Engine Power Concepts

PRODUCT INFORMATION
Stroke
Stroke
C/R
CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Engine Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Engine Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Brake Mean Effective Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9
Power Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-13
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
3
Selling engines requires knowledge of their
capabilities and components. Potential
customers will have questions regarding
applications and engine design features. While
some of the terms used to describe various
engine parts or functions can sound complex,
they refer to processes or relationships which
are actually easy to understand most relate to
size or power. These general terms apply to all
piston engines Cat engines as well as the
engine in your car.
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
4
ENGINE POWERCONCEPTS
Bore refers to the inside diameter of the
cylinders in an engine. The piston is slightly
smaller than the bore measurement because it
slides in the cylinder.
Stroke is the distance the piston travels in the
cylinder. The length of the stroke is determined
by the crankshaft radius also known as crank
throw (the distance from the centerline of main
bearing journal to centerline of connecting rod
bearing journal). This movement is controlled
by the shape of the crankshaft.
The connecting rod connects the crankshaft to
the piston. As the crankshaft rotates through
180 degrees, the connecting rod and the piston
move from the extreme bottom position (BC) to
the extreme top position (TC). The stroke then is
two times the crankshaft crank radius (C/R). The
crank radius is also the lever arm on which the
force from the piston acts to produce torque.
Displacement, or swept volume, per cylinder is
the volume of air a piston displaces as it moves
through one stroke. These terms are used
interchangeably. Both mean bore area times
stroke.
Bore Area = (3.14 x bore squared)/4
Displacement per Cylinder = Bore Area x Stroke
Engine Displacement = Displacement per
Cylinder x No. of Cylinders
If the bore diameter and stroke are in inches,
the displacement will be in cubic inches. If the
bore diameter and stroke are in centimeters,
displacement is in cubic centimeters. 100 cubic
centimeters is one liter.
Compression Ratio is the ratio of volume in the
cylinder with the piston all the way down vs.
all the way up. If the minimum volume in the
cylinder with the piston at TC is one cubic inch
and the maximum volume with the piston at BC
is 10 cubic inches, the compression ratio is 10:1.
Automotive gasoline engines have
compression ratios between 7:1 and 12:1.
Diesel engines have compression ratios
between 13:1 and 24:1. Generally, larger
diesel engines have the lower compression
ratios.
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
5
ENGINESIZING
displacement
or
swept
volume
Stroke
Stroke
C/R
C/R
Engine speed (the number of revolutions made
by the crankshaft in one minute) is measured in
rpm (revolutions per minute).
Torque is the twist on a shaft resulting from a
force applied perpendicular at a lever arm. Its
units are force (pounds) times distance from the
center of the rotating shaft (feet). Thus, 100
pounds applied at a lever arm of 2 feet results in
200 lb-ft torque. Equal torques can be produced
by a large force applied at a short lever arm or
a small force applied at a long lever arm. The
torque from one-pound force applied at a
10-foot lever is the same as from a 10-pound
force applied at a one-foot lever, etc.
In an engine, pressure is applied to the top of the
piston from expansion of an ignited air and fuel
mixture. This pressure results in a force from the
piston applied at the crank radius through the
connecting rod. The resulting torque causes the
crankshaft to rotate.
By definition, work is force applied for a
distance, or in the case of a rotational situation,
work is torque applied through an angle. Power
is work performed per unit of time.
An engine producing 1000 lb-ft torque at 2000
rpm, through transmission gearing can produce
2000 lb-ft torque at 1000 rpm assuming no
efficiency losses through the transmission, for
example. An increase in torque is achieved at the
expense of speed. The power in both cases is the
same. To increase engine power we strive to
increase torque (lb-ft) or speed (rpm) or both.
2 ft
2

l
b
s
T
o
r
q
ue
4 lb-ft
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
6
ENGINEPOWER
rpm
Torque Lever arm
Torque = 10 lb-ft
10 ft
1 ft
1 lb
10 lbs
The most common unit of engine power in the
U.S. is horsepower (hp). Originally, this unit
was derived by what an average horse could do.
Rigged up with a pulley system, an average
horse could lift 33,000 pounds one foot off the
ground in one minute.
Because power takes into account engine torque
output as well as engine speed, it is a convenient
unit used to compare engine size.
Though horsepower is an accepted unit to rate
engines, each application must be considered
individually. The engine ratings can be:
Power that can be produced continuously
Power that can be produced for a given
time period, (generally one hour) followed
by an equal time period at a lower rating
Power that the engine can deliver for very
short times, such as five minutes
Variables influencing power rating are:
Temperature of the air
Temperature of the fuel
Barometric pressure
Humidity
Heat content of the fuel
The total horsepower actually developed on the
pistons is called indicated horsepower. It is
greater than the power measured at the engine
flywheel by the horsepower required to
overcome frictional losses in the bearings, piston
rings, etc. as well as operating satellite systems
such as fuel, oil, and water pumps. The
difference between indicated horsepower and
flywheel horsepower is called friction
horsepower.
The friction horsepower of an engine can be
determined in the laboratory by motoring the
engine with an electric motor. In this test the
engines fuel rack is at shut-off. The electric
power required to motor the engine at any
given speed is the engine friction horsepower
at that speed.
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
7
ENGINEPOWER

Indicated horsepower less frictional
horsepower equals brake horsepower.
BMEP is a value referring to the constant
pressure which would have to exist in a cylinder
during its power stroke to produce the same
horsepower at the flywheel, as actually exists.
Pressure within the cylinder varies considerably.
A rough indication of that pressure is shown
above. You see that the pressure acting on the
piston varies considerably during the power
stroke. The mean or average pressure which
would produce the same brake horsepower is
the BMEP.
Another way of viewing BMEP is that it
measures how effectively an engine uses its
piston displacement to produce torque.
The higher the BMEP, the greater the
torque per unit of displacement.
BMEP can only be compared between
4-cycle engine to 4-cycle engine and 2-cycle
engine to 2-cycle engine.
Over the years, BMEP has become known
as a measure of engine life, however, it is
NOT.
BMEP gives a fair indication of mechanical
stresses within the engine, but in no way is
indicative of thermal loads.
Example: One engine operating at the same
speed (1800 rpm), but with varying turbocharger
boost and amount of aftercooling.
Column 1 shows a naturally aspirated engine
producing 100 hp at a BMEP of 84
Column 2 light turbocharging greatly
increases the air inlet temperature, but raises
horsepower to 134 and BMEP to 119; fuel
consumption has decreased 6% to .402 lbs./bhp hr.,
but internal pressures have increased 44%;
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
8
BRAKEMEANEFFECTIVEPRESSURE
compression
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
power exhaust intake
+
o

compression
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
power exhaust intake
+
o

BMEP
Example Engine (1800 rpm)
because air inlet temperature has increased 171,
thermal loading has increased 19%.
Column 3 an engine with the same degree of
turbocharging as in column 2, but with moderate
aftercooling; air inlet temperature decreased to
200 F, although horsepower and BMEP both
increased; fuel consumption again decreased;
because turbocharging is also the same as in
column 2, maximum cycle pressure is also the
same, while cooler inlet air lowers thermal
loading.
Column 4 the same degree of aftercooling as
in column 3, but with a light turbocharging
boost; again bhp and BMEP increased, while
lowering fuel consumption; the higher boost
pressure brings considerably higher maximum
cycle pressures; but thermal load remains almost
unchanged from column 3.
Column 5 a very high degree of aftercooling
on the same amount of turbocharging boost as
column 4; Horsepower now stands at 214
114% more than the naturally aspirated engine;
BMEP is nearly 100 psi higher than that of the
naturally aspirated engine; fuel consumption is
more than 9% lower; maximum cycle pressure
has increased, but less than horsepower has;
thermal loading is only 13% greater than that of
the naturally aspirated engine, and is lower than
that of the lightly turbocharged, not aftercooled
engine in column 2.
Conclusion As BMEP is increased, fuel
consumption falls consistently. Mechanical
loadings due to cylinder pressures increase,
while thermal loadings rise slightly, then start to
decrease. This demonstrates that BMEP, with
little or no direct correlation to either
mechanical or thermal stresses, it is not an
indication of engine life.
Properly designed high BMEP engines may
have even better life expectancy than a
naturally aspirated engine.
A high BMEP engine will have better
bhp-hr production (i.e. total amount of
work performed) than its low BMEP
counterpart.
A modern, naturally-aspirated, heavy-duty diesel
will live 10,000 hours between overhauls. For
example, a moderately blown version of the
same engine will produce 35 percent more
power for 8500 hours before overhaul, the blown
engine, at higher BMEP, has produced nearly 15
percent more bhp hours than the naturally-
aspirated engine, using only about 10 percent
more fuel to do it (less, per bhp-hr.).
Another way to look at it is that this moderately
blown engine would require only 7400 hours to
produce the same 1,000,000 hp-hrs and would
burn less fuel to do it. So, if an engine was
designed for that degree of turbocharging, it may
actually outlive a naturally aspirated engine.
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
9
BRAKEMEANEFFECTIVEPRESSURE
Engine torque can be measured using a
dynamometer, which is a device allowing an
operator to vary engine load. With the engine
running at full load speed, torque is measured
and plotted. The load is then increased slightly,
and the torque is measured, along with the drop
in speed; and that point is plotted. A further load
increase then produces further engine speed
reduction and torque increase, and another point
to graph. When enough points have been plotted,
we can connect them producing a lug torque
curve as shown below.
Because horsepower is a straight mathematical
derivation of the two quantities shown on the
graph (rpm and torque), we can calculate a
horsepower for each point on the torque curve,
and arrive at a corresponding lug horsepower
curve.
If fuel consumption is measured for each
loading, we can also produce a curve for this
data. Given in terms of the quantity of fuel
burned to produce one brake horsepower for one
hour, this data is called Brake Specific Fuel
Consumption (BSFC), as shown below.
The fuel consumed may be measured by weight
(pounds in the English system; grams in the
metric system) or by volume (gallons or liters).
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
10
POWERCURVES
Torque
rpm
Torque
hp
rpm
Torque
0.5
0.4 BSFC
0.3
hp
rpm
BMEP is also sometimes shown on such graphs
by calculating BMEP for each point on the
torque curve and plotting the resulting data.
For each engine setting, besides a lug torque
curve, there is also a starting torque or
acceleration curve. When a load is applied to
an engine which is operating considerably below
full load rpm, and the engine must then
accelerate carrying that load, a curve similar to
that shown below would be produced. This type
of loading is common in applications such as
road vehicles.
A completely different torque curve is produced
by an engine operating at or near full load rpm
before a load is applied. If the applied load is
equal to or less than that which the engine can
carry at that throttle setting, the governor opens
the rack enough to allow the engine to produce
the required power, and engine rpm remains
steady.
If, however, a load greater than full load is
applied, the engine will no longer be able to
maintain steady speed at that governor setting,
and will begin to slow down, or lug.
Because volumetric efficiencies are somewhat
better at the slower speeds and frictional losses
are smaller, a greater torque can be produced at
lower speeds, so the increased load can be
carried.
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
11
POWERCURVES
Torque
0.5
BMEP
0.4 BSFC
0.3
hp
rpm
Torque
rpm
Lo-Idle
Acceleration
Torque
Full Load
Torque
rpm
Lo-Idle
Lug Torque
Full Load
Torque
rpm
Torque Rise
A certain amount of torque, or rise, is normal
under lug conditions, but it can be substantially
increased by modifying the fuel and air systems.
With modern, medium-speed, turbocharged,
aftercooled diesels, this potential torque increase
is approximately 20 to 50 percent.
If the torque rise is steep enough, the engine
may develop more power at the lower speed,
because torque increases faster than speed
decreases.
The engine can support some overload, although
at a reduced speed. Should the applied load be
greater than that shown at peak torque, the
engine will rapidly slow down further, produce
less and less torque, and stall.
This type of loading, with the engine running
with a fixed throttle setting at or near full load,
is common in earthmoving equipment, such as
crawler tractors, track-type loaders, and many
shovel applications. It is also the normal loading
on generator sets.
By superimposing the acceleration and lug
curves, we can see the two different basic torque
curves common to all engines. Actually, an
infinite number of possible curves exist,
depending on the engine speed at the start of
loading, and the throttle opening.
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
12
POWERCURVES
Torque
rpm
Modified Curve
Normal Curve
Torque
hp
rpm
Torque
rpm
Lo-Idle
Lug Torque
Full Load
Torque
rpm
Lo-Idle
Lug Torque
Acceleration
Torque
Full Load
Another curve you will often see is called a
Pressure Time (PT) curve. The vertical axis
represents pressure; the horizontal axis
represents time.
Time in this case is measured in degrees of
engine crankshaft rotation rather than in seconds
or minutes. When the crankshaft has made one
full revolution, it has traveled 360 degrees.
When the piston is at its lowest point in the
cylinder, it is at Bottom Center (BC). As it starts
upward on the compression stroke, pressure
begins to rise, until it reaches a maximum when
the piston is at Top Center (TC). Should that
cylinder fail to fire, pressure would drop off as
shown, and would again be zero at BC.
If the cylinder does fire:
1. At some point shortly before TC (usually
10-20 degrees of crankshaft rotation), fuel
injection begins. (This fuel is cold, and has
not had time to mix with air, so it does not
immediately start to burn.) This period is
called ignition delay.
2. When the fuel does start to burn, heat is
generated, rapidly increasing the pressure
of the fuel-air mixture.
3. The peak pressure comes some few degrees
after TC. Although some of the fuel is still
burning at this point, the piston is moving
down so rapidly that volume increases faster
than the pressure can now increase, and
pressure starts to fall off.
The volume between the two curves is the net
work produced by combustion. A long-time
engineering goal is altering the shape of that
curve so that the volume under it is maximized
for a given cylinder pressure.
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
13
Pressure
Time
TC BC BC
Pressure
Time
Injection
Ignition Delay
TC BC BC
POWERCURVES
Pressure
Time
TC BC BC
Understanding the basic concepts of how engines produce power is vital to successfully selling, buying,
operating, or maintaining an engine for any application. The more knowledge you have, the more you
contribute to ensuring an engines superior performance and reliability. Most of the terms associated
with engine power are easy to understand.
P R OD UC T I NF OR MAT I ON E NGI NE P OWE R C ONC E P T S
14
Some of the basic terms related to engine sizing
include:
Bore the diameter of each cylinder in an
engine
Stroke the distance a piston travels up and
down within a cylinder
Displacement the volume of air which the
piston displaces as it moves one stroke
Compression ratio the relationship between
the minimum and maximum volumes between
the piston crown and the cylinder head
(i.e. volume at BC divided by volume at TC)
Terms associated with engine power include:
Horsepower (hp) a measurement of engine
power
Torque the twisting force engines produce
Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP)
the pressure in a cylinder required to produce
the same horsepower at the flywheel as actually
exists; is NOT indicative of engine life as many
believe
Lug a slowing of an engine occurring when
its load is greater than it can support at a
particular governor setting
Pressure-time curve a visual representation
of the pressure within the combustion chamber
during an engines cycle
ENGINE POWER CONCEPTS
1997 Caterpillar Inc.
LEKQ7351 Printed in U.S.A.
Supersedes LEKQ1186 and LEKQ1193 All rights reserved.