ByMehakChopra

IndianInstituteofTechnologyDelhi
Guide:DrB.Uensal
Characteristicsofanidealinstrument
HotWireAnemometry
AdvantagesandDrawbacksofHotWireAnemometry
PrincipleofOperation
BasicConstructionofHotWireProbe
ModesofOperationofHotWireAnemometers
GoverningEquationandModelofHWA
Calibration
DirectionalSensitivity
TurbulenceMeasurementusingHWA
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Outline
FluidFlow
Fluidflowisubiquitous!e.gprocessesinourbody,Flow
aroundairplanesetc itisessentialtomeasurefluid
flow.
Mostpracticalflowsareturbulent. Henceitisequally
importanttomeasureTurbulentFluctuations.
Pitottube lowfrequencyresponse
ManyMethodstomeasurevelocity discussedearlier
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Characteristicsofanideal
InstrumenttomeasureVelocity
Fluctuations
GoodSignalSensitivity:Measurablechangeinoutputfor
smallchangesinvelocity
HighFrequencyResponse:toaccuratelyfollowtransients
withoutanytimelag
Widevelocityrange
Createminimalflowdisturbance
GoodSpatialResolution
Lowincost
HighAccuracy
MeasurevelocitycomponentandDetectflowreversal
Easytouse
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Inmakingmeasurements,itisnota
questionofthebestinstrumentbutrather
whichinstrumentwillperformbestforthe
specificapplication.
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
HotWireAnemometry
IntrusiveTechnique
Measurementofinstantaneousvelocitiesand
temperatureatapointinaflow.
Hotwireanemometryisanidealtoolformeasurementof
velocityfluctuationsintimedomaininturbulentflows
Principaltoolforbasicstudiesofphysicsofturbulent
flows.
Developmentofrealisticturbulencemodels,HWA
necessarytocarryoutfundamentalturbulencestudies
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
AdvantagesofHWA
GoodFrequencyresponse:Measurementstoseveral
hundredkHzpossible,1MHzalsofeasible
VelocityMeasurement:measuresmagnitudeand
directionofvelocityandvelocityfluctuations,Wide
velocityrange
TemperatureMeasurements
TwoPhaseFlow:Measurementsinflowscontaining
continuousturbulentphaseanddistributedbubbles.
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
AdvantagesofHWA
Signaltonoiseratio:havelownoiselevels.Resolutionof
1partin10000isaccomplished
SignalAnalysis:Outputiscontinuousanaloguesignal,
bothtimedomainandfrequencydomainanalysiscanbe
carriedout.Outputcanalsobeprocessedbydigital
systems.
Measurementofturbulentquantitieslikevorticity,
dissipationrateetc.
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Drawbacks
IntrusiveTechnique:modificationoflocalflowfield
HighTurbulenceIntensityFlows:
Errorsduetoneglectinghigherorderterms
RectificationError insensitivetoreversalofflowdirection.
Contamination:Depositionofimpuritiesinflowonsensor
alterthecalibrationcharacteristicsandreducefrequency
response.
Probebreakageandburnout
Unabletofullymapvelocityfieldsthatdependstronglyon
spacecoordinatesandsimultaneouslyontime.
Spatialarrayofmanyprobeswouldberequired.
Failsinhostileenvironmentlikecombustion
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
PrincipleofOperation
Basedonconvectiveheattransfer fromaheatedsensing
element,possessingtemperaturecoefficientofresistance.
FlowRate
varies
Convectiveheat
transfer
coefficient(h)
varies
Heattransfer
fromfilament
varies
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
OperationofHotWireSensor
HotWireProbe
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Structureofhotwireprobe
Characteristicsofmaterialused
formakingsensor
HighTemperatureCoefficientofresistance
HighSpecificResistance
HighMechanicalStrength
GoodOxidationResistance
LowThermalConductivity
Availabilityinsmalldiameters
Tungsten:goodstrength,pooroxidationresistance
Platinum:goodoxidationresistance,weak
Tungstenwiththinplatinumcoatingisgenerallyused.
Athightemperatures Platinumiridiumalloys,Platinum
rhodiumalloysareused.
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
WireDimensions
Largeaspectratios i.el/dwherelisthewirelengthand
disthewirediameter,tominimizeconductionlossesto
supportsandhaveuniformtemperaturedistribution
Smalldiameter arepreferredeventhoughtheyhaveless
strengthas:
maximizestimeresponseduetolowthermalinertia
maximizespatialresolution
improvessignaltonoiseratioathighfrequencies
eliminatesoutputnoise
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
ClassificationofHotWireProbes
Onthebasisofnumberofsensors:
SingleSensorProbeDualSensorProbe TripleSensorProbe
Informationaboutmagnitudeanddirectionofvelocitycan
beobtainedwithprobeshaving2ormoresensors
(Xprobes,
SplitFibreprobes)
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
ModesofOperationofHotWire
Anemometers
ConstantCurrent
ConstantTemperature
Current inthewireiskept
constant
Variationsinwireresistance
causedbytheflowaremeasured
bymonitoringthevoltagedrop
variationsacrossthefilament.
TemperaturehenceResistance
ofthewireiskeptconstantby
usingaservoamplifier
Themeasurablesignalwhena
changeinflowvelocityoccursis
thechangeincurrent tobefedto
thesensor.
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
BasicCircuitryofConstantCurrent
Anemometer
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
CircuitDiagramofConstantCurrentAnemometer
BasicCircuitryofConstant
TemperatureAnemometer
Velocity
Varies
ErrorVoltage
(e
2
e
1
)varies
InputVoltageto
amplifiervaries
Changeincurrenti
throughthesensor
Restoresthe
resistanceofsensor
tooriginalvalue
CCAvsCTA
CompensationofThermalinertiaofthefilamentis
automaticallyadjustedinCTA astheflowconditionsvary.
CTAisusedthesamewayasitiscalibrated.Calibrationis
dynamic inthiscase,whileinCCAinstrumentis
calibratedatconstanttemperatureandusedina
constantcurrentmode.
Inconstantcurrentmode,wirecanbedestroyedby
burningoutifvelocityisverysmall.Thereisnosuch
dangerinCTA
InCTAthereisnothermalcyclinghencelonglifeof
probe.
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
CTAMeasuringChain
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
BasicCTAMeasuringChain
GeneralHotWireEquation
Where:
W powergeneratedbyjouleheatinggiven
byI
2
R
w
whereR
w
=R
w
(T
w
)
Q heattransferratetosurrounding
Q
i
thermalenergystoredinthewire(C
w
T
w
)
C
w
Heatcapacityofwire
T
w
Temperatureofwire
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Q=Q
fc
+Q
nc
+Q
r
+Q
c
Forced
convection
term given
by
h*A*(T
w

T
A
)
natural
convection
term
Radiation to
surrounding
givenby
A***(T
4
w

T
4
A
)
Conduction
toprongs
givenby

(k*A*dT/dx)
where
A istheareaofthewire
T
A
is thetemperatureofthefluid
h istheheattransfercoefficient
istheStefanBoltzmannconstant
istheemissivity
k isthethermalconductivity
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
HeatTransferdueto
radiation
Performinganenergybalanceonthisdifferentialelement,
neglectingradiationandselfconvectionweget:
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
NaturalConvection:
iseffectiveatverylowvelocities.
ItdependsonthevalueofGrashofnumberGr( )
AccordingtoCollisandWilliams(1959),Itcanbeneglected
forhotwireprobeswithlargevaluesofaspectratio,if
Radiation:inmosthotwireanemometerapplicationsthis
termisverysmallandcanbeneglected
Re>Gr
1/3
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Conduction:
Conductiveheattransfertakesplacetowardstheprongsresulting
intemperaturedistributioninwire.
Tominimizeconductiveendlosses,wireshouldbeaslongas
possibleandpossesslowvalueofthermalconductivity
Forwireswithlargeaspectratios(l/d)heatlossesbyconduction
canbeneglected.
TemperatureProfileinHotWire
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
ForcedConvection: playsthemainroleinheat
transferredtothesurrounding.
ItdependsuponNusseltnumber
Where
Re =Reynoldsnumber
Pr =Prandtlnumberwhichaccountsforfluidproperties.(generallyconstant)

1
=anglebetweenfreestreamflowdirectionandflownormaltothecylinder
Gr =Grashofnumberwhichaccountsforfreeconvection(buoyancy)effects
Ma =Machnumberwhichaccountsforcompressibilityeffects
=C
p
/C
v
a
t
=overheatratioortemperatureloading(T
w
T
a
)/T
a
2l/d=accountsforsensorsdimension
k
f
/k
w
=ratioofthermalconductivityoffluidtosensor
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Assumption:
Flowisincompressible
Wireisnormaltotheflow(
1
=0)
Noeffectoffreeconvectionand
conduction(basicallyassuminginfinitelylong
wire)
Nu =Nu(Re)
AccordingtoKing,foraninfinitelylongwire
Kramersproposedthatfor0.01<Re<10000and
0.71<Pr<1000andevaluatingthefluidpropertiesat
T
f
=(T
w
+T
a
)/2,Nucanbegivenby:
(KingsLaw)
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Nu=X +YRe
1/2
SimpleModelforHotWireAnemometer
Consideringonlyforcedconvectionasthemodeofheat
exchangeandnotconsideringheatstorageterm:
WhereT
w
=Temperatureofwire
T
a
=Temperatureoffluid
As,hence
Resistanceisafunctionoftemperature:
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
SimpleModelforHotWire
Anemometer
ThusputtingthevalueofNu(byKingsLaw)and
expressingresistanceasafunctionoftemperature,
Henceforfinitelengthhotwireanemometer,
IntermsofvoltageE
w
,
ForCTA,astemperatureandresistanceareconstant,
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
)
DynamicCharacteristics
Wirenotrespondinstantaneouslyduetoitsthermal
inertia.
DampenthevariationinwireresistanceR
w
andresultin
flowfluctuationmeasuredsmallerthantheyare.
HeatStoragetermneedstobeaccountedinheatbalance
equation
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Cw=thermalcapacity
DynamicCharacteristics
Theabovedifferentialequationhastimeconstant given
by
Frequencylimitisgivenby
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Exponentialchangeinresistanceof
wirewithinstantaneousrisein
velocity
FrequencyResponseofCTA
Theservoloopamplifierreducesthetimeconstantand
increasesthewirefrequencylimit.
where
w
=wiretimeconstantaloneand=
a=overheatratio
R
w
=wireresistance
S=amplifiergain
Amplitudetransferfunctionfor
velocityfluctuation
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
MethodstoDetermineDynamic
ResponseofCTA
Asmallelectronicsquarewavesignalisinjectedintothe
bridgeandresponseofanemometervoltageEisobserved.
Outputvoltageresponsetothiscurrentsignalhasthesame
timeconstantastheresponsetotheflowvelocitysignal
SquarewavetestresponseofCTA
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Calibration
Probeisexposedtoaset
ofknownvelocitiesand
outputvoltageEis
recorded.
Shouldbedoneatlow
turbulenceintensitiesand
constanttemperature
Pitotstatictubeis
generallyusedforvelocity
measurement.
Wherehistotalpressure
inheightofflowingfluid.
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Calibrationofhotwiresensor
usingpitottube
Calibration
Calibrationcurveis
plottedbetweenHotWire
Voltage andVelocity.
TypicalCalibrationcurveis
nonlinear andsensitivity
decreasesasvelocity
increases.
As
constantsA,Bandncan
bedeterminedby
regressionanalysis
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
DirectionalSensitivityofHotwire
probes
Foraninfinitelylongsensor,heattransfervaries
withthecosineofanglebetweenthevelocityandthe
wirenormalandVelocityalongthesensorhasno
coolingeffect.
Forafinitelengthsensor,adirectionalsensitivity
factork (yawfactor)isintroduced,whichdescribes
pronginterference.
For3dimensionalflows,pitchfactorhisintroduce
Effectivecoolingvelocityisgivenby:
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
DirectionalSensitivityofHotwire
probes
E
2
=A+B(U
eff
)
n
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
DeterminationofDirection
Todeterminedirectionusingasinglewireprobe,Rotate
theprobeintheflow.
Theorientationwhichgivesmaximumcurrentisthe
directionofflow
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
TurbulenceMeasurements
Instantaneousvelocityinturbulentflowcanbeexpressed
as:
u(t)= +u(t)
where isthemeanvelocityandu isthefluctuating
component.
Meanvelocityisgivenby:
Timeaverageoffluctuatingcomponentiszero
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
TurbulenceMeasurements
However,thesecondmomentofturbulent
fluctuations orvariance<(u)
2
>isnotzeroandisa
measureofintensityoffluctuations
Standarddeviationofvelocity()oru
rms
issquare
rootofvariance.
TurbulenceIntensity=
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
TurbulenceMeasurements
VelocitySensitivityisgiven()

Thusfluctuatingcomponentofvelocityisrelatedto
fluctuatingvoltagee:
e =u
Henceifcalibrationconstantsareknown,fluctuationin
velocitycanbecalculatedbyfluctuationinvoltage
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
FilteringandSignalDynamicRange
Voltagefluctuationsmaybeverysmallcomparedto
meanvoltage.
DifficultforADCtomeasurebothaverageandfluctuating
components.
Anemometeroutputissenttoahighpassfilterwhich
eliminatesmeanvalue<E>ofvoltage
Outputofhighpassfilterissenttoanoscilloscope
inordertoobservepeakpeakfluctuationsandsetthe
amplifiergain.
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
GridGeneratedTurbulence
Manymethodstogenerateturbulenceforexperimentation.
Squaremeshgridisplacedinthecrosssectiontogenerateturbulence
Gridgeneratedturbulenceishomogenousandisotropic
UsedwithHWAtoprovidedatafordevelopmentofturbulencemodelse.g.to
evaluatetheoryforthedecayofturbulence.
Meshsize(M)=onesideoftheopen
squareofgrid.
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
Highcontractionratioanomalyof
axisymmetriccontraction
ofgridgeneratedturbulence[1]
Experimentsreportedanomalousincreaseinsecond
ordermomentsoflongitudinalvelocityfluctuationsin
measuringpropertiesofaxisymmetricstrained
turbulence
Thisanomalywasresolvedbyremovingtheexperimental
inaccuraciesandgaveresultsinagreementwithdirect
numericalsimulationsandturbulencetheory
Studieswerecarriedinawindtunnelinwhichtherewas
gridgeneratedturbulenceandhotwireprobeswereused
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
References
1. zgrErtun andFranzDurst,Onthehighcontractionratio
anomalyofaxisymmetriccontractionofgridgenerated
turbulence,PHYSICSOFFLUIDS20,0251032008
2. BruunH.H,HotWireAnemometryPrincipalandSignalAnalysis,
OxfordUniversityPress
3. PerryA.E,HotWireAnemometry,OxfordSciencePublication
4. SmolyakovA.V.andTkachenkoV.M., TheMeasurementof
TurbulentFluctuations,SpringerVerlagBerlinHeidelberg1983
5. GoldsteinR.J,FluidMechanicsMeasurement,Hemisphere
Publishing
6. JorgensenF.E(2002), Howtomeasureturbulencewithhotwire
anemometers apracticalguide
7. TropeaCetal,SpringerHandbookofExperimentalFluid
Mechanics Springer
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
CompressibilityEffects
Forhighvelocityflows,compressibilityeffectsbecome
significant.
NeedtoconsiderMachnumberMaandC
p
Knudsennumber(Kn)isimportantparameterforlow
densityflowsandisgivenby:
where =molecularmeanfreepath
InthiscaseNu =Nu(Re,Kn)
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
HotFilmProbes
Platinumornickelfilmaredepositedonthermallyinsulatingsubstratelike
quartz.
Usedinliquidflowsandhightemperatureultrasonicgasflowsduetotheir
sturdyconstruction
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
TurbulentFlows
Mostpracticalflowsareturbulent.
Contributesignificantlytotransportofmomentum,heatand
mass.
Acomplex,unpredictableandrandomprocess.
Responsibleformostfluidfrictionlosses.
Rationaldesignofairplanes,ships,turbinesetc haveto
considerturbulence.
Henceitisequallyimportanttomeasure
TurbulentFluctuations
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
MeasurementofIntegral
Properties
InstrumentslikePitot tubes,
venturimeters Onlymeasure
integralpropertieslikemean
velocity.
Differentialpressuremeters
Lowfrequencyresponse
Donotrespondtofluctuations
invelocity,henceunableto
measureturbulence.
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
DiagramofPitot Tube
MethodsToMeasureTurbulence
Fluctuations
HotWireAnemometry
LaserDopplerAnemometry
ParticleImagingVelocimetry
FlowVisualization
AcousticAnemometry
ThermalMarkers
DischargeAnemometry
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement
ComputationalFluidDynamics
TurbulencemodelingisanimportantissueinCFD
Measurementsaremadeasasupplementtocomputer
modeling
Thesemethodsprovidehighqualityexperimentalflow
dataforvalidationofexistingcomputercodescontaining
turbulencemodels
HotWireAnemometryandFluidFlowMeasurement