Chapter 6 - Road Construction Machinery

NDBCE 215: Road Construction and Plant 1
ROAD CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY
INTRODUCTION
a) General
In construction cost control is aimed at erecting a structure of reasonable cost and sound
workmanship within an acceptable time period. The resources managed are usually man power,
materials, machineries, money and the method of work. This chapter looks at the machineries or
the equipment used in construction commonly referred to as the construction mechanical plant.
Through proper planning there is usually adequate time for every activity and works are done
within costs. To achieve this time period and in many cases to overcome a shortage of suitable
manpower the mechanisation of many building activities must be considered. The items of plant
available to the building contractors are very extensive, ranging from simple hand tools to very
expensive equipment undertaking tasks beyond the capabilities of manual labour. The singular
criterion for their use is that they provide the owner with the desired final product. Given that
this can be achieved through judicious application of the concept and the precise descriptive
development of the specifications, end results can yield numerous benefits to both the private
and public sectors.
The slow but steady improvement in construction equipment, especially earthmoving machines
and truck-mounted equipment such as mobile cranes has been a significant factor for the
automation and provision of solutions to heavy construction works. The development of all-
hydraulic transmissions for example on back-hoes, face shovels, bulldozers and truck mounted
cranes has virtually rendered redundant the manufacture of the rope operated machines.
However, many of the old-type machines are still widely used but attention is being directed
towards machine configurations in order to enhance productivity
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration's (OSHA) Excavation and Trenching
standard, Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulation (CFR), Part 1926.650 defines an excavation
as any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earth's surface formed by earth
removal. This can include excavations for anything from site clearance and stripping to
1 Lecture Notes: prepared by OLENG MORRIS [wotamuko@gmail.com] _ +256 703 688 747
excavation tunnels and mining. Also OSHA defines a trench as a narrow underground excavation
that is deeper than its wide, and not wider than 15 feet (4.5 meters). Excavations are carried out
principally to allow basement constructions, foundations, levelling, mining, installation or repairs
of public utilities, drains, sewers sites for construction like in Highways or buildings
etc…however; they are among the most hazardous construction operations.
b) Advantages of using mechanical plant

The main advantages of using items of plant are enumerated below:
i) Increased rate of output
ii) Reduce overall building costs
iii) Carry out activities that cannot be done manually or to do them more economically
iv) Eliminates heavy manual work thus reducing fatigue and increasing the productivity of
manual workers
v) Maintain planned rate of production where there is a shortage of either skilled or
unskilled operatives
vi) Maintain the high standards often required by present-day designs and specifications,
especially when concerned with structural engineering works.
vii) The Relevant Financial Benefit
viii) Performance and Functionality
ix) Machines optimize the quantity of work executed on building site if well operated and
maintained.
x) Best for some nature of work e.g. tunneling/piling
c) The main disadvantages are:

i) There is need for special transporting vehicle such as a low loader to move some
equipment between sites.
ii) Some types of equipment are noisy and create noise hazards to people in the vicinity of
the work place.
iii) Very expensive
iv) Cause accidents
v) Disposal is very difficult
vi) High maintenance costs

vii) Under-use due to lack of work and or Over use
Despite all the disadvantages, the current trend is to go for full mechanization.
d) Why the trend is to go fully mechanized.

 More plants available to hire
 Government policy – with the purchase of more plants, only a fraction of the profits is
taxed.
 Prestige
 Convenience
 Reduces fatigue and increases productivity.
 Complexity, competition, reliability
e) Factors considered in acquiring a plant.

 The availability of funds
 Utilisation level. How much work is available to keep the plant working?
There are two ways of acquiring a mechanical plant:

(i) Hiring.
The advantages of hiring plant are as follows:
 The plant can be hired as required and for the minimum period necessary
 Hire firms are responsible for maintenance, repairs and replacements
 The contractor is not left with unused expensive plant items after completion of the
contract.
 Hire rates can include operator, fuel and oil
Disadvantage of hiring plant is that:
 The hired plant being expensive if it is to be hired for a long time.
(ii) Purchasing the plant.

The advantages of buying plant are as follows:
 Plant is available when required
 The builder can apportion the plant costs to the various contracts using the plant, by
his/her own chosen method
 There is some resale value
 The cost of idle time caused by inclement weather, work being behind planned program
or delay in deliveries of materials will generally be less on owned plant than on hired
plant
Disadvantage of purchasing the plant is that:
 Idle plant means financial loss; therefore an owner of mechanical plant must have
sufficient work for the plant, either through the firm’s own contracts, or through public
hire business.
(iii) Leasing.
f) Examples of Mechanical Plants

Dumper Scraper Excavators
Back actor Mixer Vibrators
Fork lifts Compactor Grader
Wheel loader Rollers Cranes
Chain loader Sprayers e.t.c
Winch Compressors
Hoist Drilling rigs
Low loaders Mechanical hammer
Crushes Face shovels
CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL PLANTS
1. Use or function
o Lifting plants
o Compacting
o Vibrating
o Transporting
o Excavating
2. Fixed/mobile plants
o Fixed ones are transported to the sites and operates from the fixed places e.g. cranes and
hoist.
3. Towed/pushed/self-propelled
4. Under- carriage
o Pneumatic with wheel
o Tracked (chained)
5. Size – Given in models
6. Roped and Hydraulic

o Ropes or Hydraulic systems used
FACTORS CONSIDERED IN CHOOSING THE TYPE OF PLANT TO USE

 Speed – Pneumatic are faster
 Space – Tracks turns within small area
 Terrain – level, slopping or rough
 Nature of the soil – dry soil - Pneumatic , wet soil – Tracks
 Increase public highways/paved yards – Pneumatic
 Maintenance – Tracks are expensive to maintain
 The turning
 Width of the roads compared to that of trucks
 Axial loads
 Strength of the truck
 Gross vehicle weight(CVW)
 Net vehicle weight (NVW)
 Turning circle
EXAMPLES OF PLANT
1.0 Bull Dozers

These machines consist of a track or wheel mounted power unit with a mould blade at the front,
which is usually controlled by hydraulic rams although wire cable operation is preferred on some
models. Many bulldozers have the capacity to adjust the mould blade to form an angledozer and
the capacity to tilt the mould blade about a central swivel point. Some bulldozers can also be
fitted with rear attachments such as rollers and scarifiers.
Application
 Clears a site
 Excavators
 Used to anchor when uprooting (because of weight)
 Used to start other engines (push loading) e.g. Scrappers
 Has a tooth (rippers) behind
 Heaps material (stock piling(
 Used for demolition and can tow
Cycle
 Excavates (to fill the blades) – 5 – 6 second
 Pushes the materials for loading – 5 second
 Tips or damps (3 – 6 seconds)
 Returns (blacking) – 10 seconds
 Manoeuvre and take position – 6 seconds
Note:
Bull dozers should always reverse back.
A bull dozer is economical for dozing materials between 0 – 90 m
The main functions of a bulldozer among others are:-
a) Shallow excavations up to 300mm deep either on level ground or side hill cutting.
b) Clearance of shrubs and small trees.
c) Excavation of filler material for construction work e.g. earth or gravel.
NB. Bulldozers push earth in front of the mould blade with some side spillage whereas angle
dozer pushes and costs the spoil to one side of the mould blade. [R.Chudley, 1998]
2.0 Graders
These machines are similar in concept to bulldozers in that they have a long slender adjustable
mould blade, which is usually slung under the centre of the machine. A grader’s main function
is to finish or grade the upper surface of a large area usually as a follow up operation to scraping
or bulldozing. [D.Jones, 1998] They can produce a fine and accurate finish but do not have the
power of a bulldozer therefore they are not suitable for heavy over-site excavation work. The
mould blade can be adjusted in both the horizontal and vertical planes through an angle of 300º
the latter enabling it to be used for grading sloping banks.
3.0 Tractor Shovels

These machines are sometimes called loaders or loader shovels and primary function is to
excavating (scoop up) loose materials in the front mounted bucket elevate the bucket and
manoeuvre into a position to deposit the loose material into an attendant transport vehicle.
Tractor shovels are driven towards the pile of loose material with the bucket to be filled. Both
tracked and wheeled versions are available. The tracked format being more suitable for wet and
uneven ground conditions than the wheeled tractor shovel which has greater speed and
manoeuvring capabilities. To increase their versatility tractor shovels can be fitted with a 4 in 1
bucket enabling them to carry out bulldozing, excavating, clam lifting and load activities. See fig
below. [R.Chudley, 1998]
4.0 Loaders
 Different from face shovel in that the buckets are quite bigger
 Loaders don’t rotate (slow) around the vertical axis
 Has a shorter hand
 Excavates and loads by reversing and tipping
 Does clearance of sites
 Strips
 Levels
 Uproots small trees
 Excavates basements
 A loader is faster
 Heaps
 Are tracked or pneumatic
Cycle
 Excavation
 Filling the bucket
 Raises the bucket up
 Manoeuvres to load/tip
 Tips/loads
 Reverses to excavate
Specification
 Capacity
 Loading height
 Turning radius
 Loaders can be on pneumatic or on track
Rule of thumb
 If you are to use a loader and a truck, it should be within 3 km.
 A scrapper is economical between 90 m – 3 km
5.0 Excavators
Classification of excavators
 There are rope excavators and hydraulic excavators.
 Pneumatic (Rubber)
 Track excavators Under carriage
The plant has two parts.
 The base
 The attachment
Rope Excavators
 Face shovel
 Drag line
 Grab/Clam shell
Activities
Drag line is used for excavating below its tracks it can load tracks, can heap materials, spread.
Advantages
 Long reach for both damping and digging
 Holds loose materials
Advantages of a grab/cram shall
 Lowered vertically and filled without any lateral movement hence little space need.
 The depth of excavation is limited by the hoist tape
 It can lift and damp accurately
Excavators are heavy equipment used in civil engineering and surface mining. An excavator also
called a 360-degree excavator or digger is one of the major items of builder’s plant and is used
primarily to excavate and load most types of soil. Excavators come in a wide variety of designs
and sizes but all of them can be placed within one of three categories:-
1. Universal Excavators – This category covers most forms of excavators all of which have a
common factor the power unit. The universal power unit is a tracked based machine
arrangement and bucket type different excavating functions can be obtained. These machines are
selected for high output requirements and are rope controlled.
2. Purpose Designed Excavators – These are machines, which have been designed specifically
to carry out one mode of excavation and they usually have smaller bucket capacities than
universal excavators; they are hydraulically controlled with a shorter cycle time.
3. Multi-purpose Excavators – These machines can perform several excavating functions
having both front and rear attachments. They are designed to carry out the small excavation
operations of low output quickly and efficiently. Multi-purpose excavators can be obtained with
a wheeled or tracked base and are ideally suited for a small building firm with low excavation
plant utilization requirements. [R.Chudley, 1998]
6.0 Face Shovels

The primary function of this pieced of plant is to excavate above its own track or wheel level.
They are available as a universal power unit based machine or as a hydraulic purpose designed
unit. These machines can usually excavate any type of soil except rock, which needs to be
loosened, usually by blasting, prior to excavation. Face shovels generally require attendant
haulage vehicles for the removal of spoil and a low loader transport lorry for travel between
sites. Most of these machines have a limited capacity of between 300 and 400mm for excavation
below their own track or wheel level. [R.Chudley, 1998]
7.0 Backactors
These machines are suitable for trench, foundation and basement excavations and are available
as a universal power unit base machine or as a purpose designed hydraulic unit. They can be
used with or without attendant haulage vehicles since the spoil can be placed alongside the
excavation for use in backfilling. These machines will require a low loader transport vehicle for
travel between sites. Backator used in trenching operations with a bucket width equal to the
trench width can be very accurate with a high output rating. [R.Chudley, 1998]
8.0 Draglines
A dragline bucket system consists of a large bucket which is suspended from a boom (a large
truss like structure). The bucket is manoeuvred by means of a number of ropes and chains. The
hoist rope, powered by large diesel or electric motors, supports the bucket and hoist-coupler
assembly from the boom. The dragrope is used to draw the bucket assembly horizontally. By
skillful manoeuvre of the hoist and the dragropes the bucket is controlled for various operations
Dragline machines can also be fitted with a grab or clamshell bucket for excavating in very loose
soils [R.Chudley, 1998]
Detail of Typical Draglines
Multi-Purpose Excavators
These machines are usually based on the agricultural tractor with 2 or 4 wheel drive and are
intended mainly for use in conjunction with small excavation works such as those encountered
by the small to medium sized building contractor. Most multi-purpose excavators are fitted with
a loading/excavating front bucket and a rear backator bucket both being hydraulically controlled.
When in operation using the backator bucket the machine is raised off its axles by rear mounted
hydraulic outriggers or jacks and in some models by placing the front bucket on the ground.
Most machines can be fitted with a variety of bucket widths and various attachments such as
bulldozer blades, scarifiers, grab buckets and post hole auger borers. [R.Chudley, 1998
Details of Typical Multi-purpose Excavators [R.Chudley, 1998]
9.0 Dumpers
These are used for the horizontal transportation of materials on and off construction sites
generally by means of an integral tipping skip. Highway dumpers are of a similar but larger
design and can be used to carry materials such as excavated spoil along the roads. A wide range
of dumpers are available of various carrying capacities and options for gravity or hydraulic
discharge control with front tipping, side tipping or elevated tipping facilities. Special format
dumpers fitted with flat platforms, rigs to carry materials skips and rigs for concrete skips for
crane hoisting are also obtainable. These machines are designed to traverse rough terrain but
they are not designed to carry passengers and this misuse is the cause of many accidents
involving dumpers. [R.Chudley, 1998]
10.0 Road roller

A Road roller (sometimes called a roller-compactor, or just roller) is an engineering vehicle
used to compact soil, gravel, concrete, or asphalt in the construction of roads and foundations.
In many parts of the world, road rollers are still known colloquially as steam rollers, regardless
of their method of propulsion. This typically only applies to the largest examples (used for road-
making).
Roller Types
 Manual walk-behind
 Powered walk-behind (electric or diesel/gas powered)
 Trench roller (manual units or radio-frequency remote control)
 Ride-on
 Ride-on with knock-down bar
 Ride-on articulating-swivel
 Vibratory
 Pneumatic-tyre
 Tractor mounted and powered (this may be a 'one-off' – see gallery picture below)
Ride-on
Powered, vibrating Vibrating Dynapac
Ride-on with articulating- with articulating-swivel
walk-behind CC232
swivel (small machine) (large machine)
A road-roller powered by
Pneumatic roller for
a tractor mounted on it
initial compaction
from rural India
11.0 Water Distributor.

The most common method of adding water is with a water distributor. Water distributors are
designed to distribute the correct amount of water evenly over the fill. The truck-mounted,
1,000-gallon water distributor figure below can distribute water under various pressures or by
gravity feed. It distributes the water through a 12-foot folding, rear-mounted spray bar. The spray
bar is adjustable, in 1-foot increments, from 4 to 24 feet. The water application rate can be
maintained by controlling the forward speed of the vehicle and the water distribution pressure. A
cab-mounted odometer shows the vehicle speed in fpm.The project officer should provide the
water-distributor operator with the application rate in gallons per square yard. With this
information, the operator can determine the appropriate spray-bar length, pumping pressure, and
vehicle speed to achieve the required application rate.
12.0 Stabilizer Mixer

The stabilizer mixer is an extremely versatile piece of equipment designed specifically for
mixing, blending, and aerating materials (Figure a below) .The stabilizer consists of a rear-
mounted, removable-tine, rotating tiller blade covered by a removable hood. In place, the hood
creates an enclosed mixing chamber, which enhances thorough blending of the soil (Figure b
below). The tiller blade lifts the material in the direction of travel and throws it against the
leading edge of the hood. The material deflecting off of the hood falls back onto the tiller blades
for thorough blending. As the stabilizer moves forward, it ejects the material from the rear of the
mixing chamber. As the material is ejected, it is struck off by the trailing edge of the hood,
resulting in a fairly level working surface. With the trailing edge of the hood fully opened,
churned soil has a very high void content, which exposes the soil to the drying action of the sun
and wind. Models equipped with a spray barrier used to add water or stabilizing agents to the soil
during the blending process. The stabilizer mixer’s use is limited to material less than 4 inches in
diameter. The tines on the Army’s mixer are designed to penetrate up to 12inches below the
existing surface. This unit is used for scarifying and blending in-place (in situ) material as well
as fill material.
Figure a. Stabilizer Mixer
Figure b. Mixing Action in a Stabilizer Mixer
13.0 Trucks
Trucks are divided into two:
1. High way trucks
Most of the movements are on public roads.
Public roads have limitations like the axial load. The most popular trucks are supported on two
axial and normally manoeuvre faster
High way trucks normally moves at faster speeds to move at the speed of the normal traffic flow.
There are trucks in which the axial are fixed rigidity on the chassis and there are those that the
tyres takes the ground levels.
2. Off road trucks
o Usually stronger
o Mainly used for excavation (especially large)
o Normally have two axial and are usually 4 x 2
o Move in any bad road.
14.0 Back Hoist

 Does the excavation in the backward direction
 Used for excavation of trenches and drainages
 Should operate on a fairly leveled ground.
 Can also dig pits
 During back filing, it does cross carriage movement or in live movement
 Can load soil/rock into trucks
Cycle of operation of a back hoist

(i) Excavate
(ii) Load its buckets
(iii) Lift up
(iv) Slew towards the truck
(v) Discharge
(vi) Slew to point of excavation
(vii) Lower down and excavate
(viii) Excavates embankments on the forward direction
(ix) Loads
NB: As an Engineer, you should be able to know the damp height (reach), capacity of the bucket
and the depth below it can reach.
15.0 Scrappers
 Single engine, self-propelled
 Twin engine, push loaded
 Moves on public high ways
 Are on pneumatic
It cuts by opening the gates, loads it, and closes to go and offload. It tips by ejecting the
materials out.
Cycle
 Excavating and loading at the same time
 Manoeuvre to start going for spreading/tipping
 Travel full
 Manoeuvre to back
 Manoeuvre to position for push loading. This refers to gaining momentum to enable
loading and is done by a bull-dozer.
16.0 Trencher
Specialized excavating plant used to excavate trenches and narrow width of 300 – 600 to 90m.
 Loads materials onto trucks
 Excavate to desired elevation
 Excavates, removes materials and lay pipes automatically (flexible pipes)
 Works backward
3
 Achieves as much as 100 – 130m
 It should fill the truck within 15 – 30 min
 Needs good planning to avoid stopping the machine after tohas gained momentum.
 Compacts
SAFETY AND HEALTH PLANS

Excavations are among the most hazardous construction operations. The Occupational Safety
and Health Administration's (OSHA) Excavation and Trenching standard, Title 29 of the Code of
Federal Regulation (CFR), Part 1926.650, and the Construction (general provisions) regulation,
1961 covers requirements for excavation operations.

Chapter 6 - Road Construction Machinery

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NDBCE 215: Road Construction and Plant 1

ROAD CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY

b) Advantages of using mechanical plant

c) The main disadvantages are:

vi) High maintenance costs

d) Why the trend is to go fully mechanized.

e) Factors considered in acquiring a plant.

There are two ways of acquiring a mechanical plant:

(ii) Purchasing the plant.

f) Examples of Mechanical Plants

CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL PLANTS

5. Size – Given in models

6. Roped and Hydraulic

FACTORS CONSIDERED IN CHOOSING THE TYPE OF PLANT TO USE

1.0 Bull Dozers

3.0 Tractor Shovels

6.0 Face Shovels

Detail of Typical Draglines

Details of Typical Multi-purpose Excavators [R.Chudley, 1998]

10.0 Road roller

11.0 Water Distributor.

12.0 Stabilizer Mixer

Figure a. Stabilizer Mixer

Figure b. Mixing Action in a Stabilizer Mixer

14.0 Back Hoist

Cycle of operation of a back hoist

SAFETY AND HEALTH PLANS

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