HANDOUT FOR MATH

1st Sem., 2020-2021

Mrs. A. L. Reginaldo

The History of Statistics

Statistics dates back to the beginnings of recorded history. As early as 3800 B.C. there were records on
population in Babylonia. The same was true of China in 3000 B.C. Almost five thousand years ago, the people
of Sumeria counted their citizens for taxation purposes and at various times later, the Egyptians conducted
their inquiries into the occupation of their people.

In Biblical times, censuses were undertaken by Moses in 1491 B.C. and by King David in 1017 B.C.
Indian literature dating back from the reign of northern Hindustan King Asoka (270 – 230 B.C.) also describes
methods of taking censuses. The people of Athens and other classical Greeks took censuses in times of stress,
carefully counting the adult male citizens in wartime and of the general populace when the food supply was
endangered. The Romans registered adult males and their properties for military and administrative
purposes.

Servinus Tullius, who ruled as the sixth King of Rome from 578 to 534 B.C. was given credit for
instituting the gathering of population data.

Two thousand years ago, each male in the Roman Empire had to return to the city of his birth to be
counted and taxed. Thus, the Bible gives an account of the return of Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem for such
purposes.

“and Joseph also went from Galilee out of the town of Nazareth into Judea to the town of David, which
is called Bethlehem – because he was of the house and family of David, to register, together with Mary, his
espoused wife, who was with child….”

In the Middle Ages, registrations on land ownership and on manpower for wars were made. In the 13th
century, tax lists of Paris included the registrations of those who were subject to tax.

In England, William The Conqueror, required the compilation of information on population and
resources. This compilation, “The Domesday Book”, is the first landmark in British statistics. Later, births,
deaths, baptisms and marriages had to be registered also.

In the 16th century, European mathematicians and gamblers suspected that games of chance such as
rolling of dice, playing cards and tossing coins followed certain laws. Girotamo Cardano, an Italian
mathematician, physician and gambler wrote “Liber de Ludo Aleae” in which appeared the first known study
of the principles of probability. Another gambler, Chevalier de Mere, made a proposal to Blaise Pascal in the
famous “Problem of Points”, a work which marked the beginning of the mathematics of probability. Laplace’s
“Theories Analytique des Probabilities” of 1812 further supported and stabilized the said theory.

A large number of statistical handbooks were then published. This type of descriptive statistics was
referred to as “Du Tabellen Statistiks”. The first scientific analysis of publicly recorded data may be ascribed
to Capt. John Graunt (1620-1674). The registration of deaths was started by Henry VIII in 1532 and weekly
bills of mortality were instituted during the period of plague.

It was Achenwall (1719-1772) who first introduced the word “statistiks” in a preface to a statistical
work.

Zimmermann and Sinclair introduced and popularized the name “Statistics” in their books.

Abraham de Moivre (1667-1754) discovered the equation of the normal curve.

In the 18th century, statistics was used in the study entitled “Political Arrangements of the Modern
States of the Modern World”. The description of the work was at first verbal but gradually, an increasing
proportion of numerical data was used in the description of the work.

In the 19th century, a Belgian astronomer named Quetelet applied the theory of probability to
anthropological measurements and expanded the same principle to the physiological, psychological, physical

Handout #1Page 1
and chemical fields. After studying with the best-known mathematicians of his day, Quetelet established a
central commission for Statistics which became the model for similar organizations in other countries.

Francis Galton (1822-1911) and Karl Pearson (1857-1936) also contributed much to the development of
statistics. Galton developed the use of percentiles. A cousin of Charles Darwin, Galton became deeply
interested in the problem of heredity to which he also applied statistical tools. Pearson made many statistical
discoveries too. Both Galton and Pearson contributed greatly to the development of the correlation theory.
Other mathematicians who made great contributions also were Marquis de Laplace and Carl Friedrich Gauss.

In the 20th century, the most prominent figure in the field of statistics was Sir Ronald Fisher (1890 –
1962). Fisher made continuous contributions from 1912 to 1962 and many of these contributions have great
impact on contemporary statistical procedures. One of these is the Fisher’s Test which is used in the analysis
of variance in inferential statistics. Professor Bradley Efron noted that statistical thinking and methodology
had become the scientific framework for various fields including engineering sciences, social sciences,
biological sciences and physical sciences.

Shortly before the second World War, the number of applications of statistical methods in the social
sciences began to increase. The number of surveys of all kinds increased, and the need to interpret data in
mathematics, business and the social sciences made it necessary for workers to have at least a basic
understanding of Statistics. Today, students, housewives, policy-makers, businessmen and workers in almost
every field of human endeavor are expected to have at least a basic knowledge of Statistics. Statistical literacy
has become a necessity in today’s modern world.

The History of Statistics in the Philippines

Although crude and incomplete, several estimates of the population of the Philippines were made
during the Spanish period, the earliest dating back to about 1570 when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi conquered
the islands. The people were estimated to be a million in number.

In 1576, Hernando Riquel, a government notary, also attempted to estimate the population in
connection with the list of encomiendas he prepared. An account of the socio-economic conditions of the
people was written in 1582 by Miguel de Loarca in “Relacion de las Islas Filipinas”. This included some
details about the size of the islands, the encomiendas therein, the officials in the Spanish settlements and the
tributes collected.

By order of Governor and Capitan General Gomez Dasmariñas, a second estimate was made in the
year 1591 which was based on the number of encomiendas. There were approximately 667,617 people as there
were 166,904 encomiendas, each encomienda representing four people. No further estimates based on the
encomienda were made because the system closed in 1600.

Other estimates of the population were based mostly on church records because people were
distributed among religious orders by parishes. Births, deaths and marriages were made the bases of
population estimates. In 1799, the Christian population was 1,502,574 as compiled by Buzeta.

Another source of information concerning the population was based on the number of “cedulas” sold.
A “cedula” was a per capita tax which was obligatory upon all males between 18 and 60 years old.

In 1877, civil censuses were taken by the Spanish authorities. This formed the basis of the estimated
population for 1896.

During the American regime, data collection became more systematized. This was marked by the
creation of a statistical unit in the Bureau of Customs to collect, tabulate and disseminate statistics on imports
and exports. Although no statistical units were formally created in other government offices during that time,
informal data were collected and compiled for administrative purposes.

Handout #1Page 2
 The Bureau of Agriculture, which was created in 1902, compiled data on the number of farms, the
extent of irrigated areas and land put into cultivation. The Bureau of Labor which was created in 1908
furnished data on the number of labor organizations and members. It also compiled statistics on labor cases.

Vital registration likewise improved during this period. Section 961 of the Revised Ordinance of the
City of Manila provided for the registration of births and deaths. Section 2214 of the Revised Administrative
Code of the Philippines required physicians to report births and deaths they have attended to. They made
these reports to the Municipal Secretary.

In 1925, a survey on the educational system was made by a board of distinguished educators headed by
Dr. Paul Monroe.

During the Commonwealth regime, all statistical activities were centralized in the Bureau of Census
and Statistics. This agency, which was created on August 19, 1940 has the following functions:
1. To prepare and conduct periodic censuses on population, housing, agriculture, fisheries, industry,
business and other sectors of the economy,
2. To prepare and conduct statistical surveys, researches and studies on all aspects of socio-economic
conditions,
3. To collect and process for statistical purposes data and records from the different departments,
bureaus, offices and agencies of the government,
4. To conduct researches and studies on census in cooperation with national or local statistical
organizations,
5. To develop a well-integrated, consolidated and coordinated program of up-to-date statistical
collection, production, analysis and publication for the use of the government and the public, and
6. To maintain an efficient system of civil registration.

On May 6, 1970 the Bureau of Census and Statistics undertook a census on population and housing. A
complete enumeration was made of all persons living in the Philippines including those who died but
excluding those born after the said date on the basis of a “de jure” count or the “usual place of residence”
method. A housing inventory was also undertaken hand in hand with this population census to assess the
housing conditions of the population.

TERMINOLOGIES IN STATISTICS
1. universe – the set of individuals or objects that is the subject of the study
2. population – denoted as N
- refers to a large collection or totality of objects, persons, places, things or reactions that
can be described as having a unique combination of qualities
- totality of objects, individuals or reactions which have common observable
characteristics
3. sample – denoted as n
- a small portion or part of a population. It could also be defined as a subgroup, a subset
or a representative of the population
4. parameter – any numerical or nominal characteristic of a population. It is a value or
measurement obtained from a population. It is usually referred to as true or actual
value
5. statistic – an estimate of a parameter. It is any value or measurement obtained from a sample
6. data – facts or a set of information or observation under study. More specifically, data are gathered by
the researcher from a population or from a sample
7. variable – any characteristic of interest, measurable on each and every member of the universe
- a characteristic or property of a population or sample which makes the members
different from each other
8. constant – a property or characteristic of a population or sample which makes the members of the
group similar to each other

CATEGORIES OF DATA
1. qualitative – non-numerically valued variables

Handout #1Page 3
 - data which can assume values that manifest the concept of attributes. These are
sometimes called categorical data. Data falling in this category cannot be subjected to
arithmetic operations
2. quantitative – numerically-valued variables
- data which are numerical in nature. These are data obtained from counting and
measuring. In addition, meaningful arithmetic operations can be done with this type of
data

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
a. according to continuity of values
1. discrete variables – one that can assume a finite number of values. In other words, it can
assume specific values only, that is, the values of this type of variable are obtained through
the process of counting
2. continuous variables – one that can assume infinite values (whole numbers, fractions,
decimals), which are obtained through measuring
b. according to functional relationship
1. dependent variable – value to be predicted
2. independent variable – predictor

SCALES OR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

1. Nominal - the most primitive level of measurement
- used when we want to distinguish one object from another for identification purposes
only
2. ordinal – data are arranged in some specified order or rank. In this level, we can say that one is better
or greater than the other but we cannot tell how much more or how much less of the
characteristic one object has than the other
3. interval – has units measuring intervals of equal distance between values on the scale but it has only a
relative zero point. In this scale, we can say not only that one object is greater than or less than
the other but we can also specify the amount of difference. Data can be ordered, added and
subtracted.
4. ratio – has a value of zero which indicates cases where no quality of the variable is present. It is the
highest level of measurement. Data can be subjected to all mathematical operations. In addition,
there is always the presence of units of measure.

Name: __________________________________________

Handout #1Page 4
ACTIVITY:
General Instructions: Write your answer on the space provided. Strictly no erasures.
A. Indicate which are qualitative and which are quantitative by writing QL or QN
QN 1. Bank account number QL 11. Place of birth
QN 2. Daily expenditure in pesos QN 12. Number of books owned
QN 3. Weight in pounds QN 13. Age in years
QN 4. Year of entry in the university QL 14. Blood type
QL 5. Student classification QL 15. Course or degree program
QN 6. Number of students in a class QL 16. Socio-economic status
QL 7. Province or city where a person lives QL 17. Type of high school attended
QN 8. Amount of time it takes to assemble a computer QN 18. Score in a Stat quiz
QL 9. Rating of a newly elected president QN 19. Intelligence quotient level
QL 10. Effects of good teaching strategies QL 20. gender

B. Determine which are discrete and which are continuous by writing DS or CN

DS 1. Number of enrolled subjects CN 11. Intelligence quotient level
CN 2. Age as of last birthday DS 12. Score in a Stat quiz
CN 3. Neck girth in inches CN 13. Number of glasses of water
intake
DS 4. T.V. advertising cost DS 14. Year of birth
DS 5. Tuition fee 15. Amount of sales in a business
CN 6. Time to complete a math exam ______ 16. Speed of a car in kph
CN 7. Population in a particular area in the Philippines ______ 17. Baking temperature
______ 8. Weight of newspapers recovered for recycling ______ 18. Weighted average grade
CN 9. Number of consumers of product A CN 19. Daily expenditure in pesos
CN 10. Number of nurses who went abroad last year CN 20. Teacher’s performance rating

C. Identify the level of measurement (ordinal, nominal, ratio, interval)

_____ 1. Teacher’s performance rating ______ 16. Number of books owned
______ 2. Weighted average grade ______ 17. Annual family income
______ 3. Taxpayer’s identification number ______ 18. Speed of a car in kph
______ 4. Baking temperature ______ 19. Intelligence quotient level
______ 5. Bank account number ______ 20. Amount of sales in a business
______ 6. GSIS I.D. number ______ 21. Score in a Stat quiz
______ 7. The number of passengers in a bus ______ 22. Age in years
______ 8. Political position ______ 23. religion
______ 9. Religion of a person ______ 24. address
______ 10. Number of kilos of rice harvested in a month ______ 25. occupation
______ 11. Body temperature ______ 26. Academic rank
______ 12. Salary of workers ______ 27. Blood pressure
______ 13. Country and province of birth ______ 28. Land area
______ 14. Number of hours spent for studying ______ 29. Size of shirt
______ 15. Weekly stipend or allowance ______ 30. Civil status

Submit in the email: angela.reginaldo@lspu.edu.ph

Filename: EDUC200_exercise#1

Handout #1Page 5