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Training Report
Training Report
SSA level in-plant summer SSA level in-plant summer
training in BSNL (TEZPUR) training in BSNL (TEZPUR)
IITT COLLEGE OF IITT COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING pojewal ENGINEERING pojewal
(sbs nagar) (sbs nagar)
Submitted to Submitted to
!O" o# IT $ran%& !O" o# IT $ran%&

Submitted b' Submitted b'
"us&manta Nat& "us&manta Nat&
Roll no ()*+)))*+), Roll no ()*+)))*+),
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$ran%& IT $ran%& IT
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INTRODUCTION
All industries operate in a specific environment which keeps
changing and the firms in the business need to understand it to
dynamically adjust their actions for best results. Like minded
firms get together to form associations in order to protect their
common interests. ther stake holders also develop a system to
take care of their issues. !overnments also need to intervene for
ensuring fair competition and the best value for money for its
citi"ens. #his handouts gives e$posure on the #elecom
%nvironment in &ndia and also dwells on the role of international
bodies in standardi"ing and promoting #elecom !rowth in the
world.
Lesson Plan
Institutional Me!anism an" role # Teleom Eo
s$stem
'ational (#) #*A&)#(+A#) #%,),(#
&nternational +tandardi"ation bodies- &#.)AP#)%#+& etc
Liense" Teleommuniation servies o% &'T
(arious Tra"e assoiations) Net*or+ 'perators)
Manu%aturers) servie provi"ers) servie
provisioning an" retailing) ,illing an" 'SS
-o, opportunities in teleom Mar+et) government
an" statutor$ ,o"ies
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Assignment: %$plore designated websites of institutions and
companies
Institutional Framework: &t is defined as the systems of
formal laws) regulations) and procedures) and informal
conventions) customs) and norms) that broaden) mold) and
restrain socio-economic activity and behaviour. &n &ndia) #he
&ndian telegraph act of 1001 amended from time to time governs
the telecommunications sector. .nder this act) the government is
in-charge of policymaking and was responsible for provisioning
of services till the opening of telecom sector to private
participation. #he country has been divided into units called
,ircles) 2etro (istricts) +econdary +witching Areas 3++A4)
Long (istance ,harging Area 3L(,A4 and +hort (istance
,harging Area 3+(,A4. 2ajor changes in telecommunications
in &ndia began in the 1506s. #he initial phase of telecom reforms
began in 1507 with the creation of ,enter for (epartment of
#elematics 3,-(#4 for developing indigenous technologies
and private manufacturing of customer premise e8uipment.
+oon after) the 2ahanagar #elephone 'igam Limited 32#'L4
and 9idesh +anchar 'igam Limited 39+'L4 were set up in
150:. #he #elecom ,ommission was established in 1505. A
crucial aspect of the institutional reform of the &ndian telecom
sector was setting up of an independent regulatory body in
155; < the #elecom *egulatory Authority of &ndia 3#*A&4) to
assure investors that the sector would be regulated in a balanced
and fair manner. &n 2666) (o# corporati"ed its services wing
and created =harat +anchar 'igam Limited. >urther changes in
the regulatory system took place with the #*A& Act of 2666
that aimed at restoring functional clarity and improving
regulatory 8uality and a separate disputes settlement body was
set up called #elecom (isputes +ettlement and Appellate
#ribunal 3#(+A#4 to fairly adjudicate any dispute between
licensor and licensee) between service provider) between service
provider and a group of consumers. &n ctober 266/) .nified
Access +ervice Licenses regime for basic and cellular services
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was introduced. #his regime enabled services providers to offer
fi$ed and mobile services under one license. +ince then) &ndian
telecom has seen unprecedented customer growth crossing :66
million connections. &ndia is the fourth largest telecom market in
Asia after ,hina) ?apan and +outh @orea. #he &ndian telecom
network is
the eighth largest in the world and the second largest among
emerging economies. A brief on
telecom echo system and various key elements in institutional
framework is given belowA
+ummer #raining) verview of #elecommunication 'etworks-&&
Page 2 of 12
,ompiled by 2, >aculty AL##,) !ha"iabad
Department of Telecommunications A &n &ndia) (o# is the
nodal agency for taking care of telecom sector on behalf of
government. &ts basic functions areA
Poli$ .ormulation
Revie* o% per%ormane
Liensing
/ireless spetrum management
A"ministrative monitoring o% PSUs
Resear! # &evelopment
Stan"ar"i0ation1(ali"ation o% E2uipment
International Relations
ain wings wit!in DoT:
Teleom Engineering 3enter (TE3)
US' .un"
/ireless Planning # 3oor"ination /ing (/P3)
Teleom En%orement) Resoure an" Monitoring
(TERM) 3ell
Teleom 3enters o% E4ellene (T3'E)
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Pu"lic #ector Units
B!arat San!ar Nigam Limite"(BSNL)
In"ian Telep!one In"ustries Limite" (ITI)
Ma!anagar Telep!one Nigam Limite"(MTNL)
Teleommuniations 3onsultants In"ia
Limite"(T3IL)
R $ D Unit
B ,enter for development of #elematics 3,-(o#4
#he other key governmental institutional units are #*A& C
#(+A#. &mportant units are
briefed belowA
Telecom %ngineering Center &T%C': &t is a technical body
representing the interest of(epartment of #elecom) !overnment
of &ndia. &ts main functions areA
Spei5ation o% ommon stan"ar"s *it! regar"
to Teleom net*or+ e2uipment) servies an"
interopera,ilit$6
Summer Training) 'vervie* o%
Teleommuniation Net*or+s-II Page 7 o% 89
3ompile" ,$ M3 .ault$ ALTT3) :!a0ia,a"
:eneri Re2uirements (:Rs)) Inter%ae
Re2uirements (IRs)
Issuing Inter%ae Approvals an" Servie
Approvals
.ormulation o% Stan"ar"s an" .un"amental
Te!nial Plans
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Interat *it! multilateral agenies li+e APT) ETSI
an" ITU et6 %or stan"ar"isation
&evelop e4pertise to im,i,e t!e latest
te!nologies an" results o% R#&
Provi"e te!nial support to &'T an" te!nial
a"vie to TRAI # T&SAT
3oor"inate *it! 3-&'T on t!e te!nologial
"evelopments in t!e Teleom Setor %or poli$
planning ,$ &'T ***6te6gov6in
Uni(ersal #er(ice O"ligation Fun) &U#O': #his fund
was created in 2662. #his fund is managed by .+
administrator. All telecom operators contribute to this fund as
per government policy. #he objective of this fund is to bridge
the digital divide i.e. ensure e8uitable growth of telecom
facilities in rural areas. >unds are allocated to operators who bid
lowest for providing telecom facilities in the areas identified by
.+ administrator.
*IR%L%## PLANNIN+ $ COORDINATION
&*PC'
#his unit was created in 1512 and is the 'ational *adio
*egulatory Authority responsible for >re8uency +pectrum
2anagement) including licensing and caters for the needs of all
wireless users 3!overnment and Private4 in the country. &t
e$ercises the statutory functions of the ,entral !overnment and
issues licenses to establish) maintain and operate wireless
stations. DP, is divided into major sections like Licensing and
*egulation 3L*4) 'ew #echnology !roup 3'#!4 and +tanding
Advisory ,ommittee on *adio >re8uency Allocation 3+A,>A4.
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+A,>A makes the recommendations on major fre8uency
allocation issues) formulation of the fre8uency allocation plan)
making recommendations on the various issues related to
&nternational #elecom .nion 3&#.4) to sort out problems
referred to the committee by various wireless users) +iting
clearance of all wireless installations in the country etc.
Telecom %nforcement, Resource an) onitoring
&T%R' CellA &n order to ensure that service providers adhere
to the licence conditions and for taking care of telecom network
security issues) (o# opened these cells in 2667 and at present /7
cells are operating in various ,ircles and big districts in the
country. @ey functions of these units are &nspection of premises
of #elecom and &nternet +ervice Providers) ,urbing illegal
activities in telecom services) ,ontrol over clandestine E illegal
operation of telecom networks by vested interests having no
license) #o file >&* against culprits) pursue the cases) issue
notices indicating violation of conditions of various Acts in
force from time to time) Analysis of callEsubscriptionEtraffic data
of various licensees) arrangement for lawful interception E
monitoring of all communications passing through the licenseeFs
network) disaster management) network performance
monitoring) *egistration of +Ps and #elemarketers in License
+ervice Areas etc..
Telecom Centers of %-cellence &TCO%': &www.tcoe.in4
#he growth of &ndian #elecommunications sector has been
astounding) particularly in the last decade. #his growth
has been catalysed by telecommunications sector liberali"ation
and reforms. +ome of the areas needing immediate attention to
consolidate and maintain the growth areA
B ,apacity building for industry talent pool
B ,ontinuous adaptation of the regulatory environment to
facilitate inductionE adoptation of high potential new
technologies and business models
B =ridging of high rural - urban teledensityEdigital divide
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B >aster deployment of broadband infrastructure across the
country +ummer #raining) verview of #elecommunication
'etworks-&& Page 7 of 12 ,ompiled by 2, >aculty AL##,)
!ha"iabad ,entres of %$cellence have been created to work on
3i4 enhancing talent pool) 3ii4 technological innovation) 3iii4
secure information infrastructure and 3iv4 bridging of digital
divide.
#hese ,%s are also e$pected to cater to re8uirements of +outh
Asia as regionaleaders. #he main sponsor 3one of the telecom
operators4) the academic institute where the ,enters are located
and the tentative field of e$cellence are enumerated in the table
belowA
>ield of %$cellence in #elecom Associated &nstitute +ponsor
'e$t !eneration 'etwork C 'etwork #echnology &&#)
@haragpur 9odafone %ssar #elecom #echnology C 2anagement
&&#) (elhi =harti Airtel #echnology &ntegration) 2ultimedia C
,omputational 2aths &&#) @anpur =+'L #elecom Policy)
*egulation) !overnance) ,ustomer ,are C 2arketing &&2)
Ahmadabad &(%A ,ellular #elecom &nfrastructure C %nergy
&&#) ,hennai *eliance (isaster 2anagement of &nfo systems C
&nformation +ecurity &&+c) =angalore Aircel *ural Application
&&# 2umbai #ata #elecom +pectrum 2anagement 3Proposed4
DP,) ,hennai !ovt with &ndustry consortium
Telecom Regulator. Aut!orit. of In)ia &TRAI': #*A&
was established under #*A& Act
155; enacted on 20.6/.155;. #he act was amended in 2666. &ts
rgani"ation setup consists of
ne ,hairperson) #wo full-time members C #wo part-time
members. &ts primary role is to
deals with regulatory aspects in #elecom +ector C =roadcasting
and ,able services. #*A&
has two types of functions as mentioned belowA
Man"ator$ .untions
Tari; poliies
Interonnetion poliies
<ualit$ o% Servie
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Ensure implementation o% terms an" on"itions
o% liense
Reommen"ator$ .untions
Ne* liense poliies
Spetrum poliies
'pening o% setor
Telecom Dispute #ettlement Appellate Tri"unal
&TD#AT' A #(+A# was established in year 2666 by an
amendment in #*A& act by transferring the functions of dispute
handling to new entity i.e. #(+A#. #he organi"ation setup
consists of one ,hairperson C two full-time members. &ts
functions areA
B Adjudicate any dispute between
licensor and licensee
two or more licensees
group of consumers
B Gear C dispose off appeal against any direction) decision or
order of the Authority under #*A& Act www.tdsat.nic.in
/e. International #tan)ar)i0ation 1o)ies for
Telecom sector:
ITU is the leading .nited 'ations agency for information an)
communication tec!nolog. issues) and the global focal point
for governments and the private sector in developing networks
and services. >or nearly 234 .ears) &#. has coordinated the
shared global use of the radio spectrum) promoted international
cooperation in assigning satellite orbits) worked to improve
telecommunication infrastructure in the developing world)
established the worldwide standards that foster seamless
interconnection of a vast range of communications systems and
addressed the global challenges of our times) such as mitigating
climate change and strengthening cyber security. 9ast spectrum
of its work area includes broadband &nternet to latest-generation
wireless technologies) from aeronautical and maritime
navigation to radio astronomy and satellite-based meteorology)
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from convergence in fi$ed-mobile phone) &nternet access) data)
voice and #9 broadcasting to ne$t-generation networks. &#.
also organi"es worldwide and regional e$hibitions and forums)
such as &#. #%L%,2 D*L() bringing together the most
influential representatives of government and the
telecommunications and &,# industry to e$change ideas)
knowledge and technology for the benefit of the global
community) and in particular the developing world. &#. is based
in !eneva) +wit"erland) and its membership includes 151
2ember +tates and more than ;66 +ector 2embers and
Associates5 n 1 ?anuary 2665) &#. employed ;62 people from
0/ different countries. #he staff members are distributed
between the .nionHs Gead8uarters in !eneva) +wit"erland and
eleven field offices located around the world.
Asia Pacific Telecommunit. A Gead8uartered at =angkok)
the AP# is a uni8ue organi"ation of !overnments) telecom
service providers) manufactures of communication e8uipment)
research C development organi"ations and other stake holders
active in the field of communication and information
technology. AP# serves as the focal organi"ation for
communication and information technology in the Asia Pacific
region. #he AP# has /7 2embers) 7 Associate 2embers and
121 Affiliate 2embers. #he objective of the #elecommunity is
to foster the development of telecommunication services and
information infrastructure throughout the region with a
particular focus on the e$pansion thereof in less developed
areas. AP# has been conducting G*( Programme for
developing the skills of AP# 2embers to meet the objectives of
AP#. #he topics include &nformation ,ommunication
#echnologies 3&,#4) 'etwork and &nformation +ecurity) >inance
and =udget) #elecommunication 2anagement) 2obile
,ommunications) 2ultimedia) +atellite
,ommunication) #elecommunications and &,# Policy and
*egulation) =roadband #echnologies) e-Applications) *ural
#elecommunications #echnologies) &P 'etworks and +ervices)
,ustomer *elations) etc.
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T!e %uropean Telecommunications #tan)ar)s Institute
3%#+&4 produces globally applicable standards for &nformation
and ,ommunications #ec hnologies3&,#4) including fi$ed)
mobile) radio) converged) broadcast and internet technologies. &t
is officially recogni"ed by the %uropean .nion as a %uropean
+tandards rgani"ation. %#+& is a not-for-profitorgani"ation
with more than ;66 %#+& member organi"ations drawn from :2
countries across 1 continents world-wide. %#+& unites
2anufacturers) 'etwork operators) 'ational Administrations)
+ervice providers) *esearch bodies) .ser groups) ,onsultancies.
#his cooperation has resulted in a steady stream of highly
successful &,# standards in mobile) fi$ed) and radio
communications and a range of other standards that cross these
boundaries) including +ecurity) +atellite) =roadcast) Guman
>actors) #esting C Protocols) &ntelligent transport) Power-line
telecoms) health) +mart ,ards) %mergency communications)
!*&( C ,louds) Aeronautical etc. %#+& is consensus-based and
conducts its work through summer #raining) verview of
#elecommunication 'etworks-&& Page : of 12 ,ompiled by 2,
>aculty AL##,) !ha"iabad #echnical ,ommittees) which
produce standards and specifications) with the %#+& !eneral
Assembly and =oard.
1#NLA =harat +anchar 'igam Limited was formed in year 2666
and took over the service providers role from (o#. #oday)
=+'L has a customer base of over 5 crore and is the fourth
largest integrated telecom operator in the country. =+'L is the
market leader in =roadband) landline and national transmission
network. =+'L is also the only operator covering over 1
lakh village with telecom connectivity. Area of operation of
=+'L is all &ndia e$cept (elhi C 2umbai.
TNLA 2ahanagar #elephone 'igam Limited) formed in 1507
is the market leader in landline and broadband in its area of
operation.
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TCILA #,&L) a prime engineering and consultancy company) is
a wholly owned !overnment of &ndia Public +ector %nterprise.
#,&L was set up in 15;0 for providing &ndian telecom e$pertise
in all fields of telecom) ,ivil and &# to developing countries
around the world. &t has its presence in over ;6 countries.
ITIA &ndian telephone &ndustries is the oldest manufacturing unit
for telephone instruments. #o keep pace with changing times) it
has started taking up manufacturing of new technology
e8uipment such as !+2) >, e8uipment) &nvertors) Power
plants) (efense e8uipments) ,urrency counting machines etc.
Centre for De(elopment of Telematics &CDoT': #his is the *
C ( unit under (o# setup in 1507. #he biggest contribution of
this centre to &ndian telecom sector is the development of low
capacity 3120 port4 *ural automatic %$change 3*AI4 which
enabled provisioning of telephone in even the smallest village.
#his was specially designed to suit &ndian environment) capable
of withstanding natural temperature and dusty conditions.
Prominent Licenses pro(i)e) ". DoT:
o Access #er(ice &CT# $ Unifie) Access #er(ice'A #he
,ountry is divided into 2/ +ervice Areas consisting of 15
#elecom ,ircle +ervice Areas and 7 2etro +ervice Areas
for providing ,ellular 2obile #elephone +ervice 3,2#+4.
,onse8uent upon announcement of guidelines for .nified
Access 3=asicC ,ellular4 +ervices licenses on 11.11.266/) some
of the ,2#+ operators have been permitted to migrate from
,2#+ License to .nified Access +ervice License 3.A+L4. 'o
new ,2#+ and =asic service licenses are being awarded after
issuing the guidelines for .nified access +ervice
Licence3.A+L4. As on /1st 2arch 2660) /5 ,2#+ and 276
.A+L licenses operated.
o 6+ $ 1*A &1roa)"an) *ireless Access': (epartment of
#elecom started the auction process for sale of spectrum for /!
and =DA 3Di2a$4 in April 2616 for 22 services areas in the
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country. =+'L C 2#'L have already been given spectrum for
/! and =DA and they need to pay the highest bid amount as per
auction results. =+'L C 2#'L both are providing /! services.
=+'L has rolled out its =DA service by using Di2a$
technology.
o o"ile Num"er Porta"ilit. &NP' #er(ice: Licenses have
been awarded to two operators to provide 2'P in &ndia. (o# is
ensuring the readiness of all mobile operators and e$pects to
start this service any time after ?une 2616.
o Infrastructure Pro(i)er: #here are two categories &P-& and
&P-&&. >or &P-& the applicant company is re8uired to be registered
only. 'o license is issued for &P-&. ,ompanies registered as &P-&
can provide assets such as (ark >ibre) *ight of Day) (uct space
and #ower. #his was opened to private sector with effect from
1/.60.2666. An &P-&& license +ummer #raining) verview of
#elecommunication 'etworks-&& Page ; of 12 ,ompiled by 2,
>aculty AL##,) !ha"iabad can lease E rent out Esell end to end
bandwidth i.e. digital transmission capacity capable to carry a
message. #his was opened to private sector with effect from
1/.60.2666. &ssuance of &P-&& Licence has been discontinued
w.e.f. 17.12.61
o INAR#AT A &'2A*+A# 3&nternational 2aritime +atellite
rganisation4 operates constellation of geo-stationary satellites
designed to e$tend phone) fa$ and data communications all over
the world. 9idesh +anchar 'igam Ltd 39+'L4 is permitted to
provide &nmarsat services in &ndia under their &nternational Long
(istance3&L(4 licence granted by (epartment of
#elecommunications3(o#4. 9+'L has commissioned their new
Land %arth +tation 3L%+4 at (ighi) Pune compatible with 7th
generation &'2A*+A# +atellites 3&-74 and &'2A*+A#-=) 2)
2ini-2 C 2-7 services are now being provided through this
new L%+ after 'o bjection ,ertificate 3',4 is issued by (o#
on case by case basis.
o National Long Distance: #here is no limit on number of
operators for this service and license is for 26 years.
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o International Long Distance: #his was opened to private
sector on 1st April 2662 with no limit on number of operators.
#he license period is 26 years.
o Resale of IPLCA >or promoting competition and affordability
in &nternational Private
Leased ,ircuits 3&PL,4 +egment) !overnment permitted the
J*esale of &PL,K by introducing a new category of License
called as < J*esale of &PL,K +ervice License with effect from
27th +eptember 2660. #he *eseller can provide end-to-end
&PL, between &ndia and country of destination for any capacity
denomination. >or providing the &PL, service) the *eseller has
to take the &PL, from &nternational Long (istance 3&L(4
+ervice Providers licensed and permitted to enter into an
arrangement for leased line with Access Providers) 'ational
Long (istance +ervice Providers and &nternational Long
(istance +ervice Providers for provision of &PL, to end
customers.
o #ale of International Roaming #I car)s 7+lo"al Calling
Car)s in In)ia: #he cards being offered to &ndian ,ustomers
will be for use only outside &ndia. Gowever) if it is essential to
activate the card for making test callsEemergent calls before the
departure of customer and Eor after the arrival of the customer)
the same shall be permitted for forty eight 3704 hours only prior
to departure from &ndia and twenty four 3274 hours after arrival
in &ndia.
o Internet wit!out Telep!on.A #he &nternet +ervice Provider
3&+P4 Policy was announced in 'ovember) 50. &+P Licenses )
which prohibit telephony on &nternet )are being issued starting
from :.11.50 on non-e$clusive basis. #hree category of license
e$ist namely A)= and ,. A is all &ndia) = is telecom ,ircles)
2etro (istricts and major districts where as , is ++A wide.
o Internet wit! Telep!on.: nly &+P licensees are permitted)
within their service area) to offer &nternet #elephony service.
#he calls allowed are P, to P, in &ndia) P, in &ndia to
P a g e | 11
P,E#elephone outside &ndia) &P based calls from &ndia to other
countries.
o 8PN: &nternet +ervice Providers 3&+Ps4 can provide 9irtual
Private 'etwork 39P'4 +ervices. 9P' shall be configured as
,losed .ser !roup3,.!4 only and shall carry only the traffic
meant for the internal use of ,.! and no third party traffic shall
be carried o the 9P'. 9P' shall not have any connectivity with
P+#' E&+(' E PL2' e$cept when the 9P' has been set up
using &nternet access dial-up facility to the &+P node. utward
dialing facility from &+P node is not permitted.
o 8#AT $ #atellite Communication: #here are two types of
,.! 9+A# licenses A 3i4 ,ommercial ,.! 9+A# license and
3ii4 ,aptive ,.! 9+A# license. #he commercial 9+A# service
provider can offer the service on commercial basis to the
subscribers by setting up a number of ,losed .ser !roups
3,.!s4 whereas in the captive 9+A# service only one ,.! can
be set up for the captive use of the licensee. #he scope of the
service is to provide data connectivity between various sites
scattered within territorial boundary of &ndia via &'+A# +atellite
+ystem using 9ery +mall Aperture #erminals 39+A#s4.
Gowever) these sites should form part of a ,losed .ser !roup
3,.!4. P+#' connectivity is not permitted.
o Ra)io Paging: #he bids for the *adio Paging +ervice in 2;
cities were invited in 1552) the licenses were signed in 1557 and
the service was commissioned in 1551. #here was a provision
for a fi$ed license fee for first / years and review of the license
fee afterwards. #he license was for 16 years and in 2667 !ovt
offered a e$tended 16 years license with certain license fee
waivers but with the wide spread use of mobile phones) this
service has lost its utility.
o PRT#: Public 2obile *adio #runking service allows city
wide connectivity through wireless means. #his service is
widely used by *adio #a$i operators and companies whose
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workforce is on the move and there is need to locate the present
position of employee for best results. P+#' connectivity is
permitted.
o IN#AT ##A &'+A# 2obile +atellite +ystem *eporting
+ervice 3&'+A# 2++ *eporting +ervice4 is a one way satellite
based messaging service available through &'+A#. #he basic
nature of this service is to provide a reporting channel via
satellite to the group of people) who by virtue of their nature of
work are operating from remote locations without any telecom
facilities and need to send short te$tual message or short data
occasionally to a central station.
o 8oice ail7 Au)iote-7 U# &Unifie) essaging #er(ice':
&nitially a seprate license was issued for these services. >or
.nified 2essaging +ervice) transport of 9oice 2ail 2essages to
other locations and subse8uent retrieval by the subscriber must
be on a nonreal time basis. >or providing .2+ under the
licence) in addition to the license for 9oice 2ailEAudiote$E.2+)
the licensee must also have an &+P license. #he &+P licence as
well as 9oice 2ailEAudiote$E .2+ license should be for the
areas proposed to be covered by .2+ service. +ince start of
'#P-55) all access provider i.e. ,2#+) .A+L) >i$ed service
providers are also allowed to provide these services as 9alue
Added +ervice 39A+4 under their license conditions.
o TelemarketingA ,ompanies intending to operate as
#elemarketer need to obtain this license from (o#.
o Ot!er #er(ice Pro(i)er &inclu)ing 1PO'A As per 'ew
#elecom Policy 3'#P4 1555) ther +ervice Providers 3+P4)
such as tele-banking) tele-medicine) tele-trading) ecommerce)
'etwork peration ,enters and 9ehicle #racking +ystems etc
are allowed to operate by using infrastructure provided by
various access providers for non-telecom services.
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INTRODUCTION
A long distance or local telephone conversation between
two persons could be provided by using a pair of open wire
lines or underground cable as early as early as mid of 15th
century. Gowever) due to fast industrial development and
increased telephone awareness) demand for trunk and local traffic
went on increasing at a rapid rate. #o cater to the increased
demand of traffic between two stations or between two
subscribers at the same station we resorted to the use of an
increased number of pairs on either the open wire alignment) or
in underground cable. #his could solve the problem for some
time only as there is a limit to the number of open wire pairs that
can be installed on one alignment due to headway
consideration and maintenance problems. +imilarly increasing
the number of open wire pairs that can be installed on one
alignment due to headway consideration and maintenance
problems. +imilarly increasing the number of pairs to the
underground cable is uneconomical and leads to
maintenance problems.
&t) therefore) became imperative to think of new technical
innovations which could e$ploit the available bandwidth of
transmission media such as open wire lines or underground
cables to provide more number of circuits on one pair. #he
techni8ue used to provide a number of circuits using a single
transmission link is called 2ultiple$ing.
P a g e | 10
ULTIPL%9IN+ T%C:NI;U%#
#here are basically two types of multiple$ing techni8ues
&. >re8uency (ivision 2ultiple$ing 3>(24
&&. #ime (ivision 2ultiple$ing 3#(24
Fre<uenc. Di(ision ultiple-ing Tec!ni<ues &FD'
#he >(2 techni8ues are the process of translating
individual speech circuits 3/66-/766 G"4 into pre-assigned
fre8uency slots within the bandwidth of the transmission
medium. #he fre8uency translation is done by amplitude
modulation of the audio fre8uency with an appropriate carrier
fre8uency. At the output of the modulator a filter network is
connected to select either a lower or an upper side band. +ince
the intelligence is carried in either side band) single side band
suppressed carrier mode of A2 is used. #his results in
substantial saving of bandwidth mid also permits the use of low
power amplifiers. Please refer >ig. 1.
>(2 techni8ues usually find their application in analogue
transmission systems. An analogue transmission system is one
which is used for transmitting continuously varying signals.
P a g e | 15
Fig5 2 FD Principle
Time Di(ision ultiple-ing
=asically) time division multiple$ing involves nothing more
than sharing a transmission medium by a number of circuits in
time domain by establishing a se8uence of time slots during
which individual channels 3circuits4 can be transmitted. #hus the
entire bandwidth is periodically available to each channel.
'ormally all time slots
1
are e8ual in length. %ach channel is
assigned a time slot with a specific common repetition period
called a frame interval. #his is illustrated in >ig. 2.
Fig5 = Time Di(ision ultiple-ing
%ach channel is sampled at a specified rate and transmitted
for a fi$ed duration. All channels are sampled one by) the cycle is
repeated again and again. #he channels are connected to
individual gates which are opened one by one in a fi$ed
se8uence. At the receiving end also similar gates are opened in
unison with the gates at the transmitting end.
#he signal received at the receiving end will be in the form
of discrete samples and these are combined to reproduce the
P a g e | 26
original signal. #hus) at a given instant of time) only one channel
is transmitted through the medium) and by se8uential sampling a
number of channels can be staggered in time as opposed to
transmitting all the channel at the same time as in %(2
systems. #his staggering of channels in time se8uence for
transmission over a common medium is called #ime (ivision
2ultiple$ing 3#(24.
Pulse Co)e o)ulation
&t was only in 15/0L 2r. A.2. *eaves 3.+A4 developed
a Pulse ,ode 2odulation 3P,24 system to transmit the
spoken word in digital form. +ince then digital speech
transmission has become an alternative to the analogue
systems.
P,2 systems use #(2 techni8ue to provide a number
of circuits on the same transmission medium vi" open wire or
underground cable pair or a channel provided by carrier) coa$ial)
microwave or satellite system.
1asic Re<uirements for PC #.stem
#o develop a P,2 signal from several analogue signals)
the following processing steps are re8uired
>iltering
+ampling
Muanti"ation
%ncoding
Line ,oding
FILT%RIN+
P a g e | 21
>ilters are used to limit the speech signal to the fre8uency
band /66-/766 G".
#APLIN+
&t is the most basic re8uirement for #(2. +uppose we
have an analogue signal >ig. / 3b4) which is applied across a
resistor * through a switch + as shown in >ig. / 3a4 . Dhenever
switch + is closed) an output appears across *. #he rate at which
+ is closed is called the sampling fre8uency because during the
make periods of +) the samples of the analogue modulating
signal appear across *. >ig. /3d4 is a stream of samples of the
input signal which appear across *. #he amplitude of the sample
is depend upon the amplitude of the input signal at the instant of
sampling. #he duration of these sampled pulses is e8ual to the
duration for which the switch + is closed. 2inimum number of
samples are to be sent for any band limited signal to get a good
appro$imation of the original analogue signal and the same is
defined by the sampling #heorem.
>ig. /A +ampling Process
P a g e | 22
#ampling T!eorem
A comple$ signal such as human speech has a wide
range of fre8uency components with the amplitude of the signal
being different at different fre8uencies. #o put it in a different
way) a comple$ signal will have certain amplitudes for all
fre8uency components of which the signal is made. Let us say
that these fre8uency components occupy a certain bandwidth =.
&f a signal does not have any value beyond this bandwidth =)
then it is said to be band limited. #he e$tent of = is determined
by the highest fre8uency components of the signal.
#ampling T!eorem #tates
N&f a band limited signal is sampled at regular intervals of
time and at a rate e8ual to or more than twice the highest signal
fre8uency in the band) then the sample contains all the
information of the original signal.N 2athematically) if fG is the
highest fre8uency in the signal to be sampled then the sampling
fre8uency >s needs to be greater than 2 fG.
i.e. >sO2fG
Let us say our voice signals are band limited to 7 @G" and let
sampling fre8uency be 0 @G".
#ime period of sampling #s P 1 sec
0666
or #s P 121 micro seconds
&f we have just one channel) then this can be sampled every
121 microseconds and the resultant samples will represent the
original signal. =ut) if we are to sample ' channels one by one
at the rate specified by the sampling theorem) then the time
P a g e | 2/
available for sampling each channel would be e8ual to #sE'
microseconds.
FI+5 3: #ampling an) com"ining C!annels
>ig. 7 shows how a number of channels can be sampled
and combined. #he channel gates 3a) b ... n4 correspond to the
switch + in >ig. /. #hese gates are opened by a series of pulses
called N,lock pulsesN. #hese are called gates because) when
closed these actually connect the channels to the transmission
medium during the clock period and isolate them during the >>
periods of the clock pulses. #he clock pulses are staggered so
that only one pair of gates is open at any given instant and)
therefore) only one channel is connected to the transmission
medium. #he time interval during which the common
transmission medium is allocated to a particular channel is called
the #ime +lot for that channel. #he width of. this time slot will
depend) as stated above) upon the number of channels to be
combined and the clock pulse fre8uency i.e. the sampling
fre8uency.
&n a /6 channel P,2 system. #+ i.e. 121 microseconds are
divided into /2 parts. #hat is /6 time slots are used for /6 speech
signals) one time slot for signaling of all the /6 chls) and
one time slot for synchroni"ation between #ransmitter C
*eceiver.
P a g e | 27
#he time available per channel would be #sE' P 121E/2 P
/.5 microseconds. #hus in a /6 channel P,2 system) time slot is
/.5 microseconds and time period of sampling i.e..the interval
between 2 consecutive samples of a channel is 121 microseconds.
#his duration i.e. 121 microseconds is called #ime >rame.
#he signals on the common medium 3also called the
common highway4
of a #(2 system will consist of a series of pulses) the
amplitudes of which are proportional to the amplitudes of the
individual channels at their respective sampling instants. #his is
illustrated in >ig. 1
i
Fig 4: PA Output #ignals
#he original signal for each channel can be recovered at
the receive end by applying gate pulses at appropriate instants
and passing the signals through low pass filters. 3*efer >ig. :4.
>ig. : A *econstruction of riginal +ignal
P a g e | 21
;uanti0ation
&n >(2 systems we convey the speech signals in their
analogue electrical form. =ut in P,2) we convey the speech in
discrete form. #he sampler selects a number of points on the
analogue speech signal 3by sampling process4 and measures their
instant values. #he output of the sampler is a PA2 signal as
shown in >ig. /L #he transmission of PA2 signal will re8uire
linear amplifiers at trans and receive ends to recover distortion
less signals. #his type of transmission is susceptible to all the
disadvantages of A2 signal transmission. #herefore) in P,2
systems) PA2 signals are converted into digital form by using
Muanti"ation Principles. #he discrete level of each sampled
signal is 8uantified with reference to a certain specified level on
an amplitude scale.
#he process of measuring the numerical values of the
samples and giving them a table value in a suitable scale is
called NMuanti"ingN. f course) the scales and the number of
points should be so chosen that the signal could be effectively
reconstructed after demodulation.
Muanti"ing) in other words) can be defined as a process of
breaking down a continuous amplitude range into a finite
number of amplitude values or steps.
A sampled signal e$ists only at discrete times but its
amplitude is drawn from a continuous range of amplitudes of an
analogue signal. n this basis) an infinite number of amplitude
values is possible. A suitable finite number of discrete values
can be used to get an. appro$imation of the infinite set. #he
discrete value of a sample is measured by comparing it with
a scale having a finite number of intervals and identifying
the interval in which the sample falls. #he finite number of
amplitude intervals is called the N8uanti"ing intervalN. #hus)
8uanti"ing means to divide the analogue signalHs total
amplitude range into a number of 8uanti"ing intervals and
P a g e | 2:
assigning a level to each. intervals.
>or e$ample) a 1 volt signal can be divided into 16m9
ranges like 16-26m9) /6-76m9 and so on. #he interval 16-26
m9) may be designated as level 1) 26-/6 m9 as level 2 etc. >or
the purpose of transmission) these levels are given a binary code.
#his is called encoding. &n practical systems-8uanti"ing and
encoding are combined processes. >or the sake of
understanding) these are treated separately.
;uanti0ing Process
+uppose we have a signal as shown in >ig. ; which is
sampled at instants a) b) c) d and e. >or the sake of e$planation)
let us suppose that the signal has ma$imum amplitude of ; volts.
&n order to 8uanti"e these five samples taken of the signal)
let us say the total amplitude is divided into eight ranges or
intervals as shown in >ig. ;. +ample 3a4 lies in the 1th range.
Accordingly) the 8uanti"ing process will assign a binary code
corresponding to this i.e. 161) +imilarly codes are assigned for
other samples also. Gere the 8uanti"ing intervals are of the
same si"e. #his is called Linear Muanti"ing.
FI+5 >: ;UANTI?IN+@PO#ITI8% #I+NAL
Assigning an interval of 1 for sample 1) ; for 2 etc. is the
8uanti"ing process. !iving) the assigned levels of samples)
the binary code are called coding of the 8uanti"ed samples.
P a g e | 2;
Muanti"ing is done for both positive and negative swings. As
shown in >ig.:) eight 8uanti"ing levels are used for each
direction of the analogue signal. #o indicate whether a
sample is negative with reference to "ero or is positive with
reference "ero) an e$tra digit is added to the binary code. #his
e$tra digit is called the NsignbitN.&n >ig.0. Positive values have
a sign bit of H 1H and negative values have sign bit ofH6H.
>&!. 0A M.A'#&Q&'! - +&!'AL D&#G R 9e C - 9e 9AL.%+
Relation "etween 1inar. Co)es an) Num"er of le(els5
=ecause the 8uanti"ed samples are coded in binary form)
the 8uanti"ation intervals will be in powers of 2. &f we have a 7
bit code) then we can have 2N P 1: levels. Practical P,2
systems use an eight bit code with the first bit as sign bit. &t
means we can have 2N P 21: 3120 levels in the positive
P a g e | 20
direction and 120 levels in the negative direction4 intervals for
8uanti"ing.
;uanti0ation Distortion
Practically in 8uanti"ation we assign lower value of each
interval to a sample falling in any particular interval and this
value is given asA
Ta"le@2: Illustration of ;uanti0ation Distortion
Analogue
+ignal
Amplitude
*ange
Muanti"ing
&nterval
3mid value4
Muanti"ing
Level
=inary ,ode
6-16 mv 1 mv 6 1666
16-26mv 11mv 1 1661
26-/6 mv 21 mv 2 1616
/6-76 mv /1 mv / 1611
76-16 mv 71 mv 7 1166
&f a sample has an amplitude of say 2/ mv or 20 mv) in
either case it will be assigned She SeveS N2N. #his &s represented
in binary code 1616. Dhen this is decoded at the receiving end)
the decoder circuit on receiving a 1616 code will convert this
into an analogue signal of amplitude 21 mv only. #hus the
processH of 8uanti"ation leads to an appro$imation of the input
signal with the detected signal having some deviations in
amplitude from the actual values. #his deviation between the
amplitude of samples at the transmitter and receiving ends 3i.e.
the difference between the actual value C the reconstructed
value4 gives rise to 8uanti"ation distortion.
&f 9 represent the step si"e and HeH represents the
difference in amplitude feH must e$ists between - 9E2 C R 9E24
P a g e | 25
between the actual signal level and its 8uanti"ed e8uivalent then
it can be proved that mean s8uare 8uanti"ing error is e8ual to
39
2
4. #hus) we see that the error depends upon the si"e of the
step.
&n linear 8uanti"ation) e8ual step means e8ual degree of
error for all input amplitudes. &n other words) the signal to noise
ratio for weaker signals will be poorer.
#o reduce error) we) therefore) need to reduce step si"e or
in other words) increase th)e number of steps in the given
amplitude range. #his would however) increase the
transmission bandwidth because bandwidth = P fm log L.
where L is the number of 8uantum steps and fm is the highest
signal fre8uency. =ut as we knows from speech statistics that the
probability of occurrence of a small amplitude is much greater
than large one) it seems appropriate to provide more 8uantum
levels 39 P low value4 in the small amplitude region and only a
few 39 P high value4 in the region of higher amplitudes. &n this
case) provided the total number of specified levels remains
unchanged) no increase in transmission bandwidth will be
re8uired. #his will also try to bring about uniformity in signal to
noise ratio at all levels of input signal. #his type of 8uanti"ation
is called non-uniform 8uanti"ation.
&n practice) non-uniform 8uanti"ation is achieved using
segmented 8uanti"ation 3also called companding4. #his is shown
in >ig. 5 3a4. &n fact) there is e8ual number of segments for both
positive and negative e$cursions. &n order to specify the location
of a sample value it is necessary to know the followingA
1. #he sign of the sample 3positive or negative e$cursion4
2. #he segment number
3. #he 8uantum level within the segment
P a g e | /6
Fig5 A &a' #egmente) co)ing cur(e
As seen in >ig. 5 3b4) the first two segment in each
polarity are collinear) 3i.e. the slope is the same in the central
region4 they are considered as one segment. #hus the total
number of segment appear to be 1/. Gowever) for purpose of
analysis all the 1: segments will be taken into account.
%nco)ing
,onversion of 8uanti"ed analogue levels to binary signal
is called encoding. #o represent 21: steps) 0 level code is
re8uired. #he eight bit code is also called an eight bit NwordN.
#he 0 bit word appears in the form
P A1C
*9B?
Polarity bit T1F +egment ,ode
Linear encoding
for R ve HH for - ve. &n the
segment
P a g e | /1
#he first bit gives the sign of the voltage to be coded. 'e$t
/ bits gives the segment number. #here are 0 segments for the
positive voltages and 0 for negative voltages. Last 7 bits give
the position in the segment. %ach segment contains 1:
positions. *eferring to >ig. 53b4) voltage 9c will be encoded as
1 1 11 6161.
FIG. 9 (b) : Encoding Curve with Compression 8 Bit Code
#he 8uanti"ation and encoding are done by a circuit called
coder. #he coder converts PA2 signals 3i.e. after sampling4
into an 0 bit binary signal. #he coding is done as per >ig. 5
which shows a relationship between voltage 9 to be coded and
e8uivalent binary number '. #he function ' P f3v4 is not linear.
#he curve has the following characteristics.
&t is symmetrical about the origins. Qero level
corresponds to "ero voltage to be encoded.
&t is logarithmic function appro$imated by 1/ straight segments
numbered 6 to ; in positive direction and HH to ; in the
negative direction. Gowever 7 segments 6) 1) 6) 1 lying between
levels R vmE:7 -vmE:7 being collinear are taken as one segment.
P a g e | /2
#he voltage to be encoded corresponding to 2 ends of
successive segments are in the ratio of 2. #hat is vm) vmE2)
vmE7) vmE0) vmE1:) vmE/2) vmE:7) vmE120 3vm being the
ma$imum voltage4.
#here are 120 8uantification levels in the positive part of
the curve and 120 in the negative part of the curve. &n a P,2
system the channels are sampled one by one by applying the
sampling pulses to the sampling gates. *efer >ig. 16. #he gates
open only when a pulse is applied to them and pass the analogue
signals through them for the duration for which the gates remain
open. +ince only one gate will be activated at a given instant) a
common encoding circuit is used for all channels. Gere the
samples are 8uanti"ed and encoded. #he encoded samples of all
the channels and signals etc are combined in the digital combiner
and transmitted.
Fig5 2C
#he reverse process is carried out at the receiving end to
retrieve the original analogue signals. #he digital combiner
combines the encoded samples in the form of NframesN. #he
digital separator decombines the incoming digital streams into
P a g e | //
individual frames. #hese frames are decoded to give the PA2
3Pulse Amplitude 2odulated4 samples. #he samples
corresponding to individual channels are separated by
operating the receive sample gates in the same se8uence i.e. in
synchronism with the transmit sample gates.
CONC%PT OF FRA%
&n >ig. 16) the sampling pulse has a repetition rate of #s
sees and a pulse width of N+tN. Dhen a sampling pulse arrives)
the sampling gate remains opened during the time N+tN and
remains closed till the ne$t pulse arrives. &t means that a channel
is activated for the duration N+tN. #his duration) which is the
width of the sampling pulse) is called the Ntime slotN for a given
channel.
+ince #s is much larger as compared to +t. a number of
channels can be sampled each for a duration of +t within the time
#s. Dith reference to >ig. 16) the first sample of the first channel
is taken by pulse HaH) encoded and is passed on the combiner.
#hen the first sample of the second channel is taken by pulse HbH
which is also encoded and passed on to the combiner) likewise the
remaining channels are also sampled se8uentially and are
encoded before being fed to the combiner. After the first sample
of the 'th channel is taken and processed) the second sample of
the first channel is taken) this process is repeated for all
channels. ne full set of samples for all channels taken within
the duration #s is called a NframeN. #hus the set of all first
samples of all channels is one frameL the set of all second
samples is another frame and so on.
>or a /6 chl P,2 system) we have /2 time slots.
#hus the time available per channel would be /.5 microsecs.
#hus for a /6 chl P,2 system)
>rame P 121 microseconds
#ime slot per chl P /.5 microseconds.
P a g e | /7
#tructure of Frame
A frame of 121 microsecondFs duration has /2 time slots.
#hese slots are numbered #s 6 to #s /1. &nformation for
providing synchroni"ation between #rans and receive ends is
passed through a separate time slot. .sually the slot #s 6
carries the synchroni"ation signals. #his slot is also called
>rame alignment word 3>AD4.
#he signaling information is transmitted through time slot
#s 1:. #s 1 to #s 11 are utili"ed for voltage signal of
channels 1 to 11 respectively. #s 1; to #s /1 are utili"ed for
voltage signal of channels 1: to /6 respectively.
#BNC:RONI?ATION
#he output of a P,2 terminal will be a continuous stream
of bits. At the receiving end) the receiver has to receive the
incoming stream of bits and discriminate between frames and
separate channels from these. #hat is) the receiver has to
recognise the start of each frame correctly. #his operation is
called frame alignment or +ynchroni"ation and is achieved
by inserting a fi$ed digital pattern called a N>rame Alignment
Dord 3>AD4N into the transmitted bit stream at regular
intervals. #he receiver looks for >AD and once it is detected)
it knows that in ne$t time slot) information for channel one
will be there and so on.
#he digits or bits of >AD occupy seven out of eight bits of #s
6 in the following pattern.
1it position of Ts C 12 1= 16 13 14 1D
1> 1E
FA* )igit (alue

9 C C 2
2 C 2 2
P a g e | /1
#he bit position =1 can be either H 1H or H6H. Gowever) when
the P,2 system is to be linked to an international network)
the =1 position is fi$ed at H 1H .
#he >AD is transmitted in the #s of every alternate frame.
>rame which do not contain the >AD) are used for
transmitting supervisory and alarm signals. #o distinguish the
#s 6 of frame carrying supervisoryEalarm signals from those
carrying the >AD) the =2 bit position of the former are fi$ed
at #. #he >AD and alarm signals are transmitted alternatively
as shown in #able - 2.
TA1L%@=
>rame *emark
'umbe
rs
=1 =
2
=
/
=
7
=
1
=
:
=
;
=0
> I 6 6 1 1 6 1 1 >AD
>1 I 1 U U U 1 1 1 ALA*
2
>2 I 6 6 1 1 6 1 1 >AD
>/ etc I 1 U U U 1 1 1 ALA*
2
&n frames 1) /) 1) etc) the bits =/) =7) =1 denote
various types of alarms. >or e$ample) in =/ position) if U P 1)
it indicate >rame synchroni"ation alarm. &f U P 1 in =7) it
indicates high error density alarm. Dhen there is no alarm
condition) bits =/ =7 =1 are set 6. An urgent alarm is
indicated by transmitting Nall onesN. #he code word for an
urgent alarm would be of the form.
= 888 8888
P a g e | /:
SIGN/LLING IN 0C. S1STE.S
&n a telephone network)-the signaling information is
used for proper routing of a call between two subscribers) for
providing certain status information like dial tone) busy
tone) ring back. '. tone) metering pulses) trunk offering
signal etc. All these functions are grouped under the general
terms NsignalingN in P,2 systems. #he signaling
information can be transmitted in the form of (, pulses 3as in
step by step e$change4 or multi-fre8uency pulses 3as in cross
bar systems4 etc.
#he signaling pulses retain their amplitude for a much
longer period than the pulses carrying speech information.
&t means that the signaling information is a slow varying
signal in time compared to the speech signal which is fast
changing in the time domain. #herefore) a signaling channel
can be digiti"ed with less number of bits than a voice channel.
&n a /6 chl P,2 system) time slot #s 1: in each frame is
allocated for carrying signaling information.
#he time slot 1: of each frame carries the
signaling data corresponding to two 9> channels only.
#herefore) to cater for /6 channels) we must transmit 11
frames) each having 121 microsecondFs duration. >or
carrying synchroni"ation data for all frames) one
additional frame is used. #hus a group of 1: frames 3each
of 121 microseconds4 is formed to make a Nmulti-frameN.
#he duration of a multi-frame is 2 milliseconds. #he multi-
frame has 1: major time slots of 121 microsecondFs duration.
%ach of these 3slots4 frames has /2 time slots carrying) the
encoded samples of all channels plus the signaling and
synchroni"ation data. %ach sample has eight bits of duration
6.766 microseconds 3/.5E0 P 6.7004 each. #he relationship
between the bit duration frame and multi-frame is illustrated in
>ig. 11 3a4 C 11 3b4.
P a g e | /;
Fig5 22 &a' ulti@frame Formation
FI+5 22 &"' =5C3E "7s PC ulti@frame
De have /2 time slots in a frameL each slot carries an 0 bit word.
#he total number of bits per frame P /2 $ 0 P 21:
#he total number of frames per seconds is 0666
#he total number of bits per second is 21: $ 0666 P 2670 @Ebits.
#hus) a /6 channel P,2 system has 2670 @
bitsEsec.
P a g e | /0
D%FINITION AND D%#CRIPTION OF DI+ITAL
:I%RARC:I%#
INTRODUCTION AND D%FINITION
#he term Jdigital hierarchyK has been created when
developing digital transmission systems. &t was laid down when
by multiple$ing a certain number of P,2 primary multiple$ers
were combined to form digital multiple$ers of higher order 3e.g.
second-order multiple$ e8uipments4.
,onse8uently) a digital hierarchy comprises a number of
levels. %ach level is assigned a specific bit rate which is formed
by multiple$ing digital signals) each having the bit rate of the
ne$t lower level. &n ,,&## *ec. !.;62) the term Jdigital
multiple$ hierarchyK is defined as follows A
JA series of digital multiple$es graded according to
capability so that multiple$ing at one level combines a defined
number of digital signals) each having the digit rate prescribed
for the ne$t lower order) into a digital signal having a prescribed
digit rate which is then available for further combination with
other digital signals of the same rate in a digital multiple$ of the
ne$t higher orderK.
DGU G&%*A*,G&%+V
14 =efore considering in detail the digital hierarchies under
discussion we are going to recapitulate in brief) why there
are several digital hierarchies instead of one only. &t has
always been pointed out that as far as the analogue >(2
techni8ue is concerned) the ,.,.&.#.#. recommends the
world wide use of the 12-channel group 3secondary
group4. *elevant ,.,.&.#.#. *ecommendation e$ists also
for channel assemblies with more than :6 channels so that
with certain e$ceptions < there is only one world-wide
hierarchy for the >(2 system 3although the term
JhierarchyK is not used in the >(2 techni8ue4.
24 &n the digital transmission techni8ue it was unfortunately
not possible to draw up a world-wide digital hierarchy. &n
P a g e | /5
practice) e8uipment as specified in ,.,.&.#.#.
*ecommendation !.;/2 and ;//) they do not only differ
completely in their bit rates) but also in the frame
structures) in signaling) frame alignment) etc. 'eedless to
say that) as a conse8uence) the higher order digital
multiple$ers derived from the two different P,2 primary
multiple$ers and thus the digital hierarchies differ as well.
/4 +ince these two P,2 primary multiple$ers are available)
two digital hierarchies only would have to be e$pected. &n
reality) however) two digital hierarchies with several
variants are under discussion because the choice of the
fundamental parameters of a digital hierarchy depends not
only on the P,2 primary multiple$) which forms the basic
arrangement in that hierarchy) but on many other factors
such as A
3a4 #he bit rate of the principal signal sources.
3b4 #raffic demand) network topology) operational
features) fle$ibility of the network.
3c4 #ime division and multiple$ing plant
re8uirements.
3d4 ,ompatibility with analog e8uipment.
3e4 ,haracteristics of the transmission media to be
used at the bit rates for the various levels of the
hierarchies.
+ince today these factors which are essential for
forming digital hierarchies vary from country to
country) it is no wonder that we now have to consider
more than two proposals for digital hierarchies.
P a g e | 76
DI+ITAL :I%RARC:I%# 1A#%D ON T:% 2433
/1IT7# PC PRIARB ULTIPL%9
%;UIP%NT
&t was around 15:0 that =ell labs. proposed a digital
hierarchy based on the 27-channel P,2 primary multiple$ at
the various levels of the hierarchy A
Le(el in !ierarc!. 1it rate Trans5 line
>irst level 1177 kbitEs #1
+econd level :/12 kbitEs #2
#hird level 7:/67 kbitEs L1 3?umbo !rp4
>ourth level 206666 kbitEs D#7 3Dave
guide4
>ifth level 1:0666 kbitEs #1
#his proposal was modified during the following years. At
the end of the study period 15:0E;2) the following digital
network hierarchy was finally proposed as given in >ig.1.
Fig. 1
Encoded F! (!"ster Group) #$% & C"n"d"
14 >or the various bit rates at the higher levels of the two
proposals) different reasons have been indicated. #he bit
rate of 77;/: kbitEs was selected to provide a fle$ibility
point for circuit interconnection and because it was a
P a g e | 71
suitable coding level for the :66 channel >(2
mastergroup.
24 &t is also an appropriate bit rate for inter-connection to
radio-relay links planned for use at various fre8uencies.
/4 At the same time) '.#.#. published its P,2 hierarchy
are concerned 31117 and :112 kbitEs) respectively4) these
two proposals are identical. #hey differ) however) in the
higher levels as shown in >ig.2.
Fig5 =
%nco)e) TD &Fapanese'
74 &n the '.#.#. proposal the bit rate of /26:7 kbitEs at
the third level of the proposed hierarchy might be
considered a suitable bit rate to be used on international
satellite links perhaps for administrations operating
different P,2 primary multiple$ e8uipments. &t is also a
convenient bit rate for encoding the standardi"ed /66-
channel >(2 master group. (elta modulation and
differential P,2 for 7 2G" visual telephone are also
suitable for this bit rate. #ransmission of /26:7 kbitEs via a
special symmetrical cable of new design is also possible.
14 #he above fact shows that the differing bit rates of the
third level indicated in the two hierarchy proposals can)
therefore) be justified by technical arguments. As far as the
differing bit rates of the fourth level are concerned) only a
few technical reasons are included in the two proposal. &n
both cases coa$ial cables are used as a transmission
medium so that the medium does not call for different bit
rates.
P a g e | 72
:4 2oreover) it seems that at present the specifications of
the fourth level 3and higher ones4 in the two proposed
hierarchies is not yet considered so urgent. >or the time
being the third level seems to be more important.
;4 #he ,.,.&.#.#. faced with this situation has reached
finally the solution which is covered by ,,&##
recommendation !.;12 as one can see from this
recommendation) two different hierarchical levels are
e$isting in the third level of this hierarchy) namely /26:7
kbitsEs and 77;/: kbitEs respectively. Gigher level have not
been specified so far.
DI+ITAL :I%RARC:B 1A#%D ON T:% =C3E
/1IT7# PC PRIARB ULTIPL%9
%;UIP%NT
>or this digital hierarchy) two specifications have at
present been laid down only for the first level at 2670
kbitEs and for the second level at 0770 kbitEs.
As for the higher levels) the situation is just contrary to
that e$isting in the case of digital hierarchies derived from
1177 kbitEs primary multiple$) i.e. general agreement has
more or less been reached on the fourth level having a bit
rate of 1/52:7 kbitEs. 1th order system where bit rate of
1:1 2bEs have also been planned now.

14 #he critical point in this hierarchy is whether or not the
third level at /7/:0 kbitEs should e$ist.
24 7.2 #he ,.,.&.#.#. has agreed after long discussions on
the following 3*ecommendation !.;114 Jthat there should
be a 7
th
order bit rate of 1/52:7 kbitEs in the digital
hierarchy which is based on the 2
nd
order bit rate of 0770
kbitEsK.
#here should be two methods of achieving the 7
th
order bit
rate A
P a g e | 7/
et!o) 2 by using a /
rd
order bit rate of /7/:0 kbitEs in
the digital hierarchy.
et!o) = by directly multiple$ing si$teen digital signals
at 0770 kbitEs. #he digital signals at the bit rate of 1/52:7
kbitEs obtained by these two methods should be identical.
#he e$istence of the above two methods implies that the
use of the bit rate of /7/:0 kbitEs should not be imposed
on an Administration that does not wish to reali"e the
corresponding e8uipment.
/4 &n accordance with the above two methods the following
reali"ations of digital multiple$ e8uipments using positive
justification are recommended A
et!o) 2 A *eali"ation by separate digital multiple$
e8uipments A one type which operates at /7/:0 kbitEs and
multiple$es four digital signals at 0770 kbitEsL the other
type which operates at 1/52:7 kbitEs and multiple$es four
digital signals at /7/:0 kbitEs.
et!o) = A *eali"ation by a single digital multiple$
e8uipment which operates at 1/52:7 kbitEs and
multiple$es si$teen digital signals at 0770 kbitEs.
2ethod 1 has been put into practice.
74 Dhere the fifth level is concerned) some preliminary
proposals 3e.g. 1:1170 kbitEs4 have been submitted which
were not discussed in detail.
#herefore) the present structure of this digital hierarchy is
as given in >ig./.
Fig5 6
%nco)e) TD &%uropean'
139.264
P a g e | 77
#I+NALLIN+ IN T%L%COUNICATION#
T!e term signaling, w!en use) in telep!on.,
refers to the e$change of control information associated with
the establishment of a telephone call on a telecommunications
circuit. An e$ample of this control information is the digits
dialed by the caller) the callerHs billing number) and other call-
related information.
Dhen the signaling is performed on the same circuit that
will ultimately carry the conversation of the call) it is termed
,hannel Associated +ignaling 3,A+4. #his is the case for earlier
analogue trunks) 2> and *2 digital trunks) and (++1E(A++
P=I trunks.
&n contrast) ++; signaling is termed ,ommon ,hannel
+ignaling 3,,+4 in that the path and facility used by the
signaling is separate and distinct from the telecommunications
channels that will ultimately carry the telephone conversation.
Dith ,,+) it becomes possible to e$change signaling without
first sei"ing a facility) leading to significant savings and
performance increases in both signaling and facility usage.
C!annel Associate) #ignaling
C!annel Associate) #ignaling 3CA#4) also known as per-trunk
signaling 3P#+4) is a form of digital communication signaling.
As with most telecommunication signaling methods) it uses
routing information to direct the payload of voice or data to its
destination. Dith ,A+ signaling) this routing information is
encoded and transmitted in the same channel as the payload
itself. #his information can be transmitted in the same band 3in-
band signaling4 or a separate band 3out-of-band signaling4 to the
payload.
,A+ potentially results in lower available bandwidth for the
payload. >or e$ample) in the P+#' the use of out-of-band
P a g e | 71
signalling within a fi$ed bandwidth reduces a :7 kbitEs (+6 to
1: kbitEs. =ecause of this) and the inherent security benefits of
separating the control lines from the payload) most current
telephone systems rely more on ,ommon ,hannel +ignaling
3,,+4.
Common C!annel #ignaling
&n telephony) Common C!annel #ignaling 3,,+4 is the
transmission of signaling information 3control information4 on a
separate channel from the data) and) more specifically) where
that signaling channel controls multiple data channels.
>or e$ample) in the public switched telephone network 3P+#'4
one channel of a communications link is typically used for the
sole purpose of carrying signaling for establishment and #ear
down of telephone calls. #he remaining channels are used
entirely for the transmission of voice data. &n most cases) a
single :7kbitEs channel is sufficient to handle the call setup and
call clear-down traffic for numerous voice and data channels.
#he logical alternative to ,,+ is ,hannel Associated +ignaling
3,A+4) in which each bearer channel has a signaling channel
dedicated to it.
,,+ offers the following advantages over ,A+) in the conte$t
of the P+#'A
>aster call setup.
'o falsing interference between signaling tones by
network and speech fre8uencies.
!reater trunking efficiency due to the 8uicker set up and
clear down) thereby reducing traffic on the network.
'o security issues related to the use of in-band signaling
with ,A+.
,,+ allows the transfer of additional information along
with the signaling traffic providing features such as caller
&(.
P a g e | 7:
#he most common ,,+ signaling methods in use today are
&ntegrated +ervices (igital 'etwork 3&+('4 and +ignaling
+ystem ; 3++;4.
&+(' signaling is used primarily on trunks connecting end-user
private branch e$change 3P=I4 systems to a central office. ++;
is primarily used within the P+#'. #he two signaling methods
are very similar since they share a common heritage and in some
cases) the same signaling messages are transmitted in both &+('
and ++;.
,,+ is distinct from in-band or out-of-band signaling) which are
to the data band what ,,+ and ,A+ are to the channel.
#ignaling #.stem Num"er G>
##> is a set of telephony signaling protocols which are used to
set up most of the worldHs public switched telephone network
telephone calls. #he main purpose is to set up and tear down
telephone calls. ther uses include number translation) prepaid
billing mechanisms) short message service 3+2+4) and a variety
of other mass market services.
&t is usually abbreviated as Signaling System No. 7) Signaling
System #7) or just SS7. &n 'orth America it is often referred to as
CCSS7) an acronym for Common Channel Signaling System 7.
&n some %uropean countries) specifically the .nited @ingdom) it
is sometimes called C7 3,,&## number ;4 and is also known as
number 7 and CCIS7.
#here is only one international ++; protocol defined by &#.-#
in its M.;66-series recommendations. #here are however) many
national variants of the ++; protocols. 2ost national variants are
based on two widely deployed national variants as standardi"ed
by A'+& and %#+&) which are in turn based on the international
protocol defined by &#.-#. %ach national variant has its own
uni8ue characteristics. +ome national variants with rather
striking characteristics are the ,hina 3P*,4 and ?apan 3##,4
national variants.
P a g e | 7;
++; is designed to operate in two modesA Associated 2ode and
Muasi-Associated 2ode.
Dhen operating in the Associated 2ode) ++; signaling
progresses from switch to switch through the P+#' following
the same path as the associated facilities that carry the telephone
call. #his mode is more economical for small networks. #he
Associated 2ode of signaling is not the predominant choice of
modes in 'orth America.
Dhen operating in the Muasi-Associated 2ode) ++;
signaling progresses from the originating switch to the
terminating switch) following a path through a separate ++;
signaling network composed of +#Ps. #his mode is more
economical for large networks with lightly loaded signaling
links. #he Muasi-Associated 2ode of signaling is the
predominant choice of modes in 'orth America.
++; clearly splits the signaling planes and voice circuits. An ++;
network has to be made up of ++;-capable e8uipment from end
to end in order to provide its full functionality. #he network is
made up of several link types 3A) =) ,) () %) and >4 and three
signaling nodes - +ervice switching point 3++Ps4) signal transfer
point 3+#Ps4) and +ervice ,ontrol Point 3+,Ps4. %ach node is
identified on the network by a number) a point code. %$tended
services are provided by a database interface at the +,P level
using the ++; network.
#he links between nodes are full-duple$ 1:) :7) 1)1/:) or 1)507
kbitEs graded communications channels. &n %urope they are
usually one 3:7 kbitEs4 or all 31)507 kbitEs4 timeslots 3(+6s4
within an %1 facilityL in 'orth America one 31: or :7 kbitEs4 or
all 31)1/: kbitEs4 timeslots 3(+6As or (+6s4 within a #1 facility.
ne or more signaling links can be connected to the same two
endpoints that together form a signaling link set. +ignaling links
are added to link sets to increase the signaling capacity of the
link set.
P a g e | 70
&n %urope) ++; links normally are directly connected between
switching e$changes using >-links. #his direct connection is
called associated signaling. &n 'orth America) ++; links are
normally indirectly connected between switching e$changes
using an intervening network of +#Ps. #his indirect connection
is called quasi-associated signaling. Quasi-associated signaling
reduces the number of ++; links necessary to interconnect all
switching e$changes and +,Ps in an ++; signaling network.
++; links at higher signaling capacity 31.1/: and 1.507 2bitEs)
simply referred to as the 1.1 2bitEs and 2.6 2bitEs rates4 are
called High Speed inks !HS" in contrast to the low speed 31:
and :7 kbitEs4 links. High Speed inks !HS" are specified in
&#.-# *ecommendation M.;6/ for the 1.1 2bitEs and 2.6 2bitEs
rates) and A'+& +tandard #1.111./ for the 1.1/: 2bitEs rate.
#here are differences between the specifications for the 1.1
2bitEs rate. High Speed inks utili"e the entire bandwidth of a
#1 31.1/: 2bitEs4 or %1 31.507 2bitEs4 transmission facility for
the transport of ++; signaling messages.
P a g e | 75
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Dith the evolution of computer networking and packet
switching concept a new era of integrated communication has
emerged in the telecom world. *apid growth of data
communication market and popularity of &nternet) reflect the
needs of enhanced infrastructure to optimi"e the demand of
traffic. &ntegration of telecom and computer networking
technology trend has further amplified the importance of
telecommunications in the field of information
communication. &t becomes a tool for the conveyance of
information) and thus can be critical to the development
process. #elecommunications has become one of the most
important infrastructures that are very essential to the socio-
economic well being of any nation. As the &nternet market
continues to e$plode) demand for greater bandwidth and
faster connection speeds have led to several technological
approaches developed to provide broadband access to all
consumers. #he demand for high-speed bandwidth is growing
at a fast pace) driven mostly by growth in data volumes as the
&nternet and related networks become more central to
business operations. #he rapid growth of distributed business
applications) e-commerce) and bandwidth-intensive
P a g e | 16
applications 3such as multimedia) videoconferencing) and
video on demand4 generate the demand for bandwidth and
access network.
A concept of broadband services and the means of access
technologies to bridge the customer and service provider is
emerged out throughout the world. N=roadbandN refers to high-
speed &nternet access. =roadband +olutions represent the
convergence of multiple independent networks including voice)
video and data into a single) unified) broadband network.
P a g e | 11
D%FINITION OF 1ROAD1AND
=roadband is the nonspecific term for high-speed digital &nternet
access. #o state the obvious) TbroadbandF indicates a means of
connectivity at a high or TbroadF bandwidth. #here are the
various ways to define the broadbandA -
#erm for evolving digital technologies that provide
customers a high-speed data network connection
Provides signal switched facility offering integrated access
to voice) data) video) and interactive delivery services
#he >ederal ,ommunications ,ommission 3>,,4 defines
broadband as an advanced telecommunications capability
(elivers services C facilities with an upstream and
downstream speed of 266 @bps or more. *ange varies
from 120 @bps to 166 2bps.
P a g e | 12
In fact t!ere is no specific International Definition for
1roa)"an)
&n &ndia) (epartment of #elecommunications has issued a
=roadband policy in 2667. @eeping in view the present status)
=roadband connectivity is defined at present asA -
JAn Talways-onF data connection that is able to support
interactive services including &nternet access and has the
capability of the minimum download speed of 21: kilo bits per
second 3kbps4 to an individual subscriber from the Point f
Presence 3PP4 of the service provider intending to provide
=roadband service where multiple such individual =roadband
connections are aggregated and the subscriber is able to access
these interactive services including the &nternet through this
PP. #he interactive services will e$clude any services for
which a separate license is specifically re8uired) for e$ample)
real-time voice transmission) e$cept to the e$tent that it is
presently permitted under &+P license with &nternet #elephony.
&t reflects thatA -
ne of the latest trends in enhancing communication
systems involves broadband technology.
=roadband refers to greater bandwidth-or transmission
capacity of a medium
P a g e | 1/
=roadband technology will allow for high-speed
transmission of voice) video) and data over networks like
the &nternet
IPL%%NTATION OF 1ROAD1AND
#o +trengthen =roadband Penetration) the !overnment of &ndia
has formulated a =roadband Policy whose main
objectives are toA-
%stablish a regulatory framework for the carriage and the
content of information in the scenario of convergence.
>acilitate development of national infrastructure for an
information based society.
2ake available broadband interactive multimedia services
to users in the public network.
Provide high speed data and multimedia capability using
new technologies to all towns with a population greater
than 2 lakhs.
2ake available &nternet services at panchayat 3village4
level for access to information to provide product
consultancy and marketing advice.
(eploy state of art and proven technologies to facilitate
introduction of new services.
P a g e | 17
+trengthen research and development efforts in the
telecom technologies.
N%%D OF 1ROAD1AND
#he concept of socio economy has an important role in the field
of communication of data) audio) video) speech or any other
kind of application. &t is an era of ,AP%I and P%I. +ervice
providers and customers both are interested in economy with
fastest tool of communication with more throughput. #raditional
circuit switching network are not supporting the effective fast
communication for new applications. #his has emerged out with
the evolution of packet switching network. ,ommunication of
data for various applications is feasible to carry with different
throughput.
#he service provider converged voice and data network
promises to be implemented as nodes in a neighborhood or
remote switches in regional locations.
#he &nternet) e-mail) web sites) software downloads) file
transfersA they are all now part of the fabric of doing business.
=ut until now) it has not been possible for businesses to fully
take advantage of the benefits that technology can truly deliver.
#he reason for this is a simple one - a lack of bandwidth. %ven
for small businesses) narrowband dial-up access is no longer
P a g e | 11
sufficient. &t simply takes too long to do basic tasks) like
downloading a large file) and is increasingly being recogni"ed as
insufficient and inconvenient.
@im 2a$well in his book-N*esidential =roadbandA An &nsiderHs
!uide to the =attle for the Last 2ileN has grouped potential
residential broadband applications into three general categoriesA
Nprofessional activitiesK 3activities related to usersH
employment4) Nentertainment activitiesK 3from game playing to
movie watching4) and Nconsumer activities J3all other non-
employment and non-entertainment activities4.as followsA S
Professional Acti(ities: Professional Acti(ities:
#elecommuting 3access to corporate networks and systems
to support working at home on a regular basis4
9ideo conferencing 3one-to-one or multi-person video
telephone calls4
Gome-based business 3including web serving) e-commerce
with customers) and other financial functions4
Gome office 3access to corporate networks and e-mail to
supplement work at a primary office location4
P a g e | 1:
%ntertainment Acti(ities:
Deb surfing 3as today) but at higher speeds with more
video content4
9ideo-on-demand 3movies and rerun or delayed television
shows4
9ideo games 3interactive multi-player games4
Consumer Acti(ities: Consumer Acti(ities:
+hopping 3as today) but at higher speeds with more video
content4
#elemedicine 3including remote doctor visits and remote
medical analyses by medical specialists4

(istance learning 3including live and pre-recorded
educational presentations4
Public services 3including voting and electronic town hall
meetings4
&nformation gathering 3using the Deb for non-
entertainment purposes4
Photography 3editing) distributing) and displaying of
digital photographs4
P a g e | 1;
9ideo conferencing among friends and family
#hese applications have different bandwidth re8uirements) and
some of them are still out of reach today. >or e$ample) all of the
NprofessionalN activities will likely be supported with less than
1.6 2bps of bandwidth. +imilarly) web surfing and home
shopping will be supported with less than 1.6 2bps of
bandwidth.
2ovies and video) however) demand more bandwidth. >eature
length movies can probably be delivered with 1.1 2bps of
bandwidth) but broadcast 8uality video will probably re8uire
moreW perhaps as much as :.6 2bps. 2oreover) if high
definition television 3NG(#9N4 is widely accepted as a new
broadcast standard) that 8uality of video would re8uire almost
26.6 2bps of bandwidth W much higher than the current
broadband technologies will support. #hus) although the
technology is moving toward fle$ible) high-8uality video-on-
demand) the necessary speed is probably still more than a few
years away from becoming a reality.
#he &nternet is poised to spin off thousands of speciali"ed
broadband services. #he access network needs to provide the
platform for delivery of these services. >ollowing are the
various applications or services) which are very popular in
society and needs broadband connectivityA -
8irtual Networks 8irtual Networks
#he private virtual networks 3LA'EDA'4 can be used in an
ample variety of multimedia services) like bank accounts and
central offices.
%)ucation ". )istance
P a g e | 10
%ducation will not have any limits to reach from source to
destination. Along with the traditional school a concept of
remote leaning center is emerged out and popular for various
courses. #here is no limit of distance) area or location in such
distance learning. #he student situated in the remote station can
intervene directly to his class with a double system via
videoconference) whilst this happens) simultaneously) the file e$
change
Telework
rgani"ation firm workers that incorporate communication
systems via satellite) can work remotely connecting directly to
their head offices &nternet by a high speed connection that
permits users to work efficiently and comfortable.
Teleme)icine
(octors situated in different clinics can stay in contact and
consult themselves directly to other regional medical centers)
using videoconference and the e$change of high 8uality images)
giving out test results and any type of information. Also rural
"one can have the opinion of specialists situated in remote
hospitals 8uickly and efficiently.
%lectronic commerce
%lectronic commerce is a system that permits users to pay goods
and services by &nternet. #hanks to this service) any person
connected to the network can ad 8uire such services with
independence from the place that he is situated and during the
27 hours) simply using a portable computer.
P a g e | 15
T%C:NOLO+B OPTION# FOR 1ROAD1AND
#%R8IC%#
,ommunication of data with different throughput is feasible by
following technologiesA -
Narrow 1an)
2.7 kbps < 120kbps
1roa)"an)
21:kbps < 0666kbps
LAN
1666kbps < 1662bps E !iga %thernet 9arious Access
#echnologies are used for the delivery of broadband
services. =roadband communications technology can be
divided broadly in to following categoriesA -
*ire line Tec!nolog.
*ireless Tec!nologies
+ervice providers according to available technology and access
provide the broadband services to customers. #he access
technologies that are adopted by the services providers are
mainly ptical >iber #echnologies) (+L on copper loop) ,able
#9 'etwork) +atellite 2edia) cellular and fi$ed wireless)
#errestrial Direless etc.
#echnology options for broadband services may be classified
according to the mode of access.
*ire line Tec!nologies inclu)e
(igital +ubscriber Lines 3(+L4 on copper loop
ptical >iber #echnologies
,able #9 'etwork
P a g e | :6
PL, 3Power Line ,ommunication
*ireless Tec!nologies inclu)e
+atellite 2edia
#errestrial Direless
/! 2obile
Di->i 3Direless >idelity4
Di2a$
L2(+ and 22(+
>+ 3>ree +pace ptics4
1ROAD1AND N%T*OR/
#he broadband services reached to customer from the three
providers. =asically these are +ervice Provider) 'etwork
Provider and Access Provider. #he role of 'etwork Provider is
to provide the services offered to customer through the access
e$tended by Access Provider. #here are various types of
networks which are capable of transmitting and managing the
broadband traffic to desired nodes or locations.
Dire line access technology through (+L) >iber) and ,able etc
are generally adoptsA
&P based 'etwork
A#2 'etwork
Direless access technology through Di->i) Di-2a$. /! mobile
etc provides wireless access to ingress point of any core network
any migrates to &nternet world.
P a g e | :1
1ROAD1AND T%C:NOLO+I%# U#%D IN A#IAN
COUNTRI%#
=roadband technologies go through two stages of development
in Asian countries. &n the early stage) sharp technological
divisions e$ist among players due to regulatory constraints.
#here are various mode of access used by service providers in
this field. >ollowing was the beginning scenario in various
countries like Gong @ong) 2alaysia) &ndonesia) &ndia and
+ingaporeA -
=asic #elecom service providers adopted the use of
&+('E(+L
,A#9 operators use cable modems
,ompetitive players use wireless technologies.
&n the later stage of development) technological divisions are
shaped by geography and infrastructure. #he broadband started
establishing and due to a progressive regulatory framework it
has matured in the market. &n the countries like @orea and
Philippines service providers employ several technologies for
the broadband in their networks.
P a g e | :2
(+L and cable modems are used where the P+#' and
,A#9 are in place.
Dhere rainfall is light) an L2(+ is used to serve densely
populated areas with little infrastructure and unwired
business districts.
+atellite is used to service rural areas where population
densities are low
nce newer technologies are available in the market) &+('
becomes relatively less important. %stablished telephone
companies are calculating the economics of converting the Last
2ile of e$isting networks to all-digital systems. Gong @ong and
+ingapore citi"ens already have broadband access) such as
movies on demand) through their local telecom network. ,able-
#9 operators) too) are venturing into high-speed &nternet access
through modified networks and end-user Ncable modems.N
Advances in wireless communications means that people starts
surfing the net with cell phones at speeds comparable to or
greater than current home access.
P a g e | :/
1#NL pro(i)es :ig! spee)
"roa)"an) internet access un)er t!e "ran) name
J(ataoneK =+'LFs =roadband service let the customer to
transmit large amount of data at high speed. At the
minimum of 21: kbps) it is 7.1 times faster than the dial-up)
when connected to the internet such a connection allow
surfing or downloading at much faster speed with out the
hassle of dialing and disconnection. #he =roadband service
is available on (+L technology 3on the same copper cable
that is used for connecting telephone4) on a countrywide
basis spanning more than 266 cities.
Customer nee)s in or)er to "e a"le to use 1roa)"an):@
1. =+'LFs =fone 3=asic phone 4 connection
2. Personal ,omputer with %thernet port or .+= port.
/. A(+L ,P% 3,ustomer Premises %8uipment4. #his can be
taken from =+'L at nominal rental or can be purchased
out rightly from =+'L.
P a g e | :7
7. Along with ,P%) a splitter. #he splitter is used to separate
voice and data.
1enefits an) ser(ices of 1roa)"an)
Always on) fast internet connections with minimum speed
of 21: kbps up to 0 2bps
>ast downloads even for files with comple$ graphics and
pictures.
!et streaming contents like radio) streaming video) !ames
on demand without interruption.
+imultaneous use of telephone and internet.
+aves time and money.
+imple monthly charges. 'o telephone call charges for
internet access.
At present only postpaid broadband services are available.
Prepaid services are likely to be made available shortly.
,ontent =ase +ervices like 9ideo on (emand) &P#9 are to
be introduced shortly. 3 .p to 166 #9 channels on
broadband is available at Pune with a monthly rental of *s.
216.664
P a g e | :1
Fig 25 Connection of CP% at #u" Office
P a g e | ::
Fig =5 Connection of Parallel telep!ones to 1roa)"an) line
P a g e | :;
Core
Router
1roa)"an) )eplo.ment
P a g e | :0
Fig 65 1roa)"an) Network Connecti(it. Diagram
AD#L D%PLOB%NT
1roa)"an)
RA#
Tier 2 switc!
+ig%
+ig%

+ig%
Tier =
#witc!
+ig%
=3C Port
D#LA
AD#L
terminals
,.+#2%*
P a g e | :5
TBP% I OD% T EE=
(+LA2
FD
F
TIER 2
FE
P
S
T
N
M DF
ER
.i,er 3onnetivit$
3opper Pair
2(>
ER > E2uipment Room
.rom Su,sri,er
Central #$$ice
&%-c!ange'
:ome7Office
AD#L
CP%
%$' up to ()m
+plitter
D#LA
Data switc!&Internet'
8oice #witc!&P#TN'
Copper
TBPICAL N%T*OR/ CONFI+URATION
P a g e | ;6
LED INDICATIONS FOR TYPE I MODEM
TBP% II OD% *A2CC6A
P a g e | ;1
LED INDICATIONS FOR TYPE II MODEM
P a g e | ;2
TBP% III7I8 OD% TE32
L%D INDICATION# FOR TBP% III7I8 OD%
P a g e | ;/
TROU1L% #:OOTIN+ +UID%LIN%#
Failure Instructions
1
Power light
is out.
1. Ensure power adapter is well connected;
2. Ensure the right power adapter is used.
2
ADSL LI!
light is out.
1. Ensure the ADSL line is well connected;
2. Ensure the telephone line "e#ore entering the
house is $alid% tr& to test with a telephone;
3. 'hec( that there is no )unction "o* "e#ore
connecting the +ode,% which has such
co,ponents li(e capacitors or diodes that could
hinder "ac( high #re-uenc& signals.
.. Ensure the +ode, and telephones are
connected in the right wa&.
3
LA LI!
light is out.
1. Ensure &ou use the right ca"les #ro, the
+ode, to &our P'.
2. Ensure the connection is secured.
3. 'hec( i# the I' LED lights up.
.. Ensure &our etwor( Adapter wor(s nor,all&
"& e*a,ining whether the ite, o# /etwor(ing
Adapters0 is la"elled with 1 or 2. I# it is% &ou ,a&
delete it and then clic( /3e#resh0 to reinstall.
4therwise% &ou ,a& tr& the I' in another slot.
As a last resort% &ou ha$e to replace the I'.
.
5S6 LI! is
out
1. Ensure that 5S6 ca"le connection is secure.
2. Ensure that the proper dri$er is installed in the
P'.
3. Ensure that the ,ode, is correctl& installed
with proper dri$er and 7the de$ice is wor(ing
properl&8 ,essage is a$aila"le is de$ice
,anager.
.. Ensure that 5S6 port in the P' is wor(ing
properl&; otherwise connect the ,ode, to
another port.
P a g e | ;7
9
'an8t
access the
Internet.
:a(e the ,ost co,,on access ,ode as an
e*a,ple% in which a dial;up application is
installed on the user8s co,puter<
1. Ensure that an& o# the pro"le,s a"o$e is not
the reason;
2. Ensure that the dial;up application is correctl&
installed and set on &our P';
3. Ensure that &ou ha$e entered the right user
na,e and password.
.. Ensure /5se Pro*& Ser$er0 is unchec(ed in
internet e*plorer =tools;internet options >
connections > LA settings?% i# the pro"le, still
re,ains e$en a#ter &ou ha$e log into
success#ull&;
9. :r& ,ore than one @e"sites% in case o# so,e
@e" ser$er8s "eing in #ailure.
A
'annot log
in the
con#iguration
page
1. +a(e sure the P' indicator at the tas( "ar is
on.
2. +a(e sure the con#iguration o# :'PBIP is
correct.
3. +a(e sure the data indicator =6lin(ing P'
Indicator? o# de$ice is on when using Ping
co,,and.
.. +a(e sure the user na,e and password is
correct. 3eset the de$ice.
#afet. Concerns for AD#L o)ems
Place the 2(%2 on a stable stand or table.
.se the power adapter provided along with 2(%2.
(o not connect telephone directly to the A(+L line. .se
the splitter to connect the phone.
(o not put heavy objects on top of the 2(%2.
P a g e | ;1
(o not spill li8uid of any kind onto the 2(%2. And
keep the unit clean and in a dry environment.
=reak off the power supply in a stormy weather.
(o not e$pose the 2(%2 to direct sunlight.
(o not put the 2(%2 on top of the cabinet of your P,.
.se a soft and dry cloth for cleaning.
Dhen not in use) please power off the 2(%2L
(o not use junction bo$es before connecting the 2(%2)
which have such components like capacitors or diodes that
could hinder back high fre8uency signals.
Dhen the 2odem has been used for a long time) the
surface will reach a certain temperature. #his is a natural
phenomenon and the 2odem can still work normally.
Line Parameters for 1roa)"an)
#he loop resistance should be less than 1166 ohms.
&nsulation resistance between the a limb and b limb) a limb
to earth C b limb to earth should be more than 2 2ega
ohms
Dires should not contain any joints.
#he foreign potential between a limb to earth C b limb to
earth should be less than : volts.
#here should not be any cross talk in the line.
#here should not be any noise in the line.
.sage of drop wire should be minimum
#he capacitance e$cluding the instrument should be in
between 6./ to 6.1 microfarads.
P a g e | ;:
INTRODUCTION
ptical communication systems date back to the 1;56s) to
the optical semaphore telegraph invented by >rench inventor
,laude ,happe. &n 1006) Ale$ander !raham =ell patented an
optical telephone system) which he called the Photophone.
Gowever) his earlier invention) the telephone) was more
practical and took tangible shape.
=y 15:7) a critical and theoretical specification was
identified by (r. ,harles @. @ao for long-range communication
devices) the 16 or 26 d= of light loss per kilometer standard.
(r. @ao also illustrated the need for a purer form of glass to help
reduce light loss. =y 15;6 ,orning !lass invented fiber-optic
wire or Noptical waveguide fibersN which was capable of
carrying :1)666 times more information than copper wire)
through which information carried by a pattern of light waves
could be decoded at a destination even a thousand miles away.
,orning !lass developed an +2> with loss of 1; d=Ekm at ://
nm by doping titanium into the fiber core. =y ?une of 15;2)
multimode germanium-doped fiber had developed with a loss of
7 d= per kilometer and much greater strength than titanium-
doped fiber. Prof. @ao was awarded half of the 2665 for
Ngroundbreaking achie%ements concerning the transmission o$
light in $ibers $or optical communicationN. &n April 15;;)
!eneral #elephone and %lectronics tested and deployed the
worldHs first live telephone traffic through a fiber-optic system
running at : 2bps) in Long =each) ,alifornia. #hey were soon
followed by =ell in 2ay 15;;) with an optical telephone
communication system installed in the downtown ,hicago area)
covering a distance of 1.1 miles 32.7 kilometers4. %ach optical-
fiber pair carried the e8uivalent of :;2 voice channels and was
e8uivalent to a (+/ circuit. #oday more than 06 percent of the
P a g e | ;;
worldHs long-distance voice and data traffic is carried over
optical-fiber cables.
FI1%RHOPTIC APPLICATION#
>&=*% P#&,+A #he use and demand for optical fiber has
grown tremendously and optical-fiber applications are
numerous. #elecommunication applications are widespread)
ranging from global networks to desktop computers. #hese
involve the transmission of voice) data) or video over distances
of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers) using one of a
few standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.
,arriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone
service 3P#+4 across their nationwide networks. Local
e$change carriers 3L%,s4 use fiber to carry this same service
between central office switches at local levels) and sometimes as
far as the neighborhood or individual home 3fiber to the home
X>##GY4.
ptical fiber is also used e$tensively for transmission of
data. 2ultinational firms need secure) reliable systems to
transfer data and financial information between buildings to the
desktop terminals or computers and to transfer data around the
world. ,able television companies also use fiber for delivery of
digital video and data services. #he high bandwidth provided by
fiber makes it the perfect choice for transmitting broadband
signals) such as high-definition television 3G(#94 telecasts.
&ntelligent transportation systems) such as smart highways with
intelligent traffic lights) automated tollbooths) and changeable
message signs) also use fiber-optic-based telemetry systems.
Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical
industry. >iber-optic systems are used in most modern
telemedicine devices for transmission of digital diagnostic
images. ther applications for optical fiber include space)
military) automotive) and the industrial sector.
P a g e | ;0
AD8ANTA+%# OF FI1R% OPTIC#
>iber ptics has the following advantagesA
#P%%D: >iber optic networks operate at high speeds - up
into the gigabits
1AND*IDT:A large carrying capacity
DI#TANC%: +ignals can be transmitted further without
needing to be NrefreshedN or strengthened.
R%#I#TANC%: !reater resistance to electromagnetic noise
such as radios) motors or other nearby cables.
AINT%NANC%: >iber optic cables costs much less to
maintain.
P a g e | ;5
FI1%R OPTIC #B#T%
ptical >iber is new medium) in which information 3voice) (ata
or 9ideo4 is transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber) in the
form of light) following the transmission se8uence give belowA
&nformation is encoded into %lectrical +ignals.
%lectrical +ignals are converted into light +ignals.
Light #ravels down the >iber.
A (etector ,hanges the Light +ignals into %lectrical
+ignals.
%lectrical +ignals are decoded into &nformation.
- &ne$pensive light sources available.
- *epeater spacing increases along with
operating speeds because low loss fibers are
used at high data rates.
P a g e | 06
Fig5 2
Principle of Operation I T!eor.
#otal &nternal *eflection - #he *eflection that ccurs when a
Ligh *ay #ravelling in ne 2aterial Gits a (ifferent 2aterial
and *eflects =ack into the riginal 2aterial without any
Loss of Light.

Fig5 =
+peed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic energy
in vacuum such as space. Light travels at slower velocities in
other materials such as glass. Light travelling from one material
to another changes speed) which results in light changing its
direction of travel. #his deflection of light is called *efraction.
P a g e | 01
#he amount that a ray of light passing from a lower refractive
inde$ to a higher one is bent towards the normal. =ut light going
from a higher inde$ to a lower one refracting away from the
normal) as shown in the figures.
C
1
Angle of incience
n
1
n
2
C
2
n
1
n
2
C
1
C
2
n
1
n
2
C
1
C
2
Angle of
!eflec"ion
Lig#" i$ %en" &'&(
f!o) no!)&l
Lig#" oe$ no" en"e!
$econ )&"e!i&l
Fig5 6
As the angle of incidence increases) the angle of refraction
approaches 56
o
to the normal. #he angle of incidence that yields
an angle of refraction of 56
o
is the critical angle. &f the angle of
incidence increases amore than the critical angle) the light is
totally reflected back into the first material so that it does not
enter the second material. #he angle of incidence and reflection
are e8ual and it is called #otal &nternal *eflection.
PROPA+ATION OF LI+:T T:ROU+: FI1R%
#he optical fibre has two concentric layers called the core and
the cladding. #he inner core is the light carrying part. #he
surrounding cladding provides the difference refractive inde$
that allows total internal reflection of light through the core. #he
inde$ of the cladding is less than 1Z) lower than that of the core.
#ypical values for e$ample are a core refractive inde$ of 1.7;
and a cladding inde$ of 1.7:. >iber manufacturers control this
difference to obtain desired optical fiber characteristics. 2ost
fibers have an additional coating around the cladding. #his
buffer coating is a shock absorber and has no optical properties
P a g e | 02
affecting the propagation of light within the fibre. >igure shows
the idea of light travelling through a fibre. Light injected into the
fibre and striking core to cladding interface at grater than the
critical angle) reflects back into core) since the angle of
incidence and reflection are e8ual) the reflected light will again
be reflected. #he light will continue "ig"agging down the length
of the fibre. Light striking the interface at less than the critical
angle passes into the cladding) where it is lost over distance. #he
cladding is usually inefficient as a light carrier) and light in the
cladding becomes attenuated fairly. Propagation of light through
fibre is governed by the indices of the core and cladding by
+nellHs law.
+uch total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation
through a optical fibre. #his analysis consider only meridional
rays- those that pass through the fibre a$is each time) they are
reflected. ther rays called +kew rays travel down the fibre
without passing through the a$is. #he path of a skew ray is
typically helical wrapping around and around the central a$is.
>ortunately skew rays are ignored in most fibre optics analysis.
#he specific characteristics of light propagation through a fibre
depends on many factors) including
- #he si"e of the fibre.
- #he composition of the fibre.
- #he light injected into the fibre.
P a g e | 0/
*&c+e"
Cl&ing
Co!e
Cl&ing
Angle of
!eflec"ion
Angle of
incience
Lig#" &" le$$ "#&n
c!i"ic&l &ngle i$
&%$o!%e in ,&c+e"
*&c+e"
Lig#" i$ -!o-&g&"e %(
"o"&l in"e!n&l !eflec"ion
*&c+e"
Cl&ing
Co!e
.n
2/
.n
2/
Fig. To"&l In"e!n&l Reflec"ion in &n o-"ic&l Fi%!e
Fig. ( *rop"g"tion o+ ,ight through +iber
+%O%TRB OF FI1R%
A hair-thin fiber consist of two concentric layers of high-
purity silica glass the core and the cladding) which are enclosed
by a protective sheath as shown in >ig. 1. Light rays modulated
into digital pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode moves
along the core without penetrating the cladding.
Fig5 4 +eometr. of fi"er
#he light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a
lower refractive inde$Wa measure of its ability to bend light.
*efinements in optical fibers) along with the development of
new lasers and diodes) may one day allow commercial fiber-
optic networks to carry trillions of bits of data per second.
#he diameters of the core and cladding are as follows.
P a g e | 07
Core &m' Cla))ing & m'
0 121
16 121
:2.1 121
166 176
>ibre si"es are usually e$pressed by first giving the core si"e
followed by the cladding si"e. #hus 16E121 means a core
diameter of 16m and a cladding diameter of 121m.
FI1R% TBP%#
#he refractive &nde$ profile describes the relation between the
indices of the core and cladding. #wo main relationships e$istsA
3&4 +tep &nde$
3&&4 !raded &nde$
#he step inde$ fibre has a core with uniform inde$ throughout.
#he profile shows a sharp step at the junction of the core and
cladding. &n contrast) the graded inde$ has a non-uniform core.
#he &nde$ is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it
matches with that of the cladding. #here is no sharp break in
indices between the core and the cladding.
=y this classification there are three types of fibres A
3&4 2ultimode +tep &nde$ fibre 3+tep &nde$ fibre4
3&&4 2ultimode graded &nde$ fibre 3!raded &nde$ fibre4
3&&&4 +ingle- 2ode +tep &nde$ fibre 3+ingle 2ode >ibre4
#T%P@IND%9 ULTIOD% FI1%R has a large core)
up to 166 microns in diameter. As a result) some of the light rays
that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route) whereas
P a g e | 01
others "ig"ag as they bounce off the cladding. #hese alternative
pathways cause the different groupings of light rays) referred to
as modes) to arrive separately at a receiving point. #he pulse) an
aggregate of different modes) begins to spread out) losing its
Dell-defined shape. #he need to leave spacing between pulses to
prevent overlapping limits bandwidth that is) the amount of
information that can be sent. ,onse8uently) this type of fiber is
best suited for transmission over short distances) in an
endoscope) for instance.
Fig5 D #T%P@IND%9 ULTIOD% FI1%R
+RAD%D@IND%9 ULTIOD% FI1%R contains a
core in which the refractive inde$ diminishes gradually from the
center a$is out toward the cladding. #he higher refractive inde$
at the center makes the light rays moving down the a$is advance
more slowly than those near the cladding.
Fig5> +RAD%D@IND%9 ULTIOD% FI1%R
Also) rather than "ig"agging off the cladding) light in the
core curves helically because of the graded inde$) reducing its
travel distance. #he shortened path and the higher speed allow
light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same
time as the slow but straight rays in the core a$is. #he resultA a
digital pulse suffers less dispersion.

P a g e | 0:
#IN+L%@OD% FI1%R has a narrow core 3eight microns
or less4) and the inde$ of refraction between the core and the
cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibers. Light
thus travels parallel to the a$is) creating little pulse dispersion.
#elephone and cable television networks install millions of
kilometers of this fiber every year.
Fig5 E #IN+L%@OD% FI1%R
OPTICAL FI1R% PARA%T%R#
ptical fiber systems have the following parameters.
3&4 Davelength.
3&&4 >re8uency.
3&&&4 Dindow.
3&94 Attenuation.
394 (ispersion.
39&4 =andwidth.
*A8%L%N+T:
&t is a characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source
and is measures in nanometers 3nm4. &n the visible spectrum)
wavelength can be described as the colour of the light.
P a g e | 0;
>or e$ample) *ed Light has longer wavelength than =lue Light)
#ypical wavelength for fibre use are 016nm) 1/66nm and
1116nm all of which are invisible.
FR%;U%NCB
&t is number of pulse per second emitted from a light source.
>re8uency is measured in units of hert" 3G"4. &n terms of optical
pulse 1G" P 1 pulseE sec.
*INDO*
A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at
which a fibre best operates. #ypical windows are
given below A
*in)ow
Operational
*a(elengt!
066nm - 566nm 016nm
1216nm - 1/16nm 1/66nm
1166nm - 1:66nm 1116nm
ATT%NUATION
Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set
distance) a fibre with lower attenuation will allow
more power to reach a receiver than fibre with
higher attenuation. Attenuation may be
categori"ed as intrinsic or e$trinsic.
P a g e | 00
INTRIN#IC ATT%NUATION
&t is loss due to inherent or within the fibre. &ntrinsic attenuation
may occur as
314 A"sorption - 'atural &mpurities in the glass absorb light
energy.
Fig5 A A"sorption of Lig!t
324 #cattering - Light *ays #ravelling in the ,ore *eflect
from small &mperfections into a 'ew Pathway that may be Lost
through the cladding.
Lig#"
R&(
Lig#" i$ lo$"
Fig5 2C #cattering
%9TRIN#IC ATT%NUATION
&t is loss due to e$ternal sources. %$trinsic attenuation may
occur as <
3&4 2acrobending - #he fibre is sharply bent so that the light
travelling down the fibre cannot make the turn C is lost in
the cladding.
Lig#"
R&(
P a g e | 05
Fig5 22 icro an) acro "en)ing
3&&4 2icrobending - 2icrobending or small bends in the fibre
caused by crushing contraction etc. #hese bends may not be
visible with the naked eye.
Attenuation is measured in decibels 3d=4. A d= represents the
comparison between the transmitted and received power in a
system.
1AND*IDT:
&t is defined as the amount of information that a system can
carry such that each pulse of light is distinguishable by the
receiver.
+ystem bandwidth is measured in 2G" or !G". &n general)
when we say that a system has bandwidth of 26 2G") means
that 26 million pulses of light per second will travel down the
fibre and each will be distinguishable by the receiver.
NU1%RICAL AP%RTUR%
'umerical aperture 3'A4 is the Nlight - gathering abilityN of a
fibre. Light injected into the fibre at angles greater than the
critical angle will be propagated. #he material 'A relates to the
refractive indices of the core and cladding.
P a g e | 56
'A P n
1
2
- n
2
2

Dhere n
1
and n
2
are refractive indices of core and cladding
respectively.
'A is unitless dimension. De can also define as the angles at
which rays will be propagated by the fibre. #hese angles form a
cone called the acceptance cone) which gives the ma$imum
angle of light acceptance. #he acceptance cone is related to the
'A
P arc sing 3'A4 or
'A P sin
where is the half angle of acceptance
#he 'A of a fibre is important because it gives an indication of
how the fibre accepts and propagates light. A fibre with a large
'A accepts light well) a fibre with a low 'A re8uires highly
directional light.
&n general) fibres with a high bandwidth have a lower 'A. #hey
thus allow fewer modes means less dispersion and hence greater
bandwidth. A large 'A promotes more modal dispersion) since
more paths for the rays are provided 'A) although it can be
P a g e | 51
defined for a single mode fibre) is essentially meaningless as a
practical characteristic. 'A in a multimode fibre is important to
system performance and to calculate anticipated performance.
Fig5 2= Numerical Aperture of fi"er
[ Light *ay A A (id not %nter Acceptance ,one - Lost
[ Light *ay = A %ntered Acceptance ,one - #ransmitted through
the ,ore by #otal &nternal *eflection.
DI#P%R#ION
(ispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its travels down the
length of an optical fibre as shown in figure 1/. (ispersion
limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of a fibre.
#he bit-rates must be low enough to ensure that pulses are
farther apart and therefore the greater dispersion can be
tolerated.
#here are three main types of dispersion in a fibre -
3&4 2odal (ispersion
3&&4 2aterial dispersion
3&&&4 Daveguide dispersion
P a g e | 52
Fig5 26 Dispersion
1AND*IDT: AND DI#P%R#ION:
A bandwidth of 766 2G" -km means that a 766 2G"-signal can
be transmitted for 1 km. &t means that the product of fre8uency
and the length must be 766 or less. De can send a lower
fre8uency for a longer distance) i.e. 266 2G" for 2 km or 166
2G" for 7 km. 2ultimode fibres are specified by the
bandwidth-length product or simply bandwidth.
+ingle mode fibres on the other hand are specified by dispersion)
e$pressed in psEkmEnm. &n other words for any given single
mode fibre dispersion is most affected by the sourceHs spectral
width. #he wider the source spectral width) the greater the
dispersion.
,onversion of dispersion to bandwidth can be appro$imated
roughly by the following e8uation.
6.10;
=D P --------------------------
3(isp4 3+D4 3L4
(isp P (ispersion at the operating wavelength in secondsE
nmE km.
+D P +pectral width of the source in nm.
P a g e | 5/
L P >ibre length in km.
+o the spectral width of the source has a significant effect on the
performance of a single mode fibre.
OPTICAL *INDO*# :
Attenuation of fibre for optical power varies with the
wavelengths of light. Dindows are low-loss regions) where fiber
carry light with little attenuation. #he first generation of optical
fibre operated in the first window around 026 to 016 nm. #he
second window is the "ero-dispersion region of 1/66 nm and the
third window is the 1116 nm region as shown in figure 17.
Fig5 23 Optical *in)ows
CA1L% CON#TRUCTION
#here are two basic cable designs areA
1. #ight =uffer #ube ,able
2. Loose =uffer #ube ,able
Loose-tube cable) used in the majority of outside-plant
installations and tight-buffered cable) primarily used inside
buildings.
Tig!t@1uffere) Ca"le
Dith tight-buffered cable designs) the buffering material is
in direct contact with the fiber. #his design is suited for Njumper
cablesN which connect outside plant cables to terminal
P a g e | 57
e8uipment) and also for linking various devices in a premises
network. +ingle-fiber tight-buffered cables are used as pigtails)
patch cords and jumpers to terminate loose-tube cables directly
into opto-electronic transmitters) receivers and other active and
passive components.
2ulti-fiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are
used primarily for alternative routing and handling fle$ibility
and ease within buildings.#he tight-buffered design provides a
rugged cable structure to protect individual fibers during
handling) routing and connectori"ation. Uarn strength members
keep the tensile load away from the fiber.
Fig5 24 Tig!t 1uffer Tu"e Ca"le
Loose@Tu"e Ca"le
#he modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds D,
2=, =3, 3E, AD or e(en more t!an 3CC fi"ers per ca"le. Loose-
tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally armored. #he
loose-tube design also helps in the identification and
administration of fibers in the system.
&n a loose-tube cable design) color-coded plastic buffer
tubes house and protect optical fibers. A gel filling compound
impedes water penetration. %$cess fiber length 3relative to
buffer tube length4 insulates fibers from stresses of installation
and environmental loading. =uffer tubes are stranded around a
P a g e | 51
dielectric or steel central member) which serves as an anti-
buckling element.
#he cable core) typically uses aramid yarn) as the primary
tensile strength member. #he outer polyethylene jacket is
e$truded over the core. &f armoring is re8uired) a corrugated
steel tape is formed around a single jacketed cable with an
additional jacket e$truded over the armor.
Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant
installation in aerial) duct and direct-buried applications.
Gere are some common fiber cables types are given belowA
&2' Distri"ution Ca"le
(istribution ,able 3compact building cable4 packages
individual 566\m buffered fiber reducing si"e and cost. #he
connectors may be installed directly on the 566\m buffered
fiber at the breakout bo$ location.
Fig5 2D Distri"ution Ca"le
&=' Loose Tu"e Ca"le
Loose tube cable is designed to endure outside temperatures
and high moisture conditions. #he fibers are loosely packaged in
gel filled buffer tubes to repel water. *ecommended for use
P a g e | 5:
between buildings that are unprotected from outside elements.
Loose tube cable is restricted from inside building use.
Fig52> Loose Tu"e Ca"le
&6' Aerial Ca"le7#elf@#upporting
Aerial cable provides ease of installation and reduces time
and cost. >igure 0 cable can easily be separated between the
fiber and the messenger. #emperature range 3-11], to R01],4
Fig5 2E Aerial Ca"le7#elf@#upporting
&3' :."ri) $ Composite Ca"le
Gybrid cables offer the same great benefits as our standard
indoorEoutdoor cables) with the convenience of installing
multimode and single mode fibers all in one pull. ur composite
cables offer optical fiber along with solid 17 gauge wires
suitable for a variety of uses including power) grounding and
other electronic controls
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Fig5 2A :."ri) $ Composite Ca"le
&4' 45Armore) Ca"le
Armored cable can be used for rodent protection in direct
burial if re8uired. #his cable is non-gel filled and can also be
used in aerial applications. #he armor can be removed leaving
the inner cable suitable for any indoorEoutdoor use.
3#emperature rating -76], to R01],4
Fig5 =C Armore) Ca"le
>ibre ptic ,ables 3Loose =uffer #ube4 have the following parts
in common L
3&4 ptical >ibre
3&&4 =uffer
3&&&4 +trength member
3&94 ?acket
Component Function aterial
=uffer Protect fibre >rom 'ylon) 2ylar) Plastic
P a g e | 50
utside
,entral
2ember
>acilitate +tranding
#emperature +tability
Anti-=uckling
+teel) >ibreglass
Primary
+trength
2ember
#ensile +trength Aramid Uarn) +teel
,able ?acket
,ontain and Protect
,able ,ore
Abrasion *esistance
P%) P.*) P9,) #eflon
,able >illing
,ompound
Prevent 2oisture
intrusion and 2igration
Dater =locking
,ompound
Armoring
*odent Protection
,rush *esistance
+teel #ape
Ta"le@2 Ca"le Components
OFC #PLICIN+
+plices are permanent connection between two fibres. #he
splicing involves cutting of the edges of the two fibres to be
spliced.
#plicing et!o)s
#he following three types are widely used A
1. Adhesive bonding or !lue splicing.
2. 2echanical splicing.
/. >usion splicing.
P a g e | 55
A)!esi(e 1on)ing or +lue #plicing
#his is the oldest splicing techni8ue used in fibre splicing.
After fibre end preparation) it is a$ially aligned in a precision 9<
groove. ,ylindrical rods or another kind of reference surfaces
are used for alignment. (uring the alignment of fibre end) a
small amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive inde$ as the
core material is set between and around the fibre ends. A two
component epo$y or an .9 curable adhesive is used as the
bonding agent. #he splice loss of this type of joint is same or
less than fusion splices. =ut fusion splicing techni8ue is more
reliable) so at present this techni8ue is very rarely used.
ec!anical #plicing
#his techni8ue is mainly used for temporary splicing in
case of emergency repairing. #his method is also convenient to
connect measuring instruments to bare fibres for taking various
measurements.
#he mechanical splices consist of 7 basic components A
3i4 An alignment surface for mating fibre ends.
3ii4 A retainer
3iii4 An inde$ matching material.
3iv4 A protective housing
A very good mechanical splice for 2.2. fibres can have
an optical performance as good as fusion spliced fibre or glue
spliced. =ut in case of single mode fibre) this type of splice
cannot have stability of loss.
Fusion #plicing
#he fusion splicing techni8ue is the most popular
techni8ue used for achieving very low splice losses. #he fusion
can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas
flame.
#he process involves cutting of the fibres and fi$ing them
in micro<positioners on the fusion splicing machine. #he fibres
are then aligned either manually or automatically core aligning
P a g e | 166
3in case of +.2. fibre4 process. Afterwards the operation that
takes place involve withdrawal of the fibres to a specified
distance) preheating of the fibre ends through electric arc and
bringing together of the fibre ends in a position and splicing
through high temperature fusion.
&f proper care taken and splicing is done strictly as per
schedule) then the splicing loss can be minimi"ed as low as 6.61
d=Ejoint. After fusion splicing) the splicing joint should be
provided with a proper protector to have following protectionsA
3a4 2echanical protection
3b4 Protection from moisture.
+ometimes the two types of protection are combined.
,oating with %po$y resins protects against moisture and also
provides mechanical strength at the joint.
'ow<a<days) the heat shrinkable tubes are most widely
used) which are fi$ed on the joints by the fusion tools.
#he fusion splicing techni8ue is the most popular
techni8ue used for achieving very low splice losses. #he
introduction of single mode optical fibre for use in long haul
network brought with it fibre construction and cable design
different from those of multimode fibres.
#he splicing machines imported by =+'L begins to the
core profile alignment system) the main functions of which are A
314 Auto active alignment of the core.
324 Auto arc fusion.
3/4 9ideo display of the entire process.
374 &ndication of the estimated splice loss.
#he two fibres ends to be spliced are cleaved and then
clamped in accurately machined vee<grooves. Dhen the
optimum alignment is achieved) the fibres are fused under the
microprocessor contorl) the machine then measures the radial
and angular off<sets of the fibres and uses these figures to
calculate a splice loss. #he operation of the machine observes
P a g e | 161
the alignment and fusion processes on a video screens showing
hori"ontal and vertical projection of the fibres and then decides
the 8uality of the splice.
#he splice loss indicated by the splicing machine should
not be taken as a final value as it is only an estimated loss and so
after every splicing is over) the splice loss measurement is to be
taken by an #(* 3ptical #ime (omain *eflectometer4. #he
manual part of the splicing is cleaning and cleaving the fibres.
>or cleaning the fibres) (ichlorine 2ethyl or Acetone or
Alcohol is used to remove primary coating.
Dith the special fibre cleaver or cutter) the cleaned fibre is
cut. #he cut has to be so precise that it produces an end angle of
less than 6.1 degree on a prepared fibre. &f the cut is bad) the
splicing loss will increase or machine will not accept for
splicing. #he shape of the cut can be monitored on the video
screen) some of the defect noted while cleaving are listed below
3i4 =roken ends.
3ii4 *ipped ends.
3iii4 +lanting cuts.
3iv4 .nclean ends.
INTRODUCTION
D,(2A 3Dideband ,ode (ivision 2ultiple Access4
'etwork is a 2ulti-+ervice J'etwork of 'etworksK
&t provides traditional #elecom services C new &nternet
based services
&t accommodates interconnections for varieties of
networks-
P a g e | 162
,ircuit-+witched C Packet +witched
'arrowband C Dideband
9oice C (ata
>i$ed C 2obile
D,(2A is a high bit rate 'etwork
6+PP
R%F%R%NC% OD%L
D,(2A is standardi"ed by the #hird !eneration
Partnership Project 3/!PP4.
D,(2A 'etwork can be considered to consist of four
major components-
.ser %8uipments 3.%4
P a g e | 16/
Access 'etwork 3A'4
,ore 'etwork 3,'4
'etworks %$ternal to D,(2A
%RIC##ON IPL%%NTATION
=ased on /!PP standards) 9endors have designed)
developed C implemented D,(2A 'etworks.
As a 9endor) %ricsson has its own way of reali"ation of
/! 'etwork covering both !+2 C D,(2A
#echnologies.
#wo major components of D,(2A 'etwork are -
D,(2A *adio Access 'etwork
D,(2AE!+2 ,ore 'etwork
*CDA RADIO ACC%##
N%T*OR/#
D,(2A *adio Access 'etwork 3*A'4 consists of < *=+
C *', which together constitute *'+ 3*adio 'etwork
+ystem4.
*=+ 3 *adio =ase +tation 4-
P a g e | 167
Also @nown as 'ode = within /!PP
*=+ provides the physical *adio resources
,onverts data flow between .% C *',
*', 3 *adio 'etwork ,ontroller 4-
*', controls the *=+ C the *adio *esources
*', is the access point for getting into D,(2A
,ore 'etwork
*CDA7+# COR%
N%T*OR/#
#he ,ore 'etwork architecture is based on an
evolved !+2 ,ore 'etwork and consists of the following
'odes-
1. 2+, +erver 3+oft switch4
2. 2+,3!+24
P a g e | 161
/. !ateway 2+, +erver 3!2+, +erver4
7. 2obile 2edia !ateway 32-2!D4
1. +erving !P*+ +upport 'ode 3+!+'4
:. Gome Location *egister 3GL*4
;. Authentication ,entre 3A.,4
0. %8uipment &dentity *egister 3%&*4
5. >le$ible 'umber *egister 3>'*4
16. &P 2ultimedia +ub-+ystem 3&2+4
COR% NOD%# &Cont)5'
2+, +erver-
Gandles control functions within 2obile +oft-switch
environment
Plays major role in circuit-mode working
Dorks in conjunction with 2-2!D
P a g e | 16:
2+, 3!+24-
&ts roles are within a classical 2+, architecture
*oles are related to circuit-mode working
!ateway 2+, +erver-
2ain function is related to routing of &E, calls
to 2obile +ubscribers
!2+, obtains routing information from
+ubscribersF GL*
2obile 2edia !ateway-
&t works in conjunction with 2+, +erver
2-2!D connects ,ore 'etwork with- *adio
Access 'etwork of D,(2A C !+2) P+#') &+('
C other 2obile 'etworks.
+erving !P*+ +upport 'ode-
-2ain role lies in session and mobility management
related to packet-switched network
+!+' is an interface between !!+' on one side
and *',E=+, on the other side
!ateway !P*+ +upport 'ode-
P a g e | 16;
Activities are related to transfer of high speed data
with e$ternal &P based data networks
Gome Location *egister-
+erves as the primary database of subscriber
information
Provides information related to control and
intelligence within !+2 C D,(2A network
Authentication ,entre-
,ontains functions for secure storage of individual
subscriber identifiers and keys.
Also includes algorithms necessary for generating
Authentication C ,iphering data based subscriber
keys.
Dorks as interface between +!+' C e$ternal data
networks.
%8uipment &dentity *egister-
9alidates 2obile +ub %8uipment &dentity
2+, may re8uest to check if the 2obile +ub
%8uipment belongs to black list) grey list or white
list
>le$ible 'umber *egister-
P a g e | 160
>'* offers 2obile 'umber Portability 32'P4
>le$ible allocation of 2+&+(' for !+2 C
D,(2A networks.
&P 2ultimedia +ub-system-
&ts roles are related to '!' applications like
2ultimedia ,onferencing) 2ultiplayer !aming etc.
*CDA U#%R %;UIP%NT#
#here are hardly any specific standards for classifying the
.ser %8uipments 3.%s4 for D,(2A. A general
classification is-
2obile Phones
Personal (igital Assistant 3P(A4
+mart Phones
2obile Phones are much enhanced ones with wide ranges
of features. P(As are basically 2obile ,omputers. +mart
Phones are aggregation of 2obile Phones and P(As.
*CDA U#%R %;UIP%NT# &Cont)5'
P a g e | 165
D,(2A 2obile Phone has two broad units-
.&,, 3.niversal &ntegrated ,ircuit ,ard4
2% 32obile %8uipment4
UICC is a smart ,ard that contains a module called .+&2
3.niversal +ubscriber &dentity 2odule4. .+&2 is the user
dependent part of the .% and is provided by the +ervice
provider.
% is manufacturer dependent. 2% has two components-
2# 32obile #ermination4
#% 3#erminal %8uipment4
LAB%R CONC%PT IN *CDA
D,(2A architecture works in three layers-
1. Application Layer
P a g e | 116
2. ,ontrol Layer
/. ,onnectivity Layer
Application Layer-
*esponsible for providing services to users via
applications regardless of devices and methods in
which the user accesses the network.
,ontrol Layer-
,ontains the nodes that control and direct traffic of
both ,+ and P+ networks.
'odes in control layers are- 2+,s) GL*EG++
3Gome Location *egisterEGome +ervice +erver4)
!2+,E#+,) +!D) &2+ etc.
,onnectivity Layer-
&t is related to transport nodes that have role to
connect Access 'etwork
'odes in this layer are 2-2!D) +!+' C !!+'.
P a g e | 111