Nuclear Reactions

and Radiation
3.1 Radiation is all around us

L. R. Foulke


Overview
Previous Module
Atomic structure, binding energy
Nuclear stability, nuclear decay
Types of radiation
This Module
Types of radiation interactions
Calculation of reaction rates
Fission
Radiation
What is radiation?
Transmitted Energy
Types of radiation
Electromagnetic (radio, visible, x-rays, ! rays)
Charged particles (electrons, protons, " particles)
Other (neutrons, neutrinos, other exotic beasts)
Categorized as either ionizing or non-ionizing
Depending on whether they can ionize other particles
(i.e., rip off electrons from the atom)
Effects of Radiation
Interactions
The local effects of radiation on a given material is
characterized by two quantities:
Range
The average total distance traveled by a single particle of
radiation (cm).
Linear Energy Transfer (LET)
The total energy transferred from a particle of radiation to its
surroundings, per unit distance travelled (keV/m).
Range and LET values are unique to the type and
energy of the radiation as well as the target material.
Charged Particle Interactions
Charged particles (by ascending charge)
Electrons, positrons, protons, alpha particles,
recoil nuclei, fission fragments.
As particles travel through a sea of
negatively charged electrons, long range
electrostatic forces act as a drag force.
Charged particle LET is directly proportional
to charge.
Charged particle range is directly proportional
to velocity.
Charge: -1
Charge: +1
Beta particle (electron)

Positron

Proton

Charge: +2
!-particle

Charge: > +2
Ionized nucleus
(positive ion)

Image Source: See Note 1 for Ionized nucleus
Charged Particle Interactions
Before After
proton
neutron
electron
Example of Ionization Interaction
Image Source: See Note 2
Electromagnetic Interactions
X and ! rays interact with free and bound electrons in
the material.
Photoelectric Effect
Photon energy is transferred to bound electron, causing it to be
ejected from electron cloud.
Compton Scattering
Photon scatters off of an electron, changing the wavelength of
the photon and giving kinetic energy to the electron.
Pair production
Photon with energy > 1.022 MeV spontaneously turns into an
electron and a positron.
Electromagnetic Interactions
Pre-Collision
Photoelectric Effect
proton
neutron
electron
Compton Scattering
" ray
Pair Production
positron
Annihilation
Image Source: See Note 2
Ionizing Radiation
Radiation that contains enough energy to remove one
or more electrons from an atom or molecule.
All charged particles are ionizing.
Only photons with an energy greater than the
ionization energy of a given atom or molecule are
considered ionizing.
Some molecules are affected by photons in the
visible or UV range, but typically only x-rays and
gamma rays are considered ionizing.
All three radiation types (charged particles,
electromagnetic radiation, and neutrons) are capable of
ionizing target atoms in materials.
Ionization events are the root cause behind ALL
observable effects of radiation.
Ionization reactions damage materials by breaking chemical
bonds and disrupting normal chemical processes (material
embrittlement, biological damage, etc.)
The rate of ionization (damage) depends on the type
and energy of the radiation, as well as the constituent
atoms in the target material.
Effects of Radiation
The number of ionization events that a single particle of
radiation can produce is determined by the energy of
the radiation.
The ionization density is determined by the LET

----------------------------------------------------------
Relative Relative
Radiation Range LET
----------------------------------------------------------
Alpha 1 10,000
Beta 100 100
Gamma 10,000 1
----------------------------------------------------------

Ionization Density
Ionization Density
Average Human Cell
neutron
gamma ray
x-ray
alpha particle
Separation of ion clusters relative to size of a human cell (conceptualized)
Image Source: See Note 3
Penetrating Properties of Radiation
Neutron Interactions
Neutrons can only interact with atomic nuclei.
Neutron Elastic Scattering
Occurs when a neutron strikes a nucleus and transfers kinetic
energy, creating a charged recoil nucleus.
Conserves two-body kinetic energy. Only fast neutrons
(>1keV) striking light nuclei (H to C) can transfer enough
energy to cause a significant recoil.
Neutron Inelastic Scattering
Occurs when a neutron strikes a nucleus and causes excitation
in the nucleus. Nuclear de-excitation releases a ! ray.
Does not conserve kinetic energy. Only neutrons above a
nuclide-dependent threshold energy can cause reactions.
Neutron Interactions
Neutron Absorption (Capture + Fission)
Capture occurs when a neutron strikes a nucleus and is
absorbed, increasing the mass number of the isotope by 1.
Addition of the extra neutron leaves the neutron in an
excited state, with too much energy.
Nuclear de-excitation releases ! rays.
Certain combinations of neutrons and protons are
fundamentally unstable. Isotopes with these combinations
undergo further stabilization by emitting a particle:
!
-
decay, !
+
decay, " decay, proton emission, neutron
emission, internal conversion, electron capture
This process is Radioactive Decay
Neutron Interactions
Pre-Collision
Elastic Collision
proton
neutron
electron
Inelastic Collision
" ray
Neutron Capture
Image Source: See Note 2
neutron
becomes
a proton
#Z=+1

!
-
1. Creative Commons:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Nucleus_drawing.png
2 Reprinted with permission from David Greisheimer,
University of Pittsburgh.
3. Public domain:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Diagram_human_cell_nucleus_no_text.png

Image Source Notes