Modul 13 - Earthquake

Module 13
Module 13
Earthquake
Earthquake
Photo credit: USGS
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake
Earthquake
A series of shock waves generated at a point (

A series of shock waves generated at a point (
the
the
focus
focus
) within the
) within the
Earth
Earth
s
s
crust or mantle
crust or mantle
The point on the surface of the Earth above the

The point on the surface of the Earth above the
focus is called the
focus is called the
epicenter
epicenter
Three main types of wave motion are generated

Three main types of wave motion are generated
by an earthquake: P
by an earthquake: P
-
-
Waves; S
Waves; S
-
-
Waves;
Waves;
dan
dan
L
L
-
-
Waves
Waves
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
P P- -Waves Waves
High High- -frequency frequency
Short Short - -wavelength wavelength
Longitudinal waves Longitudinal waves
Can be reflected and Can be reflected and
refracted refracted
Travel through the Travel through the
solid and the liquid solid and the liquid
part of the Earth part of the Earth
S S- -Waves Waves
High High- -frequency frequency
Short Short - -wavelength wavelength
Transverse waves Transverse waves
Can be reflected and Can be reflected and
refracted refracted
Travel through the Travel through the
solid part of the solid part of the
Earth at varying Earth at varying
velocities. velocities.
Propagated in all Propagated in all
directions from directions from
the focus the focus
L L- -Waves Waves
Low Low- -frequency frequency
Long Long- -wavelength wavelength
Transverse vibrations Transverse vibrations
Confined to the outer Confined to the outer
skin of the crust skin of the crust
Responsible for most Responsible for most
of the destructive of the destructive
force of earthquake force of earthquake
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
Seismic Wave Types
Seismic Wave Types
Body Waves
Body Waves
Primary or
Primary or
Compressional
Compressional
Secondary or Shear
Secondary or Shear
Surface Waves
Surface Waves
Rayleigh
Rayleigh
(large vertical displacements)
(large vertical displacements)
Love (shear)
Love (shear)
Seismic Wave Types
Seismic Wave Types
B
o
d
y

W
a
v
e
s
B
o
d
y

W
a
v
e
s
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

W
a
v
e
s
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

W
a
v
e
s
Primary (P) Wave Primary (P) Wave
Secondary (S) Wave Secondary (S) Wave
Love Wave Love Wave Rayleigh Rayleigh Wave Wave
3 m offset
1906 San Francisco Earthquake 1906 San Francisco Earthquake
Elastic Rebound Theory
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
Offset Lettuce Rows Offset Lettuce Rows - - El Centro, CA El Centro, CA
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
Where does the offset occur?
Draw the relative movement
V
p
= k + 4/3
Equations for velocities

Equations for velocities
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
1/2
density
V
s
=
shear modulus (rigidity)
k bulk modulus (rigidity)
1/2
because shear modulus (rigidity) for fluid is zero,

S waves cannot propagate through a fluid
consequence of equations is that P waves are 1.7x faster than S
can infer physical properties from P and S waves
Effects of the Earthquake
Pancaked Building Pancaked Building - - 1985 Mexico City 1985 Mexico City
Earthquakes dont kill people - buildings do!
Soil Liquefaction Soil Liquefaction - - 1964 Ni 1964 Ni i i gata, Japan gata, Japan
Surface Displacement Surface Displacement - - 1964 Alaska 1964 Alaska
Ground Rupture, 1906 Ground Rupture, 1906 Olema Olema, CA , CA
Fence Compression Fence Compression - - Gallatin County, MT Gallatin County, MT
Buckled Concrete Buckled Concrete - - 1971 San Fernando, CA 1971 San Fernando, CA
Tsunami Devastation Tsunami Devastation - - 1964 Alaska Earthquake 1964 Alaska Earthquake
Tsumani Generation Tsumani Generation
Tsunami Wave Propagation Times Tsunami Wave Propagation Times
Locating the Earthquake
Vertical Component Seismometer
Vertical Component Seismometer
Horizontal Component Seismometer
Horizontal Component Seismometer
First Arrivals
First Arrivals
Seismographic Record
Seismographic Record
Distance
Distance
Time
Time
Ralations
Ralations
P
P
vs
vs
S Wave Travel Time Curves
S Wave Travel Time Curves
Earthquake Location by Range
Earthquake Location by Range
Measuring the Earthquake
Three distinct methods to measure earthquakes. Two

Three distinct methods to measure earthquakes. Two
based on energy and one based on intensity.
based on energy and one based on intensity.
Richter Magnitude Scale: originally developed for

Richter Magnitude Scale: originally developed for
southern California. Log scale, which has no upper
southern California. Log scale, which has no upper
bound. Small earthquakes may yield negative
bound. Small earthquakes may yield negative
values. Tends to be inaccurate at >7 magnitudes.
values. Tends to be inaccurate at >7 magnitudes.
Moment Magnitude Scale: measurement of the

Moment Magnitude Scale: measurement of the
amount of work done during the earthquake. Based
amount of work done during the earthquake. Based
on rock strength, area of rupture, and displacement
on rock strength, area of rupture, and displacement
during event.
during event.
Modified
Modified
Mercalli
Mercalli
Intensity Scale: based on the
Intensity Scale: based on the
damage associated with a particular event at a
damage associated with a particular event at a
particular location. Ranges from I (less damage) to
particular location. Ranges from I (less damage) to
XII (more damage).
XII (more damage).
Magnitude
Magnitude
-
-
Description
Description
-
-
Intensity
Intensity
-
-
Frequency Relations
Frequency Relations
1886 Charleston, SC earthquake
Modified
Modified
Mercalli
Mercalli
Intensity Index (1931)
Intensity Index (1931)
Historical Earthquake Magnitudes
Historical Earthquake Magnitudes
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries
Subduction Angle
Earthquake Distribution
Earthquake Distribution
Relative plate motion and boundaries
Relative plate motion and boundaries
different types of structures are associated with each boundary type:
divergent/rifting: extensional (normal faulting)
convergent/collisional: compressional (thrust faulting)
transform/transcurrent: shear-dominated (strike-slip faulting)
Divergent Boundary and Earthquakes
E
E
arthquakes along
arthquakes along
mid
mid
-
-
ocean ridge are
ocean ridge are
shallower than those
shallower than those
along subduction zone
along subduction zone
from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html
Transform Boundary and Earthquakes
The western US
The western US
is somewhat
is somewhat
anomalous
anomalous
Note: absence of
Note: absence of
deep earthquakes
deep earthquakes
Convergent Boundary and Earthquakes
Convergent Boundary and Earthquakes
Shallow vs. Deep Subduction Earthquakes
Shallow vs. Deep Subduction Earthquakes
Continent Continent - -continent collision continent collision
zones have broad areas of zones have broad areas of
of relatively shallow seismicity of relatively shallow seismicity
Ocean Ocean- -continent convergent continent convergent
margins have earthquakes foci margins have earthquakes foci
that extend to great depths. that extend to great depths.
Mechanism tend to change from Mechanism tend to change from
extension to compression extension to compression
downdip. downdip.
deep intermediate shallow
Epicenters: Epicenters: location of earthquake rupture projected to location of earthquake rupture projected to
surface; surface;
D Dip of slab leads to observed seismicity patterns: ip of slab leads to observed seismicity patterns: deeper deeper
farther from trench farther from trench
L Location of downgoing slab as it dives into mantle ocation of downgoing slab as it dives into mantle i i s defined s defined
by seismicity by seismicity. .
E Earthquakes occur along arthquakes occur along an inclined belt: an inclined belt: the Wadati the Wadati - -Benioff Benioff
zone zone r reaches maximum depth of ~670 km eaches maximum depth of ~670 km
from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270
S
S
eismicity of subduction zones
eismicity of subduction zones
all from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html
Seismicity Seismicity of Japan and of Japan and Kuril Kuril Island: Island:
1975 1975 - - 1995 1995
Seismicity Seismicity Fiji Islands Fiji Islands
Region: 1977 Region: 1977 - - 1997 1997
Seismicity Seismicity of Peru of Peru- -Bolivia Bolivia
Border Region: 1977 Border Region: 1977 - - 1997 1997
slab is cold and thus can have slab is cold and thus can have
earthquakes at greater depths earthquakes at greater depths
Tomography (3D seismic)
Tomography (3D seismic)
note continuity of blue slab note continuity of blue slab
to depths on order of 670 km to depths on order of 670 km
blue is fast blue is fast
interpreted as slab interpreted as slab
S Seismicity along subduction zones: eismicity along subduction zones:
earthquakes are shallow, intermediate, and deep earthquakes are shallow, intermediate, and deep
but have systematic location but have systematic location related to subducting sla related to subducting slab b
shallow adjacent to trench and deep farthest away shallow adjacent to trench and deep farthest away
from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270

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Module 13

A series of shock waves generated at a point (

The point on the surface of the Earth above the

Three main types of wave motion are generated

Equations for velocities

because shear modulus (rigidity) for fluid is zero,

Three distinct methods to measure earthquakes. Two

Richter Magnitude Scale: originally developed for

Moment Magnitude Scale: measurement of the

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