The Medicine of the Future, an indepth research study on the Medicine Thalamocortical. Many various experiments been conducted to verify the next generation medicine.
The Medicine of the Future, an indepth research study on the Medicine Thalamocortical. Many various experiments been conducted to verify the next generation medicine.
The Medicine of the Future, an indepth research study on the Medicine Thalamocortical. Many various experiments been conducted to verify the next generation medicine.
Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 537!, U"#
$ecipes for machine consciousness If one %ants to ma&e a machine conscious, %hat in'redients should one put in( #s&in' this )uestion is not only of some practical si'nificance* it is also an e+cellent %ay of testin' one,s understandin' of ho% the only machine that can surely 'enerate consciousness - namely our .rain - is capa.le of doin' it/ 0.viously, an ans%er can .e 'iven only in the li'ht of some theoretical notion of %hat consciousness is/ The theoretical approach %e have developed maintains that consciousness is inte'rated information/ 1i'h information content is an essential feature of conscious e+perience, in the precise sense that each conscious state is selected out of a repertoire of .illions of possi.le ones/ Moreover, this information is inte'rated - conscious e+perience is a unified %hole that cannot .e su.divided into independent components/ We have also noted that the availa.ility of a lar'e amount of inte'rated information over a short period of time has o.vious adaptive advanta'es/ If the notion of consciousness as inte'rated information is to .e scientifically productive, as %ell as testa.le, one needs clearly defined concepts and correspondin' measures/ 2or this purpose, %e have developed measures aimed at characteri3in' the de'ree to %hich a set of elements can inte'rate information/ The main one is a 'eneral, information- theoretical definition of inte'rated informa-tion, called comple+ity/ This measure, %hich is .ased on the amount of information that can .e e+chan'ed .et%een .ipartitions of su.sets of elements, can .e used to determine %hether a su.set of elements consti-tutes an inte'rated comple+, as %ell as ho% many different states are availa.le to it/ Usin' simplified models, it can .e sho%n that comple+ity constitutes an o.4ective measure of the e+tent to %hich functionally speciali3ed parts %or& to'ether in an inte'rated fashion/ # &ey advanta'e of havin' a measure of inte'rated information is that it ma&es it possi.le to test the relationship .et%een consciousness and inte'rated information in e+emplary cases/ #t present, it seems most useful to .e'in %here the distinctions are most o.vious/ We consider t%o .asic contrasts/ The first one is a contrast .et%een t%o portions of the .rain - the thalamocortical system and the cere.ellum - %hich differ dramatically in their a.ility to 'ive rise to conscious e+perience/ The cere.ellum has an estimated 55 .illion neurons, a'ainst an estimated 35 .illion for the thalamocortical system/ It has pro.a.ly as many connections, similar neurotransmitters and neuromodulators and, 4ust as the thalamo- cortical system, it receives multiple sensory inputs/ 1o%ever, %hile many areas of the thalamocortical system are each essential for a different aspect of conscious e+perience, the entire cere.ellum can .e removed %ithout si'nificant chan'es in conscious e+perience/ This simple contrast indicates that the 'eneration of conscious e+perience is not merely a property of num.ers of neurons and connections, of neurochemical diversity, or of .iolo'ical intricacy/ # second illuminatin' contrast has to do %ith the neural activity %ithin the thalamocortical system %hen %e are a%a&e and conscious vs/ %hen %e are asleep and unconscious, specifically durin' dreamless sleep/ The anatomical or'a-ni3ation of the thalamocortical system o.viously does not chan'e .et%een sleep and %a&in', and %e no% &no% that the amount of neural activity is not su.stantially different, e+cept that durin' deep sleep it is hi'hly synchro-ni3ed/ We su''est that the reason the thalamocortical system can 'enerate conscious e+perience and the cere.el-lum 6or other parts of the .rain7 cannot is that the former is or'ani3ed in such a %ay as to inte'rate a lar'e amount of information, %hile the latter is not/ "imilarly, %e predict that durin' deep sleep, %hile the anatomy and the amount of neuronal firin' do not chan'e apprecia.ly, the amount of inte'rated information should mar&edly decrease/ In principle, these predictions can .e tested empirically, e/'/ throu'h neuroima'in' e+periments/ While such e+periments are essential for validatin' the proposed concepts, they have several limitations in terms of the availa.le spatial and temporal resolution as %ell as in terms of %hat manipulations are feasi.le/ #n e)ually important avenue to validate these concepts is to develop lar'e-scale simulations of .rain circuits in %hich all the rele-vant parameters are precisely &no%n and every possi.le manipulation can .e performed/ Moreover, such a synthetic approach can provide 'uidelines a.out the re)uirements for developin' an architecture endo%ed %ith conscious e+pe-rience in a machine/ "elected $eferences8 / Tononi, G/, 9omple+ity and coherency8 inte'ratin' information in the .rain/ Trends in 9o'nitive "ciences, !!:/ ;6;78 p/ <7<-<:</ ;/ Tononi, G/ and G/M/ =delman, 9onsciousness and comple+ity/ "cience, !!:/ ;:;653!578 p/ :<>-5/ 3/ =delman, G/M/ and G/ Tononi, # Universe of 9onsciousness8 1o% matter .ecomes ima'ination/ ;555, ?e% @or&8 Aasic Aoo&s/ </ Tononi, G/, Information measures for conscious e+perience/ #rchives Italiennes de Aiolo'ie, ;55 in press/ B//C//Cinde+/shtmlD B//C//Cinde+/shtmlD $eference Ean Fui4telaar, =/F/G/M/ B//C//CPeopleCFui4telaarvan=FGMCinde+/htmlD, Weltin', G/, H Iuian Iuiro'a, $/ 6;5557/ The reticular thalamic nucleus is involved in interhemispheric synchroni3ation of the ==G/ "leep-Wa&e $esearch in the ?etherlands, , :>-!5/ #.stract The ==G of the left and ri'ht hemisphere sho%s phase relationships/ # classical and a non-linear ==G synchroni3ation method %as compared .efore and after an unilateral lesion of the reticular thalamic nucleus/ The usefulness of the ne% synchroni3ation measure is illustrated .y the fact that it sho%ed synchroni3ations hardly seen .y visual inspection/ ?e+t, the non-linear association measure %as much more sensitive than the classical cross-correlation, stressin' not only the presence of non-linear interdependence .et%een the t%o hemispheres .ut also the sensitivity of this ne% varia.le/ Dama'e to the rostral pole of the $T? reduces the linear cross-correlation .ut even more the non-linear interdependency of the synchronicity .et%een the left and ri'ht hemisphere/ T1#F#M090$TI9#F 20U?D#TI0?" 02 90?"9I0U" =JP=$I=?9= Games ?e%man 9olorado ?eurolo'ical Institute Denver, 90, U"# 2ull paper availa.le at http8CC%%%/phil/vt/eduCasscCne%manC 0utline Introduction 9ric&,s K"earchli'ht 1ypothosisK 9ric& and Loch,s Theory of K<5-13K Aindin' Flinas, et al,s Theory of <5-13 "cannin'/ Taylor,s Model of $eticular ?ucleus Glo.al Guidance Aaars, 6!::7 =+tended $eticular-Thalamic #ctivation "ystem $ecent e+tensions of the =$T#" model 9onclusion / Introduction/ / Parallel to the 'eneral renaissance of the study of consciousness over the past decade has .een a rene%ed interest in the contri.utions of su.cortical structures of the 9?" to functions such as selective attention, memory, neural .indin', etc/ "ituated at the center of the .rain, the thalamus has .ecome increasin'ly implicated in functions related to the 'lo.al inte'ration of co'nitive processes/ This paper provides a .rief historical revie% of the anatomy and functions of the thalamus, and its inte'ral relations %ith cortical systems mediatin' co'nition/ I then introduce recent models of the thalamocortical system .earin' on the topic of the seminar/ 2IGU$= / The thalamus of one hemisphere of the .rain/ The thin layer of neurons partially surroundin' the thalamus is the reticular nucleus/ 6from FaAer'e, !!5, p/ >7 /; It has .een &no%n since the !th century that the sensory tracts for vision, hearin' and touch synapse upon specific nuclei in the thalamus/ These nuclei, in turn, send topo'raphic pro4ections to the primary sensory areas of the neocorte+/ William Games 6:!57 e+pressed the consensus of the science of his time %hen he asserted that Kthe corte+ is the sole or'an of consciousness in manK 6p/ >>7/ In this scenario, the Klo%er centersK are repositories of instinctual and .iolo'ical functions, althou'h the thalamus has the privile'ed position of .ein' the Krelay stationK for information streamin' into the corte+ from the outside %orld/ /3/ Games 6:!57 %rote elo)uently a.out the Kstream of consciousnessK, and the centrality of attention in conscious mentation/ Given his prescience in so many areas, one mi'ht have e+pected him to speculate on the possi.le si'nificance of the thalamus in filterin' this KstreamK via the Ksynaptic cleftK it provides/ Aut %ith his characteristic fran&ness, he admitted to the science of his time havin' a Kshado%y vie% /// If it has no other advanta'e, it at any rate ma&es us reali3e ho% enormous are the 'aps in our &no%led'e, ////6p/ :57 /< These 'aps did not deter Games from discussin' consciousness as a natural phenomenon,ho%ever/ Aoth as a psycholo'ist and philosopher, he shared the convictions of his contemporaries that Knothin' %as more essential to the mind than consciousnessK and that, KThe mind in all its activities and processes %as /// transparent to itself* nothin' %as hidden from its inner vie%/ 6Dennett, !:7, p/ >;7/ It %as Games 6!:57, of course, %ho coined the term Kstream of consciousnessK, descri.in' it as Ka teamin' multiplicity of o.4ects and relationsK - never simple sensation .y itself - Kand %hat %e call simple sensations are the results of discriminative attention, pushed often to a very hi'h de'ree/K 6p/ ;;<7/ 9haracteristically, he further ar'ued that consciousness %as hi'hly purposeful, a Kfi'hter for endsK, not simply a Kdetached o.serverK/ Millions of items of the out%ard order are present to my senses %hich never properly enter into my e+perience/ Why( Aecause they have no interest for me/ My e+perience is %hat I a'ree to attend to/ 0nly those items %hich I notice shape my mind--%ithout selective interest, e+perience is utter chaos/ 6p/ <5;7 /5/ 2or all his ener'y and elo)uence, Games, philosophy of science %as sin'ularly unsuccessful in s%ayin' his Kmore modernK collea'ues/ Ay the time he died in !5, t%o opposin' names had come to dominate the intellectual landscape8 2reud, %ho ventured %here the previous 'eneration e+pected nothin' mental to e+ist, and found Kthe unconsciousK* and G/ A/ Watson %ho declared the entire K"cience of Mental FifeK championed .y Games illusory/ /> The triumph of Aehaviorism in this country had an interestin' effect upon neuroscience .et%een the t%o World Wars/ The focus shifted from humans to animals, from Khi'her corticalK to su.cortical KcentersK 6refer to 2i'ure ;7/ $esearchers discovered the centrality of the hypothalamus 6K1@K, 2i'/ ;7 in re'ulatin' instinctual drives 6privately referred to as the K< 2sK8 fi'htin', feedin', fleein' and f---in'7/ Pape3 6!377 theori3ed that a la.yrinth circle of tracts connectin' the hypothalamus %ith the amy'dala 6K#MK7, hippocampus and underside of the cere.ral corte+, constituted an Kemotional .rainK/ Aecause the upper half of this 9ircle of Pape3 forms the KrimK 6or lim.us7 of the inner surface of the hemispheres, this comple+ came to .e &no%n as the lim.ic system/ 2IGU$= ;/ The thalamus sittin' atop the .rainstem at the center of the .rain, surrounded .y the .asal 'an'lia and lim.ic structures/ Most of the neocorte+ and %hite matter of the left hemisphere have .een removed to reveal these su.cortical structures/ The thalamus lies closest to the midline of the hemisphere/ The .asal 'an'lia are situated more laterally 6to%ards the outside7/ The amy'dala 6#m7 and hippocampus lie on the medial 6inner7 surface of the temporal lo.e/ 6from ?e%man, !!5a, p/ 7<7 /7/ The thalamus fills the center of this KdonutK of lim.ic structures/ "urprisin'ly, ho%ever, only a small minority of thalamic nuclei are truly Klim.ic/K The 'reat .ul& of thalamic connections are %ith the neocorte+ 6?ote8 &eep in mind that only the 'ross anatomy of nuclei and cortical areas are portrayed in these fi'ures, ?0T the actual masses of connectin' tractsC%hite matter, fillin' the space .et%een the corte+ and su.cortical structures7/ /: The thalamus is not simply the Krelay stationK for sensory information flo%in' to%ard the corte+* it is the corte+,s chief source of e+trinsic activation/ ?ot only the primary areas for vision 6KEK7 audition 6K#K7, and somatosensory 6K"K7 sensation 6refer to 2i'ure 37, .ut association corte+ as %ell, share orderly pro4ections %ith particular thalamic nuclei/ The thalamus also has KmotorK 6KMK, KM#K7 pro4ections to the frontal lo.es/ I place KmotorK in )uotes .ecause these nuclei are actually relays for inputs from deep in the .asal 'an'lia 6refer to 2i'ure ;7/ The functions of these structures are so inte'ral to the thalamocortical system, that Imust .riefly summari3e them/ 2IGU$= 3/ The ma4or divisions of the thalamus and the ma4or pro4ections it shares %ith the cere.ral corte+/ Thalamic nuclei 6left- side78 #-anterior nucleus* MD-medialdorsal nucleus* MI-massa intermedia* n$t-nucleus reticularis thalami/ Thalamocortical pro4ection areas8 #-primary auditory corte+* 9G-cin'ulate 'yrus* IPF-inferior parietal lo.ule* M- primary motor corte+* M#-motor association corte+* MA- mamillary .ody* Pf9-prefrontal corte+* "-primary somatosensory corte+* "PF-superior parietal lo.ule* E-primary visual corte+* E#-visual assocation corte+/ 6from ?e%man, !!5a/ p/ 7:7 /! The .asal 'an'lia 6AG7 and hippocampus are recipients of inputs from %ide areas of corte+/ #s 2i'ure ; su''ests, AG inputs ori'inate most richly from frontal corte+* %hile pro4ections to the hippocampus come lar'ely from posterior corte+/ =delman 6!:!7 characteri3es these t%o su.cortical structures as Kcortical appenda'es and or'ans of successionK/ 2or the hippocampal system, the succession is of sense perceptions and the episodic memories these leave .ehind* for the AG system these entail the orderly succession of plans and choices, and the procedural memories associated %ith learned s&ills/ The actions of this system really have no Kpoint of ori'inationK, .ecause the Kcortico-.asal 'an'lia- thalamo-cortical loopK 6Parent and 1a3rati, !!57 %hich mediates them 6li&e the 9ircle of Pape37 is a massive rever.eratory circuit, modulatin' all motor outputs/ ?e%man 6in preparation7 revie%s evidence that portions of this circuit may provide the essential su.strate for conscious volition/ /5/ 9onsistent %ith this hypothesis are the intricate Ktop-do%nK controls %hich pre-frontal corte+ 6Pf97 is capa.le of e+ercisin' over AG, lim.ic and thalamic nuclei/ Flinas and Pare 6!!7 have noted that the num.er of cortical pro4ections .ac& to thalamic nuclei are an order of ma'nitude 'reater those the corte+ receives/ In addition to the s%ath of pro4ections Pf9 e+chan'es %ith the medial dorsal nucleus 6KMDK, 2i'/ 37, other pre-frontal pro4ections directly influence lim.ic and .rain stem circuits/ 2inally, Pf9 and AG send strate'ic sets of pro4ections to a thin sheet of cells coverin' the outer surfaces of the t%o thalami, called the nucleus reticularis 6Kn$tK, 2i'/ 3, also see Kreticular nucleusK, 2i'/ 7/ This reticular comple+ is central to most of the models presented here/ Bhttp8CC%%%/phil/vt/eduCasscCne%manCD :/ 9onclusion/These accumulated findin's, and the models they have en'endered, constitute an impressive frame%or& for constructin' a 'eneral theory of consciousness 6#n e+tended ar'ument for this is made in ?e%man 6in prep/7, %hich %as recently su.mitted to P"@91=/7 2luid Intelli'ence8 There are t%o main type of intelli'ence, crystalli3ed intelli'ence and fluid intelli'ence/ 2luid intelli'ence is your a.ility to reason in an a.stract %ay/ 2or e+ample, if I as&ed you to come up %ith as many different possi.le uses for a tire, you %ould have to use very a.stract reasonin' - thin& a.out %hat a tire is, the different types, the si3es, etc/, then 'o throu'h co'nitive lists of situations, uses, and much more/ 0ne unfortunate pro.lem %ith this type of reasonin' is that it tends to decrease durin' later adulthood/ 9onsciousness and the Place.o =ffect #drianne Ford In controlled studies, e+perimenters use place.os as medium to compare the efficacy of a dru'/ Dou.le-.lind controlled studies provide information on %hether a dru' is effective or if it is not .etter than place.o/ The results of dou.le-.lind studies usually depict the latter/ $arely are dru's found to .e si'nificantly more effective than place.o .ecause of the place.o effect/ The phenomenal effectiveness of the place.o in controlled e+periments is mind .o''lin'/ =+perimenters can not fully understand the etiolo'y of the place.o effect in relation to the nervous system .ut they have proposed plausi.le su''estions to the underlyin' mechanisms involved/ #n intri'uin' )uestion raised is the place.o,s a.ility to cure numerous symptoms/ I hypothesi3e that the level of consciousness or alertness of the I-function, %ithin the individual, may .e the decidin' factor in %hether the place.o effect occurs/ The o.4ective of a place.o is to compare and assure that a ne% dru' or operational procedure is effective/ In e+periments, the place.o is an inactive su.stance or procedure used as a control in an e+periment 67/ The place.o loo&s, tastes or feels 4ust li&e the actual treatment 6;7/ # false procedure for e+ample, may consist of advisin' a person that heCshe %ill .e operated on and then ma&in' an incision into a person %ithout operatin'/ "u.4ects are advised of their pro.a.ility of receivin' actual treatment in order to maintain the e+pectation level of the participants/ The efficacy of ma&in' an incision maintains the e+pectation level of the su.4ect .ecause the presence of a scar raises their .elief that they %ere placed in the actual treatment 'roup/ Whether the place.o is a ,su'ar pill, or an incision, the purpose of providin' a false ,treatment, is to control for the amount of variance su.4ects already have %ithin a 'iven e+periment/ Ay controllin' for su.4ect e+pectation, e+perimenters are tryin' to eliminate the place.o effect/ The place.o effect occurs %hen the place.o, %hich can not on its o%n merit have any affect, does in fact have the same or similar affect as the e+perimental su.stance or procedure 67/ 1o%ever, some dou.le-.lind control studies use active place.os/ #ctive place.os contain compounds %hich %arrant side effects so that the su.4ect feels as thou'h they are receivin' therapeutic treatment/ The efficacy of the place.o in e+periments, commonly account from 35-<5M and sometimes up to 75M or :5M 6;7/ In the early :th century, the %ord place.o %as associated %ith )uac&ery 637/ #lthou'h the reason for the hi'h success rate of the place.o is yet to .e e+plained, e+perimenters have hypothesi3ed plausi.le e+planations for its effect/ #dvanced models attemptin' to e+plain place.o effects emphasi3e the role of e+pectations, an+iety and learnin' 637/ The place.o effect illustrates the effectiveness of the physician,s role in ,healin', a patient/ Past research sho% that a patient,s hi'h opinion of the physician prescri.in' the treatment 6<7 as %ell as the doctor,s personality can invo&e the place.o effect/ 2urthermore, research has sho%n that an amia.le doctor %ith a positive outloo& of a dru' treatment %ould induce the place.o effect/ The po%er of the place.o is more readily e+plained as a function of the individual .ecause the place.o effect can rely on the amount of faith an individual has for a 'iven treatment/ 0ne su''estion is that place.o effects may .e due to an+iety reduction/ "tress and an+iety adversely affect the .ody and increase an individual,s focus on symptoms 6<7/ # decrease in the .ody,s stress and an+iety level .y a %ell-&no%n doctor alleviates the patient,s %orry and pain leadin' to a ,curin', of the symptoms/ It has .een sho%n that place.os may .e more effective amon' hi'hly an+ious people .ecause the adverse effects interact %ith the physiolo'ical processin' 637/ There is evidence that there mi'ht .e an alteration in the .ody,s endo'enous opioid release/ Pain relief in patients provided via place.o, may .e caused .y a release of endorphins in the .rain/ =ndorphins are the .ody,s o%n morphine-li&e pain&illers 6;7/ Within the nervous system, there are specific path%ays that modulate pain %hen stimulated .y these endorphins/ #s a patient anticipates symptom relief, the e+pectation of receivin' an active su.stance, alone, may .e activatin' the pain path%ay there.y reducin' symptoms/ The presence of a su.stance pro.a.ly activates the pain-inhi.ition .ecause una%are of the treatment 'roup, the patient is led to .elieve that they have received an active su.stance/ #nother path%ay pro.a.ly activated in con4unction %ith the endorphins is the .rain,s re%ard path%ay %hich e+tends from the fore.rain to the mid.rain and into the hind.rain/ The re%ard path%ay is comprised of an array of comple+ structures .ut stimulation of specific nerve fi.ers, %hich pass throu'h the hypothalamus, can increase .ehavioral output 657/ 2or e+ample, e+periments have demonstrated that an electrode stimulatin' the medial fore.rain .undle of a rat provided the hi'hest rate of pressin' responses .y the rat 657/ The increase in .ehavioral output su''ested that self-stimulation of this re'ion %as re%ardin'/ 2urthermore, stimulation of the medial fore.rain .undle in a rhesus mon&ey elicited self-starvation* the mon&ey stopped eatin' in order to o.tain re%ardin' .rain stimulation 657/ The corte+ of a rhesus mon&ey is more sophisticated than a rat and has a closer resem.lance to the human corte+/ 0.servin' the compulsive .ehavior influenced .y stimulation to the re%ard system in rhesus mon&eys demonstrates that may.e humans can activate the catecholamines li&e, dopamine, to tri''er a particular .ehavior/ It is su''ested that place.o su.4ects can tri''er this path%ay .ecause patients una%are that they %ere 'iven a place.o are e+periencin' a type of 'ratification or re%ard/ The personal 'ratification can activate the release of dopamine into the system leadin' to an altered mood state/ Dru's that manipulate the catecholamine system have a po%erful effect on mood///NandO a'ents %hich elevate catecholamines or mimic the action of catecholamine facilitate self-stimulation 657/ In li'ht of the re%ardin' effects depicted in rats and rhesus mon&eys it seems plausi.le that in humans, a place.o, %hich has no inert effects, is someho% influencin' the levels of neurotransmitters in the .ody/ The mechanisms involved in e+periencin' symptom relief can .e understood .y the activation of the re%ard and endorphin path%ays/ 1o%ever, this accounts for .iolo'ical aspect of the place.o effect .ut %hat tri''ers these symptoms( 9ommentaries on the efficacy of the place.o ma&e reference to the attitudes or .eliefs of the individuals and ho% these items of consciousness play a role/ 1o%ever, %hat is meant .y a conscious e+perience( Is consciousness a state of a%areness for tactile modalities( The first relatin' form of consciousness is the concept of self-a%areness 6>7/ 9onsciousness is similar to the I-function in ho% the .ody and mind interconnect to facilitate a sense of e+perience/ Usin' an analo'y of a .o+, the nervous system is constantly receivin' numerous inputs and releasin' output/ 1o%ever, there is another portion of this nervous system %hich characteri3es the I-function* the part that contri.utes in the .ody,s central pattern 'enerators to aid in our interaction %ith the periphery, e+perience and receivin' re%ard/ The inhi.ition of activity, %hich can .e applied to the I-function, su''ests that it is located in the neocorte+/ Ailateral dama'e to the Intra-Faminar ?uclei 6IF?7, the divider of the t%o thalami, appears to a.olish the state of %a&in' consciousness 677/ It is not .ein' assumed that the IF? is the source of consciousness .ut it refers to the idea that the I- function, %hich %or&s %ith the nervous system, can .e ,disconnected, from the .ody %ith dama'e to the neocorte+/ The ,disem.odiment, of the conscious from the nervous system demonstrates a loss of e+perience or self-a%areness/ The concept of self-a%areness is an important factor .ecause it facilitates the po%er of the place.o/ Dou.le-.lind controlled e+periments are una.le to control for the sense of e+perience and self-a%areness of the su.4ect that ma&es the study vulnera.le to the place.o effect/ "u.4ects used in dru' studies are at the sta'e in life %here they are ,a%are, that ne% dru's are .ein' developed to com.at symptoms/ 2or e+ample, in one study su.4ects %ere 'iven measured doses of alcohol .ut the control 'roup %as 'iven a non-alcoholic .evera'e %hich they .elieved to .e alcohol 67/ ?eedless to say, some of the place.o-drin&in' 'roup .ehaved as thou'h they %ere 'iven alcohol/ 2or these su.4ects the su''estion of drin&in' alcohol produced the ine.riated .ehavior 67/ It is this conscious &no%in' and e+pectation stemmin' from the I- function that activates the endo'enous systems of the nervous system %hich produces the phenomenal place.o effect/ #lso, this study illustrated the stren'th of su''estion and the effects of e+pectation on .ehavior/ What if the confounds of a%areness andCor e+pectations could .e removed from e+periments .ut have an intact I-function( Would the place.o still turn out .etter than the treatment( To test this, su.4ects %ould need to .e youn' .ut capa.le of o.eyin' simple commands li&e, ,0pen your eyes,/ The a'e of < is 'ood .ecause it is necessary to have su.4ects at a sta'e in life %here they are conscious and capa.le of comprehendin' simple instructions .ut have yet to e+perience enou'h life to have developed e+pectations and ,a%areness, a.out treatments and the e+traneous varia.les 6for e+ample, physician influence7 involved in the place.o effect/ The patients, mind someho% influences other physiolo'ic systems in the .ody %hich .rin' a.out positive results 6;7/ #s a youn' child, the I- function is a more active participant in the involvement of the .ody %ith the %orld than %ith su''estions or e+pectations/ The I-function,s primary concern of the .ody and %orld ma&es the child considera.ly o.solete from the influential po%er of the mind/ In the end, the place.o effect is a stru''le in maintainin' a co-ha.itative environment for the mind,s prior e+periences and the .ody,s desire to reach .eyond its present state/ It also illustrates the considera.le healin' po%er of the mind 6<7/ The I- function and consciousness are, indisputa.ly, une+plaina.le phenomena %hich ma&es it difficult to reveal their location/ #s for no%, research su''ests that consciousness creates a ,home, %ithin the nervous system and has the capa.ility of ta&in' on a prominent role in .ehavioral outputs, %hen e+pectations are involved/ WWW "ources 71ypnotica8 Place.o as a su''estion B http8CC%%%/.c+/netChypnosisCplace.o/htmD ;7 #lternative and 9omplementary Therapies8 The Place.o =ffect Bhttp8CC%%%/cancer/or'CaltPtherapiesCarticlesCplace.o/html D 37 #lpha 0me'a Pain Medicine #ssociates8 Place.o Po%er Bhttp8CC %%%/painmasters/comCne%pa'e7/htmD, date8 <C:C!! <7 1ealthline Ma'a3ine8 Place.o =ffects on Pain Bhttp8CC%%%/health-line/comCarticlesChl!55<5</htm D, date8 <C:C!! 57 The $e%ard "ystem, .y #ryeh $outten.er' 6located on ? H A $eserve7 >7 Thalamocortical #spects of 9onsciousness 2rom the Perspective of a ?euro.iolo'ist B http8CC%%%/phil/vt/eduCasscCne%manC'race/htmlD, date8 5C5C!! 77 Why It Must Ae 9onsciousness- 2or $eal Q B http8CC%%%/phil/vt/eduCasscCne%manC.aars/htmlD 0ther Fin&s MindCArainCAehavior The Pleasin' Place.o Bhttp8CC%%%/med/harvard/eduCpu.licationsC2ocusCGan;5P!!5CMind/htmlD What,s the Place.o =ffect( B http8CC%%%/oa&land/eduCRd4carlstCa.+Pplac/htmD T1= "$E #22I$M#TI0? The "$E #ffirmation is normally read aloud %ith a soft voice, even in solo sessions/ The affirmation produces a su.tle shift in the sensitivities of the mind that helps to connect the a%areness of the conscious mind to the perceptive capa.ilities of the su.space mind/ The "$E #ffirmation is desi'ned to closely appro+imate the %ay se)uential, connected thou'hts are felt telepathically, piece .y piece, one Kthou'ht-.allK at a time/ Eie%ers should read the affirmation slo%ly, pausin' .riefly after each comma or period/ 1ere is the "$E affirmation8 "$E #ffirmation I am a spiritual .ein'/ Aecause I am a spiritual .ein', I am a.le to perceive .eyond all .oundaries of time and space/ My consciousness is ever present %ith all that is, %ith all that ever %as, and %ith all that ever %ill .e/ It is in my nature, as a human, to .e a.le to perceive, and thus to &no%, all that there is to &no%/ =very%here, at all times, I see& to learn, and thus to evolve/ To further my o%n personal 'ro%th, and to assist others in their 'ro%th, I direct my attention to a chosen point of e+istence/ I o.serve %hat is there/ I study it carefully/ I record %hat I find/ P1#"= T1= P$=FIMI?#$I=" #/ 9onsciousness-"ettlin' Procedure The sin'le most important step needed to o.tain a profound remote-vie%in' e+perience is a deeply settled mind/ 2or this reason I recommend that remote vie%ers meditate re'ularly/ While I personally practice Transcendental Meditation 6TM7, other forms of meditation may .e useful as %ell/ #dditionally, since a settled mind is so essential to deep tar'et penetration, the practice of "$E .e'ins %ith a procedure that helps to settle the mind in an appropriate fashion/ This practice is called the "$E K9onsciousness-"ettlin' ProcedureK 6or 9"P7, and it is composed of a fe% simple techni)ues commonly practiced in a num.er of meditation traditions/ 9"P must .e done immediately prior to each "$E session .y .oth the vie%er and the monitor/ 9"P ta&es appro+imately 5 minutes total/ In Type < and Type 5 settin's, monitors and vie%ers need to communicate 5 minutes .efore each session to coordinate the precise timin' of the .e'innin' of the "$E session/ 1ere are the steps for 9"P8 / "it comforta.ly in silence %ith the eyes closed for 35 seconds/ ;/ Perform a .rief .ody massa'e/ 6"ome meditation traditions recommend that the massa'e .e e+ecuted sli'htly differently for men and %omen, and I descri.e these recommendations here/ I am not clear as to %hy these 'ender-related differences e+ist, or if the need for the differences is real/7 The massa'e .e'ins .y 'ently pressin' the hands a'ainst the face, then up%ard on the top of the head, .ac& do%n the nec&, and to%ard the heart/ 6#ll massa'e elements move to%ard and finish at the heart/7 Then men continue .y 'ently usin' the left hand to press and massa'e first the ri'ht hand, and then up the arm, and .ac& do%n to%ard the heart/ #'ain, this is all done %ith the left hand/ Women do the same, .ut they .e'in .y massa'in' the left hand and arm 6.ac& to%ard the heart7 %ith the ri'ht hand/ Then .oth men and %omen s%itch arms and massa'e the other hand and arm, a'ain, .ac& to%ard the heart/ Then men continue .y massa'in' the ri'ht foot and le', up%ard to%ard the heart/ This is done %ith .oth hands pressin' 'ently/ Then massa'e the left foot and le', a'ain, up%ard to%ard the heart/ Women do the same, .ut they .e'in %ith the left foot and le', up%ard to%ard the heart, .efore repeatin' the process for the ri'ht foot and le'/ This is .est done %ith the eyes closed/ Total time for the massa'e is a.out a minute/ 3/ While sittin' comforta.ly %ith the .ac& strai'ht, perform a .reathin' techni)ue that is called Kpranayama/K Ae'in %ith 5 seconds of fast pranayama/ This is done usin' very short, 'entle .reaths, closin' one nostril at a time after each out%ard and in%ard .reath/ 9lose the nostrils 6one at a time7 %ith the thum. and the middle fin'ers 6alternately7 of one hand/ Men use their ri'ht hand to do this %hile %omen use their left/ The mechanics of the procedure are similar to slo% pranayama 6see .elo%7, e+cept that the .reaths are very short and rapid 6althou'h still 'entle7/ This is .est done %ith the eyes closed/ The procedure should .e effortless and easy, and if someone is e+periencin' any pro.lems li&e di33iness or hyperventilation, it is .ein' performed incorrectly and its practice should .e discontinued until 'ettin' personal instruction in this techni)ue/ </ While sittin' comforta.ly %ith the .ac& strai'ht, perform ! to 5 minutes of slo% pranayama/ This is done similarly as %ith the fast pranayama, .ut usin' normal .reaths 6not short or lon' ones7, closin' one nostril at a time after each out%ard and in%ard .reath/ Ae sure to complete .oth the out%ard and in%ard .reath .efore s%itchin' nostrils/ 0n the e+halin' .reath, let the .reath flo% out naturally, not forcin' it/ The inhalin' .reath should ta&e a.out half the time as the e+halin' .reath/ 1old the .reath after inhalin' for a .rief moment 6a second or t%o7 %hile alternatively closin' the other nostril %ith the other fin'er, and prepare to e+hale/ The entire procedure should .e effortless and 'entle/ If you feel you need more air, simply ta&e deeper .reaths, .ut do not hyperventilate/ @ou should .e .reathin' normally, 4ust alternatin' nostrils after e+halin' and inhalin'/ This is .est done %ith the eyes closed/ 5/ "it )uietly and comforta.ly for 5 minutes %ith the eyes closed/ >/ 0pen your eyes, and immediately .e'in the "$E session/ A/ Physical 9onsiderations to Ae'innin' the "$E "ession # remote-vie%in' session .e'ins %ith a vie%er sittin' at a clean des&/ Ideally, the only items that should .e on the des& are a pen and a thin stac& of %hite paper/ We use a .allpoint pen %ith li)uid .lac& in&/ The pen,s point should ideally ran'e from .et%een /; mm to /< mm/ # 'ood )uality pen that does not produce much friction %hen %ritin' is .est/ Traditional .all point pens that use 'ummy in& re)uire too much do%n%ard pressure %hen %ritin' to .e optimal/ The ideal trainin' room is neutral in color/ Fi'ht 'ray, po%der .lue, or li'ht .ro%n are suita.le colors/ It is pro.a.ly not a 'ood idea to use, say, a child,s playroom that has lots of primary colors on the %alls/ The idea is to minimi3e the stron' stimuli that come in throu'h the senses, such as .ri'ht visual colors/ Aefore remote vie%in', a person should .e %ell rested/ This cannot .e emphasi3ed enou'h/ Tiredness dulls the conscious mind, and a tired conscious mind has difficulty perceivin' information ori'inatin' from the su.space mind/ # 'ood ni'ht,s sleep is ideal for a mornin' remote vie%in' session, and a midday 5 to 35-minute rest often refreshes one sufficiently for an afternoon session/ 0ne should .e comforta.ly fed .efore remote vie%in'/ This means that one should not .e hun'ry, and one should also not .e overfed/ 1un'er and feelin' stuffed produce physical stimuli that are difficult for the conscious mind to i'nore/ $emem.er that the su.space mind yields a relatively %ea& informational si'nal to the conscious mind/ Try to minimi3e any physiolo'ical stimuli that could s%amp the su.space si'nal/ $emote vie% in a )uiet environment/ If possi.le, close the %indo%s and doors of the remote-vie%in' room/ #lso turn off the rin'er of the phone for the time that it ta&es to complete the session/ Turn off any radios or televisions that may .e audi.le near.y/ #void %earin' any perfume, colo'ne, aftershave, or other stron' scents/ This is particularly important %hen trainin' in a 'roup environment/ If a vie%er is a smo&er, it %ould .e .est if this vie%er %ore freshly %ashed clothes durin' the session that do not smell of smo&e/ People %ho use recreational dru's, or any other dru's %ith psychoactive )ualities, should not remote vie% at all/ These dru's tend to release any controls that the conscious mind has over the ima'ination, %hich is e+actly opposite that %hich is re)uired for successful remote vie%in'/ With respect to dru's of any type, one should try to .e as dru' free as possi.le/ Individuals %ho use doctor-prescri.ed antidepressants should pro.a.ly not spend much effort tryin' to remote vie%/ "uch antidepressants suppress the nervous system to such a de'ree that accuracy in remote vie%in' is hi'hly compromised/ @et individuals usin' any dru's prescri.ed .y their doctors should not discontinue their use unless directed to do so .y their doctor/ Fearnin' ho% to remote vie% is not as important as maintainin' one,s health and mental .alance/ Aefore .e'innin' the session, you should sit comforta.ly on a chair at your des& %ith .oth feet on the floor/ The le's should not .e crossed/ @ou should sit up strai'ht, not off to one side, or sittin' on one foot in a lotus position/ The hands should .e rela+ed, %ith the pen held over a sin'le clean sheet of paper/ The paper is positioned in portrait mode 6vertically7/ The stac& of paper should .e on the vie%er,s ri'ht side of the des&/ T1= "$E #22I$M#TI0? Arain ima'in' study sheds li'ht on inner %or&in's of human intelli'ence
N"t/ Fouis, M0/, ;-:-53O
1uman intelli'ence is li&e a mental 4u''lin' act in %hich the smartest performers use specific .rain re'ions to resist distraction and &eep attention focused on critical pieces of information, accordin' to a ne% .rain ima'in' study from Washin'ton University in "t/ Fouis/ People %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence use specific .rain re'ions to help focus their attention and resist distraction durin' a difficult mental tas&/K"ome people seem to perform .etter than others in novel, mentally-demandin' situations, .ut %hy(K as&s Geremy $/ Gray, Ph/D/, co-author of the study to .e posted 2e./ : in an advance online issue of the 4ournal ?ature ?euroscience/ KPresuma.ly, people are usin' their .rains differently, .ut ho%( K 9urious a.out the specific co'nitive and neural mechanisms that underlie individual differences in intelli'ence, Gray and collea'ues devised a study to e+plore the inner %or&in's of one important aspect of human intelli'ence/ The study sou'ht to .etter understand the process throu'h %hich the mind reasons and solves novel pro.lems, an a.ility &no%n amon' psycholo'ists as Kfluid intelli'ence/K KThe results may help researchers to understand the neural .asis of individual differences in co'nitive a.ility,K accordin' to an em.ar'oed ne%s release issued this %ee& .y ?ature ?euroscience/ Descri.in' the study as KimpressiveK in part .ecause of its relatively lar'e num.er of participants, the 4ournal su''ests the findin's K%ill help to constrain theories of the neural mechanisms underlyin' differences in 'eneral intelli'ence/K The scientific team included Gray, a research scientist in psycholo'y, and Todd "/ Araver, Ph/D/, an assistant professor in psycholo'y, .oth in #rts H "ciences at Washin'ton University* and 9hristopher 2/ 9ha.ris, Ph/D/, a research associate at 1arvard University/ Usin' functional ma'netic resonance ima'in' 6fM$I7, the researchers measured su.tle chan'es in .rain activity as study participants performed a challen'in' mental tas& -- one perhaps analo'ous to tryin' to drive to a ne% destination and attemptin' to &eep the directions in mind %hile maintainin' a conversation %ith passen'ers in the car Participants in the study %ere as&ed to do %hat mi'ht seem li&e a mental 4u''lin' act/ They had to &eep a list of three %ords or faces actively in mind/ =very fe% seconds, they had to add another %ord or face to this list, and drop the oldest item from the list/ Aut .efore they for'ot the old item completely, they had to indicate %hether the ne% item they %ere addin' e+actly matched the oldest item they %ere droppin'/ Their .rain activity %as monitored as they did so/ 9ritically, the e+perimenters %ould occasionally thro% participants a curve .all8 sho%in' them a ne% item that did not match the oldest item, .ut did match one near.y in the on-'oin' se)uence/ Participants found these ,lure, items to .e especially distractin'/ # &ey findin' of the study %as that participants %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere .etter a.le to respond correctly despite the interference from the ,lure, items and they appeared to do so .y en'a'in' several &ey .rain re'ions more stron'ly, includin' the prefrontal and parietal corte+/ K0ur study depended on the fact that people vary in their intelli'ence level,K Araver said/ KWe used that variation to identify %hich .rain re'ions are more critical for fluid intelli'ence/K "everal previous studies have e+amined ho% the .rain responds to )uestions that appear on intelli'ence tests/ 1o%ever, the previous studies did not e+amine ho% people differ, nor %hat aspects of the test )uestions %ere most sensitive to such differences/ The findin's in this ?ature ?euroscience report dra% on a co'nitive theory of fluid intelli'ence proposed .y $andall =n'le, Ph/D/, Professor of Psycholo'y at Geor'ia Institute of Technolo'y, and his collea'ues/ In this theory, the a.ility to resist or overcome interference li&e that on the ,lure, trials is important/ KIma'ine tryin' to &eep a ne% phone num.er in mind 4ust lon' enou'h to dial it,K su''ests Gray/ K?o% ima'in' tryin' to do this %hile people around you are havin' a very interestin' conversation/ Payin' attention to the conversation %ould interfere %ith remem.erin' the phone num.er/ People %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence should have an easier time resistin' .ein' distracted .y the conversation and &eepin' attention focused on the phone num.er/K The Washin'ton University study included <: participants, all healthy, ri'ht-handed, native =n'lish spea&ers .et%een the a'es of : and 37, a.out half men and half %omen/ =ach participant %as administered a standard test of fluid intelli'ence, &no%n as $aven,s #dvanced Pro'ressive Matrices/ =ach participant %as then as&ed to perform the %ord and face Kmental 4u''lin'K tas&s %hile lyin' inside an fM$I scanner/ =ach tas& tested a &ind of short-term memory &no%n as K%or&in' memory/K To 'et a sense of ho% the tas& %or&s, as& a friend to read the follo%in' %ords to you at a rate of a.out one %ord every ;/5 seconds8 do', cat, chair, ta.le, cat, door, chair, do'/ 2or each %ord that you hear, ma&e a mental note of %hether it is the same %ord as you heard three %ords previously/ That is, compare the fourth %ord you hear to the first, the fifth %ord to the second, and so on/ 62or the first three %ords, there is nothin' to compare them to, so 4ust remem.er them for later/7 The participants in the study had to do a similar tas&, e+cept that it involved vie%in' a series of either unrelated %ords or unfamiliar faces on a computer screen, one %ord or face every fe% seconds/ Participants had to press a .utton to indicate %hether or not the %ord or face on the screen matched one sho%n e+actly three previously/ The tas& is challen'in', .ut the researchers included some especially tric&y KlureK items that %ere even more difficult/ These %ere %ords or faces that had .een sho%n t%o, four, or five previously in the se)uence, .ut not three previously/ 2or e+ample, the second time the %ord KchairK appears in the list a.ove is a lure/ The lure items are easily confusa.le for an item seen three previously/ The mere fact that the %ord or face %as seen recently is salient and hard to i'nore/ This creates interference of the type that, accordin' to =n'le and collea'ues, should en'a'e fluid intelli'ence/ 0n the tas&, people %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere 'enerally more accurate than those %ith lo%er fluid intelli'ence/ 2luid intelli'ence appeared to .e most critical for performance on lure trials/ The critical nature of lure trials also %as reflected in .rain activation differences .et%een individuals of hi'h and lo% fluid intelli'ence/ In several .rain areas includin' prefrontal and parietal corte+, people %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence had stron'er neural activity than people %ith lo%er fluid intelli'ence/ That is, doin' the tas& led to %idespread activity across the .rain, .ut the stren'th of this activity %as related to fluid intelli'ence only on the lure trials/ "o, %hat is it e+actly that the participants %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere doin' differently on the lure trials( Their performance su''ests they %ere &eepin' the distractin' information at .ay, and they appeared to do so .y activatin' re'ions in prefrontal and parietal corte+, as %ell as a num.er of au+iliary re'ions/ While the study offers ne% insi'ht into fluid intelli'ence, the researchers emphasi3e that ho% %ell people perform in a 'iven situation depends on the comple+ interaction of many a.ilities/ 2or e+ample, this study does not address every aspect of fluid intelli'ence, nor does it account for other forms of intelli'ence, such as crystalli3ed intelli'ence, %hich involves specific s&ills and e+pertise/ Motivation and emotion are also important/ 0ther %or& su''ests that fluid intelli'ence may not .e fi+ed, .ut can .e increased/ KI find this study e+citin' in part .ecause it opens a door to doin' many further studies that capitali3e on differences in psycholo'ical functions amon' individuals,K added Araver/ KIndividuals differ in co'nitive a.ilities and in many other %ays as %ell, such as personality/ We can use this same type of approach to understand ho% these psycholo'ical differences are reflected in .rain function/K =ditor,s ?ote8 Geremy Gray can .e reached .y phone at 63<7 !35-:>3 or via email at 4'raySartsci/%ustl/edu/ Todd Araver can .e reached .y phone at 63<7 !35-5<3 or via email at t.raverSartsci/%ustl/edu Bmailto8t.raverSartsci/%ustl/eduD/ #dvance 0nline Pu.lication8 This paper, titled K?eural mechanisms of 'eneral fluid intelli'enceK is scheduled for #dvance 0nline Pu.lication 6#0P7 on ?ature ?euroscience,s %e.site on 2e./ :/ The #0P version of the article can .e considered definitive* the only difference from the su.se)uent print version is that #0P articles are pu.lished .efore they have .een assi'ned an issueCvolumeCpa'e num.er/ Papers pu.lished online .efore they have .een allocated to a print issue %ill .e cita.le via a di'ital o.4ect identifier 6D0I7 num.er/ The D0I for this paper %ill .e 5/53:C?n5</ If you need further clarification a.out anythin' related to pu.licity, please contact one of the ?ature offices, as indicated .elo%/ 2rom ?orth #merica8 Latie McGoldric& ?ature Washin'ton Tel8T ;5; 737 ;355 2a+8T ;5; >;: >5! =-mail8&/mc'oldric&Snaturedc/com Bmailto8&/mc'oldric&Snaturedc/comD Arain Ima'in' "tudy "heds Fi'ht 0n Inner Wor&in's 0f 1uman Intelli'ence "t/ Fouis, Mo/, 2e./ 3, ;553 -- 1uman intelli'ence is li&e a mental 4u''lin' act in %hich the smartest performers use specific .rain re'ions to resist distraction and &eep attention focused on critical pieces of information, accordin' to a ne% .rain ima'in' study from Washin'ton University in "t/ Fouis/ K"ome people seem to perform .etter than others in novel, mentally-demandin' situations, .ut %hy(K as&s Geremy $/ Gray, Ph/D/, co-author of the study to .e posted 2e./ : in an advance online issue of the 4ournal ?ature ?euroscience/ KPresuma.ly, people are usin' their .rains differently, .ut ho%( U 9urious a.out the specific co'nitive and neural mechanisms that underlie individual differences in intelli'ence, Gray and collea'ues devised a study to e+plore the inner %or&in's of one important aspect of human intelli'ence/ The study sou'ht to .etter understand the process throu'h %hich the mind reasons and solves novel pro.lems, an a.ility &no%n amon' psycholo'ists as Ufluid intelli'ence/V UThe results may help researchers to understand the neural .asis of individual differences in co'nitive a.ility,V accordin' to an em.ar'oed ne%s release issued this %ee& .y ?ature ?euroscience/ Descri.in' the study as UimpressiveV in part .ecause of its relatively lar'e num.er of participants, the 4ournal su''ests the findin's U%ill help to constrain theories of the neural mechanisms underlyin' differences in 'eneral intelli'ence/V The scientific team included Gray, a research scientist in psycholo'y, and Todd "/ Araver, Ph/D/, an assistant professor in psycholo'y, .oth in #rts H "ciences at Washin'ton University* and 9hristopher 2/ 9ha.ris, Ph/D/, a research associate at 1arvard University/ Usin' functional ma'netic resonance ima'in' 6fM$I7, the researchers measured su.tle chan'es in .rain activity as study participants performed a challen'in' mental tas& -- one perhaps analo'ous to tryin' to drive to a ne% destination and attemptin' to &eep the directions in mind %hile maintainin' a conversation %ith passen'ers in the car/ Participants in the study %ere as&ed to do %hat mi'ht seem li&e a mental 4u''lin' act/ They had to &eep a list of three %ords or faces actively in mind/ =very fe% seconds, they had to add another %ord or face to this list, and drop the oldest item from the list/ Aut .efore they for'ot the old item completely, they had to indicate %hether the ne% item they %ere addin' e+actly matched the oldest item they %ere droppin'/ Their .rain activity %as monitored as they did so/ 9ritically, the e+perimenters %ould occasionally thro% participants a curve .all8 sho%in' them a ne% item that did not match the oldest item, .ut did match one near.y in the on-'oin' se)uence/ Participants found these ,lure, items to .e especially distractin'/ # &ey findin' of the study %as that participants %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere .etter a.le to respond correctly despite the interference from the ,lure, items and they appeared to do so .y en'a'in' several &ey .rain re'ions more stron'ly, includin' the prefrontal and parietal corte+/ K0ur study depended on the fact that people vary in their intelli'ence level,K Araver said/ KWe used that variation to identify %hich .rain re'ions are more critical for fluid intelli'ence/K "everal previous studies have e+amined ho% the .rain responds to )uestions that appear on intelli'ence tests/ 1o%ever, the previous studies did not e+amine ho% people differ, nor %hat aspects of the test )uestions %ere most sensitive to such differences/ The findin's in this ?ature ?euroscience report dra% on a co'nitive theory of fluid intelli'ence proposed .y $andall =n'le, Ph/D/, Professor of Psycholo'y at Geor'ia Institute of Technolo'y, and his collea'ues/ In this theory, the a.ility to resist or overcome interference li&e that on the ,lure, trials is important/ UIma'ine tryin' to &eep a ne% phone num.er in mind 4ust lon' enou'h to dial it,V su''ests Gray/ U?o% ima'in' tryin' to do this %hile people around you are havin' a very interestin' conversation/ Payin' attention to the conversation %ould interfere %ith remem.erin' the phone num.er/ People %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence should have an easier time resistin' .ein' distracted .y the conversation and &eepin' attention focused on the phone num.er/V The Washin'ton University study included <: participants, all healthy, ri'ht-handed, native =n'lish spea&ers .et%een the a'es of : and 37, a.out half men and half %omen/ =ach participant %as administered a standard test of fluid intelli'ence, &no%n as $aven,s #dvanced Pro'ressive Matrices/ =ach participant %as then as&ed to perform the %ord and face Kmental 4u''lin'K tas&s %hile lyin' inside an fM$I scanner/ =ach tas& tested a &ind of short-term memory &no%n as K%or&in' memory/K To 'et a sense of ho% the tas& %or&s, as& a friend to read the follo%in' %ords to you at a rate of a.out one %ord every ;/5 seconds8 do', cat, chair, ta.le, cat, door, chair, do'/ 2or each %ord that you hear, ma&e a mental note of %hether it is the same %ord as you heard three %ords previously/ That is, compare the fourth %ord you hear to the first, the fifth %ord to the second, and so on/ 62or the first three %ords, there is nothin' to compare them to, so 4ust remem.er them for later/7 The participants in the study had to do a similar tas&, e+cept that it involved vie%in' a series of either unrelated %ords or unfamiliar faces on a computer screen, one %ord or face every fe% seconds/ Participants had to press a .utton to indicate %hether or not the %ord or face on the screen matched one sho%n e+actly three previously/ The tas& is challen'in', .ut the researchers included some especially tric&y KlureK items that %ere even more difficult/ These %ere %ords or faces that had .een sho%n t%o, four, or five previously in the se)uence, .ut not three previously/ 2or e+ample, the second time the %ord KchairK appears in the list a.ove is a lure/ The lure items are easily confusa.le for an item seen three previously/ The mere fact that the %ord or face %as seen recently is salient and hard to i'nore/ This creates interference of the type that, accordin' to =n'le and collea'ues, should en'a'e fluid intelli'ence/ 0n the tas&, people %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere 'enerally more accurate than those %ith lo%er fluid intelli'ence/ 2luid intelli'ence appeared to .e most critical for performance on lure trials/ The critical nature of lure trials also %as reflected in .rain activation differences .et%een individuals of hi'h and lo% fluid intelli'ence/ In several .rain areas includin' prefrontal and parietal corte+, people %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence had stron'er neural activity than people %ith lo%er fluid intelli'ence/ That is, doin' the tas& led to %idespread activity across the .rain, .ut the stren'th of this activity %as related to fluid intelli'ence only on the lure trials/ "o, %hat is it e+actly that the participants %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere doin' differently on the lure trials( Their performance su''ests they %ere &eepin' the distractin' information at .ay, and they appeared to do so .y activatin' re'ions in prefrontal and parietal corte+, as %ell as a num.er of au+iliary re'ions/ While the study offers ne% insi'ht into fluid intelli'ence, the researchers emphasi3e that ho% %ell people perform in a 'iven situation depends on the comple+ interaction of many a.ilities/ 2or e+ample, this study does not address every aspect of fluid intelli'ence, nor does it account for other forms of intelli'ence, such as crystalli3ed intelli'ence, %hich involves specific s&ills and e+pertise/ Motivation and emotion are also important/ 0ther %or& su''ests that fluid intelli'ence may not .e fi+ed, .ut can .e increased/ KI find this study e+citin' in part .ecause it opens a door to doin' many further studies that capitali3e on differences in psycholo'ical functions amon' individuals,K added Araver/ KIndividuals differ in co'nitive a.ilities and in many other %ays as %ell, such as personality/ We can use this same type of approach to understand ho% these psycholo'ical differences are reflected in .rain function/K