` A Report on

By: Ankur Tailor

Graduate engineer trainee
(MECHANICAL)
Submitted to:
Mr. V SRINATH
GM (PLANT & MACHINARY)
Engineering the Future
CONTENT

TOPIC PAGE NO.
HM Plant 2
Bitumen 11
WMM Plant 17
Batching Plant 18
RE Wall 27
Expansion Joint 29
Bridge Bearings 30
Concrete Girder 36
Emulsion 39
Construction Machinery 42
Appendix 47


1

PREFACE
Transport sector accounts for a share of 6.4 per cent in Indias Gross Domestic Product
(GDP). Road transport has emerged as the dominant segment in Indias transportation
sector with a share of 5.4 per cent in Indias GDP. Road transport demand is expected to
grow by around 10% per annum in the backdrop of a targeted annual GDP growth of 9%
during the Eleventh Five Year Plan. The road network can be broadly classified into five
broad categories: (1) Expressway (2) National Highways (NHs) (3) State Highways (SHs) (4)
Other Roads and (5) Rural Roads. National Highways comprise less than 2 per cent of the
road network, but carry 40 percent of the road-based traffic. State Highways (SHs) and
Major District Roads (MDRs) constitute the secondary system of road transportation in
the country.

NH 1 highway is part of Asias oldest road route Grand Trunk Road. This GT Road was
connecting Bangladesh to Kabul before independence of India.

2

HOT MIX PLANT

INTRODUCTION:
The objective of an asphalt plant is to produce a mixture of aggregate properly coated
with asphalt that consistently meets the requirements specified. A HMA plant is an
assembly of mechanical and electronic equipment where aggregates are blended, dried
and mixed with binder. The plant may be stationary or portable. The hot mix plant
broadly classified in TWO TYPES:

1. Batch Plant
2. Drum Plant
In the batch-type mixing plant, hot aggregate and binder are added in designated
amounts to make up one batch. After mixing, the HMA is discharged from the pugmill in
one batch.
In the drum-type mixing plant, the aggregate is dried, heated, and mixed with the binder
in the drum.
The information presented here emphasize on Batch plant.





3


Batch Plant: Operation and Components


Cold Aggregate Storage And Feeding
Aggregate Drying And Heating
Screening And Storage Of Hot Aggregate
Bitumen Storage And Addition
Pugmill Mixing


COLD AGGREGATE STORAGE AND FEEDING:
There are separate bins for different size of aggregates, usually 4 bins for 40mm,
20mm, 10mm and sand. The cold feeders are charged by front end loader.
There are several different types of feeding system from the cold feeder-
Typical control variations are:
1) Gate opening
a. Fixed
b. Adjustable
2) Belt or vibrator
a. One speed (on or off)
b. Adjustable speed

The most common configuration is the adjustable gate with either an adjustable belt
speed or vibrator.


Calibrating and Setting Feeders:
The cold aggregate feeder is calibrated, set, and secured to ensure a uniform flow of
aggregate. Calibration is simply determining the "Flow Rate" of a material graphed
against the "Control" used by the particular system. Each material is calibrated for three
to four control settings spanning the working production range anticipated for the
material.
The adjustment of the flow rate is commonly done by using variable speed belt feeder.
The operator may adjust the RPM of the belt from the control room.

Flow rate may be determined by a variety of methods that are basically predetermined by
the configuration of the plant. The most common and accurate method of determining
flow rate is to physically weigh the material delivered at a specific control setting over a
measured period of time.
4


Flow Rate;
The flow rate of the aggregate is depends on the batch weight and type of asphalt
(BC,DBM or MSS). The batch weight is generally fixed and type of asphalt change
according to the requirement. There are different ratios of aggregate used in BCC, DBM
and MSS. According to these ratios speed of each feeder belt is calibrated.


Calibration Chart:
The calibration process determines a flow rate at four different control settings for each
cold feed. The process may be time consuming but the benefits are worth much more
than the time spent.























Fig: Sample of calibration Chart



An example of determining the control settings for each cold feed using the calibration
chart in Figure 3-6 is as follows:

5

1. Mix design criteria
Coarse Aggregate------------------------ 20 % (Cold Feed #1)
Intermediate Coarse Aggregate-------- 40 % (Cold Feed #2)
Fine Aggregate--------------------------- 30 % (Cold Feed #3)
Filler--------------------------------------- 10 % (Cold Feed #4)
Binder Content---------------------------- 5.0 %

2. Flow Rate Per Cold Feed
Q = T B P = Tons Per Hour
here
Q = Required Flow Rate per Bin (t/h)
T = Plant's Mix Production Rate (t/h)
B = % of Agg. in Mix (as decimal)
P = % by Weight of Total Mix (as decimal)

(If Plant Production of 200 t/h)

Q (Cold Feed #1) = 200 x .95 x .20 = 66.5 t/h
Q (Cold Feed #2) = 200 x .95 x .40 = 133 t/h
Q (Cold Feed #3) = 200 x .95 x .30 = 99.8 t/h
Q (Cold Feed #4) = 200 x .95 x .10 = 33.2 t/h

6

3. Use the calibration chart to determine the control settings for each cold feed by
locating the production rate for each cold feed on the vertical scale, moving
horizontally to the appropriate control line and then vertically down to locate the
control setting.
Bin 1 = 23 %
Bin 2 = 53 %
Bin 3 = 43 %
Bin 4 = 18 %


AGGREGATE DRYING AND HEATING
From the cold bins, aggregates are delivered to the dryer. The dryer removes moisture
from the aggregates and raises the aggregate temperature to the desired level. Basic dryer
operation, temperature control, calibration of temperature indicators, and moisture
checks are important.

7

The conventional batch plant dryer is a revolving cylinder ranging from 5 to 10 ft in
diameter and 20 to 40 ft in length. The dryer has an oil or gas burner with a blower fan
to provide the primary air for combustion of the fuel, and an exhaust fan to create a draft
through the dryer. The drum also is equipped with longitudinal troughs or channels,
called flights that lift and drop the aggregate in veils through the burner flame and hot
gases. The slope of the dryer, rotation speed, diameter, length and arrangement, and
number of flights determine the length of time the aggregate spends in the dryer.


A Heavy film of oil should not be on the surface of the aggregate.
Proper aggregate Temperature is essential. The temperature of the aggregate controls
the temperature of the Hot Mixed Asphalt. The layer of binder put on each particle of
aggregate during mixing assumes the temperature of that aggregate almost
instantaneously. Aggregates that are heated to an excessive temperature may harden the
binder during mixing. Under heated aggregates are difficult to coat thoroughly with
binder and the resulting mix is difficult to place on the roadway.

A temperature-measuring device called a pyrometer is used to monitor aggregate
temperature as the material leaves the dryer.
Moisture check also done at same time of temperature check.
Dryer Flights
8


SCREENING AND STORAGE OF HOT AGGREGATE

After the aggregates have been heated and dried, they are carried by a hot elevator (an
enclosed bucket conveyor) to the gradation unit. In the gradation unit, the hot aggregate
passes over a series of screens that separate the aggregate into various-sized fractions
and deposit those fractions in "hot" bins.

Cutaway View Showing Details of Flow Material through Screens
9

The screening unit includes a set of several different-sized vibrating screens. The first in
the series of screens is a scalping screen that rejects and carries off oversized aggregates.
This is followed by one or two intermediate-sized screens, decreasing in size from top to
bottom. At the bottom of the stack is a sand screen.



Hot Bins (storage of hot aggregate):
Hot bins are used to temporarily store the heated and screened aggregates in the various
sizes required. Each bin is an individual compartment or segment of a large
compartment divided by partitions.
Hot bins usually have indicators that tell when the aggregates fall below a certain level.
These indicators may be either electronic or mechanical.
Fig: Screening Unit
10




Fig: Diagram of a Diaphragm Type Cut-Off

Sampling Device at Hot Bin outlet
11


INTRODUCING THE BINDER

Bitumen
The binder used in this process is Bitumen.
Bitumen is a common binder used in road construction. It is principally obtained as a
residual product in petroleum refineries after higher fractions like gas, petrol, kerosene
and diesel, etc., are removed. Indian Standard Institution (ISI) defines Bitumen as a black
or dark brown non-crystalline soil or viscous material having adhesive properties derived
from petroleum crude either by natural or by refinery processes.
Different Grades of Bitumen:
VG-10 BITUMEN: VG-10 is widely used in spraying applications such as surface-
dressing and
paving in very cold climate. It is also used to manufacture Bitumen Emulsion and
Modified Bitumen products.

VG-20 BITUMEN: VG-20 is used for paving in cold climate & high altitude regions.

VG-30 BITUMEN: VG-30 is primarily used to construct extra heavy duty Bitumen
pavements that
need to endure substantial traffic loads.

VG-40 BITUMEN: VG-40 is used in highly stressed areas such as intersections, near toll
booths and truck parking lots.
Due to its higher viscosity, stiffer Bitumen mixes can be produced to improve resistance
to shoving and other problems associated with higher temperature and heavy traffic
loads.
For more Details refer to Appendix I.


Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen (CRMB)
Crumb Rubber is produced from heavy vehicle tire. The tires are devalcanised and
chemically treated and additives are added.
The sieve size of IS standard for the CRMB is 0.6 mm
Advantage over Bitumen:
1. Resistance to deformation
2. Soft higher impact resistance
3. Better road grip
12

The CRMB is continuously agitated in the tank because it precipitate at the bottom. The
loading temperature of CRMB is 160-180
0
C and unloading temperature is 140
0
C (min.)

From the weigh hopper, the aggregates are deposited into the plant pugmill (mixing
chamber) to be blended with the proper proportion of binder (Bitumen).


In the typical plant system, binder is weighed separately in a weigh bucket before being
introduced into the pugmill. When the weight of binder in the bucket reaches a
predetermined level, a valve in the delivery line closes to prevent excess binder from
being discharged into the bucket. The binder is then pumped through spray bars into the
pugmill.

The chamber in which the binder and aggregates are mixed is called a pugmill. The
pugmill consists of a lined mixing chamber with two horizontal shafts on which several
paddle shanks, each with two paddle tips,
are mounted. The paddle tips are adjustable and easily replaced.









Pugmill "Live Zone"
Over filled Pugmill
Under filled Pugmill
13

DUST CONTROL SYSTEM:
A major air pollution concern at a plant is the combustion unit. Dirty, clogged burners
and improper air-fuel mixtures result in excessive smoke and other undesirable
combustion products. Continual close attention to the cleanliness and adjustment of the
burners and accessory equipment is important.
Another source of air pollution at a plant is aggregate dust. Dust emissions are greatest
from the plant rotary dryer. Dust collectors commonly are used here to meet anti-air
pollution requirements. Three types of dust collectors are commonly used to capture the
dust from the dryer;
1. Centrifugal dust collectors,
2. Wet scrubbers, and
3. Baghouses (fabric filters).






Under filled Pugmill
14












Centrifugal dust collectors
Wet scrubbers
15



Typical ratios of content in the Asphalt:









Baghouses
16

Typical Road Pavement Layers and Thickness:
BC LAYER-Bitumen concrete layer -Thickness 40mm
DBM LAYER -(Densed Bitumen Macadam (Two Layer) - Thickness 70mm each
WMM LAYER -(Wet Mix Macadam Two Layer) - Thickness 250 mm Total
EMBANKMENT LAYER- Thickness 200 mm
OGL/NGL-Original /Natural Ground Layer

For specification of Hot Mix Plant refer to Appendix II


17

WMM PLANT
Wet Mix Macadam Plants also known as Soil Stabilizing Plants are employed for
producing homogenous mixture of aggregates, sand, cement and water. This mixture is
layed in base or sub base preparation of rigid or flexible pavements.

It is continuous type plant where in different size aggregates and sand stored in multiple
feeder bins are discharged by each bin feeder belt in desired proportion to gathering belt.
This mix material is then conveyed by gathering belt to Pugmill mixture where the
mixture of aggregates and sand is mixed with water and cement to produce the
homogenous mixture of all ingredients. The homogenous mixture is then conveyed to
storage silo or trucks for lying at site. All the ingredients of the mix are metered in
required proportion prior feeding to the Pugmill mixture.

The main components of Wet Mix Macadam Plant are Multiple
1. Feeder Bins,
2. Collecting Conveyor,
3. Pugmill Mixture,
4. Load out conveyor,
5. Water storage tank,

Output capacity: 160 TPH, 200 TPH.

The ratios of Aggregates for Wet Mix Macadam-




Aggregates Percentage
40 mm 37 %
20 mm 19 %
10 mm 15 %
Dust 29 %
18

CONCRETE BATCHING PLANT
At any major construction site, where higher quantities of high quality concrete have to
supply for a certain period of time, the use of mobile mixing units is quickly granting
economic advantages.
The batching plant is used for preparation of plain cement concrete (PCC) &
reinforcement cement concrete (RCC).
Batching plant:
Manufacturer: SCHWING STETTER.
Model No.: M1
Capacity: 180-200TPH
The mixture strength designated as of the batching plant is Mx. Here M stands for MIX
and subsequent number (x) is the strength in MPa. There is monitoring room which
controls the ratios of various content as required by the site engineer.
The monitoring room which needs visualized production management software and also
PLC controller. Trucks with transit mixture is used to transport the concrete to the site.
The weight of Transit mixture in the truck is 2400 Kg x 7 (approx.) Samples of the
concrete is taken two time firstly from immediate out from batching plant and secondly
at the site where it is used. The concrete should reach at construction site in a freshly
mixed or unhardened state. Samples are tested as per the MORTH instructions. Strength
of the concrete should be the same. The sampling is done on the following basis:


19


Volume of Concrete
(CuM)
Set of Cube
*
(for 7 days) Set of Cube
*
(for 28 days
#
)
0-5 1 1
6-15 1 2
16-30 1 3
31-50 2 4
50 & Above Add one set of sample to
above
Add one set of sample to
above
*
Every one set of cube contains 3 cubes. The average value of strength is taken as the
reference data.
#
In practical terms, about 90% of its strength is gained in the first 28 days.
Component in Concrete:
1. Cement
2. Aggregate
3. Admixture
4. Water
Cement:
There are two types of cement used in the contruction
1. OPC (ordinary Portland cement)
2. PPC (Pretoria Portland Cement)- It has lower strength than OPC. Fly ash is mixed in
this type of cement.
In the batching plant there are two of cement grades as 43 grade and 53 grade cement
is used. This is drawn from the cement store from the help of a pump. According to
The mixture strength range the appropriate silo is used. For higher strength as M 50
typically used in Deck-Slab we use 53 grade cement and for other items we use 43
grade cement.
Grades of cement:
33 Grade OPC 43 Grade OPC* 53 Grade OPC
Relevant IS Code IS:269 IS:8112 IS:12269
3 Days Strength 16 MPa 23 MPa 27 MPa
7 Days Strength 22 MPa 33 MPa 37 MPa
28 Days Strength 33 MPa 43 MPa 53 MPa
20

Usages General
Construction like
plastering,
finishing works
Structural
construction,
Precast items
Multistory
Building, Bridges,
Tall structures etc.
*OPC Stands for Ordinary Portland Cement

AGGREGATE (COARSE & FINE):
The aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material.
Coarse aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, strong, dense, non-porous and durable
pieces of crushed stone. They shall not consist pieces of disintegrated stones, soft,
flaky, elongated particles, salt, alkali, vegetable matter or other deleterious materials.
All coarse aggregate shall conform to IS: 383 and tests for conformity shall be carried
out as per IS: 2386 parts I to VIII.
Aggregates should range in size so that they fit together well. This gives a stronger and
denser concrete. Rounded aggregates give a more workable mix. Angular aggregates
make concrete harder to place, work and compact, but can make concrete stronger.
Aggregates are used in the batching plant - 20mm & 40mm size.
Stone sand is used as Fine aggregate.

Aggregates should be:
Strong and Hard- A stronger, harder aggregate will give a stronger final concrete. Never
to use a crumble or flakey rock like sandstone.
DURABLE to stand up to wear and tear and weathering.
Chemically inactive so the aggregates dont react with the cement. Clean Dirt or clay
sticking to the aggregates will weaken the bond between paste and aggregates.
Aggregate of different sized are received from companys own stone crusher plant.

ADMIXTURE:
A material other than water, aggregates and cement that used as an ingredient of a
cementious mixture to modify its setting time & hardened properties and that is added to
the batch before or during its mixing.
There are basically four types:
Air-entraining agents,
Workability agents,
Retarding agents, and
Accelerating agents
Examples of Admixtures- Naphthalene & Polycarboxylate polymers (PC) also known as
Superplastisizers. These materials also known as water reducers.
21

WATER: Water used for mixing shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils,
acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or other substances that may be deleterious
to concrete. Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing and curing of
concrete. Dont use sea water as it may rust the steel reinforcement in the concrete.

CONCRETE:











The four main properties of concrete are:
WORKABILITY
COHESIVENESS
STRENGTH and
DURABILITY
Concrete has three different states:
PLASTIC
SETTING
HARDENING
In each state it has different properties


CONCRETE TESTING

1. Compressive Strength Test:
Compressive Strength is defined as the measured maximum resistance of a concrete or
mortar specimen to an axial load, expressed in kN or psi (pounds per square inch) at an
age of 7 and 28-days.
For this purpose cubes of 150 mm
3
size are made for testing. Generally 6 cubes are made
3 for 7 days strength and 3 for 28 days strength. The average value of strength is taken.
Testing Procedure: The cubes are placed on the testing machine. Load is applied and
increased on cubes upper side gradually. The cube can bear the load upto its strength
and when max strength comes it suddenly brakes and the niddle fall down.
22









2. Slump Test:
The slump test is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump
must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the target slump.

Tools
Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm high)

Method
1. Clean the cone.
2. Collect a sample.
3. Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample.
Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times.

23


Rodding Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of the concrete to compact it into
the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern, working from outside into the
middle.

4. Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
5. Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up
the cone till it overflows.
6. Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the foot
pieces.
7. Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
8. Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
9. Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample.
10. If the sample fails by being outside the tolerance (i.e. the slump is too high or too low),
another must be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.

CONCRETE CURING
Curing means to cover the concrete with water so it stays moist. By keeping concrete
moist the bond between the paste and the aggregates gets stronger. Concrete doesnt
harden properly if it is left to dry out.
Curing is done just after the cement is naturally hard.
Cured concrete surface less tendency to crack, more durable and less wears, lasts longer
and better protects the steel reinforcement.
In hot weather (above 0C), or during high winds and low humidity, concrete can dry out
easily. In these
conditions take
extra care while
curing. Method of
curing is to put a
continuous fine,
misty spray of
water over the
concrete.







24

Another way to cure concrete is to cover with cotton sheets to slow down water loss. This
method is easy and cheap. The only problem is that the sheets may cause concrete to
become darker in places. To avoid this keep concrete evenly moist.
Concrete may also be cured by applying a curing compound which slows water loss. In
rapid drying conditions (i.e. high wind, dry air and/or hot air) the use of an evaporation
retardant minimizes the rapid loss of surface moisture. Concrete keeps getting harder
and stronger over time. For better strength and durability, cure concrete for 21 DAYS.

DEFECTS IN CONCRETE
1. COLOUR VARIATION
Difference in colour across the surface of concrete. May appear as patches of light and
dark. Uneven or variable curing conditions. Applying a different brand or type of cement
to the surface as a 'drier'. To avoid colour variation use an even concrete mix when
placing, compacting and finishing and keep concrete evenly moist. Do not use driers.
Rectification of colour variation from stains is a very difficult operation and may need
repeated gentle treatments with a weak acid.

2. CRAZING
It is a network of fine cracks across the surface of
concrete. Crazing is caused by minor surface shrinkage in
rapid drying conditions. (i.e. Low humidity and hot
temperatures, or alternate wetting and drying.) Repair
may not be necessary because crazing will not weaken
concrete. If the crazing looks too bad then a surface
coating of a paint or other overlay sealer can be applied to
cover and/or minimize the effect of the cracks.

3. DUSTING
A fine powder on the concrete surface which comes off on
your fingers. The reason of dusting is may the curing is
not done properly, or the surface is drying too quickly.



4. SPALLING
When the slab edges and joints chip or break leaving an
elongated cavity. Edges of joints break because of heavy
loads or impact with hard objects. As concrete expands and
contracts the weak edges may crack and break. Entry of
hard objects, such as stones, into joints may cause spalling
when the concrete expands.

25


5. EFFLORESCENCE
A white crystalline deposit sometimes found on the surface of concrete soon after it is
finished. Sometimes mineral salts are dissolved in
water. If water with dissolved mineral salts collect on
the concrete surface as water evaporates salt deposits
are left on the surface. Excess bleeding can also result
in efflorescence. To remove efflorescence use dry
brushing and washing with clean water or wash with a
dilute solution of hydrochloric acid. A wire brush
should not be use.

6. HONEYCOMBING or Concrete Voids
When too much coarse aggregate appears on the
surface. Poor compaction or segregation during placing in the
mould. A poor concrete mix with not enough fine aggregate
causing a rocky mix. Prevention can be done by using a better
mix design. Take care during placing concrete to avoid
segregation. Compact concrete properly. If honeycombing
happens only on the surface it can be rendered. If
honeycombing happens throughout the concrete it may need
to be removed and replaced. The surface may require
rendering. Rendering means to cover the surface with a layer
of mortar.

7. BLISTERING
Blisters are hollow, low profile bumps on the concrete surface
filled with either air or bleed water. They are caused when the
fresh concrete surface is sealed by trowelling while trapping air
or bleed water under the surface.


CRACKING IN CONCRETE
Two types of cracks happen in reinforced concrete:
PRE-SETTING CRACKS Cracks that happen before concrete hardens, while it is still
workable.
HARDENED CRACKING Cracks which happen after concrete hardens.

1. PRE-SETTING CRACKS
Pre-setting cracks are cracks which form during placing, compaction and finishing
caused by movement of concrete before it is dry.
There are three types of pre-setting cracks:
26

Plastic settlement cracks
Plastic shrinkage cracks, and
Cracks caused by movement of the formwork.
Pre-setting cracks can be prevented by looking for them as they happen, while the
concrete is still setting.
If they are detected early on they can be easily fixed by re-compacting, re-trowelling or re-
floating the concrete surface.

2. CRACKS AFTER HARDENING
Cracks after hardening may be caused by drying shrinkage, movement or settling of the
ground, or placing higher loads on the concrete than it was designed to carry. Little can
be done with cracks after hardening. Careful and correct placement helps prevent
serious cracking after hardening. Only uncontrolled cracks are a possible problem.
Cracks at control joints or controlled by steel reinforcing is expected and acceptable.


27

R.E. Wall
R.E. Wall stands for "Reinforced Earth Wall". The purpose is to retain earth and there is
no IS code for it nor IRC. There is only a British Code which is followed in India. The code
designation is BS 8006.
The RE wall contains a facia made up
of concrete panels, concrete blocks or
sometimes geotextile. After certain
interval the earth to be retained is
reinforced with either metal strips,
metal bars or geogrids. The retention
of the soil is derived from friction
between the reinforcement and the
soil. The C (cohesion) and phi (angle of
internal friction) of the soil play very
important role. Normally a NP soil with
negligible C value is preferred for this
purpose. Electrochemical properties of soil also become important in case metal is used
as reinforcement.
The main advantage of RE wall is that it does not require any foundation and thus can
be build easily where there is a constraint of working space viz. in the midst of cities. It is
also found that when the height of retaining wall increases more than 3m the RE walls
are more economical. Though views differ on this. The major disadvantage is that it takes
a lot of time in construction and a lot of pre erection planning and execution is required.
An improper execution of RE Wall construction resulted into so many failures thus
utmost care shall be taken in the designer's directions during construction.
Rebars:
A Rebar (reinforcing bar), also known as reinforcing steel, reinforcement steel is a
common steel bar, and is commonly used as a tensioning device in reinforced
concrete and reinforced masonry structures holding the concrete in compression. It is
usually formed from carbon steel by the Thermo Mechanically Treatment (TMT) process,
and is given ridges for better mechanical anchoring into the concrete.



28


Concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension.
To compensate for this imbalance in concrete's behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the
tensile loads.
While any material with sufficient tensile strength could conceivably be used to reinforce
concrete, steel and concrete have similar coefficients of thermal expansion: a concrete
structural member reinforced with steel will experience minimal stress as a result of
differential expansions of the two interconnected materials caused by temperature
changes.
Thermal expansion coefficients of steel and concrete is 12x10
-6
/
0
C.
Physical properties:







What is Fe -500D?
BIS has introduced a superior variant called D for each grade of Fe-415, Fe-500, & Fe-
550 in the 2008 amendment. It is recognized superior steel quality by better steel making
technology generally used by primarily steel producers.
Chemical elements like sulpher & phosphorus are added in the steel which are difficult
to achieve through induction furnace route. D draws its advantages from superior
chemical properties but nor mechanical properties.
FE -500 FE-500
TMT
Rebars
Fe 500 D
Tensile Strength,
N/mm
2
, min
545.0 640 565
Yield Strength,
N/mm
2
, min
500.0 550 500
% Elongation, min 12.0 17 16
29

Steel Types:
1. Hot Rolled,
2. Cold Rolled,
3. Galvanized,
4. Galvalume,
5. Pre-painted Galvanised,
6. Pre-painted Galvalume,
7. TMT Rebars,
8. Wire Rods & Special Steel Bars, Rounds & Blooms.


EXPANSION JOINT

An expansion joint or movement joint is an assembly designed to
1. Safely absorb the heat-induced expansion and contraction of various construction
materials,
2. Absorb vibration,
3. Hold certain parts together, or to allow movement due to ground settlement or
earthquakes.

They are commonly found between sections of
sidewalks, bridges, railway tracks, piping systems, ships,
and other structures.
Throughout the year, building faces, concrete slabs, and
pipelines will expand and contract due to the warming and
cooling through seasonal variation, or due to other heat
sources. Before expansion joint gaps were built into these
structures, they would crack under the stress induced.


30

BRIDGE BEARING
INTRODUCTION
A bridge is assumed to be made up of two major parts namely, superstructure and
substructure.
Superstructure consists of track structure, girder/ truss and bearing. Substructure
consists of bed block, pier or abutment and foundation as shown in Figure below.


Thus, a bridge bearing is an element of superstructure which provides an interface
between the superstructure and substructure. This interface is vital because
superstructure undergoes dimensional changes and deformations due to various factors
which are listed as follows:

a) Thermal expansion/contraction
b) Elastic deformation under live load
c) Seismic forces
d) Creep and shrinkage of concrete
e) Settlement of supports
f) Longitudinal forces - Tractive/ Breaking
g) Wind loads.
If the movement between the superstructure and substructure are not allowed to take
place freely, large amount of forces may develop in the girder or the substructure. If the
ability to move is not built into the bridge (span), it will push the supports until it
achieves the freedom required and in the process causing damage to the supports. It is,
therefore, necessary to permit relative movement between the girders and the
substructure. Since the bearing is introduced between superstructure and substructure
for accommodating the various permitted movements, it has to transfer the entire load
31

from superstructure to the substructure of bridge. We can say that Bearings assume the
functionality of a bridge by allowing translation and rotation to occur while supporting
the vertical loads.


CLASSIFICATION OF BEARINGS
Bearings can be classified depending upon
a) Degree of freedom
b) Material used

1. Degree of freedom: There are possible 6 degrees of freedom at any support as
described earlier. These are translation in three directions and rotation about these
three axes. A bearing may permit movement in any of these 6 degrees of freedom or in
none. During the structural design of the bridge girders, each support point is idealized
in a specific manner by the design engineer.

2. Material used : A number of different materials have been used for making bearings
such as
steel of various types, phosphor bronze, synthetic material like rubber (elastomer) and
PTFE etc. Out of these materials steel, rubber and PTFE are the most commonly used
materials, today, for bearings. In certain forms of bearings, a combination of two
materials is also used. Table lists various materials used in fabrication and installation
of bridge bearings.

32

Sliding Bearing
A system of two plates, one sliding over the other makes one of the simplest type of
bearings.
These bearings permit translation in longitudinal and transverse directions, unless
specifically
restrained in any of these directions. No rotation is permitted unless specially provided in
the form of articulation and only vertical loads are resisted / transmitted by these
bearings.
Common materials that have been used as sliding surfaces and their coefficients of
friction
are:

a) Mild steel over mild steel - 0.2 to 0.3
b) Mild steel over phosphor bronze - 0.15
c) PTFE over stainless steel - less than 0.08

Generally, plain sliding bearings are provided where span is less than 30 m, because the
movement capacity of these bearings is generally small.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SLIDING BEARINGS
There has always been an endeavor to reduce the coefficient of friction. The longitudinal
force transmitted to substructure depends upon coefficient of friction. In an effort to
reduce the coefficient of friction, different materials have been tried and different types of
sliding bearings have been created. These are as given below:

(a) Steel over steel : Steel over steel sliding bearings transmit considerable horizontal
force to the substructure because coefficient of friction is very large. In addition to the
type of material the coefficient of friction also depends upon the condition of the contact
surface. Bridge Rules stipulate that the coefficient of friction should be taken as 0.25 for
the lubricated steel surface. Entrapment of dirt, debris and corrosion of steel plates can
increase the coefficient of friction considerably, and in the limiting case it may cause the
bearings to freeze. These bearings, therefore, require periodic cleaning and greasing so
that the superstructure is allowed to expand/ contract freely without transmitting
excessive longitudinal force to the substructure.

(b) Steel and phosphor bronze : Since the coefficient of friction between steel and
phosphor bronze is considerably low, it is advantageous to provide these in lieu of steel
sliding bearings. Phosphor bronze bearings also require lesser maintenance than steel
bearings as no greasing is required. This eliminates the need to jack up the girders for
greasing operation. Moreover, use of the grease which attracts dust and sand particles is
avoided. Only outside area (other than the contact area) needs to be cleaned.

33

(c) Steel and PTFE : Use of PTFE (Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene) more widely known as
Teflon also offers many advantages. The coefficient of friction between PTFE and stainless
steel is the lowest between any two materials within the normal temperature range. A
peculiar feature of PTFE is that the coefficient of friction reduces as the applied load
increases. The value of coefficient of friction at 5 MPa is 0.08 where as at 30 MPa the
value reduces to 0.03, which is very close to rolling friction. Thus we are able to achieve
near-rolling friction without having to maintain the rolling arrangements. PTFE is also
hard, durable and possesses high chemical resistance. It is routinely used in POT
bearings where very large translational movements, required for large span bridges can
be achieved.


ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS:

Steel bearings are good but suffer from problems of corrosion and high level of
maintenance. Due to these problems of steel bearings, engineers were on the lookout for
a bearing which could accomodate large movements and at the same time being relatively
maintenance free. Elastomer as a material for making bridge bearing has been found to
satisfy these requirements so much so that many engineers believe that the search for an
ideal material for bridge bearing has come to an end. Further developments in future
may involve refining the use of elastomer and enhancing its properties.

To summarise, the elastomeric bearings offer number of advantage as listed below:
1. Requires minimum maintenance compared to all other bearings.
2. Installation is easy.
3. Permits movement of the structure in all directions, depending upon the applied
forces.
4. Occupies small space.
5. Serves as a shock absorber due to anti-vibration properties of elastomer.
6. Acts as an aid to better dispersion of longitudinal forces to the approaches

PROPERTIES OF ELASTOMER
An elastomer is a polymeric substance obtained after vulcanization of rubber.
Vulcanization is the process of improving the properties of rubber by heating with
sulphur. A normal rubber is not useable as it becomes brittle at low temperature and
sticky at high temperature. Charles Goodyear had been trying to cure the rubber so that
it could be used in all seasons. He tried to mix all kinds of things such as ink, black
pepper, cheese and what not. But he couldnt succeed until he dropped a piece of rubber
on stove accidentally. To his surprise, he found that instead of melting the rubber piece
hardened and remained pliable. It was found in the lab that it contained traces of
sulphur. Goodyear perfected the process and named it vulcanization after the Roman
God of fire, Vulcan. As a result of vulcanization, rubber molecules are cross-linked with
34

sulphur. This cross-linking makes the rubber stronger. It allows the rubber to keep its
shape better even when it is stretched over and over again. But there is a drawback of
cross-linking also. Vulcanized rubber doesnt flow when it gets hot, therefore one has to
mould it into whatever shape one wants before cross linking. Due to the same reason, it
cant be recycled a big environment problem. The tyres of the vehicles also use the same
material, and we are not able to recycle the cross-linked rubber used in tyres.

Some of the important findings that relevant to the design of elastomeric bearings are
enumerated below :
1. Elastomers do not follow Hooke's Law and, therefore, the modulus of elasticity E is
not constant.
2. The shear modulus G, however, is fairly constant and is more relevant for the design
of elastomeric bearings than E.
3. The coefficient of friction between elastomer and the base material is unaffected by the
nature of the contact surface i.e steel, concrete, painted or unpainted surfaces.
4. The coefficient of friction between the elastomer and the base material reduces with
increase in normal load on the bearing.

BEHAVIOUR OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS
In order to carry out successful design and installation of elastomeric bearings, it is
necessary to understand the behaviour of elastomeric bearings against various imposed
loads. The elastomer being practically incompressible, the total volume of the pad in
loaded and unloaded conditions remains unchanged. Therefore, under the action of a
compressive load, a plain elastomeric pad with no friction on its top and bottom surfaces,
flattens


and expands laterally as shown in Fig
Since a frictionless contact surface does not exist in practice, the deformation of the pad
will be part flattening.

PLAIN ELASTOMERIC PAD WITH FRICTION AT CONTACT PLANE
35

The lateral expansion of plain elastomeric pad is too much for practical purposes and it
can not be used as it is without making arrangements for reducing the lateral expansion.
If the elastomer is bonded between two layers, the lateral expansion is prevented at the
interfaces and bulging is controlled.
The compressive stiffness of the bearing, therefore, depends upon the ratio of loaded area
to the area of the bearing free to bulge. This is essentially quantified by Shape Factor S
which is a dimensionless parameter defined as under:





Greater compressive stiffness is, therefore, obtained by dividing elastomer into many
layers by introducing very thin, usually 1 to 3 mm, steel reinforcement plates between
the elastomer layers and bonding the plates firmly with the elastomer to prevent any
relative movement. This has the effect of decreasing the area free to bulge without any
change in the loaded area.
Hence, higher the Shape Factor, stiffer is the bearing under compressive load. Since the
elastomer expands laterally, shear stresses are set up in the elastomer by the bond
forces. The steel plate, in turn, is subjected to pure tensile stresses as shown in Fig.








For functional performance data of bearing refer to APPENDIX I
36

CONCRETE GIRDER:
Concrete Girders are made in I shape because of the follwing reason (Merits of I beam) :
1. Higher moment of inertia so has greater stiffness
2. Reduced weight and less material
3. Can deal large shear force
Concrete girders are made by two ways-
1. In the casting yard: Casting
yard is place which dedicated
for casting various length
girders more than one at a
time. Casting Minimum three
girders at a time is a general
practice.
Casting yard is necessary
where large numbers of girders
are required of same size. The
maximum length of girder
depends on the length of Bed
which is used for casting.
A 30 meter Bed can be used for 25,22,20,18 meter etc. lengths. HT strand wires are
placed on upper and lower side before casting. Total 49 HT strands are used 47 on
upper side 2 on lower side.

HT (High Tensile) Strands are the wire rope which is widely used in construction like
road, bridge, railway, coal mine, anchoring pulling parts, nuclear power station,
urban construction, etc. these are used to give high tensile strength.
The strands are stretched previously before grouting (Pouring of concrete)
The concept of placing HT strands on the girders are called Prestressing of Girders.











37

Girder shuttering design has very important in casting the girders. The characteristics
of the girder shuttering are-
Long life
Simple to align
Easy to install and maintain
Compact construction
High capacity to withstand load.










2. In-Situ Girders: In this practice the girders are made on the site itself. This
is done for specials shape and size girders like curved shapes.













GIRDER SHUTTERING
38














CONCRETE CRASH BARRIER
39

EMULSION

EMULSION DEFINITION
An emulsion is a dispersion of small droplets of one liquid in another liquid.

Why to use EMULSION??

Asphlat emulsion has lower viscosity (0.510 Poise at 60C) compared to Asphalt (100
4,000 Poise), allowing it to be used at lower temperature.
Low temperature techniques for construction and maintenance reduce emissions, reduce
energy
consumption, avoid oxidation of the asphalt, and are less hazardous than techniques
using hot
asphalt. They are also more economical and environmentally friendly.
The environmental benefit of asphalt emulsion is particularly positive when used for in-
place or on-site techniques which avoid the energy usage and emissions associated with
heating, drying, and haulage of aggregate.

CLASSIFICATION AND NAMING OF EMULSIONS
There are two main types of emulsions:
1. Cationic emulsions have droplets which carry a positive charge.
2. Anionic emulsions have negatively charged droplets.
In India Cationic type emulsion are made because the aggregate are Anionic in nature in
our country. So a cationic emulsion provides good bonding characteristics with surface
aggregates.
Based on setting time Emulsions can be classified as
1. Rapid-setting (RS) emulsions set quickly in contact with clean aggregates.
2. Medium-setting (MS) emulsions set sufficiently less quickly.
3. Slow setting (SS) emulsions will mix with reactive aggregates of high surface area.
RS, MS ,SS Emusion are provided with a number which indicates emulsions viscosity
and residue properties e.g. RS-1,SS-2 etc.

Typical ratios of Emulsion content:

Emulsion
Type
Bitumen % Water % Emulsifier %
RS 1 60 38 2
SS 2 58 38 4
For more details refer to appendix.
40
















There are two types of coating of Emulsion is made on the road surface.
1. Prime Coat-after WMM and before DBM Layer
2. Tack Coat-after DBM and before BC Layer
PRIME COAT (RS 1 Emulsion)
Prime coats protect the integrity of the granular base during construction and help
reduce dust. In the case of a base which is to be covered with a thin hot mix layer or a
chip seal for a low volume roadway, priming ensures a good bond between the seal and
the underlying surface which otherwise would have a tendency to delaminate.
TACK COAT (SS 2 Emulsion)
Tack coat (also known as bond coat) is a light application of asphalt emulsion between
hot mix asphalt layers designed to create a strong adhesive bond without slippage.
Heavier applications may be used under porous layers or around patches where it also
functions as a seal coat.
Without tack coat the asphalt layers in a road way may separate which reduces the
structural integrity of the road and may also allow water to penetrate the structure.

Emulsification Process
41





42

CONSTRUCTION MACHINARY














HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS
BACKHOE-LOADER
43























More about Asphalt Paving??
Refer to Appendix III
ASPHALT PAVER MACHINE
44



























TIPPERS
GRADER
45



























TRACK LOADER
MOBILE-CRUSHER PLANT
CRANE
46













TRANSIT MIXTURE
SOIL COMPACTOR
DUMPER
WHEEL LOADER
DOUBLE DRUM ASPHALT COMPACTOR
47










APPENDIX













48



APPENDIX I
















49



APPENDIX II
HOT MIX PLANT (MSD 3000 ) TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION

S.N. DESCRIPTION QTY SPECIFICATION
A Cold feeder
1 No of cold bins 5
2 Volume of each bin 12 CUM
3 Feeder belt capacity 80 TPH each Bin
4 Feeder belt drive motor 5 no.
2.2KW*2 no.,1.5KW 3 no.RPM
-26-1440
5
VFD (Variable frequency
drive)
6 Belt 5 no. 3600X500X12mm Endless
7 Bearing head pulley 5 P-208
8 Bearing tail pulley 5 T-208
9 Carrier roller 40 25X600X90X25
B Collecting belt Endless belt 44300X600X12mm Endless
1 Capacity 200 TPH
2 drive motor 7.5 KW
3 Carrier roller 72 25X250X90X25
4 Return roller 10 25X750X90X25
5 Bearing tail pulley 2 no. T212
6 Bearing head pulley 2 no. 2211K,KM11(sleeve)
7 drive motor 15 KW
8 Oil seal 55X90X8
9 Drum Head pulley 1 300X750,shaft Dia.. 70mm
10 Bearing 2 no. P314
11 Drum Tail pulley 1
12 Bearing 2 no. T214
13 Carrier roller 75 25X250X90X25
14 Return roller 12 50X750X90X50
15 Oil seal 85X140X13,
D Drying & screening drum inclined screen drum
1 Drum capacity 200 TPH
50

2 Drum Dia.. 2.75mtr
3 Drum drive motor 45KW chain drive
4 RPM 1470
5 Sprocket 14teeth
6 Bearing 6314 2ZR(motor )
7 Gear box 1 no.
SEW-
Eurodrive,TypeR147/A,RPM(Ne
1400 Na 47)
8 Bearing(drum gearbox)
33209,33210,2222
E1AMC3,30312,22312,oil seal
125X200X15
9 Gear box weight 351Kg
10 Oil seal(Air fan) 70X90X10
11 No of screen sections 5 sections
12 Total screening area 60 m
2

13
Sieve sizes
6.5mm,12mm,22mm,50mm 7X970X2130,15X1110X2130,
14 High Pressure Pump motor 1 no. 4 KW
15 Motor Bearing 2 no.
Pump side 6306-2Z/C3, Fan
side 6205-2Z/C3
16 Sequence controller 1 no. LAL1.25
17 Photo cell 1 no. QRB1
18 Electrodes 2 no.
19 Burner air flap bearing 6 no. FL001
20 Ignition transformer 1 no.(Brahma)
Type T8,Primary 220-230V-
2,1A,50 Hz Secondary 2x6500-
35ma
F Hot mineral bin& weigher
4 compartment with over
flow and oversize chutes
1 Total capacity 45 ton
2 Discharge flaps 4*2 stage pneumatic cylinder
3 Compressor
1440 rpm 7bar &7.5KW(2
compressors)
4 Pneumatic cylinder 4 no.
5 Cylinder seal kit
Dia.. 100, Dia.. 160, Dia.. 80
Dia..
6 Solenoid valve 2 no.
7 Weigher Load cell electronic weighing
8 Agg weigher Load cell 3 no. 2 Ton capacity
9 Agg weigher capacity 3000 kg
10 Agg discharge 2 Pneumatic
51

cylinder
11 b. Filler weigher capacity 300 kg
12 Filler weigher Load cell 1 no. 300 kg
13 Filler Dozing screw 1 no. 7.5
14 Coupling
15 Filler discharge
2 Butter fly
valves(10")
16 Pneumatic cylinder 4 no.
17 Bit weigher 1 no. 300 kg
18 Bitumen weigher load cell 1 no. 300 kg
19 Pneumatic cylinder 02 no.
20 Bit discharge Gravity flow
G Mixer
Twin shaft synchronized
spur gear
1 mixer shaft 2 no.
2 Mixing capacity 3000 kg
3 motor fan 2 no. 60x300
4 Mixing drive motor 2 no. 2*45k.w
5 Bearing Block 4 no. 530
6 Bearing 4 no. 23230ccKW33M,Sleev H2330
7 Paddle 24 no.
8 Arm 24 no.(20RH,4LH)
9 Gate liner 5 no.
10
Bottom linear (wear plate
330x208) 30
11 Wear plate (670x580) 4
12 Wear plate (570x420) 8
13 Wear plate 2
14 Wear plate(570x570) 16
15 Bottom liners 20 no.
16 Pneumatic cylinder 2 no.
17 solenoid valve(1/2 ") 2 no.
18 Pneumatic fittings 12mm
H Baghouse
Ambient air cleaning bag
filter
1 Filler area 800 m2
2 Suction capacity 70000cum/hr
3
Exhaust fan drive motor 1 no.
3 Phase motor 110
k.w,Type:FM315 S-4,weight
720kg,v 415,186amp,pf
0.91,rpm 1482
52

4 RPM 1482
5 Bearing 2 no. 22219,block.519,sleev H319
6 Pulley 01 no c 6 groove 8''
7 V-Belt 6 no. C135
8 Impeller 1 no. Anti clock Wise
9 Ball end eye bearing 14mm 8 no.
10 RaDia.l Damper 8 leafs servo motor drive
11 Damper actuator motor 1 no.
SG-10.1-F10,t
16s/90degree,Torque 250-
600Nm,3 ~415,P-0.16KW,P.F.
0.67
12 Filler hopper capacity 35 CUM
13 Filler screw conveyor 1 NO. 7.5KW
14 No of bags 384
15 No of profiles 1152
16 Type of cleaning Reverse air cleaning bag filter
17 Cleaning motor 2no. .37KW
18 Proximity Switch 2 no. IGS 209 NPN
19 bit drive motor 1 no. 9.3 KW/1450 RPM
20 V-Belt B-53
J Hot Storage silo
1 capacity 1 no. 35 ton
2 discharging flaps 2 pneumatic cylinders
K Control room
centralized control& power
panel
1 cabin type
container with glass window at
front and both sides insulated
,dust proof and air conditioned
2 controller
computer, printer, preloaded
linnhoff software, key board
,plc,
3 Digital weigh indicator 03 no. CS1650


53

APPENDIX III

54



55

APPENDIX IV