CHAPTER 2

CULTURAL FOUNDATIONS OF
INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
LECTURE NOTES
This chapter examines the role of culture in managing people across borders. It identifies the
several important dimensions for gaining insights and understanding about the cultures of
employees that staff organizations domestically and abroad. It also addresses the different views
about how global and regional economic integration have affected and will affect the different
dimensions of culture.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Understand the concept of culture, the numerous ways to define culture and the how
culture influences global workforce management.
xplain the four dimensions of !ofstede"s #ultural $odel and their implications for
managing a global workforce.
xplain the % dimensions of Trompenaars and !ampden&Turner"s #ultural $odel and
how it varies from !ofstede"s #ultural $odel.
xplain the different views about how global and regional economic integration have
affected and will affect the different dimensions of culture, including convergence,
divergence and crossvergence.
'now how to plan for cultural challenges in various business contexts, such as,
international mergers and ac(uisitions.
I. INTRODUCTION
#ulture is central to the study and preparation for effectively managing a global workforce.
#ulture is often a source of conflict than of synergy. )ational and organizational culture can have
a pervasive, powerful influence in organizations, and in various aspects of global workforce
management. *ithout proper knowledge of different cultures, a merged company will not be
able to achieve the expected synergy.
II. UNDERSTANDING CULTURE
#ulture is defined as the socially transmitted behavior patterns, norms, beliefs and values of a
given community. #ulture affects and governs all facets of life by influencing values, attitudes
and behaviors of a society.
A. Scope
It should be noted that culture is not +ust a national phenomenon. #ulture can also extend to
,communities- of age groups .e.g., retired persons/, disabled persons .e.g., the legally blind/,
individuals holding similar religious beliefs, and work professions. The concept of culture can
Chapter 2 1
also extend to individual organizations, as communities, that through common experience over
time develop their own distinct set of values, norms, priorities, and beliefs, e.g., ,the way we do
things in our organization.-
B. Culturl Vr!t!o"#
*e must remember that within cultures there can be considerable variation, and we must not
expect every individual to behave in a manner consistent with general cultural characteristics in
every situation. 0lso, even though a general cultural characteristic may be accurate for
individuals in most situations, they are also able to adapt their behaviors to the needs of a
particular situation. 0lthough there is value in learning about general cultural characteristics and
tendencies to help guide our sense making of otherwise puzzling or even offensive behaviors we
encounter, we also must be careful not to form rigid perceptions and fall into the mistake of
simply relying on stereotypes.
1. Necessary Individual Assessment
0lthough general cultural patterns may be useful especially in first learning and gaining insights
about a given culture, these patterns must be continually challenged and refined. Ultimately, to
be effective in managing human resources at home and abroad, we must get to know, manage,
and assess employees on an individual level.
III. MAJOR MODELS OF CULTURE
In this book culture is defined as a system of values and norms that are shared among a group of
people and that, taken together, constitute a design for living. *hile values are abstract ideas and
convictions about what people believe, norms are prescribed behaviors that are acceptable in a
specific society. 1oth values and norms are influenced by many factors such as religion,
language, social structures, education, etc. The following section will introduce two commonly
used models of culture with their managerial implications.
A. Ho$#te%e&# Culturl D!'e"#!o"# "% M"(er!l I'pl!ct!o"#
2eert !ofstede defined national culture as the set of collective beliefs and values that distinguish
people of one nationality from those of another. In his original comprehensive study that he
conducted while working at I1$ as a psychologist and involving over 344,444 individuals from
54 countries and three regions, !ofstede identified four important dimensions in national culture.
1. Uncertainty Avoidance
This !ofstede dimension refers to the extent to which people feel comfortable when they are
exposed to an ambiguous or uncertain situation. 6eople in a low uncertainty avoidance society
are more willing to take risks and appreciate flexibility and informality in the workplace. In
contrast, people in a high uncertainty avoidance society tend to be risk&averse, and favor rigid
and formal decision&making processes in the workplace.
Chapter 2 2
Implications. The perceived difference in tolerating uncertain situations has several important
implications at both macro and micro levels.
Innovation. 7irst, at the macro level, the acceptance of uncertainty is essential for
innovation because it re(uires a tolerance for risk and change.
7lexibility. 8econd, at the micro or organizational level, in high uncertainty avoidance
societies, numerous formal internal rules and regulations exist to control the work process
of employees. In low uncertainty avoidance societies, managers are allowed to exercise
more latitude and discretion in their decision&making rather than relying on rigid internal
rules and regulations.
2. Power Distance
6ower distance refers to what extent people have an e(ual distribution of power. In a large power
distance culture, power is concentrated at the top in the hands of relatively few people while
people at the bottom are sub+ect to decisions and instructions given by superiors. #onversely, in a
small power distance culture power is rather e(ually distributed among the members of the
society.
.a/ !igh 6ower 9istance. $anagers in high power distance societies tend to believe in giving
subordinates detailed instructions with little room for interpretation. 8ubordinates are supposed
to respect the authority and superiority of upper management. Thus, the ,mechanistic
characteristics- of high power distance cultures, such as ine(uality among the members in the
society, lack of free communication across different levels of the hierarchy, and centralized
control can all stifle employee creativity and new ideas.
.b/ :ow 6ower 9istance. In contrast, ,organic characteristics,- such as lack of hierarchical
authority and less centralization, tend to promote employee interaction, lateral communication,
and less emphasis on the rules. )on&directive, hands&off monitoring systems have often been
implemented to allow the creativity and exploration necessary for successful innovation.
3. Individualism vs. Collectivism
.a/ Individualism. Individualism means that people seek and protect their own interests over the
common goal of the society and their role in the society. In an individualistic culture, people are
comfortable with having the authority to make a decision based on what the individual thinks is
best. In individualistic societies, employees are provided with a great deal of personal freedom
and autonomy.
.b/ #ollectivism. In a collectivistic culture, people tend to belong to groups or collectives and
look after each other in exchange for loyalty.
9iscouraging Innovation. #ollective cultures do not usually allow the freedom and
independence necessary for organizational members to think creatively and, thereby, fail
to cultivate an environment that fosters an innovative spirit.
0nother element in a collective culture that discourages innovation is the
reluctance to accept variety and diversity in society.
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The overwhelming and unconscious pressure for conformity and uniformity in
collective cultures does not cultivate an environment for diversity, and provides
less room for people to deviate from established norms, thus impeding the
innovation process.
4. Masculinity vs. Feminity
.a/ $asculinity. !ofstede believes that the masculine dimension is very closely related to the
concept of achievement motivation. 0 masculine culture is basically a performance driven
society where rewards and recognition for performance are the primary motivational factors for
achievement.
This type of culture tends to give the utmost respect and admiration to the successful
achiever, who fulfills his ambition and demonstrates assertiveness and willingness to take risks
in order to achieve goals. Top management positions are usually filled with men who tend to
display characteristics of dominance and assertiveness;which tend to be discouraged among
women by societal gender norms.
.b/ 7eminity. <n the other hand, in feminine cultures people tend to emphasize the (uality of the
,whole- life rather than money, success, and social status, which are easier to (uantify. They are
willing to reach out to the underprivileged and share their wealth with them. <verall,
organizations with a feminine culture are not as competitive as those with a masculine culture,
since the former places higher priority on concern for others and little distinction is made
between men and women in the same position.
. Con!ucianism Dynamism
Using a different survey instrument called the #hinese =alue 8urvey .#=8/, !ofstede and 1ond
identified a new cultural dimension, ,long&term versus short&term orientation,- that strongly
reflects #onfucianism, a cultural backbone of ast 0sian countries. !ofstede emphasized that
this particular cultural dimension was missing in his original study and only relevant to countries
in ast 0sia. #onfucian dynamism may reflect a society"s search for virtue rather than truth, truth
being driven by religious ethics in *estern countries.
.a/ :ong&term <rientation. :ong&term orientation captures the following elements> adaptation of
tradition to the modern context, high savings ratio driven by thrift, patience and perseverance
towards slow results, and concern with respecting the demand of virtue.
.b/ 8hort&term <rientation. <n the other hand, a short&term orientation contains the following
aspects> respect for traditions, lower savings rate, (uick results orientation, and concern with
possessing the truth.
". Criticisms
!ofstede"s research has received several criticisms.
Chapter 2 4
.a/ #ultural Influence. 7irst, the research may have been culturally bound since his research
team, composed of uropeans and 0mericans, may have unintentionally influenced the analysis
of the answers by their *estern perspective.
.b/ $ultiple #ultures. 8econd, as mentioned already regarding regional and local subcultures,
many countries have more than one culture. 7or example, the U8 has multiple regional and local
subcultures, as the country consists of various ethnic groups and regional traditions, which a
strong emphasis on local autonomy and individual states rights. Therefore, it may be
presumptuous to generalize a certain country"s culture.
.c/ #ultural #hanges. $ost importantly, his findings may have lost explanatory power over the
years since culture is not static and changes over time, albeit slowly.
B. Tro'pe"r# "% H'p%e")Tur"er&# Se*e" Culturl D!'e"#!o"#
0dopting 6arsons"s five relational orientations as their starting point, Trompenaars and
!ampden&Turner identified seven important cultural dimensions. They mainly viewed culture as
the way in which a group of people solves problems and reconciles dilemmas.
1. Universalism vs. Particularism
.a/ Universalism. Universalism is a belief that there exists only one single management principle
that should be applied to all situations.
6eople from universalistic cultures tend to believe that their way of doing business or
managing people is the universal one and best way, and should be adopted by all other countries.
Those from universalistic cultures also tend to believe in absolute +ustice and truth, and extend
great resources to their protection.
6eople from universalistic cultures flourished in earlier years when global product
standardization and mass&production was in vogue, but faced great challenges and immediate
need to adapt when world consumers began to demand customization to individual needs and
tastes.
.b/ 6articularism. #onversely, particularistic cultures highlight the peculiarity and distinctiveness
of a country"s culture that is different from those of other countries. 1oth at a country and
individual level, the emphasis is upon building long&term relationships and being sensitive and
responsive to the uni(ue circumstances surrounding that relationship.
2. Di!!use vs. #$eci!ic
This cultural dimension concerns perceptions regarding private versus public space and how
each is handled. In specific cultures, people clearly separate public space from private space.
.a/ 9iffuse. In diffuse cultures, the distinction between private and public space is rather unclear
and blurry. verything is related and business is +ust another form of social interaction. 1usiness
relationships are expected to be enduring and spill over into personal relationships and vice
versa.
Chapter 2 5
7urthermore, for diffuse cultures the size of public space is almost e(ual to that of private
space. Therefore, in diffuse cultures, people tend to reserve even their public space .e.g.,
professional work situations/ for those with whom they are familiar, since accepting the entry of
unknown people could also mean the uncomfortable opening of their private space.
.b/ 8pecific. 8pecific cultures tend to compartmentalize public and private life into separate
roles, where one role does not influence another.
3. Ac%ievement vs. Ascri$tion Cultures
.a/ 0chievement. 0chievement cultures value personal competency and an outcome resulting
from individual hard work. *hat matters most in an achievement culture is an ob+ective track
record of individual accomplishment.
.b/ 0scription. In contrast, an ascription culture means that people are conferred a certain status
based on specific characteristics such as title or position, age, and profession. 6eople in an
ascription culture value personal connections and family background more than the individual"s
(ualifications. They expect those in authority to act in accordance with their roles ascribed to
them by fate or a divine power? actual performance and results are less important. 0ppearance
accorded by title and status is more important than substance driven by individual (ualification.
.c/ !igh #ontext vs. :ow #ontext. This concept corresponds to high context versus low context
cultures as defined by !all, particularly regarding interpersonal communications
:ow #ontext. In low&context countries, communication relies more heavily on the literal
meaning of words used;as with the achievement orientation, words are +udged by their
own merit. $eanings of written and spoken communication are more direct and explicit.
!igh #ontext. In high&context cultures, much more of the context surrounding or related
to the written or spoken communication is involved in conveying the message, including
timing and physical surroundings.
4. Individualism vs. Collectivism
0s !ofstede identified this term, individualism refers to the culture that emphasizes the interests
of self or of his@her own immediate family. In contrast, communitarianism, a synonym for
collectivism as used by !ofstede, emphasizes group .e.g., team of employees/ interests before
individual interests, and seeking group consensus in decision making.
. &motional vs. Neutral
6eople in affective cultures are not hesitant to reveal their innermost feelings while people in
neutral cultures tend to control their emotions very carefully and maintain their composure.
6eople in neutral cultures may consider the behaviors of people from emotional cultures
immature while people from emotional cultures may view the stoic behaviors of people from
neutral cultures as insincere and deceiving. This perception may cause problems during cross&
cultural negotiations between managers from emotional and neutral cultures.
Chapter 2 6
". 'ime (rientation
6eople across cultures may deal with the concept of time in a different manner. Time orientation
contains two different connotations.
.a/ Time Use. 7irst, the time dimension is related to how people actually use time. 0
monochronic or se(uential approach to time means that people use time in a linear way. Time is
perceived as being a tangible asset almost like money. In contrast, a polychronic or a
synchronous approach to time suggests that people use time in a circular way. 6eople in
polychronic cultures such as 7rench and Italian tend to have a more flexible view about time and
can handle multiple agenda at a time. 7urthermore, they consider that maintaining human
relations is more important than keeping schedules. 0ccordingly, they do not clearly separate
their work from pleasure and do not mind mixing both.
.b/ <rientation. 0nother time&related difference concerns people"s orientation to past, present,
and future. This orientation points to whether or not people are likely to see the future as an
extension of the past.
). (rientation to Nature
This cultural dimension concerns how people in a society orient themselves to nature. 7irst,
people can think that human beings are supposed to dominate nature. 8econd, some people
believe that they need to live in harmony with nature. 0 third and final orientation toward nature
is a sense of sub+ugation to nature.
VI. CULTURAL CONVERGENCE *#. DIVERGENCE
<ne of the main characteristics of culture is that it is not static but in continual evolution.
0ccordingly, there are different views about how global and regional economic integration have
affected and will most likely continue to affect the different dimensions of culture that we have
examined.
A. Glo+l Culturl Co"*er(e"ce
2lobalization refers to an increasing integration of market as well as production processes across
borders. Aapid innovation of technology and decreased trade and investment barriers have made
it possible for firms to launch and market their products simultaneously to many different
countries.
B. Locl!,t!o" "% Culturl D!*er(e"ce
#ultural convergence implies that as nations become industrialized, there is a significant change
in values toward behaviors that embrace free&market capitalism. This supposition suggests that
through the imperatives of industrialization and economic development, the value systems of
managers become increasingly similar.
Chapter 2 7
There is growing evidence of a convergence effect in international business and
management practices, especially with regard to strategic planning.
8uch a view manifests a universalism orientation that calls for a unified single approach
to different country circumstances.
C. Glocl!,t!o" "% Culturl Cro##)Co"*er(e"ce
1. *locali+ation
#onvergence and divergence perspectives may represent polar extremes. 0s most firms are
struggling to find the optimal trade&off between globalization and localization, i.e.,
,glocalization,- perhaps the reality is closer to a more balanced or middle&ground view called
,crossvergence,- or intermixing of cultural systems between different countries.
2. Cultural Cross,Conver-ence
#rossvergence means that different management approaches are expected to converge in the
middle. 2lobalization of the world economy made it possible for countries to learn from each
other, and studying and benchmarking business approaches that work in other countries are
effective ways of getting new ideas in the area of management and organization. There is an
increasing interest in combining indigenous and *estern cultures in the practice and
development of management and organization internationally. This trend is particularly true of
the transitional economies of the former 8oviet bloc, #hina, and other developing countries.
V. FINAL CAVEATS ON CULTURAL AND GLOBAL -OR.FORCE MANAGEMENT
*hatever position one may take among the various cultural orientations previously discussed, it
is hard to deny the fact that cultural differences still exist across borders. It is probably true that
we often tend to overemphasize cultural differences, suggesting a distinctive approach to
conducting businesses in each country. 0s many consultants and even academics commonly
suggest a ready&made formula such as a ,dos and don"ts- list for correctly handling cultural
differences, people are easily trapped in a pitfall hyper&sensitivity, in which they tend to overrate
or exaggerate the influences of cultural differences.
A. Loo/ $or Mu"%"e E0pl"t!o"#
$ore often than not, we tend to search for an easy answer based on nationality whenever
different behaviors are shown among people from different cultural backgrounds. !owever, as
mentioned earlier, stereotypes regarding national culture may not always be accurate and should
be exercised with great caution. Therefore, it is imperative that when you sense a cultural
distinction, look first for a mundane, ordinary explanation before attributing the cause to deep
cultural differences.
B. I"%!*!%ul Vr!"ce
Chapter 2 8
Individuals also differ in the internalizations of what their national culture means and do not
always act in accordance with generalizations regarding their national culture. 0lthough people
from different cultures probably tend to demonstrate similar actions and behaviors under specific
circumstances, it would be naive to assume that all people from a certain culture will follow the
same pattern of behaviors.
C. Apprec!te Co''o"l!t!e#
The level of a country"s industrial development, its cultural values, and the level and nature of its
cultural interactions may all play a part in the nature of its human resources management
practices and their appropriateness to the economic and cultural context within which they
operate. *hile we should be sensitive to cultural differences, we should appreciate the
commonalities of our human family and be careful not to overestimate the impact of cultural
differences. <ne must be aware of the possibility of cultural differences and what they might be,
but one must also use this awareness cautiously and not over&generalize and lose sight of the
individual, which should be the primary focus for making accurate and fair human resource
decisions.
NOTES FOR OPENING SCENARIO AND CASES
OPENING SCENARIO1 INTERNATIONAL MERGER MISER2 AT
DAIMLERCHR2SLER
3. #onsider !ofstede"s (uote mentioned earlier> ,#ulture is more often a source of conflict
than of synergy. #ultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster.- !ow was
this (uote applicable to the opening scenario concerning the 9aimler&1enz merger with
#hryslerB
This case illustrates how significant differences in both national culture and organizational
culture can lead to conflict and greatly add to the difficult challenges involved in merging two
organizations. The two organizational cultures had their own histories and accustomed rules and
expectations about acceptable behavior. In addition, there were deep&seated national culture
differences that greatly affected the way executives and employees thought and viewed the
world. This cross&cultural difficulty is behind the more recent decision by 9aimler&1enz to sell
#hrysler.
C. 7rom your reading of this chapter, what are the ma+or fundamental differences between
2erman and U.8. cultures, and how were these differences manifested in the respective
companies" practices and behaviorsB
<ne ma+or difference is the 2erman culturally based general preference for control to avoid
uncertainty, whereas the U.8. employees allowed much greater levels of work flexibility,
decentralization, and delegation. In addition, the 0mericans possessed a greater sense of
individuality, which is noted in the 0merican leaders" preference for greater work autonomy as
well as more individually distinguished and much higher levels of compensation relative to
lower&level employees than was noted with the 2erman executives.
Chapter 2 9
D. *hat lessons can you take from this opening scenario for your planning of future
international mergers and ac(uisitionsB
This case points to the importance of taking into consideration possible cultural differences and
their conse(uences in planning for a merger or some other kind of cross&border alliance. In
particular, the additional time and expense for overcoming cross&cultural challenges should be
considered in obtaining a more accurate cost&benefit analysis prior to choosing the alliance
strategy. 0nd when a merger is deemed +ustified, more effective measures for cross&cultural
training and ongoing management should be carefully planned.
CASE 2.31 CROSS)CULTURAL ASSESSMENT OVER A CUP OF COFFEE
3. *hy do you think people tend to exaggerate cultural differencesB
6eople generally have a need to understand and master the world around them. In situations
involving international business, which typically are already filled with uncomfortable
uncertainty, people are (uick to grab a broad explanation that they can generalize and use in the
future to build a better sense of coping with uncertainty. 1road general cultural trends are
stereotypes that provide an initial level of understanding yet tend to oversimplify and exaggerate
cultural differences.
C. *hat are the most effective ways to deal with either real or imaginary cultural
differencesB
Important ways to deal with perceived cultural differences .real or imaginary/ include not trying
to find fault with another country"s cultural practices while asserting the superiority of one"s
own, and to simply accept that the country"s culture has worked well for a lot of people and isn"t
necessary bad. In addition, it is very important to hold back final +udgments about individuals in
a foreign culture, and observe their behavior to determine how much it conforms to the general
cultural patterns or stereotypes that you have formed. <ften +ust a little additional experience will
prove initial impressions and cultural generalizations completely unfounded. 8uch additional
experience and observations you have with an open mind will likely result in revised and refined
understanding of cultural differences, as well as a greater appreciation for people as individuals
who show a broad range of human differences within a particular culture.
D. 9o you have any similar experiences that indicate we should be very cautious in
interpreting and generalizing cross&cultural differencesB
Note. In responding to this (uestion you can facilitate class discussion based on students"
experiences abroad in forming initial stereotypes, and then revising them based on subse(uent
observations and meaningful cross&cultural interactions. In many cases students remark that
eventually culturally differences seem to disappear as they learn to appreciate and accept one
another as uni(ue human beings with much more interests and characteristics in common than
are different.
Chapter 2 10
CASE 2.21 CULTURE CONFLICT SOUTH OF THE BORDER4 DO-N ME5ICO -A2
3. *hat particular dimension or dimensions of culture seem to be most central to the
problems that Eim is experiencingB
0 ma+or cultural dimension that is related to Eim"s problems is power distance, where Eim is used
to a much smaller power distance culture with associated behaviors than prevails in $exico.
0nother important dimension is high versus low context, where Eim seems oblivious to the
importance of reading the broader context or situation of his work and relationships.
C. *hat are possible causes of Eim"s ineffectiveness in leading his sales teamB *hat are
sources of Eim"s deteriorating relationship with his boss, #arlosB
0 primary cause of Eim"s ineffectiveness is his reliance on his past strengths and style to carry
him to success in a new culture, where those strengths and style will not be successful unless
adapted appropriately. !is sales team is used to high power distance, where Eim is their boss and
should make the important decisions. !is relationship with #arlos likely suffers due to Eim"s
failure in private and public to show what #arlo"s would perceive as respect for his higher
position as Eim"s boss. !e also fails to read the various situations of his work to determine when
the most appropriate time is to give particular public communications.
D. In a coaching meeting with Eim, what insights would you share with him about cross&
cultural differences that might be at the root of his problemsB !ow should Eim behave
differently to help improve his present difficulties at workB
Eim should be coached on the need to develop a greater sensitivity to what is going on around
him;to become more high&context in style;to be sure his communications are tactful and
appropriate. In public meetings where #arlos is in charge, Eim should consider deferring to
#arlos due to his higher position, and then giving suggestions to #arlos in private. To obtain
input from his sales team, Eim should look for more culturally acceptable and indirect ways for
them to come up with ideas for improvements that don"t conflict with their need to show respect
for his higher position.
SAMPLE TEST 6UESTIONS
Note. #orresponding page numbers from the text follow the answers.
MULTIPLE CHOICE 6UESTIONS
3. *hat are the two ma+or components of cultureB
a. 7ood and 6op $usic
b. #onsciousness and 8ubconsciousness
c. 1ehavioral and #ognitive
d. 8ocietal and 6olitical
A"#7er1 C4 89.
Chapter 2 11
C. In addition to understanding national and local cultures, what must managers of $)#s
understand and be able to manipulate in order to best serve their companyB
a. <rganizational #ulture
b. #ommunity #ulture
c. *orkforce 8elf&Identity 0wareness
d. Aegional #ulture
A"#7er1 A4 89.
D. *hich of the following cultural factors is the most difficult to learnB
a. 9ress
b. 7ood
c. )orms
d. =alues
A"#7er1 D4 8:.
F. *hich of !ofstede"s cultural dimensions was added last to his systemB
a. Individualism vs. #ollectivism
b. #onfucian 9ynamism
c. 6ower 9istance
d. Uncertainty 0voidance
A"#7er1 B4 8:.
5. rik is a manager for a 2erman manufacturing firm that specializes in automotive racing parts.
!is team has been recently asked to work with some Italian engineers on a +oint venture.
Initially, rik experienced problems with his Italian counterparts. !e could not understand their
high&risk approach to engineering and did not like their informal procedures. rik and his team
are mostly risk&averse and operate on a very detailed oriented manner. *hich of the following
cultural dimensions best describes rik and his teamB
a. Individualistic
b. 6ower (ual
c. !igh Uncertainty 0voidance
d. $asculine
A"#7er1 C4 ;<.
G. #han and his management team in 8hanghai, #hina often take calculated risks. They en+oy
working a lot on intuition. They take chances with new pro+ects, and #han likes to employ a top&
down approach which favors looking at the big picture verse the small details. very evening,
#han and his team have dinner and drinks together at a local restaurant in order to foster better
team relations. Unlike some #hinese managers, #han insists that his employees call him by his
first name and encourages them to see him about both work and personal issues. !e is more like
a friend@mentor to his employees than a direct boss. *hich of the following cultural dimensions
best describes #han and his management styleB
a. #ollectivist and 7eminine
b. :ow Uncertainty 0voidance and 6ower (ual
c. $asculine and 6ower 9istant
d. !igh Uncertainty 0voidance and 6ower 9istant
Chapter 2 12
A"#7er1 B4 ;<.
%. :ower&level employees in host countries often feel uncomfortable with expatriate managers
from the United 8tates who attempt to establish more participative and egalitarian management
practices. This is an example of which of the following cultural dimensions at workB
a. #ollectivism
b. 6ower 9istance
c. $asculinity
d. Uncertainty 0voidance
A"#7er1 B4 ;3.
H. #ultures where employees value the group more than the individual and where relationships
and networks are more important than achievements can be characterized by which of the
following cultural dimensionsB
a. #ollectivism and 0scription
b. #ollectivism and 7emininity
c. Universalism and 8pecific
d. 0ffective and $ono&chronic
A"#7er1 A4 ;24 ;=.
I. 1+orn is a banker in 7inland. !e lives with his wife, #hrista, and their two children. 0lthough
1+orn is extremely busy with his work and very well received and respected in the 7inish
business community and is a ma+or player in banking industry in 7inland, he still spends a lot of
his time caring for the children, while #hrista also works as a business professional in a separate
field. 1+orn often cooks, cleans the house, and does other domestic duties while #hrista attends
international conferences. This couple"s culture can be described as which of the following
dimensionsB
a. Individualistic
b. 0chievement&based
c. 7eminine
d. )eutral #ulture
A"#7er1 C4 ;2.
34. 0 culture"s concern about public verse private spaces and how each space is handled has to
do with which of the following cultural dimensionsB
a. 0chievement vs. 0scription
b. Universalism vs. 6articularism
c. 0ffective vs. )eutral #ulture
d. 8pecific vs. 9iffuse #ulture
A"#7er1 D4 ;=.
33. This kind of culture values competition, achievement, and very specific gender roles, while
always celebrating the glory of the winner, and never empathizing with the disappointment of the
loser.
a. 7eminine
b. $asculine
Chapter 2 13
c. #ollectivist
d. 6ower 9istant
A"#7er1 B4 ;2.
3C. 8usan was recently fired from I1$ on a foreign assignment to India from !ead(uarters
because as soon as she arrived in 9eli, she began to instruct, very pedantically, her local workers
on how I1$ does business in the United 8tates, and that the way I1$ conducts business in the
United 8tates is the only favorable and correct way of conducting business. 8he believed this
strongly and communicated it forcefully to her local workers. There was a backlash, the bottom
line fell dramatically, and corporate decided to have her replaced. *hat cultural dimension best
describes 8usan"s world outlookB
a. Universalism
b. 0chievement
c. 0scription
d. #ollectivist
A"#7er1 A4 ;>.
3D. Eose is a real estate developer in 0rgentina. !is usual day consists of working in the morning,
heading out to meet clients for lunch and to show properties. Then he goes home and naps in the
late afternoon before going back to the office to finish up before supper. *hen Eohn, an
0merican developer, came to 0rgentina to meet with Eose, he was upset when Eose was always
35 to C4 minutes late for all appointments, and that sometimes during their meetings, Eose would
be talking on the phone or dealing with other people at the same time. 0fter Eohn expressed his
reservations about Eose"s punctuality, Eose was taken aback because he simply did not understand
Eohn"s obsession with timeliness. In this example, which cultural dimension is most relevant and
which dimension does Eose representB
a. Time <rientation, 6oly&chronic time
b. Time <rientation, $ono&chronic time
c. #ollectivism, 6oly&chronic time
d. #ollectivism, $ono&chronic time
A"#7er1 A4 ;:.
3F. 2lobalization of markets causes which of the following to occurB
a. #apitalism
b. #ultural #onvergence
c. 0narchy
d. 7reedom of Information
A"#7er1 B4 ?3
35. The theories that human should dominate his@her natural surroundings or that human should
live in harmony with his@her natural surroundings are best described in which cultural
dimensionB
a. 0ffective vs. )eutral
b. 6ower 9istance
c. Uncertainty 0voidance
d. <rientation to )ature
Chapter 2 14
A"#7er1 D4 ?<.
3G. 1ill is a manager in a U.8. based firm. !e thrives on his ability to achieve better performance
standards than his fellow managers, and encourages his employees to work alone on nascent
pro+ects. !e also likes to make decisions by himself, and often ignores other"s comments at
meetings. 1ill is JJJJJJJJB
a. #ollectivist
b. Individualistic and 0chievement 1ased
c. Individualistic and 0scription 1ased
d. 6ower 9istant and 0chievement 1ased
A"#7er1 B4 ;=.
3%. 2lobalization leads to convergence which leads to which of the following strategic
implicationsB
a. #ultural 9ivergence
b. 6roduct 9ifferentiation
c. 2lobal Integration
d. )ational 9ifferences
A"#7er1 C4 ?3.
3H. 2localization is the premise for which of the followingB
a. #ultural #onvergence
b. #rossvergence
c. 9ivergence
d. Integration
A"#7er1 B4 ?2.
3I. 0 culture"s long&term vs. short&term orientation and their values based on the #hinese =alue
8urvey is characteristic of which cultural dimensionB
a. 0ffective vs. )eutral
b. Individualism vs. #ollectivism
c. Time <rientation
d. #onfucian 9ynamism
A"#7er1 D4 ;8.
C4. !ighly emotional cultures are what kind of culturesB
a. 0ffective
b. #ollectivist
c. 6ower (ual
d. 6oly&chronic
A"#7er1 A4 ;9.
C3. 6eople in JJJJJJJJ culture tend not to have a clear&cut distinction between private and
public space.
0. 8pecific
1. Individualistic
Chapter 2 15
#. 0ffective
9. 9iffuse
A"#7er1 A4 ;=.
CC. JJJJJJJJ addresses different roles expected of superiors versus subordinates.
a. Uncertainty 0voidance
1. 6ower 9istance
#. $asculinity
9. #ollectivism
A"#7er1 B4 ;3.
TRUE@FALSE 6UESTIONS
3. 0ccording to 2eert !ofstede and his study of the national cultures, culture is more often
a source of conflict than of synergy.
A"#7er1 True4 8=.
C. $anaging cultural differences is only a small part in a large myriad of problems in the
management of a global workforce, and can often times be a secondary priority.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 8=.
D. #ulture affects and governs all facets of life by influencing the values, attitudes,
behaviors, subconscious motives, and technical facility of the people in a society.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 8=.
F. #ulture is defined as a system of values and norms that are shared among a group of
people, and that, taken together, constitute a design for living, but taken separately,
constitute moral directions for daily life decisions.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 8:.
5. 2eneral stereotypes and general cultural patterns are basically the same thing and should
be treated and analyzed as such.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 89.
G. #ultural divergence was particularly prominent in recent works that have challenged the
universalism of U.8.Kbased principles of human resource management.
A"#7er1 True4 ?2.
%. The United 8tates is an individualistic, masculine, achievement&based culture but is poly&
chronic in time orientation.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 ;:.
H. Time <rientation deals with punctuality, timeliness, and different culture"s perception of
time and appointment schedules.
A"#7er1 True4 ;:.
Chapter 2 16
I. xpatriation and Aepatriation of employees for $)#s can sometimes be greatly affected
both positively and negatively by affective versus neutral cultural differences, especially
when those differences are polar.
A"#7er1 True4 ;9.
34. $asculinity and 7emininity has to do with $ale vs. female and not the specification of
gender roles.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 ;2.
33. #rossvergence is the phenomenon of cultures becoming more localized, less
homogenous, and is a result of globalization.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 ?2.
3C. #rossvergence and #ultural #onvergence are essentially the same concept, one caused by
2lobalization and results in integration, the other caused by glocalization and results in
balance between globalization and integration.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 ?24
3D. #onfucian 9ynamism deals with long&term and short&term orientation, and can affect
behaviors, action, and management styles.
A"#7er1 True4 ;84
3F. #ultures who dislike probability statements and are averse to risk is low on uncertainty
avoidance.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 ;<4
35. $exico and India are examples of power distant cultures because of their high attention
to rank, seniority, and the division between management and labor, partially a result of
long cultural histories of both countries.
A"#7er1 True4 ;3.
3G. Individualistic countries are generally achievement&based cultures, are usually masculine,
with high power distance, and affective culture, although time orientation varies greatly.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 ;3.
3%. #ollectivist countries generally value group activity and relationship nurturing, and tend
to make decisions slower and in team form.
A"#7er1 True4 ;2.
3H. Universalism is generally consistent with individualism and specific cultures such as the
United 8tates and Eapan.
A"#7er1 Fl#e4 ;>.
3I. In diffuse cultures, the distinction between public and private space is often unclear and
blurry.
A"#7er1 True4 ;=.
Chapter 2 17
C4. In ascription cultures, people are generally conferred to a certain status based on age,
position, profession, and family background.
A"#7er1 True4 ;=.
ESSA2 6UESTIONS
3. Identify six different dimensions of national culture, and describe for each dimension one
influence that it can have on !A management and workforce practices.
A"#7er1 8:A?<.
C. *hat is cultural convergence, and how does it differ from cultural divergenceB !ow is each
phenomenon manifest in global workforce practicesB
A"#7er1 ?<A?2.
D. 9efine the concepts of ,glocalization- and ,crossvergence.- *hat are examples of each of
these concepts in today"s global workplaceB
A"#7er1 ?2A?;.
Chapter 2 18