Geology 229

Engineering Geology
Lecture 12
Elementary Soil Mechanics (cont. 2)
(West, Ch. 7)
Outline of this Lecture
1. Compaction/Consolidation
Soil densification include compaction and
consolidation.
Densification compaction + consolidation
Compaction is one kind of densification that is
realized by rearrangement of soil particles without
outflow of water. It is realized by application of
mechanic energy. It does not involve fluid flow, but
with moisture changing.
Consolidation is another kind of densification with
fluid flow away. Consolidation is primarily for clayey
soils. Water is squeezed out from its pores under
load.
The engineering purpose of compaction is to increase
the materials density.
1. Compaction effort,
2. soil type and gradation,
3. moisture content, and
4. dry density
are the 4 control factors to the extent of compaction.
Increase
permeability and
decrease
compressibility
West, Figure 7.11 Plasticity Chart
Lower compressibility
Higher compressibility
Standard Proctor Test
Compaction Effort is calculated with
the following parameters
Mold volume = 1/30 cubic foot
Compact in 3 layers
25 blows/layer
5.5 lb hammer
12" drop
hammer
cylindrical
container
Dry of optimum
wet of optimum
Total or wet density :
t
w s
t
t
V
M M
V
M +
= =
Solid density
s
dry density
d
s
s
s
V
M
=
s d s t
t
s
d
V V
V
M
< > = Q ,
Also we have
w
and w that so
w
V M
M M
V
M
V
M
V
M M
V
M
d d d
d
t s
s w
t
w
t
t
t
w t
t
s
d
+
= = +
= = =

= =
1

The purpose of conducting the Proctor
test is for finding out the optimal water
content and guide the compaction
project in the field.
Practically, you know the water content
w, you measure the wet density , and
then calculate the dry density. Sure you
can also bake the sample and directly
measure the dry density
d
.
Zero-air-void density:
At certain water content, what is the density
called if there is no air in the voids
s
w s
wG
G
v a z
+
=
1
) . . (

w
(zav)
s w w s w w w w w w
s w s s w s w
w s s s s s s s s
s
wG wG M V or V M
V by wG M w M then M M w
G V V M then V M
V
= = = =
= = = =
= = =
=



/ / ,
1 , , /
, /
1
s
s w
s
s w
t
t
dry
wG
G
wG w
G w
w V
M
w +
=
+ +
+
=
+
=
+
=
1 ) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 ( 1

Zero-air-void density:
At certain water content, what is the density
called if there is no air in the voids
s
w s
wG
G
v a z
+
=
1
) . . (

It is clear that in the above equation, specific gravity of the solid and the
water density are constant, the zero-air-void density is inversely
proportional to water content w. For a given soil and water content the
best possible compaction is represented by the zero-air-voids curve. The
actual compaction curve will always be below. For dry soils the unit
weight increases as water is added to the soil because the water
lubricates the particles making compaction easier. As more water is
added and the water content is larger than the optimum value, the void
spaces become filled with water so further compaction is not possible
because water is a kind like incompressible fluid. This is illustrated by the
shape of the zero-air-voids curve which decreases as water content
increases.
w
(zav)
Now we can make another description of
compaction in the engineering sense:
Compaction is for making the optimum density
as close as the zero-air-void as possible
Also we can conclude that more compaction
effort make the optimum density closed to
(zav) by the fact of the 2 linear lines have
different slopes.
Compaction curves for different soils with the same compact effort
(West, Figure 7.19); fine grain soil needs more water to reach optimum
and coarse grain soil needs less water to reach optimum.
In contrast to compaction, consolidation is the
reduction in volume of clayey soil under
external loading as water drained out from
pores.
e
water
solid
Vv=Vw=e
0
Vs=1
water
solid
0
0
0 0
1
,
1 e
e
H H then
e
e
H
H
+

=
+

Apparently, consolidation is the reason for

surface subsidence in areas of groundwater or
other crustal fluid over-draw.
Compaction Equipment
A. Types of Action
* Ramming
* Vibration
* Static Rollers
B. Ramming
Rammers have a low frequency (800
blows/minute), and a higher stroke (1.5" to
3.5height). As the machine operates the
ramming action breaks down the soil,
pushes the particles closer together, and
forces air out of the voids.
C. Vibration
Vibratory machines are distinguished by
their high frequency (2,000 to 6,000
blows/minute) and a low amplitude. The
vibratory action sets the soil particles in
motion, which rearranges them into a
denser packing.
Types of Rollers
1. Smooth Wheel Rollers or Smooth Drum Rollers are suitable for thin layers,
and for finishing operations.
2. Pneumatic Rubber-Tired Rollers have a series of rubber tires side-by-side
instead of a smooth drum. Compaction is achieved by a combination of
weight and kneading action.
3. Sheepsfoot Rollers are drums with a large number of "sheepsfoot"
projections. They are most effective in compacting clayey soils. The initial
pass in the field compacts the lower portion of the lift, with subsequent
passes compacting the middle and upper portions. The roller is said to "walk
out" as the soil is compacted and the feet do not penetrate as deeply as the
initial pass.
4. Vibratory Rollers work well in compacting granular soils. Vibratory action can
be used with smooth drum, rubber tired, or sheepsfoot rollers.
Field Compaction
A. Relative Compaction
Relative compaction is a way of comparing
compaction on the construction site with the
laboratory compaction results. It is defined as:
B. Water Content
In the field it has been found that soils compact better at water contents on
the dry side of the optimum water content.
C. Determination of Dry Unit Weight in the Field
Two methods in common use today to determine units weights and water
contents in the field are:
the Sand Cone Method, ASTM D-1556
the nuclear and non-nuclear density meters.
Field Compaction (cont.)