Vibration: Free Vibration of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems

MEE 5206:
VIBRATION
Chapter 2
Free Vibration of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems
Mechanical Vibrations

Fourth Edition
William T. Thomson
REFERENCES
Third Edition
Daniel J. INMAN
Fifth Edition
Singiresu S. Rao
TEXT BOOK
Chapter 2
Free Vibration of Single-Degree-of-Freedom
Systems
Chapter Outline
Introduction
Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational System
Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System
(READING ASSIGNMENT)
Free Vibration with Viscous Damping

4
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, the reader should be able
to do the following:
Derive the equation of motion of a single-degree-of-freedom system
using a suitable technique such as Newtons second law of motion,
D Alemberts principle, the principle of virtual displacements, and
the principle of conservation of energy.

Solve a spring-mass-damper system for different types of free-
vibration response depending on the amount of damping.

Compute the natural frequency, damped frequency, logarithmic
decrement, and time constant.
2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units 5
Introduction
Free Vibration occurs when a system oscillates only under an initial
disturbance with no external forces acting after the initial
disturbance
Undamped vibrations result when amplitude of motion remains
constant with time (e.g. in a vacuum)
Damped vibrations occur when the amplitude of free vibration
diminishes gradually overtime, due to resistance offered by the
surrounding medium (e.g. air)

Introduction
Several mechanical and structural systems can be idealized as
single degree of freedom systems, for example, the mass and
stiffness of a system

If mass m is displaced a distance when acted upon by a
resultant force in the same direction,

If mass m is constant, this equation reduces to

where is the acceleration of the mass
) (t x
) (t F
|
.
|
\
|
=
dt
t x d
m
dt
d
t F
) (
) (

(2.1)
) (
) (
2
2
x m
dt
t x d
m t F

= =
2
2
) (
dt
t x d
x

=
Equation of Motion Using Newtons Second Law of Motion:
Newtons Second law is the first basis for examining the
motion of the system
Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational
System
For a rigid body undergoing rotational motion, Newtons Law gives

where is the resultant moment acting on the body and and
are the resulting angular displacement and angular
acceleration, respectively.

For undamped single degree of freedom system, the application of Eq.
(2.1) to mass m yields the equation of motion:
) 2 . 2 ( ) ( u

J t M =
u
2 2
/ ) ( dt t d u u =

) 3 . 2 ( 0 or ) ( = + = = kx x m x m kx t F

System
) 3 . 2 ( 0 or ) ( = + = = kx x m x m kx t F

System
Spring-Mass System in Horizontal Position:
Consider the undamped single degree of freedom system
shown in Fig. below.

The application of Eq. (2.1) to mass m yields the equation of
motion:

Figure 2.1
System
Principle of Conservation of Energy
A system is said to be conservative if no energy is lost due to friction
or energy-dissipating nonelastic members.
If no work is done on the conservative system by external forces,
the total energy of the system remains constant. Thus the principle
of conservation of energy can be expressed as:
) 6 . 2 ( 0 ) ( or constant = + = + U T
dt
d
U T
Equation of Motion Using Energy Methods:
The differential equation of motion (Eq. (2.3)) can also be
derived by using the principle of conservation of energy
The kinetic and potential energies are given by:

Substitution of Eqs. (2.7) & (2.8) into Eq. (2.6) yields the desired
equation
) 8 . 2 (
2
1

) 7 . 2 (
2
1
2
2
kx U
x m T
=
=
) 3 . 2 ( 0 = +kx x m
Equation of Motion Using Energy Methods:
System
For the free vibration of undamped systme, the energy is
partly kinetic and partly potential
The equations of motion, Eqs. (2.1) & (2.2) can be rewritten as

The application of DAlemberts principle to the system shown in Fig.
2.1(c) yields the equation of motion:

(2.4b) 0 ) (
) 2.4a ( 0 ) (
=
=
u

J t M
x m t F
) 3 . 2 ( 0 or 0 = + = kx x m x m kx
Equation of Motion Using DAlemberts Principle :
System
DAlemberts principle states that if the resultant force acting
on a body along with the inertia force is zero, then the body
will be in static equilibrium.
System
Consider the configuration of the spring-mass system shown in the
figure.
Equation of Motion of a Spring-Mass System in Vertical
Position:
System
For static equilibrium,

The application of Newtons second law of motion to mass m gives

and since , we obtain

) 9 . 2 (
st
k mg W o = =
W x k x m
st
+ + = ) ( o
) 10 . 2 ( 0 = +kx x m
W k
st
= o
where w = weight of mass m,
= static deflection
g = acceleration due to gravity
st
o
Equation of Motion of a Spring-Mass System in Vertical Position:
Notice that Eqs. (2.3) and (2.10) are identical. This indicates that when a
mass moves in a vertical direction, we can ignore its weight, provided we
measure x from its static equilibrium position.
15
System
Solutions for equation of motion (Eqs. 2.3 and 2.10)
Equation of Motion of a Spring-Mass System in Vertical Position:
The solution of Eqs. (2.3) can be found by assuming
(2.11) ) (
st
Ce t x =
Where C and s are constants to be determined. Substitution of Eq.
(2.11) into Eq. (2.3) gives
(2.12) 0 zero be cannot since , 0 ) (
2 2
= + = + k ms C k ms C
n
i
m
k
s e =
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 / 1
And hence,
( )
2 / 1
1 = i
2 / 1
|
.
|
\
|
=
m
k
n
e
where
Therefore,
Note: Eq. (2.12 is called characteristic equation
corresponding to eq. (2.3).
The two values of s is the roots of characteristic
equation. It is also called eigenvalues or characteristic
values of the problem
n
e
,
is the natural frequency of the system
The natural period & frequency
m
k
T t 2 =
k
m
f
n
t 2
1
= ,
2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
System
From Eq (2.16), we have

Hence,
Solution of Eq. (2.3) is subjected to the initial conditions of Eq. (2.17)
which is given by

) 17 . 2 ( ) 0 (
) 0 (
0 2
0 1
x A t x
x A t x
n
= = =
= = =
e
) 18 . 2 ( sin cos ) (
0
0
t
x
t x t x
n
n
n
e
e
e

+ =
n
x A x A e / and
0 2 0 1
= =
Hence, Eq. (2.3) can be expressed as

By using the identities
) 15 . 2 ( ) (
2 1
t i t i
n n
e C e C t x
e e
+ =
where C
1
and C
2
are constants
) 16 . 2 ( sin cos ) (
2 1
t A t A t x
n n
e e + =
where A
1
and A
2
are new constants
System
Another representation of eq. (2.16) by introducing the notions:

Eqs.(2.15), (2.16) & (2.18) are harmonic functions of time. Eq.
(2.16) can also be expressed as:

where and are new constants, amplitude and phase angle
respectively:

) 21 . 2 ( ) cos( ) ( | e = t A t x
n
0
|
) 22 . 2 (
2 / 1
2
0 2
0
2
2
2
1
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + =
n
x
x A A A
e
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

n
x
x
e
|
0
0 1
tan

) sin(
) cos(
2
1
|
|
A A
A A
=
=
Harmonic Motion
A
angle Phase = |
Amplitude = A
System
The nature of harmonic oscillation can be represented graphically as
shown in the figure.
Similarly by using the relations:
) cos(
) sin(
0 0 2
0 0 1
|
|
A A
A A
=
=
Harmonic Motion
) 23 . 2 ( ) sin( ) (
0 0
| e + = t A t x
n
) 24 . 2 (
2 / 1
2
0 2
0
2
2
2
1
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + =
n
x
x A A A
e
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

0
0 1
0
tan
x
x
n
e
|
System

Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems:
1. When the spring-mass system is in a vertical position

Circular natural frequency:

Spring constant, k:

Hence,
) 26 . 2 (
2 / 1
|
.
|
\
|
=
m
k
n
e
) 27 . 2 (
st st
mg W
k
o o
= =
) 28 . 2 (
2 / 1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
st
n
g
o
e
Harmonic Motion
System

1. When the spring-mass system is in a vertical position (Cont)

Natural frequency in cycles per second:

Natural period:

) 29 . 2 (
2
1
2 / 1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
st
n
g
f
o t
) 30 . 2 ( 2
1
2 / 1
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
g f
st
n
n
o
t t
Harmonic Motion
System

2. Displacement , Velocity and the acceleration of the
mass m at time t can be obtained as:
) (t x ) (t x
) 31 . 2 ( ) sin( ) cos( ) ( ) (
)
2
cos( ) sin( ) ( ) (
2 2
2
2
t | e e | e e
t
| e e | e e
+ = = =
+ = = =
t A t A t
dt
x d
t x
t A t A t
dt
dx
t x
n n n
n n n n
n

Harmonic Motion
) 21 . 2 ( Eq. ) cos( ) ( | e = t A t x
n
) (t x
System

3. If initial displacement is zero,

If initial velocity is zero,
( )
0
x
) 32 . 2 ( sin
2
cos ) (
0 0
t
x
t
x
t x
n
n
n
n
e
e
t
e
e

=
|
.
|
\
|
=
( )
0
x
) 33 . 2 ( cos ) (
0
t x t x
n
e =
Harmonic Motion
System

4. The response of a single degree of freedom system can be
represented by:

By squaring and adding Eqs. (2.34) & (2.35)
) 35 . 2 ( ) sin(
) 34 . 2 ( ) sin( ) (
A
y
A
x
t
t A t x
n
n
n n
= =
=
e
| e
| e e
) 36 . 2 ( 1
1 ) ( sin ) ( cos
2
2
2
2
2 2
= +
= +
A
y
A
x
t t
n n
| e | e
n
x y e / =
where
Harmonic Motion
System

4. Phase plane representation of an undamped system
Harmonic Motion
From the theory of torsion of circular shafts, we have the relation:
) 37 . 2 (
0
l
GI
M
t
=
where
M
t
= torque that produces the twist ,
G = shear modulus,
l = is the length of shaft,
I
0
= polar moment of inertia of cross section of shaft
Polar Moment of Inertia:

Torsional Spring Constant:

) 38 . 2 (
32
4
0
d
I
t
=
) 39 . 2 (
32
4
0
l
Gd
l
GI M
k
t
t
t
u
= = =
Equation of Motion:

Applying Newtons Second Law of Motion,

The natural circular frequency is

The period and frequency of vibration in cycles per second are:

) 40 . 2 ( 0
0
= + u u
t
k J

) 41 . 2 (
2 / 1
0
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
J
k
t
n
e
) 43 . 2 (
2
1
, ) 42 . 2 ( 2
2 / 1
0
2 / 1
0
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
J
k
f
k
J
t
n
t
n
t
t t
Note the following aspects of this system:
1) If the cross section of the shaft supporting the disc is not circular,
an appropriate torsional spring constant is to be used.

2) The polar mass moment of inertia of a disc is given by

3) An important application of a torsional pendulum is in a mechanical
clock
g
WD D h
J
8 32
4 4
0
= =
t
where = mass density
h = thickness
D = diameter
W = weight of the disc
A machine oscillates in simple harmonic motion and appears to be
well modeled by an undamped single-degree-of-freedom oscillation.
Its acceleration is measured to have an amplitude of 10,000 mm/s
2

at 8 Hz. What is the machine's maximum displacement?
Example
The equations of motion for position and acceleration are [From Eq. (2.21) and
(2.31)]:
Solution:
) 21 . 2 ( ) cos( ) ( | e = t A t x
n
) 31 . 2 ( ) cos( ) cos( ) ( ) (
2 2
2
2
t | e e | e e + = = = t A t A t
dt
x d
t x
n n n
n

The amplitude of acceleration is:
2 2
m/s 000 , 10 = A
n
e
The natural frequency of the system is:
rad/s 16 Hz) 8 ( 2 2 t t t e = = = f
n
Hence, the machine displacement is:
( )
mm 96 . 3
rad/s 16
m/s 000 , 10 m/s 000 , 10
2
2
2
2
= = =
t e
n
A
Equation of Motion:

where c = damping

From the figure, Newtons law yields
that the equation of motion is

) 58 . 2 ( x c F =
) 59 . 2 ( 0 = + +
=
kx x c x m
kx x c x m

We assume a solution in the form

The characteristic equation is

The roots and solutions are

) 60 . 2 ( ) (
st
Ce t x =
) 61 . 2 ( 0
2
= + + k cs ms
) 62 . 2 (
2 2 2
4
2
2
2 , 1
m
k
m
c
m
c
m
mk c c
s
|
.
|
\
|
=

=
) 63 . 2 ( ) ( and ) (
2 1
2 2 1 1
t s t s
e C t x e C t x = =
where C and s are undetermined constants
Thus the general solution is:

where C
1
and C
2
are arbitrary constants to be determined from the initial conditions of the system
) 64 . 2 (
) (
2 2
2 1
2 2
2
2 2
1
2 1
t
m
k
m
c
m
c
t
m
k
m
c
m
c
t s t s
e C e C
e C e C t x
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
+ =

The critical damping cc is defined as the value of the damping
constant c for which the radical in Eq.(2.62) becomes zero:

The damping ratio is defined as:
) 65 . 2 ( 2 2 2 0
2
2
n c
c
m km
m
k
m c
m
k
m
c
e = = = =
|
.
|
\
|
) 66 . 2 ( /
c
c c = ,
Critical Damping Constant and Damping Ratio:

Thus the general solution for Eq.(2.64) is

Assuming that 0, consider the following 3 cases:
Case 1: Underdamped system
For this condition, is negative and the roots are
) / 2 or or 1 ( m k m c/ c c
c
< < < ,
) 69 . 2 ( ) (
1
2
1
1
2 2
t t
n n
e C e C t x
e , , e , , |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
( )
( )
n
n
i s
i s
e , ,
e , ,
2
2
2
1
1
1
=
+ =
( ) 1
2
,

The solution can be written in different forms:
) / 2 or or 1 ( m k m c/ c c
c
< < < ,
{ }
{ }
( )
( ) ) 70 . 2 ( 1 cos
1 sin
1 sin 1 cos
) (
0
2
0
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2 2
2 2
| e ,
| e ,
e , e ,
,e
,e
,e
e , e , ,e
e , , e , ,
=
+ =

'
+
'
=
+ =
+ =

|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
t e X
t Xe
t C t C e
e C e C e
e C e C t x
n
t
n
t
n n
t
t i t i t
t i t i
n
n
n
n n n
n n
where (C
1
,C
2
), (X,),
and (X
0
,
0
) are arbitrary constants

For the initial conditions at t = 0,

and hence the solution becomes

) / 2 or or 1 ( m k m c/ c c
c
< < < ,
) 71 . 2 (
1
and
2
0 0
2 0 1
n
n
x x
C x C
e ,
,e
+
=
'
=
'

) 72 . 2 ( 1 sin
1
1 cos ) (
2
2
0 0
2
0
+
+ =

t
x x
t x e t x
n
n
n
n
t
n
e ,
e ,
,e
e ,
,e


Eq.(2.72) describes a damped harmonic motion. Its amplitude
decreases exponentially with time, as shown in the figure below.
The frequency of damped vibration is:

) / 2 or or 1 ( m k m c/ c c
c
< < < ,
) 76 . 2 ( 1
2
n d
e , e =
n
d
e
t
t
2
=
Damped period

Case 2: Critically damped system
In this case, the two roots are:

Due to repeated roots, the solution of Eq.(2.59) is given by

) 77 . 2 (
2
2 1 n
c
m
c
s s e = = =
) / 2 or or 1 ( m k m c/ c c
c
= = = ,
) 78 . 2 ( ) ( ) (
2 1
t
n
e t C C t x
e
+ =

Application of initial conditions gives:

Thus the solution becomes:

) / 2 or or 1 ( m k m c/ c c
c
= = = ,
) 79 . 2 ( and
0 0 2 0 1
x x C x C
n
e + = =
( ) | | ) 80 . 2 ( ) (
0 0 0
t
n
n
e t x x x t x
e
e

+ + =

It can be seen that the motion represented by Eq.(2.80) is a
periodic (i.e., non-periodic).
Since , the motion will eventually diminish to zero,
as indicated in the figure below.

) / 2 or or 1 ( m k m c/ c c
c
= = = ,

t e
t
n
as 0
e
Comparison of motions with
different types of damping

Case 3: Overdamped system
The roots are real and distinct and are given by:

In this case, the solution Eq.(2.69) is given by:

( )
( ) 0 1
0 1
2
2
2
1
< =
< + =
n
n
s
s
e , ,
e , ,
) / 2 or or 1 ( m k m c/ c c
c
> > > ,
) 81 . 2 ( ) (
1
2
1
1
2 2
t t
n n
e C e C t x
e , , e , , |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =

Case 3: Overdamped system
For the initial conditions at t = 0,

) / 2 or or 1 ( m k m c/ c c
c
> > > ,
( )
( )
) 82 . 2 (
1 2
1
1 2
1
2
0
2
0
2
2
0
2
0
1
+ +
=
, e
, , e
, e
, , e
n
n
n
n
x x
C
x x
C

For a damped system, m, c, and k are known to be m = 1 kg, c = 2 kg/s,
k = 10 N/m. Calculate the value of and
n
. Is the system overdamped,
underdamped, or critically damped?
Example

Using Eq.(2.70),

The logarithmic decrement can be obtained from Eq.(2.84):

( )
) 84 . 2 (
) 83 . 2 (
) cos(
) cos(
1
1
2
1
0 2 0
0 1 0
2
1
d n
d n
n
n
n
e
e
e
t e X
t e X
x
x
t
t
d
t
d
t
t ,e
t ,e
,e
,e
,e
| e
| e
= =
=
+
) 85 . 2 (
2
2
1
2
1
2
ln
2 2
2
1
m
c
x
x
d
n
n d n
=
= = =
e
t
,
t,
, e
t
,e t ,e o
It is used to find the damping ratio of an underdamped system in the time domain
It is the natural log of the ratio of the amplitudes of any two successive peaks
Logarithmic Decrement ( ):
o

For small damping,

Hence,

or

Thus
) 86 . 2 ( 1 if 2 << ~ , t, o
) 92 . 2 ( ln
1
1
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ m
x
x
m
o
( )
) 87 . 2 (
2
2
2
o t
o
,
+
=
) 88 . 2 (
2t
o
, ~
where m is an integer
Logarithmic Decrement ( ):
o
Energy dissipated in Viscous Damping:

In a viscously damped system, the rate of change of energy with
time is given by:

The energy dissipated in a complete cycle is:
) 93 . 2 ( velocity force
2
2
|
.
|
\
|
= = = =
dt
dx
c cv Fv
dt
dW
) 94 . 2 ( ) ( cos
2 2
0
2 2
2
) / 2 (
0
X c t d t cX dt
dt
dx
c W
d d d d t
d
e t e e e
t e t
=
}
=
}
|
.
|
\
|
= A
=

Consider the system shown in the figure.
The total force resisting the motion is

If we assume simple harmonic motion is

Eq.(2.95) becomes
) 95 . 2 ( x c kx cv kx F = =
) 96 . 2 ( sin ) ( t X t x
d
e =
) 97 . 2 ( cos sin t X c t kX F
d d d
e e e =

The energy dissipated in a complete cycle will be
) 98 . 2 ( ) ( cos
) ( cos sin
2
/ 2
0
2 2
/ 2
0
2
/ 2
0
X c t d t X c
t d t t kX
Fvdt W
d
t
d d d
t
d d d d
t
d
d
d
e t e e e
e e e e
e t
e t
e t
= +
=
= A
}
}
}
=
=
=

Computing the fraction of the total energy of the vibrating system
that is dissipated in each cycle of motion,

The loss coefficient is defined as
) 99 . 2 ( constant 4 2
2
2
2
2
1
2 2
2
= ~ =
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
A
t, o
e
t
e
e t
m
c
X m
X c
W
W
d
d
d
) 100 . 2 (
2
) 2 / (
t coefficien loss
W
W
W
W
t
t A
=
A
=
where W is either the max potential energy or the max kinetic energy
Torsional systems with Viscous Damping:

Consider a single degree of freedom torsional system with a viscous
damper as shown in figure.

The viscous damping torque is given by

The equation of motion can be derived as:
) 101 . 2 ( u
t
c T =
) 102 . 2 ( 0
0
= + + u u u
t t
k c J

where J
0
= mass moment of inertia of disc
k
t
= spring constant of system
= angular displacement of disc

In the underdamped case, the frequency of damped vibration is
given by

where

and
) 103 . 2 ( 1
2
n d
e , e =
) 104 . 2 (
0
J
k
t
n
= e
) 105 . 2 (
2
2
0
0
J k
c
J
c
c
c
t
t
n
t
tc
t
= = =
e
,
c
tc
= critical torsional damping constant
Example 2.11
Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle

An underdamped shock absorber is to be designed for a motorcycle of
mass 200kg (shown in Fig.(a)). When the shock absorber is subjected
to an initial vertical velocity due to a road bump, the resulting
displacement-time curve is to be as indicated in Fig.(b). Find the
necessary stiffness and damping constants of the shock absorber if the
damped period of vibration is to be 2 s and the amplitude x1 is to be
reduced to one-fourth in one half cycle (i.e., x1.5 = x1/4). Also find
the minimum initial velocity that leads to a maximum displacement of
250 mm.
Example 2.11

Example 2.11
Solution

Since , the logarithmic decrement
becomes

16 / 4 / , 4 /
1 5 . 1 2 1 5 . 1
x x x x x = = =
( ) (E.1)
1
2
7726 . 2 16 ln ln
2
2
1
,
t,
o
= = =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
x
x
Example 2.11
Solution

From which can be found as 0.4037 and the damped period of
vibration is given by 2 s. Hence,
rad/s 4338 . 3
) 4037 . 0 ( 1 2
2
1
2 2
2
2
2
=
= = =
t
e
, e
t
e
t
t
n
n
d
d
Example 2.11
Solution

The critical damping constant can be obtained as

Thus the damping constant is

The stiffness is
s/m - N 54 . 373 . 1 ) 4338 . 3 )( 200 ( 2 2 = = =
n c
m c e
s/m - N 4981 . 554 ) 54 . 1373 )( 4037 . 0 ( = = =
c
c c ,
N/m 2652 . 2358 ) 4338 . 3 )( 200 (
2 2
= = =
n
m k e
Example 2.11
Solution

The displacement of the mass will attain its max value at time t
1
is
sec 3678 . 0
) 9149 . 0 ( sin
9149 . 0 ) 4037 . 0 ( 1 sin sin
1 sin
1
1
2
1 1
2
1
= =
= = =
=
t
t e
, e
t
t t
t
d
d
Example 2.11
Solution

The envelope passing through the max points is

Since x = 250mm,

The velocity of mass can be obtained by
(E.2) 1
2 t
n
Xe x
,e
,

=
m 4550 . 0 ) 4037 . 0 ( 1 25 . 0
) 3678 . 0 )( 4338 . 3 )( 4037 . 0 ( 2
= =

X Xe
(E.3) ) cos sin ( ) (
sin ) (
t t Xe t x
t Xe t x
d d d n
t
d
t
n
n
e e e ,e
e
,e
,e
+ =
=

Example 2.11
Solution

When t = 0,
m/s 4294 . 1
) 4037 . 0 ( 1 ) 4338 . 3 )( 4550 . 0 (
1 ) 0 (
2
2
0
=
=
= = = = , e e
n d
X X x t x
Graphical Representation of Characteristic Roots
and Corresponding Solutions
Roots of the Characteristic Equation

The free vibration of a single-degree-of-freedom spring-mass-
viscous-damper system is governed by Eq. (2.59):

whose characteristic equation can be expressed as (Eq. (2.61)):
( ) 2.106 0 = + + kx x c x m
( ) 2.108 0 2
0
2 2
2
= + +
= + +
n n
w s w s
k cs ms

Roots of the Characteristic Equation

The roots of Eq. (2.107) or (2.108) are given by (see Eqs. (2.62)
and (2.68)):
( ) 2.110 1 ,
2
4
,
2
2 1
2
2 1
=

=
n n
iw w s s
m
mk c c
s s
Graphical Representation of Roots and Corresponding
Solutions

The response of the system is given by

Following observations can be made by examining Eqs. (2.110) and
(2.111):
1. The roots lying farther to the left in the s-plane indicate that the
corresponding responses decay faster than those associated
with roots closer to the imaginary axis.
2. If the roots have positive real values of sthat is, the roots lie
in the right half of the s-planethe corresponding response
grows exponentially and hence will be unstable.
( ) ( ) 2.111
2 1
2 1
t s t s
e C e C t x + =
Solutions

3. If the roots lie on the imaginary axis (with zero real value), the
corresponding response will be naturally stable.
4. If the roots have a zero imaginary part, the corresponding response
will not oscillate.
5. The response of the system will exhibit an oscillatory behavior only
when the roots have nonzero imaginary parts.
6. The farther the roots lie to the left of the s-plane, the faster the
corresponding response decreases.
7. The larger the imaginary part of the roots, the higher the frequency of
oscillation of the corresponding response of the system.
Solutions

Parameter Variations and Root Locus
Representations
Interpretations of in the s-plane

The angle made by the line OA with the imaginary axis is given by

The radial lines pass through the origin correspond to different
damping ratios

The time constant of the system is defined as

t and , ,
d n
w w
( ) 2.113 sin
sin
1
, u
,
=
= =
n
n
w
w
n
w ,
t
1
=
t and , ,
d n
w w
Representations
t and , ,
d n
w w
Representations

Different lines parallel to the imaginary axis denote reciprocals of
different time constants
t and , ,
d n
w w
Representations
Root Locus and Parameter Variations

A plot or graph that shows how changes in one of the parameters
of the system will modify the roots of the characteristic equation of
the system is known as the root locus plot.

Variation of the damping ratio:
We vary the damping constant from zero to infinity and study the
migration of the characteristic roots in the s-plane.

From Eq. (2.109) when c = 0,
( ) 2.115
2
4
2 , 1 n
iw
m
k
m
mk
s = =
=
Representations

Noting that the real and imaginary parts of the roots in Eq. (2.109)
can be expressed as

For , we have

( ) 2.116 1
2
4
and
2
2
2
d n n
w w
m
c mk
w
m
c
= =
= = , , o
1 0 < <,
( ) 2.117
2 2 2
n d
w w = + o
Representations


The radius vector will make an angle with the positive imaginary
axis with

The two roots trace loci or paths in the form of circular arcs as the
damping ratio is increased from zero to unity as shown
2
1 with
cos , sin
, o
,
, o
u o u
=
= = = = =
n
n
n n
d
w
w
w w
w
Representations


Representations
Example 2.13
Study of Roots with Variation of c

Plot the root locus diagram of the system governed by the equation by
varying the value of c >0
0 27 3
2
= + +c s
Representations
Example 2.13
Solution

The roots of equation are given by

We start with a value of C = 0 and the roots is as shown in the figure.

Eq. (E.2) gives the roots as indicated in the Table.
( ) E.2
6
324
2
2 , 1

=
c c
s
Representations
Example 2.13
Solution

Representations

Variation of the spring constant:

Since the spring constant does not appear explicitly in Eq. (2.108),
we consider a specific form of the characteristic equation (2.107)
as:

The roots of Eq. (2.121) are given by

( ) 2.121 0 16
2
= + + k s s
( ) 2.122 64 8
2
4 256 16
2 , 1
k
k
s =

=
Representations

Variation of the mass:

To find the migration of the roots with a variation of the mass m,
we consider a specific form of the characteristic equation, Eq.
(2.107), as

whose roots are given by

( ) 2.123 0 20 14
2
= + + s ms
( ) 2.124
2
80 196 14
2 , 1
m
s

=
Representations


Some values of m and the corresponding roots given by Eq.
(2.124) are shown in Table.

Representations


Representations


Representations

Vibration: Free Vibration of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems

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MEE 5206:

Critical Damping Constant and Damping Ratio:

Free Vibration with Viscous Damping

2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units 62

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