, and fear" or by the structural
dimensions underlying emotional categories such as pleasantness<
unpleasantness, rela,ation<action, or calmness<e,citement. Goods and
services are fre;uently associated with emotional responses !e.g. the
fear aroused while viewing horror movie". =motional value is often
1
associated with aesthetic alternatives !e.g. religion, causes". However,
more tangible and seemingly utilitarian products also have emotional
values. 3or e,ample, some foods arouse feeling of comfort through their
association with childhood e,periences, and consumers are sometimes
said to have Elove affairsE with their cars.
* number of different attempts have been made to identify the various
emotions that people e,perience. 5zard !'())" develops the ta,onomy
of affective e,perience approach that describes the basic emotion that
people feel. He measures emotions using ten fundamental categories
interest, ?oy, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame,
and guilt. This approach has been used e,tensively by consumer
researchers, for e,ample, @estbrook and 7liver !'(('".
The %ourth value' E1istemi$ value
%heth et al. !'((' #'+4" defined epistemic value as
EThe perceived utility ac;uired from an alternatives capacity to arouse
curiosity, provide novelty, and<or satisfy a desire for knowledge. *n
alternative ac;uires epistemic value by items referring to curiosity,
novelty, and knowledge.E
=pistemic issues refer to reasons that would ?ustify the perceived
satisfaction of curiosity, knowledge, and e,ploratory needs offered by
the product as a change of pace !something new, different". =ntirely
new e,perience certainly provides epistemic value. However, an
alternative that provides a simple change of pace can also be imbued

with epistemic value. The alternative may be chosen because the

consumer is bored or satiated with his or her current brand !as in trying
a new type of food", is curious !as in visiting a new shopping comple,",
or has a desire to learn !as in e,periencing another culture".
The concept of epistemic values has been influenced by theory and by
several important areas of research. =,ploratory, novelty seeking, and
variety seeking motives have been suggested to active product search,
trial, and switching behavior, !Howard and %heth '(+(". 7ne of the most
significant contributors to the study of the optimal stimulation and
arousal has been -erlyne !'()C", who contends that individuals are
driven to maintain an optimal or intermediate level of stimulation. 3inally,
Hirschman !'(.C" has advanced innovativeness, or a consumer
propensity to adopt new products.
The !i%th value' Conditional value
%heth et al. !'(('#'+4" defined the conditional value as
EThe perceived utility ac;uired by an alternative is the result of the
specific situation or set of circumstances facing the choice maker. *n
alternative ac;uires conditional value in the presence of antecedent
physical or social contingencies that enhance its functional or social
value. 0onditional value is measured on a profile of choice
contingencies.E
*n alternatives utility will often depend on the situation. 3or e,ample,
some products only have seasonal value !e.g., greeting cards", some
!
are associated with once in a life events !e.g., wedding dress", and
some are used only in emergencies !e.g., hospital services". %everal
areas of in;uiry have also influenced conditional value. -ased on the
concept of stimulus dynamism advanced by Hall !'(+9", Howard !'(+("
recognized the importance of learning that takes place as a result of
e,perience with a given situation. Howard and %heth !'(+(" then
e,tended Howards earlier work by defining the construct inhibitors as
noninternalized forces that impede buyers preferences. The concept of
inhibitors was more formally developed by %heth !'():" in his model of
attitude-behavior relationship as anticipated situations and une,pected
events. Becognizing that behavior cannot be accurately predicted based
on attitude or intention alone, a number of researchers during the '()Cs
investigated the predictive ability of situational factors !e.g., %heth
'():".
The five consumption values identified by the theory make differential
contributions in specific choice conte,ts. 3or e,ample, a consumer may
decide to purchase coins as an inflation hedge !functional value", and
also realize a sense of security !emotional value" from the investment.
%ocial, epistemic, and conditional values have little influence. 7f course,
a choice may be influenced positively by all five consumption values 3or
e,ample, to a first-time home buyer, the purchase of a home might
provide functional value !the home contains more space than the
present apartment", social values !friends are also buying homes",
emotional values !the consumer feels secure in owning a home",
&
epistemic value !the novelty of purchasing a home is en?oyable", and
conditional value !starting a family".
2.2., Solomon Model o% $om1arison 1ro$ess
!i"ure 2.+ Model o% $om1arison 1ro$ess
Sour$e' Solomon )1**,- &100
3igure 4.) e,plains some of the issus that are addressed during each stage of
the consumption process. The /e,change, in which two or more organizations
Ho* does a consumer decide
that he>she needs a productB
,hat are the "est sources of
information to learn more
a"out alternative choicesB
Ho* are consumer attitudes
to*ard products formed
and>or changedB
,hat cues do consumers use
to infer *hich products are
superior to othersB
1-#SU3(9CS P(9SP(1T'$( 3A9K(T(9CS P(9SP(1T'$(
's acAuiring a product a
stressful or pleasant
e)perienceB ,hat does the
purchase say a"out the
consumerB
Ho* do situational factors,
such as time pressure or
store displays, affect the
consumerDs purchase
decisionB
Does the product provide
pleasure or perform its
intended functionB
Ho* is the product
eventually disposed of, and
*hat are the environmental
conseAuences of this actB
,hat determines *hether a
consumer *ill "e satisfied
*ith a product and *hether
he>she *ill "uy it againB
Does this person tell others
a"out his>her e)periences
*ith the product and affect
their purchase decisionsB
P9(PU91HAS(
'SSU(S
PU91HAS(
'SSU(S
P-STPU91HAS(
'SSU(S
2
or people give and receive something of value, is an integral part of
marketing. He also suggested that consumer behavior involves many
different actors. The purchaser and user of a product might not be the same
person. 1eople may also act as influences on the buying processes.
7rganizations can also be involved in the buying process. >uch of marketing
activity, they suggest, concentrates on adapting product offerings to particular
circumstances of target segment needs and wants. 5t is also common to
stimulate an already e,isting want through advertising and sales promotion,
rather than creating wants. The definitions and models, which have been
presented so far, have been from general marketing theory. Tourism is, by its
very nature, a service rather than a product, which may have a considerable
effect on consumer behavior.
2.2.+ Stimulus#Res1onse Model o% Buyer Behavior
>iddleton !'((:" presented an adapted model of consumer behavior tourism,
which was termed the stimulus-response model of buyer behavior. The model
is shown in 3igure 4... This model is based on the four interactive
components with the central component identified as 6buyer characteristics
and decision process6.
9ange of
competitive
produced and
mar.eted "y
the tourist
industry
Advertising
Sales promotion
+rochures
Personal selling
P9
Friends
Family
9eference
@roup
Product
+rand
Price
-utlet
Post/purchase and
post/consumption feelings
Stimulus 0n3ut *ommunication
channels
+uyer characteristics and
decision 3rocess
Purchase out3uts
&res3onse/
*ommunication
1ilters
Moti,ation
0
!i"ure 2.> a Stimulus#Res1onse Model o% Buyer Behavior
Sour$e' Middleton )1**2- &1 1;2#112
The model separates out motivators and determinants in consumer buying
behavior and also emphasizes the important effects that an organization can
have on the consumer buying process by the use of communication channels.
%chmoll !'())" ;uoted in 0ooper et al. !'((9", developed a model which
hypothesized that consumer decisions were a result of four elements as
follows
travel stimuli, including guide books, reports from other travelers and
advertising and promotion
personal and social determinants of travel behaviour including motivators,
desires and e,pectations
e,ternal variables, including destination images, confidence in travel trade
intermediaries and constraints such as cost and time
Demographic
economic and
social position
Psychographic
characteristic
#eeds
,ants
@oals
Attitudes
?earning
Perception
()perience
6
0haracteristics and features of the service destination such as the
perceived link between cost and value and the range of attractions and
amenities offered.
2.2.> Model o% Travel#Buyin" Behavior Mathieson and 5all
>athieson and @all !'(.4" suggested a linear five-stage model of travel
buying behaviour, which is shown in 3igure 4.(.
!i"ure 2.* Model o% Travel#Buyin" Behavior
Sour$e' Mathieson and 5all )1*>2- 1*:
2.2.* Model o% Consumer De$ision#Ma3in" !rame6or3
Gilbert !'(('" suggested a model for consumer decision-making in which is
shown in 3igure 4.'C This model suggests that there are two levels of factors
that have an effect on the consumer. The first level of influences is close to
the person and includes psychological influence such as perception and
learning. The second level of influences includes those, which have been
developed during the socialization process and include reference groups and
family influences. *ll these models that have been adapted for tourism offer
some into the consumer behavior process involved during the purchase post-
purchase decision stages.
Felt need>
travel
desire
'nformation
collection
and
evaluation
image
Travel
decision
4choice
"et*een
alternatives5
Travel
satisfaction
outcome and
evaluation
Travel
preparation
and travel
e)periences
7
!i"ure 2.1; Consumer De$ision#Ma3in" !rame6or3
Sour$e' 8il.ert( )1**1- In Coo1er )Ed.-. &1.+>#1;:
2.2.1; Inte"rated Model o% Sel%#Con"ruity and !un$tional Con"ruity in
E71lainin" and &redi$tin" Travel Behaviour
* more encompassing approach to the understanding of 0%<H can be found
in %irgy6s evaluative congruity models of consumer behavior !%irgy '(.9#
%irgy and Tyagi '(.+". %irgy e,plains the theoretical position associated with
0%<H in terms of discrepancies between perceived and normative outcome
levels. *ccording to his theory, satisfaction is a function of evaluative
congruity, which is a cognitive matching process in which a perception is
compared to evoke referent cognition for the purpose of evaluating a stimulus
ob?ect<action.
The result of the cognitive process is postulated to produce either a
motivational or an emotional state. 0%<H is viewed as an emotional state
because it prompts the consumer to evaluate alternative courses of action to
1onsumer or
Decision/ma.er
Socioeconomic
influences
1ultural influences
Family influences 9eference group
influences
3otivation or
energiEers
Personality>
attitude
Perception
?earning
:
reduce an e,isting dissatisfaction state and<or to obtain future satisfaction
state !%irgy '(.9# '(.:# %irgy and Tyagi '(.+". 3urther, 0%<H is viewed as a
function of one or more congruities between perceptual !perceived value" and
evoked referent !evoked value" states.
1roblem recognition !dissatisfaction" is the function of a directional
discrepancy between the valence level of the perceived performance of a
good<service and the valence level of a referent !standard of comparison or
performance e,pectation". The Enegative incongruityE condition !a state of
negative performance perception and positive referent state" is hypothesized
to produce the second highest dissatisfaction or problem recognition, followed
by Enegative congruityE !a state of negative performance perception and
negative performance e,pectation", Epositive congruityE !a state of positive
performance perception and positive e,pectation" and Epositive incongruityE !a
state of positive performance perception and negative performance
e,pectation", respectively.
The theory of self concept was supported in empirical studies involving
consumer evaluation of the automobile, typewriter, a bachelor6s degree, and a
house !%irgy '(.:# '(.)". %irgy !'(.4b" further argues that product images
should be classified as being EfunctionalE and Esymbolic.E The functional
images of a product include the physical benefits associated with the product,
whereas the symbolic images refer to the stereotypic personality images
consumers have of a specific product often e,pressed in terms of the typical
user image.
!;
Belatedly, %irgy !'(.4b" argues that 0%<H is not only an evaluative function of
the consumer6s e,pectation and performance evaluation, but it is also an
evaluative function of the consumer6s self-image and product image congruity.
That is, the consumer6s self-concept should be understood in order to truly
understand the individual6s satisfaction or dissatisfaction. %elf-concept,
defined as Ethe totality of the individual6s thoughts and feelings having
reference to himself as an ob?ect,E has been construed from a multi-
dimensional perspective !Bosenberg '()(".
The satisfaction level would be the lowest because the purchase of the
product serves no function to the maintenance of either the self-esteem or
self-consistency motives. -ased on the review of literature on 0%<H as related
to the evaluative congruity models and self-concept, a logical interpolation can
be drawn with respect to 0%<H in tourism as related to the role of the tourist6s
perception of destination images.
That is, 0%<H in tourism is a function of both !'" the evaluative congruity of a
tourist6s e,pectation of destination and his<her perceived outcome of the
destination e,perience# and !4" the evaluative congruity of a tourist6s self-
image and his<her perception of the destination6s value-e,pressive image.
Heference to him as an ob?ect,E has been construed from a multi-dimensional
perspective !Bosenberg '()(".
3or instance, the term Eactual selfE refers to how a person perceives one6s
self, and Eideal selfE refers to how a person presents one6s self to others
!Bosenberg '()(". The self-image<product image congruity model in essence
describes the effect of the cognitive matching process between value-
!1
e,pressive attributes of a given product and the consumer self-concept on
consumer decisions such as product preference, purchase intentions,
purchase behavior, product satisfaction<dissatisfaction, and product loyalty
!%irgy '(.4b".
The theory e,plains the effect of self-image congruence on consumer attitude
through the mediating effects of two self-concept motives self-esteem and
self-consistency. *ccording to the self-image<product-image congruity model,
a consumer6s specific value-laden self-image belief interacts with a
corresponding value-laden product-image perception in terms of the typical
user image in a product purchase.
The result of such an interaction occurs in the form of the following four
congruity conditions.
!irst( a ?1ositive sel%#ima"e $on"ruity,I occurs when there e,ists a state of
positive self-congruity !a low discrepancy between one6s actual self-image
and the product image" and a state of positive ideal self-congruity !a low
discrepancy between one6s ideal self-image and the product image". That is,
a product image matches up with one6s actual self-image as well as with
his<her ideal self-image. %uch a situation would result in high consumer
satisfaction because, by purchasing or identifying himself<herself with this
product, the consumer would reach an emotional state that enhances his<her
self-esteem motive and reinforces his<her self-consistency motive.
Se$ond( a ?1ositive sel%#ima"e in$on"ruityE condition occurs when there
e,ists a state of negative self-congruity !a high discrepancy between one6s
actual self-image and the product image", but a state of positive ideal self-
congruity !low discrepancy between one6s ideal self-image and the product
!
image". 5n this situation the individual might be motivated to purchase the
product but his<her satisfaction level would be moderate. This occurs
because, while the purchase would enhance one6s self-esteem motive, the
self-esteem motive would conflict with his<her self-consistency motive.
Third( a ?ne"ative sel%#ima"e in$on"ruityE condition is the opposite of the
Epositive self-image incongruityE condition. That is, there is a state of positive
self-congruity !low discrepancy between one6s actual self-image and the
product image," but a state of negative ideal self-congruity !high discrepancy
between one6s ideal self-image and the product image". The situation again
would result in a moderate satisfaction level because the individual6s self-
consistency motive would conflict with his<her self-esteem motive.
!inally( ?ne"ative sel%#ima"e $on"ruityE occurs when there e,ists negative
self-congruity !high discrepancy between ones actual self-image and the
product image," as well as negative ideal congruity !high discrepancy between
his<her ideal self-image and the product image." The satisfaction level would
be the lowest because the purchase of the product serves no function to the
maintenance of either the self-esteem or self-consistency motives.
>odel of self-congruity and travel behavior is depicted in 3igure4.'' the
model posits that various aspects of the destination and its atmosphere are
related to the destination visitor image. The destination visitor image is then
evaluated in light of specific dimensions of the tourists self-concept to
determine the degree of self-congruity which is systematically related to travel
behavior.
Destination
$isitor 'mage
!!
!i"ure 2.11 an Inte"rated Model o% Sel%#Con"ruity and !un$tional
Con"ruity in E71lainin" and &redi$tin" Travel Behaviour
Sour$e Si"ry and 8re6al )1**+- &1 22*#221.
2.0Desi$$ation
Hifferent models of consumer behavior describe satisfaction as the final
output of the decision process or incorporate it in the feedback mechanism
linking completed e,periences to future behavior. 3or e,ample# Nicosia !'()+"
Destination
(nvironment
Tourist
Self/1oncept
Self/
1ongruity
Functional/
1ongruity
Self/
1ongruity
Tourist
Perceived
Utilitarian
Destination
Attri"utes
Tourist
'deal
Utilitarian
Destination
Attri"utes
!&
attributes the state of 0%<H to the dominant interest in the Efinal actE of
consumers that is the purchase of product. 3urther, the concept of 0%<H is
given greater emphasis in the works of >cNeal !'()9", =ngel and -lackwell
!'(.4", and Howard and %heth !'(+), '(+(, and '()9". 5n their consumer
behavior models, satisfaction is shown as the final output in the framework of
purchase decisions.
These buyer behavior models postulate that if the actual outcome of a product
is ?udged to be better than or e;ual to the e,pected, the buyer will feel
satisfied. 5f, on the other hand, actual outcome is ?udged not to be better than
e,pected, the buyer will be dissatisfied. This disconfirmation paradigm of
0%<H can be also found in the works of %uprenant !'())"# Hunt !'())"# and
7liver !'()), '(.C".
The theory of self-concept advances the notion that every self-image has a
value association, which determines the degree of positive, or negative effect
felt when that self-image is activated. This value component associated with a
particular self-image replaces the traditional constructs of ideal self-image,
ideal social-image, etc. 0orrespondingly, every product image has also a
value component reflective of the affective intensity associated with attribute.
* specific value-laden self-image interacts with a corresponding value-laden
product image and the result occurs in the form of positive self-congruity
!match between a positive product image and a positive self-image", positive
self-incongruity !match between a positive product image and negative self-
image", negative self-incongruity !match between a negative product image
!2
and a positive self-image", or negative self-congruity !match between a
negative product image and negative self-image". %irgy et.al !4CCC" added on
further by stating that tourists perception of the destination !type and ;uality
of resorts, prices, hotel ambiance, atmosphere, etc" is likely to influence the
formation and change of the destination visitor image. Given that self-concept
is multidimensional in nature !actual, ideal, social, ideal social self", at issue is
the particular dimension of the self-concept evoked in the psychological
process of self-congruity J the matching of the tourists self-concept with the
destination visitor image.
5n addition to evaluating a destination by focusing on the symbolic !person-
like" attributes of the destination, tourists may also evaluate destinations
based on the destinations functional or utilitarian attributes. The match
between the destinations level of a utilitarian attribute and the tourists
e,pectation of the attribute is referred to as functional congruity J may also
affect destination travel and may be related to self-congruity.
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