IDENTIFY THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE UNDERSTAND THE ORGANISATION AND EVOLUTION OF THE BYZANTINE CHURCH AND RELIGIOUS ART LEARN ABOUT THE ORIGINS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE MOST HISTORIANS DATE THE END OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE AGES TO 476, WITH THE FALL OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE THE ROMANS HAD CREATED A GREAT EMPIRE AROUND THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA IN 395 EMPEROR THEODOSIUS DIVIDED THE EMPIRE INTO TWO PARTS THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER KNOWN AS THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE, LASTED UNTIL 1453 THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE FELL AS A RESULT OF THE INVASIONS OF GERMANIC TRIBES Jonh Green video about the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of Byzantium (15) GERMANIC TRIBES SETTLED INSIDE THE FRONTIERS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AS ITS POLITICAL AND MILITARY AUTHORITY WEAKENED DURING THE 5TH AND 6TH CENTURIES, SOME OF THOSE INVADER TRIBES FORMED KINGDOMS, WHICH SOMETIMES BECAME THE PRECURSORS OF LATER EUROPEAN STATES. AMONG THE MOST IMPORTANT WERE THE FRANKS IN GAUL AND THE VISIGOTHS IN HISPANIA THE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY OF EUROPE CHANGED UNTIL IT WAS BASED ALMOST ENTIRELY ON THE USE OF THE LAND. WE CALL THIS PROCESS THE RURALISATION OF EUROPE THE UPPER CLASSES DID NOT LIVE IN THE CITIES ANY MORE LITTLE BY LITTLE THE LOWER SOCIAL GROUPS (COLONI) ENDED UP WORKING FOR THE LORDS AND BECAME SERFS (TIED TO THE PIECE OF LAND) IN THE SIXTH CENTURY A NEW RELIGION EMERGED THAT FOLLOWED THE TEACHINGS OF MUHAMMAD IN THE NEXT CENTURY, THE MUSLIMS, FOLLOWERS OF THIS RELIGION, CONQUERED A NUMBER OF TERRITORIES THAT HAD BEEN PART OF THE EASTERN AND WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRES THE BIZANTINES (EAST) THE CATHOLIC CHRISTIANS (WEST) THE MUSLIMS (EAST AND SOUTH) THUS, THREE CIVILISATIONS BEGAN TO FIGHT FOR A SHARE OF THE TERRITORIES THAT ONCE CONSTITUTED THE ROMAN EMPIRE AFTER THE FALL OF THE ROMAN WESTERN EMPIRE, THE EASTERN PART, BYZANTIUM SURVIVED AND MANAGED TO KEEP THE IDEALS AND TRADITIONS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE ALIVE FOR MORE THAN A THOUSAND YEARS THE CAPITAL WAS ESTABLISHED IN CONSTANTINOPLE IT HAD BEEN FOUNDED BY THE ROMAN EMPEROR CONSTANTINE IN THE YEAR 324. THE CITY WAS ON THE SITE OF A GREEK COLONY CALLED BYZANTIUM, WHICH GAVE ITS NAME TO THE EMPIRE THE CITY IS NOW CALLED ISTANBUL WHEN THE EASTERN PART OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE WAS DIVIDED FROM THE WESTERN PART, ITS TERRITORIES SUFFERED MANY ATTACKS ON ITS FRONTIERES BALKANS GREECE ASIA MINOR SYRIA EGYPT 1 DURING THE 5TH CENTURY IT RESISTED ATTACKS FROM BARBARIANS (FOREIGNERS) 2 INT THE 7TH CENTURY THE MUSLIMS CONQUERED THE RICHEST PROVINCES OF THE BE (SYRIA, PALESTINE AND EGYPT) 4 DURING THE 6TH CENTURY, IT GREW MORE THAN EVER UNDER EMPEROR JUSTINIAN (527-565) WHO TRIED TO ESTABLISH THE UNITY AND SPLENDOUR OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 3 THE GREATEST LOSS TOOK PLACE DURING THE 11TH WHEN THE NORMANS INVADED THE ITALIAN TERRITORIES AND THE CRUSADERS CAPTURED SOME OF THE TERRITORIES IN THE EAST 5 FINALLY, THE CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY THE TURKS IN 1453 MARKED THE END OF THE EMPIRE 6 BYZANTIUM WAS A THEOCRACY, SO THE EMPEROR HAD BOTH POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS POWER, INCLUDING THE ARMY THE EMPIRE WAS CONTROLLED BY THE EMPEROR, OR BASILEUS, WHO HELD THE SUPREME AUTHORITY THE EMPIRE WAS DIVIDED INTO PROVINCES, CALLED THEMATA, THAT WERE CONTROLLED BY MILITARY GOVERNORS, CALLED STRATEGOS THE ROMAN LEGAL SYSTEM WAS MODERNISED BY EMPEROR JUSTINIAN AND IT WAS THE BASIS FOR ITS LEGAL CODE: THE CORPUS IURIS CIVILIS, ALSO KNOWN AS HOWEVER, SUCH A LARGE EMPIRE ALSO REQUIRED LOTS OF CIVIL SERVANTS TO APPLY THE LAWS THE JUSTINIAN CODE MOST OF THE POPULATION WORKED IN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES BUT, WHILE THE FARMERS WERE MOSTLY SERFS AND SLAVES, THE LAND WAS OWNED BY NOBLES AND THE MONASTERIES TRADE WAS ALSO VERY IMPORTANT BECAUSE OF THE STRATEGIC LOCATION OF CONSTANTINOPLE. IT WAS BETWEEN EUROPE AND ASIA, THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE BLACK SEA SILK FROM CHINA SPICES, IVORY AND PEARLS FROM INDIA AMBER, FURS AND GRAIN FROM NORTHERN EUROPE SO, ALL TYPES OF PRODUCTS WERE TRADED HOWEVER, IT ALSO HAD TO CONFRONT MANY PROBLEMS SUCH AS: THE ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY THE EAST-WEST SCHISM THE CHURCH HAD A VERY IMPORTANT ROLE IN SOCIETY, IT CROWNED THE EMPEROR, IT WAS VERY RICH AND POWERFUL LANDOWNER, AND IT HAD ENJOYED SPIRITUAL AUTHORITY OVER THE POPULATION THERE WERE TWO PERIODS OF ICONOCLASM (8TH AND 9TH CENTURIES) WHEN BYZANTINE EMPERORS ORDERED IMAGES TO BE REMOVED FROM THE TEMPLES FROM THE GREEK THE BREAKING OF IMAGES ICONOCLASM IT BANNED REPRESENTATIONS OF CHRIST, GOD OR SAINTS AS IMAGES OR, FROM USING THEM FOR CULT WORSHIP THESE LAWS CAUSED RIOTS AND FIGHTS BETWEEN THE MONKS AND THE RULING CLASS, AND ALSO AMONG THE POPULATION, UNTIL FINALLY THE REPRESENTATION OF IMAGES WAS RE-ESTABLISHED IT WAS A CONSEQUENCE OF THE RIVALRY BETWEEN THE POPE IN ROME AND THE PATRIARCH IN CONSTANTINOPLE, WHO REFUSED TO RECOGNISE THE SUPREMACY OF THE POPE OVER CHRISTIANITY OR SPLIT SCHISM THE ORTHODOX CHRISTIAN CHURCH THE CATHOLIC CHRISTIAN CHURCH THE CONFRONTATION ENDED IN 1054 WHIT THE DIVISION OF THE CHURCH INTO TWO INDEPENDENT BRANCHES THE BIZANTINE CHURCH ALSO PLAYED AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN SPREADIG CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE SLAVIC PEOPLES OF EASTERN EUROPE. BIZANTINE MONKS INVENTED THE CYRILLIC SCRIPT TO TRANSLATE THE BIBLE INTO SLAVIC LANGUAGES. IT IS STILL THE ALPHABET OF LANGUAGES LIKE RUSSIAN, BULGA IAN AND SERBIAN TODAY BYZANTINE CIVILISATION WAS A MIXTURE OF GREEK, ROMAN AND EASTERN CULTURE. GREEK INFLUENCE WAS ESPECIALLY STRONG, AND THE EMPIRES OFFICIAL LANGUAGE WAS GREEK. GREAT LIBRARIES KEPT MANUSCRIPTS OF ANCIENT GREEK AND ROMAN TEXTS THAT WERE UNKNOWN IN THE WEST. IN THIS WAY, THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY WERE KEPT ALIVE BYZANTINE ART DEVELOPED FROM THE ART OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND INCORPORATED INFLUENCES FORM ORIENTAL ART THE MOST NOTABLE BUILDINGS OF BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE ARE THE CHURCHES AND, AMONG THEM, THE CHURCH OF HAGIA SOPHIA IN CONSTANTINOPLE WAS A MASTERPICE OF THIS ART BUILT BY ORDER OF CONSTANTINE IN THE 6TH CENTURY H THE GREEK CROSS PLAN WITH FOUR NAVES OF EQUAL SIZE CHURCHES WERE OFTEN BUILT WITH BRICK, OCCASIONALLY COVERED WITH MARBLE ON THE OUTSIDE AND DECORATED WITH RICH MOSAICS INSIDE LARGE DOMES RESTING ON PILLARS MOSAICS DECORATED THE WALLS AND THE DOMES INSIDE THE CHURCHES. THEY WERE MADE WITH SMALL, COLOURED PIECES OF CERAMIC. THEY COMMONLY REPRESENTED RELIGIOUS THEMES SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT MOSAICS ARE IN SAN VITALE IN RAVENNA DEPICTING EMPEROR JUSTINIAN AND HIS WIFE THEODORA ICONS ARE RELIGIOUS IMAGES: THEY WERE USUALLY PAINTED ON A WOODEN SURFACE AND GOLD PAINT WAS USED TO REPRESENT THE RADIANCE OF HEAVEN H THE GREEK CROSS PLAN WITH FOUR NAVES OF EQUAL SIZE HAGIA SOPHIAS PLAN CENTRAL NAVE SIDE NAVE SIDE NAVE ATRIUM APSE CENTRAL DOME SIDE DOMES CHURCHES WERE OFTEN BUILT WITH BRICK, OCCASIONALLY COVERED WITH MARBLE ON THE OUTSIDE AND DECORATED WITH RICH MOSAICS INSIDE SAN VITAL DI RAVENA LARGE DOMES RESTING ON PILLARS Hagia Sophia interior: dome, pendentives and half domes CAPITALS WERE ORIGINAL AND CHARACTERISTIC HAGIA SOPHIA Central dome Arch Half dome Pendentive Windows Upper floor or gallery Buttresses Atrium Central Nave Side Nave Apse HAGIA SOPHIA HALF DOME MOSAICS DECORATED THE WALLS AND THE DOMES INSIDE THE CHURCHES. THEY WERE MADE WITH SMALL, COLOURED PIECES OF CERAMIC. THEY COMMONLY REPRESENTED RELIGIOUS THEMES SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT MOSAICS ARE IN SAN VITALE IN RAVENNA DEPICTING EMPEROR JUSTINIAN AND HIS WIFE THEODORA ICONS ARE RELIGIOUS IMAGES: THEY WERE USUALLY PAINTED ON A WOODEN SURFACE AND GOLD PAINT WAS USED TO REPRESENT THE RADIANCE OF HEAVEN AFTER THE ROMAN EMPIRE BROKE UP, MOST OF EUROPE WAS DIVIDED INTO SMALL GERMANIC KINGDOMS THE FRANKISH KINGDOM WAS CREATED IN THE 6TH CENTURY, BUT BY THE 8TH THE REAL RULERS WERE ITS LEADING OFFICIALS. THE MOST IMPORTANT OFFICIAL WAS CHARLES MARTEL, WHO LED THE FORCES THAT STOPPED MUSLIM EXPANSION IN THE BATTLE OF POITIERS (732) CHARLES MARTELS DESCENDANTS BECAME THE FRANKISH KINGS. HIS SON, PEPIN THE SHORT, DECLARED HIMSELF KING IN 751. HIS GRANDSON, CHARLEMAGNE, CONTINUED FRANKISH CONQUESTS UNTIL HE WAS THE RULER OF MANY TERRITORIES IN PRESENT-DAY FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY AND NORTHERN SPAIN THE FRANKISH KINGDOM WAS NOW THE LEADING POWER IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE. FOR THE FIRST TIME SINCE THE END OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE, A VAST TERRITORY WAS UNITED UNDER A SINGLE RULER. ON CHRISTMAS DAY IN 800, POPE LEO III RECOGNISED THIS BY CROWNING CHARLEMAGNE EMPEROR OF THE WEST. THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE TOOK HIS NAME AFTER CHARLEMAGNE DIED, THE EMPIRE, HOWEVER, WOULD NOT LAST LONG BECAUSE IT WAS DIVIDED AMONG HIS THREE GRANDSONS, ACCORDING TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN IN 843 (AFTER LOUIS THE PIOUS DEATH) THIS DIVISION IS THE VERY DISTANT ORIGIN OF THE LATER EMERGENCE OF FRANCE AND GERMANY THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE WAS NOT LIKE A MODERN STATE, AND IT WAS HELD TOGETHER BY THE PERSONAL PRESTIGE OF THE EMPEROR. IT HAD MANY PEOPLES WHO SPOKE DIFFERENT LANGUAGES. THE EMPEROR HAD ALL THE MILITARY AND POLITICAL POWER, AND EVEN INTERVENED IN CHURCH ISSUES TO CONTROL SUCH A BIG TERRITORY IT WAS DIVIDED UP COUNTS RULED IN THE PROVINCES, OR COUNTIES, AND THE EMPEROR SENT INSPECTION TEAMS, THE MISSI DOMINICI (THE LORDS MESSENGERS), TO CONTROL THEM BORDER AREAS, CALLED MARCHES, WERE STRONGLY PROTECTED BY MARQUISES Charlamagne and its empire (10) . Clear and complete SOME PEASANTS WERE FREE MEN AND WOMEN AND SOME WERE SERFS. THE SERFS, DESCENDANTS OF SLAVES, BELONGED TO THE LAND AND COULD NOT MOVE AWAY WHITHOUT LORDS PERMISSION THERE WAS VERY LITTLE COMMERCIAL ACTIVITY, AND THERE WER ONLY A FEW CITIES SUCH AS PARIS AND AACHEN LIKE ALL EUROPE IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE WAS OVERWHELMINGLY RURAL. THE EMPEROR GRANTED GREAT STATES TO LORDS, AND PEASANTS WORKING ON THE LAND DURING CHARLEMAGNES REIGN THERE WAS A REVIVAL OF CULTURE INSPIRED BY THE ROMAN MODELS. LITERATURE, WRITING, ARCHITECTURE AND THE ARTS WERE PROMOTED AND ACQUIRED GREAT IMPORTANCE HE BUILT A PALACE N HIS NEW CAPITAL AT AACHEN, USING THE REMAINS OF ROMAN BUILDINGS (TODAY ONLY THE PALATINE CHAPELLE REMAINS) CHARLEMAGNE ESTABLISHED A CENTRE OF LEARNING UNDER A SCHOLAR CALLED ALCUIN, WHERE LATIN SCHOLARS CAME TO LIVE THESE SCHOLARS COPIED LATIN MANUSCRIPTS THAT HAD SURVIVED FROM THE FORMER ROMAN EMPIRE. LATIN WAS USEDAS THE LANGUAGE OF ADMINTRATION AND IN EDUCATION THE CLASSICAL CURRICULUM WAS ADOPTED (TRIVIUM AND QUADRIVIUM) THIS MODEST ATTEMPT TO RENEW THE CULTURE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE WAS CALLED THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE. BUT IT HAD LITTLE INFLUENCE AFTER CHARLEMAGNES DEATH
D. P. Walker - Unclean Spirits - Possession and Exorcism in France and England in The Late Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries-University of Pennsylvania Press (1981)